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how many catholic diocese do we have in nigeria | List of Catholic dioceses in Nigeria - wikipedia
The Catholic Church in Nigeria is mainly composed of a Latin hierarchy, joined in a national Episcopal Conference of Nigeria, and a single Eastern Catholic (transnational) see, comprising
There is an Apostolic Nunciature (papal diplomatic representation at emebassy - level) to Nigeria in the national capital Abuja; in it is also vested the papal Permanent Observer to Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).
There are no titular sees. All defunct jurisdictions have current successor sees.
All pre-diocesan
Antiochian rite:
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who sings i'll put a spell on you | I Put a Spell on You - wikipedia
"I Put a Spell on You '' is a 1956 song written by Screamin ' Jay Hawkins, whose recording was selected as one of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. It was also ranked No. 313 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. The track became a classic cult song covered by a variety of artists and was his greatest commercial success, reportedly surpassing a million copies in sales, although it failed to make the Billboard pop or R&B charts.
Hawkins had originally intended to record "I Put a Spell on You '' as "a refined love song, a blues ballad ''. However, the producer "brought in ribs and chicken and got everybody drunk, and we came out with this weird version... I do n't even remember making the record. Before, I was just a normal blues singer. I was just Jay Hawkins. It all sort of just fell in place. I found out I could do more destroying a song and screaming it to death. ''
Hawkins first recorded "I Put a Spell on You '' as a ballad during his stint with Grand Records in late 1955. However, that version was not released at the time (it has since been reissued on Hawkins ' UK Rev - Ola CD The Whamee 1953 -- 55). The following year, Hawkins re-recorded the song for Columbia 's Okeh Records -- the notorious screaming version, which was released in October 1956. This version was banned from radio for its outrageous style. A truncated version was released but the ban remained. The record still sold over a million copies.
The hit brought Hawkins together with Cleveland disc jockey Alan Freed who promptly added him to his "Rock and Roll Revue. '' Up to this time, Hawkins had been a blues performer: emotional, but not wild. Freed suggested a gimmick to capitalize on the "demented '' sound of "I Put a Spell on You '': Hawkins wore a long cape, and appeared onstage by rising out of a coffin in the midst of smoke and fog. The act was a sensation, later bolstered by tusks worn in Hawkins ' nose, on - stage snakes and fireworks, and a cigarette - smoking skull named "Henry ''.
This theatrical act was one of the first shock rock performances.
"I Put a Spell on You '' has been covered by other artists extensively; there are several hundred versions available on online stores like iTunes. Most of the covers treat the song seriously; few attempt to duplicate Hawkins 's bravura performance. Although Hawkins ' version did not make any charts, several later cover versions have.
Other versions of note:
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what is the purpose of the book of 1 corinthians | First Epistle to the Corinthians - wikipedia
The First Epistle to the Corinthians (Ancient Greek: Α _́ _̓ Επιστολὴ πρὸς Κορινθίους), usually referred to simply as First Corinthians and often written 1 Corinthians, is one of the Pauline epistles of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The epistle says that Paul the Apostle and "Sosthenes our brother '' wrote it to "the church of God which is at Corinth '' 1 Cor. 1: 1 -- 2 although the scholarly consensus holds that Sosthenes was the amanuensis who wrote down the text of the letter at Paul 's direction.
Called "a masterpiece of pastoral theology '', it addresses various issues that had arisen in the Christian community at Corinth.
This epistle contains some well - known phrases, including: "all things to all men '' (9: 22), "through a glass, darkly '' (13: 12), and "When I was a child, I spoke as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child '' (13: 11).
There is consensus among historians and Christian theologians that Paul is the author of the First Epistle to the Corinthians (c. AD 53 -- 54). The letter is quoted or mentioned by the earliest of sources, and is included in every ancient canon, including that of Marcion. The personal and even embarrassing texts about immorality in the church increase consensus.
However, a passage may have been inserted at a later stage. This passage is 1 Corinthians 14: 34 -- 35, whose authenticity has been hotly debated. Part of the reason for doubt is that in some manuscripts, the verses come at the end of the chapter instead of at its present location. Furthermore, Paul is here appealing to the law which is uncharacteristic of him. Lastly, the verses come into conflict with 11: 5 where women are described as praying and prophesying. As well, 10: 1 -- 22 is sometimes regarded as another letter fragment, interpolation, or inserted midrash because, among other things, this section virtually seems to equate the consumption of idol meat with idolatry, but Paul seems more lenient regarding its consumption in 8: 1 -- 13 and 10: 23 -- 11: 1. Such views are rejected by other scholars who give arguments for the unity of 8: 1 -- 11: 1.
About the year AD 50, towards the end of his second missionary journey, Paul founded the church in Corinth, before moving on to Ephesus, a city on the west coast of today 's Turkey, about 180 miles by sea from Corinth. From there he traveled to Caesarea, and Antioch. Paul returned to Ephesus on his third missionary journey and spent approximately three years there (Acts 19: 8, 19: 10, 20: 31). It was while staying in Ephesus that he received disconcerting news of the community in Corinth regarding jealousies, rivalry, and immoral behavior. It also appears that based on a letter the Corinthians sent Paul (e.g. 7: 1), the congregation was requesting clarification on a number of matters, such as marriage and the consumption of meat previously offered to idols.
By comparing Acts of the Apostles 18: 1 -- 17 and mentions of Ephesus in the Corinthian correspondence, scholars suggest that the letter was written during Paul 's stay in Ephesus, which is usually dated as being in the range of AD 53 -- 57.
Anthony C. Thiselton suggests that it is possible that I Corinthians was written during Paul 's first (brief) stay in Ephesus, at the end of his Second Journey, usually dated to early AD 54. However, it is more likely that it was written during his extended stay in Ephesus, where he refers to sending Timothy to them (Acts 19: 22, I Cor. 4: 17).
The epistle may be divided into seven parts:
Now concerning the contribution for the saints: as I directed the churches of Galatia... Let all your things be done with charity. Greet one another with a holy kiss... I, Paul, write this greeting with my own hand. If any man love not the Lord Jesus Christ, let him be Anathema Maranatha. The grace of the Lord Jesus be with you. My love be with you all in Christ Jesus. Amen.
Some time before 2 Corinthians was written, Paul paid them a second visit (2 Cor. 12: 14; 2 Cor. 13: 1) to check some rising disorder (2 Cor. 2: 1; 2 Cor. 13: 2), and wrote them a letter, now lost (1 Cor. 5: 9). They had also been visited by Apollos (Acts 18: 27), perhaps by Peter (1 Cor. 1: 12), and by some Jewish Christians who brought with them letters of commendation from Jerusalem (1 Cor. 1: 12; 2 Cor. 3: 1; 2 Cor. 5: 16; 2 Cor. 11: 23).
Paul wrote this letter to correct what he saw as erroneous views in the Corinthian church. Several sources informed Paul of conflicts within the church at Corinth: Apollos (Acts 19: 1), a letter from the Corinthians, the "household of Chloe '', and finally Stephanas and his two friends who had visited Paul (1: 11; 16: 17). Paul then wrote this letter to the Corinthians, urging uniformity of belief ("that ye all speak the same thing and that there be no divisions among you '', 1: 10) and expounding Christian doctrine. Titus and a brother whose name is not given were probably the bearers of the letter to the church at Corinth (2 Corinthians 2: 13; 8: 6, 16 -- 18).
In general, divisions within the church at Corinth seem to be a problem, and Paul makes it a point to mention these conflicts in the beginning. Specifically, pagan roots still hold sway within their community. Paul wants to bring them back to what he sees as correct doctrine, stating that God has given him the opportunity to be a "skilled master builder '' to lay the foundation and let others build upon it (1 Cor 3: 10).
Later, Paul wrote about immorality in Corinth by discussing an immoral brother, how to resolve personal disputes, and sexual purity. Regarding marriage, Paul states that it is better for Christians to remain unmarried, but that if they lacked self - control, it is better to marry than "burn '' (πυροῦσθαι) which Christians have traditionally thought meant to burn with sinful desires. The Epistle may include marriage as an apostolic practice in 1 Corinthians 9: 5, "Do we not have the right to be accompanied by a believing wife, as do the other apostles and the brothers of the Lord and Cephas (Peter)? '' (In the last case, the letter concurs with Matthew 8: 14, which mentions Peter having a mother - in - law and thus, by interpolation, a wife.) However, the Greek word for "wife '' is the same word for "woman ''. The Early Church Fathers including Tertullian, Jerome, and Augustine state the Greek word is ambiguous and the women in 1 Corinthians 9: 5 were women ministering to the Apostles as women ministered to Christ (cf Matthew 27: 55, Luke 8: 1 -- 3), and were not wives, and assert they left their "offices of marriage '' to follow Christ.
Paul also argues that married people must please their spouses, just as every Christian must please God. The letter is also notable for mentioning the role of women in churches, that for instance they must remain silent (1 Cor. 14: 34 -- 35), and yet they have a role of prophecy and apparently speaking tongues in churches (11: 2 -- 16). If 14: 34 -- 35 is not an interpolation, certain scholars resolve the tension between these texts by positing that wives were either contesting their husband 's inspired speeches at church, or the wives / women were chatting and asking questions in a disorderly manner when others were giving inspired utterances. Their silence was unique to the particular situation in the Corinthian gatherings at that time, and on this reading, Paul did not intend his words to be universalized for all women of all churches of all eras. After discussing his views on worshipping idols, Paul finally ends with his views on resurrection. He states that Christ died for our sins, and was buried, and rose on the third day according to the scriptures (1 Cor. 15: 3). Paul then asks: "Now if Christ is preached as raised from the dead, how can some of you say that there is no resurrection of the dead? '' (1 Cor. 15: 12) and addresses the question of resurrection.
Throughout the letter, Paul presents issues that are troubling the community in Corinth and offers ways to fix them. Paul states that this letter is to "admonish '' them as beloved children. They are expected to become imitators of Jesus and follow the ways in Christ as he, Paul, teaches in all his churches (1 Cor. 4: 14 -- 16).
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the principal balkan country in which ethnic cleansing took place in the mid-1990s was | List of ethnic cleansing campaigns - wikipedia
This article lists incidents that have been termed ethnic cleansing by some academic or legal experts. Not all experts agree on every case, particularly since there are a variety of definitions for the term ethnic cleansing. Where claims of ethnic cleansing originate from non-experts (e.g., journalists or politicians) this is noted.
When dealing with such a race as Slavic -- inferior and barbarian -- we must not pursue the carrot, but the stick policy... We should not be afraid of new victims... The Italian border should run across the Brenner Pass, Monte Nevoso and the Dinaric Alps... I would say we can easily sacrifice 500,000 barbaric Slavs for 50,000 Italians...
(The Act of Settlement of Ireland), and the parliamentary legislation which succeeded it the following year, is the nearest thing on paper in the English, and more broadly British, domestic record, to a programme of state - sanctioned and systematic ethnic cleansing of another people. The fact that it did not include ' total ' genocide in its remit, or that it failed to put into practice the vast majority of its proposed expulsions, ultimately, however, says less about the lethal determination of its makers and more about the political, structural and financial weakness of the early modern English state.
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who bought london bridge thinking it was tower bridge | London bridge (Lake Havasu City) - wikipedia
London Bridge is a bridge in Lake Havasu City, Arizona. It was built in the 1830s and formerly spanned the River Thames in London, England. It was dismantled in 1967 and relocated to Arizona. The Arizona bridge is a reinforced concrete structure clad in the original masonry of the 1830s bridge, which was purchased by Robert P. McCulloch from the City of London. McCulloch had exterior granite blocks from the original bridge numbered and transported to America to construct the present bridge in Lake Havasu City, a planned community he established in 1964 on the shore of Lake Havasu. The bridge was completed in 1971 (along with a canal), and links an island in the Colorado River with the main part of Lake Havasu City. The song "London Bridge is Falling Down '' is a nursery rhyme that predates the bridge 's original 19th - century construction.
The 1831 London Bridge was the last project of engineer John Rennie and was completed by his son, John Rennie the Younger. By 1962, the bridge was not sound enough to support the increased load of modern traffic, and it was sold by the City of London.
The purchaser, Robert P. McCulloch, the chairman of McCulloch Oil Corporation, was the founder of Lake Havasu City, his retirement real estate development on the east shore of Lake Havasu, a large reservoir on the Colorado River. McCulloch purchased the bridge as a tourist attraction for Lake Havasu, which was then far from the usual tourist track. The idea was successful, bringing interested tourists and retirement home buyers to the area.
Originally, the deserted Lake Havasu vacant land was given to the state of Arizona by the U.S. Federal Government. The federal property was an abandoned military landing strip. McCulloch made a deal with the state government and received the property for free with a promise to develop the land. But the real estate agents could not bring in prospective buyers, because the land was far from centers of population and had a very hot, arid climate. McCulloch 's real estate agent, Robert Plumer, learned that London Bridge was for sale and convinced McCulloch to buy it and bring it to the area to attract potential land buyers. The initial response from McCulloch was, "That 's the craziest idea I have ever heard, '' but after consideration, he decided to go ahead with the purchase. Plumer then arranged with a cargo shipping company that was going to sail a newly - built ship from Great Britain to the United States without any cargo. Plumer said they would pay for all operating costs of the sailing, which was far less than the going rate shipping costs. The bridge 's facing stones were disassembled, and each was numbered. After the bridge was dismantled, it was transported to Merrivale Quarry where 15 to 20 cm (5.9 to 7.9 inches) were sliced off many of the original stones. The bridge arrived in pieces at the Port of Long Beach, California and was transported overland to Lake Havasu City, where re-assembly began in 1968. On 23 September 1968, the foundation stone was relaid by Sir Gilbert Inglefield, Lord Mayor of London.
The original stonework was used to clad a new concrete structure. The reconstruction took slightly over three years and was completed in late 1971. The bridge was not reconstructed over a river, but rather it was rebuilt on land in a position between the main part of the city and Pittsburgh Point, at that time a peninsula jutting into Lake Havasu. Once completed, the Bridgewater Channel Canal was dredged under the bridge and flooded, separating Pittsburgh Point from the city, creating an island. As a result, the bridge now traverses a navigable shortcut between the Thompson Bay part of Lake Havasu south of Pittsburgh Point, and the remainder of Lake Havasu to the north.
After the bridge was reconstructed, prospective buyers of land were attracted to visit the bridge and take a tour of properties for sale. Land sales improved, and McCulloch recouped all his expenses on the purchase and shipping of the bridge. Since he had obtained the land at no cost, the sale of the properties paid for the bridge and more. Recent years have seen much development in the area of the bridge to increase tourist interest. The original "English Village '', a quaint English - style open - air mall with hedge maze and historical museum deteriorated, with sections leveled. A revitalization of the English Village was undertaken by the Lake Havasu City Convention & Visitors Bureau. Condos were proposed in 2011 by the owner, Virtual Realty Enterprises.
It is a popular rumor that the bridge was bought in the belief that it was London 's more recognizable Tower Bridge, but this was ardently denied by McCulloch himself and by Ivan Luckin, who sold the bridge.
American soft rock band Bread recorded a song called "London Bridge '' on their first album Bread in 1969, when lead singer David Gates learned that London Bridge was sold and to be relocated in Lake Havasu City, Arizona. His thought at the time, according to the liner notes on Bread 's album Retrospective was, "is nothing sacred anymore? ''
The live country - western album Viva Terlingua, by Jerry Jeff Walker, includes an amusing song written by Gary P. Nunn entitled "London Homesick Blues. '' It is the lament of a Texan trapped in London and quite out of his element. A line in the song is "and even London Bridge has fallen down and moved to Arizona ''.
In the 1970 song P.F. _Sloan_ (song) from the album "Words and Music '' by American singer - songwriter Jimmy Webb he refers to the relocation of London Bridge in the lines "The London Bridge was finally found, they moved it to another town, and now all the people gather ' round to watch the bridge fall down, but I do n't think it will no more. ''
London Bridge in the early 1890s
London Bridge around 1900 with traffic
Bridge reconstruction at Lake Havasu in March 1971
The rebuilt London Bridge in 2003
Sign on the bridge
Numbered stone still visible
Aerial photo of the bridge in 2011
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the amount of income received by households prior to the payment of personal income taxes is called | Income tax - wikipedia
An income tax is a tax imposed on individuals or entities (taxpayers) that varies with their respective income or profits (taxable income). Many jurisdictions refer to income tax on business entities as companies tax or corporate tax. Partnerships generally are not taxed; rather, the partners are taxed on their share of partnership items. Tax may be imposed by both a country and subdivisions. Most jurisdictions exempt locally organized charitable organizations from tax.
Income tax generally is computed as the product of a tax rate times taxable income. The tax rate may increase as taxable income increases (referred to as graduated or progressive rates). Taxation rates may vary by type or characteristics of the taxpayer. Capital gains may be taxed at different rates than other income. Credits of various sorts may be allowed that reduce tax. Some jurisdictions impose the higher of an income tax or a tax on an alternative base or measure of income.
Taxable income of taxpayers resident in the jurisdiction is generally total income less income producing expenses and other deductions. Generally, only net gain from sale of property, including goods held for sale, is included in income. Income of a corporation 's shareholders usually includes distributions of profits from the corporation. Deductions typically include all income producing or business expenses including an allowance for recovery of costs of business assets. Many jurisdictions allow notional deductions for individuals, and may allow deduction of some personal expenses. Most jurisdictions either do not tax income earned outside the jurisdiction or allow a credit for taxes paid to other jurisdictions on such income. Nonresidents are taxed only on certain types of income from sources within the jurisdictions, with few exceptions.
Most jurisdictions require self - assessment of the tax and require payers of some types of income to withhold tax from those payments. Advance payments of tax by taxpayers may be required. Taxpayers not timely paying tax owed are generally subject to significant penalties, which may include jail for individuals or revocation of an entity 's legal existence.
The concept of taxing income is a modern innovation and presupposes several things: a money economy, reasonably accurate accounts, a common understanding of receipts, expenses and profits, and an orderly society with reliable records.
For most of the history of civilization, these preconditions did not exist, and taxes were based on other factors. Taxes on wealth, social position, and ownership of the means of production (typically land and slaves) were all common. Practices such as tithing, or an offering of first fruits, existed from ancient times, and can be regarded as a precursor of the income tax, but they lacked precision and certainly were not based on a concept of net increase.
The first income tax is generally attributed to Egypt. In the early days of the Roman Republic, public taxes consisted of modest assessments on owned wealth and property. The tax rate under normal circumstances was 1 % and sometimes would climb as high as 3 % in situations such as war. These modest taxes were levied against land, homes and other real estate, slaves, animals, personal items and monetary wealth. The more a person had in property, the more tax they paid. Taxes were collected from individuals.
In the year 10 AD, Emperor Wang Mang of the Xin Dynasty instituted an unprecedented income tax, at the rate of 10 percent of profits, for professionals and skilled labor. He was overthrown 13 years later in 23 AD and earlier policies were restored during the reestablished Han Dynasty which followed.
One of the first recorded taxes on income was the Saladin tithe introduced by Henry II in 1188 to raise money for the Third Crusade. The tithe demanded that each layperson in England and Wales be taxed one tenth of their personal income and moveable property.
The inception date of the modern income tax is typically accepted as 1799, at the suggestion of Henry Beeke, the future Dean of Bristol. This income tax was introduced into Great Britain by Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger in his budget of December 1798, to pay for weapons and equipment for the French Revolutionary War. Pitt 's new graduated (progressive) income tax began at a levy of 2 old pence in the pound (1 / 120) on incomes over £ 60 (equivalent to £ 5,696 in 2015), and increased up to a maximum of 2 shillings in the pound (10 %) on incomes of over £ 200. Pitt hoped that the new income tax would raise £ 10 million a year, but actual receipts for 1799 totalled only a little over £ 6 million.
Pitt 's income tax was levied from 1799 to 1802, when it was abolished by Henry Addington during the Peace of Amiens. Addington had taken over as prime minister in 1801, after Pitt 's resignation over Catholic Emancipation. The income tax was reintroduced by Addington in 1803 when hostilities with France recommenced, but it was again abolished in 1816, one year after the Battle of Waterloo. Opponents of the tax, who thought it should only be used to finance wars, wanted all records of the tax destroyed along with its repeal. Records were publicly burned by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, but copies were retained in the basement of the tax court.
In the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, income tax was reintroduced by Sir Robert Peel by the Income Tax Act 1842. Peel, as a Conservative, had opposed income tax in the 1841 general election, but a growing budget deficit required a new source of funds. The new income tax, based on Addington 's model, was imposed on incomes above £ 150 (equivalent to £ 12,735 in 2015),. Although this measure was initially intended to be temporary, it soon became a fixture of the British taxation system.
A committee was formed in 1851 under Joseph Hume to investigate the matter, but failed to reach a clear recommendation. Despite the vociferous objection, William Gladstone, Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1852, kept the progressive income tax, and extended it to cover the costs of the Crimean War. By the 1860s, the progressive tax had become a grudgingly accepted element of the English fiscal system.
The US federal government imposed the first personal income tax, on August 5, 1861, to help pay for its war effort in the American Civil War - (3 % of all incomes over US $800) (equivalent to $21,324 in 2016). This tax was repealed and replaced by another income tax in 1862. It was only in 1894 that the first peacetime income tax was passed through the Wilson - Gorman tariff. The rate was 2 % on income over $4000 (equivalent to $110,723.08 in 2016), which meant fewer than 10 % of households would pay any. The purpose of the income tax was to make up for revenue that would be lost by tariff reductions. The US Supreme Court ruled the income tax unconstitutional, the 10th amendment forbidding any powers not expressed in the US Constitution, and there being no power to impose any other than a direct tax by apportionment.
In 1913, the Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution made the income tax a permanent fixture in the U.S. tax system. In fiscal year 1918, annual internal revenue collections for the first time passed the billion - dollar mark, rising to $5.4 billion by 1920.
While tax rules vary widely, there are certain basic principles common to most income tax systems. Tax systems in Canada, China, Germany, Singapore, the United Kingdom, and the United States, among others, follow most of the principles outlined below. Some tax systems, such as India, may have significant differences from the principles outlined below. Most references below are examples; see specific articles by jurisdiction (e.g., Income tax in Australia).
Individuals are often taxed at different rates than corporations. Individuals include only human beings. Tax systems in countries other than the USA treat an entity as a corporation only if it is legally organized as a corporation. Estates and trusts are usually subject to special tax provisions. Other taxable entities are generally treated as partnerships. In the USA, many kinds of entities may elect to be treated as a corporation or a partnership. Partners of partnerships are treated as having income, deductions, and credits equal to their shares of such partnership items.
Separate taxes are assessed against each taxpayer meeting certain minimum criteria. Many systems allow married individuals to request joint assessment. Many systems allow controlled groups of locally organized corporations to be jointly assessed.
Tax rates vary widely. Some systems impose higher rates on higher amounts of income. Example: Elbonia taxes income below E. 10,000 at 20 % and other income at 30 %. Joe has E. 15,000 of income. His tax is E. 3,500. Tax rates schedules may vary for individuals based on marital status.
Residents are generally taxed differently from nonresidents. Few jurisdictions tax nonresidents other than on specific types of income earned within the jurisdiction. See, e.g., the discussion of taxation by the United States of foreign persons. Residents, however, are generally subject to income tax on all worldwide income. A very few countries (notably Singapore and Hong Kong) tax residents only on income earned in or remitted to the country.
Residence is often defined for individuals as presence in the country for more than 183 days. Most countries base residence of entities on either place of organization or place of management and control. The United Kingdom has three levels of residence.
Most systems define income subject to tax broadly for residents, but tax nonresidents only on specific types of income. What is included in income for individuals may differ from what is included for entities. The timing of recognizing income may differ by type of taxpayer or type of income.
Income generally includes most types of receipts that enrich the taxpayer, including compensation for services, gain from sale of goods or other property, interest, dividends, rents, royalties, annuities, pensions, and all manner of other items. Many systems exclude from income part or all of superannuation or other national retirement plan payments. Most tax systems exclude from income health care benefits provided by employers or under national insurance systems.
Nearly all income tax systems permit residents to reduce gross income by business and some other types of deductions. By contrast, nonresidents are generally subject to income tax on the gross amount of income of most types plus the net business income earned within the jurisdiction.
Expenses incurred in a trading, business, rental, or other income producing activity are generally deductible, though there may be limitations on some types of expenses or activities. Business expenses include all manner of costs for the benefit of the activity. An allowance (as a capital allowance or depreciation deduction) is nearly always allowed for recovery of costs of assets used in the activity. Rules on capital allowances vary widely, and often permit recovery of costs more quickly than ratably over the life of the asset.
Most systems allow individuals some sort of notional deductions or an amount subject to zero tax. In addition, many systems allow deduction of some types of personal expenses, such as home mortgage interest or medical expenses.
Only net income from business activities, whether conducted by individuals or entities is taxable, with few exceptions. Many countries require business enterprises to prepare financial statements which must be audited. Tax systems in those countries often define taxable income as income per those financial statements with few, if any, adjustments. A few jurisdictions compute net income as a fixed percentage of gross revenues for some types of businesses, particularly branches of nonresidents.
Nearly all systems permit residents a credit for income taxes paid to other jurisdictions of the same sort. Thus, a credit is allowed at the national level for income taxes paid to other countries. Many income tax systems permit other credits of various sorts, and such credits are often unique to the jurisdiction.
Some jurisdictions, particularly the United States and many of its states and Switzerland, impose the higher of regular income tax or an alternative tax. Switzerland and U.S. states generally impose such tax only on corporations and base it on capital or a similar measure.
Income tax is generally collected in one of two ways: through withholding of tax at source and / or through payments directly by taxpayers. Nearly all jurisdictions require those paying employees or nonresidents to withhold income tax from such payments. The amount to be withheld is a fixed percentage where the tax itself is at a fixed rate. Alternatively, the amount to be withheld may be determined by the tax administration of the country or by the payer using formulas provided by the tax administration. Payees are generally required to provide to the payer or the government the information needed to make the determinations. Withholding for employees is often referred to as "pay as you earn '' (PAYE) or "pay as you go. ''
Nearly all systems require those whose proper tax is not fully settled through withholding to self assess tax and make payments prior to or with final determination of the tax. Self - assessment means the taxpayer must make a computation of tax and submit it to the government.
Income taxes are separately imposed by sub-national jurisdictions in several countries with federal systems. These include Canada, Germany, Switzerland, and the United States, where provinces, cantons, or states impose separate taxes. In a few countries, cities also impose income taxes. The system may be integrated (as in Germany) with taxes collected at the federal level. In Quebec and the United States, federal and state systems are independently administered and have differences in determination of taxable income.
Income taxes of workers are often collected by employers under a withholding or Pay - as - you - earn tax system. Such collections are not necessarily final amounts of tax, as the worker may be required to aggregate wage income with other income and / or deductions to determine actual tax. Calculation of the tax to be withheld may be done by the government or by employers based on withholding allowances or formulas.
Retirement oriented taxes, such as Social Security or national insurance, also are a type of income tax, though not generally referred to as such. These taxes generally are imposed at a fixed rate on wages or self - employment earnings up to a maximum amount per year. The tax may be imposed on the employer, the employee, or both, at the same or different rates.
Some jurisdictions also impose a tax collected from employers, to fund unemployment insurance, health care, or similar government outlays.
Multiple conflicting theories have been proposed regarding the economic impact of income taxes. Income taxes are widely viewed as a progressive tax (the incidence of tax increases as income increases).
Tax avoidance strategies and loopholes tend to emerge within income tax codes. They get created when taxpayers find legal methods to avoid paying taxes. Lawmakers then attempt to close the loopholes with additional legislation. That leads to a vicious cycle of ever more complex avoidance strategies and legislation. The vicious cycle tends to benefit large corporations and wealthy individuals that can afford the professional fees that come with ever more sophisticated tax planning, thus challenging the notion that even a marginal income tax system can be properly called progressive.
The higher costs to labour and capital imposed by income tax causes deadweight loss in an economy, being the loss of economic activity from people deciding not to invest capital or use time productively because of the burden that tax would impose on those activities. There is also a loss from individuals and professional advisors devoting time to tax - avoiding behaviour instead of economically - productive activities.
Income taxes are used in most countries around the world. The tax systems vary greatly and can be progressive, proportional, or regressive, depending on the type of tax. Comparison of tax rates around the world is a difficult and somewhat subjective enterprise. Tax laws in most countries are extremely complex, and tax burden falls differently on different groups in each country and sub-national unit. Of course, services provided by governments in return for taxation also vary, making comparisons all the more difficult.
Countries that tax income generally use one of two systems: territorial or residential. In the territorial system, only local income -- income from a source inside the country -- is taxed. In the residential system, residents of the country are taxed on their worldwide (local and foreign) income, while nonresidents are taxed only on their local income. In addition, a very small number of countries, notably the United States, also tax their nonresident citizens on worldwide income.
Countries with a residential system of taxation usually allow deductions or credits for the tax that residents already pay to other countries on their foreign income. Many countries also sign tax treaties with each other to eliminate or reduce double taxation.
Countries do not necessarily use the same system of taxation for individuals and corporations. For example, France uses a residential system for individuals but a territorial system for corporations, while Singapore does the opposite, and Brunei taxes corporate but not personal income.
Public disclosure of personal income tax filings occurs in Finland, Norway and Sweden (as of the late - 2000s and early 2010s).
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who gave the title of quaid e azam | Muhammad Ali Jinnah - wikipedia
Muhammad Ali Jinnah (born Mahomedali Jinnahbhai; 25 December 1876 -- 11 September 1948) was a lawyer, politician, and the founder of Pakistan. Jinnah served as leader of the All - India Muslim League from 1913 until Pakistan 's independence on 14 August 1947, and then as Pakistan 's first Governor - General until his death. He is revered in Pakistan as Quaid - i - Azam (Urdu: قائد اعظم ; Great Leader) and Baba - i - Qaum (Urdu: بابائے قوم ; Father of the Nation). His birthday is observed as a national holiday in Pakistan.
Born at Wazir Mansion in Karachi, Jinnah was trained as a barrister at Lincoln 's Inn in London. Upon his return to British India, he enrolled at the Bombay High Court, and took an interest in national politics, which eventually replaced his legal practice. Jinnah rose to prominence in the Indian National Congress in the first two decades of the 20th century. In these early years of his political career, Jinnah advocated Hindu -- Muslim unity, helping to shape the 1916 Lucknow Pact between the Congress and the All - India Muslim League, in which Jinnah had also become prominent. Jinnah became a key leader in the All India Home Rule League, and proposed a fourteen - point constitutional reform plan to safeguard the political rights of Muslims. In 1920, however, Jinnah resigned from the Congress when it agreed to follow a campaign of satyagraha, which he regarded as political anarchy.
By 1940, Jinnah had come to believe that Muslims of the Indian subcontinent should have their own state. In that year, the Muslim League, led by Jinnah, passed the Lahore Resolution, demanding a separate nation. During the Second World War, the League gained strength while leaders of the Congress were imprisoned, and in the elections held shortly after the war, it won most of the seats reserved for Muslims. Ultimately, the Congress and the Muslim League could not reach a power - sharing formula for the subcontinent to be united as a single state, leading all parties to agree to the independence of a predominantly Hindu India, and for a Muslim - majority state of Pakistan.
As the first Governor - General of Pakistan, Jinnah worked to establish the new nation 's government and policies, and to aid the millions of Muslim migrants who had emigrated from the new nation of India to Pakistan after independence, personally supervising the establishment of refugee camps. Jinnah died at age 71 in September 1948, just over a year after Pakistan gained independence from the United Kingdom. He left a deep and respected legacy in Pakistan. Innumerable streets, roads and localities in the world are named after Jinnah. Several universities and public buildings in Pakistan bear Jinnah 's name. According to his biographer, Stanley Wolpert, he remains Pakistan 's greatest leader.
Jinnah 's given name at birth was Mahomedali, and he was born most likely in 1876, to Jinnahbhai Poonja and his wife Mithibai, in a rented apartment on the second floor of Wazir Mansion near Karachi, Sindh, now in Pakistan but then within the Bombay Presidency of British India. Jinnah 's family was from a Gujarati Ismaili background, though Jinnah later followed the Twelver Shi'a teachings. According to Akbar Ahmed however, Jinnah moved to the Sunni sect early in life. Jinnah was from a wealthy merchant background, his father was a merchant and was born to a family of textile weavers in the village of Paneli in the princely state of Gondal (Kathiawar, Gujarat); his mother was also of that village. They had moved to Karachi in 1875, having married before their departure. Karachi was then enjoying an economic boom: the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 meant it was 200 nautical miles closer to Europe for shipping than Bombay. Jinnah was the second child; he had three brothers and three sisters, including his younger sister Fatima Jinnah. The parents were native Gujarati speakers, and the children also came to speak Kutchi and English. Except for Fatima, little is known of his siblings, where they settled or if they met with their brother as he advanced in his legal and political careers.
As a boy, Jinnah lived for a time in Bombay with an aunt and may have attended the Gokal Das Tej Primary School there, later on studying at the Cathedral and John Connon School. In Karachi, he attended the Sindh - Madrasa - tul - Islam and the Christian Missionary Society High School. He gained his matriculation from Bombay University at the high school. In his later years and especially after his death, a large number of stories about the boyhood of Pakistan 's founder were circulated: that he spent all his spare time at the police court, listening to the proceedings, and that he studied his books by the glow of street lights for lack of other illumination. His official biographer, Hector Bolitho, writing in 1954, interviewed surviving boyhood associates, and obtained a tale that the young Jinnah discouraged other children from playing marbles in the dust, urging them to rise up, keep their hands and clothes clean, and play cricket instead.
In 1892, Sir Frederick Leigh Croft, a business associate of Jinnahbhai Poonja, offered young Jinnah a London apprenticeship with his firm, Graham 's Shipping and Trading Company. He accepted the position despite the opposition of his mother, who before he left, had him enter an arranged marriage with his cousin, two years his junior from the ancestral village of Paneli, Emibai Jinnah. Jinnah 's mother and first wife both died during his absence in England. Although the apprenticeship in London was considered a great opportunity for Jinnah, one reason for sending him overseas was a legal proceeding against his father, which placed the family 's property at risk of being sequestered by the court. In 1893, the Jinnahbhai family moved to Bombay.
Soon after his arrival in London, Jinnah gave up the apprenticeship to study law, enraging his father, who had, before his departure, given him enough money to live for three years. The aspiring barrister joined Lincoln 's Inn, later stating that the reason he chose Lincoln 's over the other Inns of Court was that over the main entrance to Lincoln 's Inn were the names of the world 's great lawgivers, including Muhammad. Jinnah 's biographer Stanley Wolpert notes that there is no such inscription, but inside is a mural showing Muhammad and other lawgivers, and speculates that Jinnah may have edited the story in his own mind to avoid mentioning a pictorial depiction which would be offensive to many Muslims. Jinnah 's legal education followed the pupillage (legal apprenticeship) system, which had been in force there for centuries. To gain knowledge of the law, he followed an established barrister and learned from what he did, as well as from studying lawbooks. During this period, he shortened his name to Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
During his student years in England, Jinnah was influenced by 19th - century British liberalism, like many other future Indian independence leaders. This political education included exposure to the idea of the democratic nation, and progressive politics. He became an admirer of the Parsi British Indian political leaders Dadabhai Naoroji and Sir Pherozeshah Mehta. Naoroji had become the first British Member of Parliament of Indian extraction shortly before Jinnah 's arrival, triumphing with a majority of three votes in Finsbury Central. Jinnah listened to Naoroji 's maiden speech in the House of Commons from the visitor 's gallery.
The Western world not only inspired Jinnah in his political life, but also greatly influenced his personal preferences, particularly when it came to dress. Jinnah abandoned local garb for Western - style clothing, and throughout his life he was always impeccably dressed in public. He came to own over 200 suits, which he wore with heavily starched shirts with detachable collars, and as a barrister took pride in never wearing the same silk tie twice. Even when he was dying, he insisted on being formally dressed, "I will not travel in my pyjamas. '' In his later years he was usually seen wearing a Karakul hat which subsequently came to be known as the "Jinnah cap ''.
Dissatisfied with the law, Jinnah briefly embarked on a stage career with a Shakespearean company, but resigned after receiving a stern letter from his father. In 1895, at age 19, he became the youngest Indian to be called to the bar in England. Although he returned to Karachi, he remained there only a short time before moving to Bombay.
At the age of 20, Jinnah began his practice in Bombay, the only Muslim barrister in the city. English had become his principal language and would remain so throughout his life. His first three years in the law, from 1897 to 1900, brought him few briefs. His first step towards a brighter career occurred when the acting Advocate General of Bombay, John Molesworth MacPherson, invited Jinnah to work from his chambers. In 1900, P.H. Dastoor, a Bombay presidency magistrate, left the post temporarily and Jinnah succeeded in getting the interim position. After his six - month appointment period, Jinnah was offered a permanent position on a 1,500 rupee per month salary. Jinnah politely declined the offer, stating that he planned to earn 1,500 rupees a day -- a huge sum at that time -- which he eventually did. Nevertheless, as Governor - General of Pakistan, he would refuse to accept a large salary, fixing it at 1 rupee per month.
As a lawyer, Jinnah gained fame for his skilled handling of the 1907 "Caucus Case ''. This controversy arose out of Bombay municipal elections, which Indians alleged were rigged by a "caucus '' of Europeans to keep Sir Pherozeshah Mehta out of the council. Jinnah gained great esteem from leading the case for Sir Pherozeshah, himself a noted barrister. Although Jinnah did not win the Caucus Case, he posted a successful record, becoming well known for his advocacy and legal logic. In 1908, his factional foe in the Indian National Congress, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, was arrested for sedition. Before Tilak unsuccessfully represented himself at trial, he engaged Jinnah in an attempt to secure his release on bail. Jinnah did not succeed, but obtained an acquittal for Tilak when he was charged with sedition again in 1916.
One of Jinnah 's fellow barristers from the Bombay High Court remembered that "Jinnah 's faith in himself was incredible ''; he recalled that on being admonished by a judge with "Mr. Jinnah, remember that you are not addressing a third - class magistrate '', Jinnah shot back, "My Lord, allow me to warn you that you are not addressing a third - class pleader. '' Another of his fellow barristers described him, saying:
He was what God made him, a great pleader. He had a sixth sense: he could see around corners. That is where his talents lay... he was a very clear thinker... But he drove his points home -- points chosen with exquisite selection -- slow delivery, word by word.
In 1857, many Indians had risen in revolt against British rule. In the aftermath of the conflict, some Anglo - Indians, as well as Indians in Britain, called for greater self - government for the subcontinent, resulting in the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885. Most founding members had been educated in Britain, and were content with the minimal reform efforts being made by the government. Muslims were not enthusiastic about calls for democratic institutions in British India, as they constituted a quarter to a third of the population, outnumbered by the Hindus. Early meetings of the Congress contained a minority of Muslims, mostly from the elite.
Jinnah devoted much of his time to his law practice in the early 1900s, but remained politically involved. Jinnah began political life by attending the Congress 's twentieth annual meeting, in Bombay in December 1904. He was a member of the moderate group in the Congress, favouring Hindu -- Muslim unity in achieving self - government, and following such leaders as Mehta, Naoroji, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale. They were opposed by leaders such as Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai, who sought quick action towards independence. In 1906, a delegation of Muslim leaders headed by the Aga Khan called on the new Viceroy of India, Lord Minto, to assure him of their loyalty and to ask for assurances that in any political reforms they would be protected from the "unsympathetic (Hindu) majority ''. Dissatisfied with this, Jinnah wrote a letter to the editor of the newspaper Gujarati, asking what right the members of the delegation had to speak for Indian Muslims, as they were unelected and self - appointed. When many of the same leaders met in Dacca in December of that year to form the All - India Muslim League to advocate for their community 's interests, Jinnah was again opposed. The Aga Khan later wrote that it was "freakishly ironic '' that Jinnah, who would lead the League to independence, "came out in bitter hostility toward all that I and my friends had done... He said that our principle of separate electorates was dividing the nation against itself. '' In its earliest years, however, the League was not influential; Minto refused to consider it as the Muslim community 's representative, and it was ineffective in preventing the 1911 repeal of the partition of Bengal, an action seen as a blow to Muslim interests.
Although Jinnah initially opposed separate electorates for Muslims, he used this means to gain his first elective office in 1909, as Bombay 's Muslim representative on the Imperial Legislative Council. He was a compromise candidate when two older, better - known Muslims who were seeking the post deadlocked. The council, which had been expanded to 60 members as part of reforms enacted by Minto, recommended legislation to the Viceroy. Only officials could vote in the council; non-official members, such as Jinnah, had no vote. Throughout his legal career, Jinnah practised probate law (with many clients from India 's nobility), and in 1911 introduced the Wakf Validation Act to place Muslim religious trusts on a sound legal footing under British Indian law. Two years later, the measure passed, the first act sponsored by non-officials to pass the council and be enacted by the Viceroy. Jinnah was also appointed to a committee which helped to establish the Indian Military Academy in Dehra Dun.
In December 1912, Jinnah addressed the annual meeting of the Muslim League although he was not yet a member. He joined the following year, although he remained a member of the Congress as well and stressed that League membership took second priority to the "greater national cause '' of an independent India. In April 1913, he again went to Britain, with Gokhale, to meet with officials on behalf of the Congress. Gokhale, a Hindu, later stated that Jinnah "has true stuff in him, and that freedom from all sectarian prejudice which will make him the best ambassador of Hindu -- Muslim Unity ''. Jinnah led another delegation of the Congress to London in 1914, but due to the start of the First World War found officials little interested in Indian reforms. By coincidence, he was in Britain at the same time as a man who would become a great political rival of his, Mohandas Gandhi, a Hindu lawyer who had become well known for advocating satyagraha, non-violent non-co - operation, while in South Africa. Jinnah attended a reception for Gandhi, and returned home to India in January 1915.
Jinnah 's moderate faction in the Congress was undermined by the deaths of Mehta and Gokhale in 1915; he was further isolated by the fact that Naoroji was in London, where he remained until his death in 1917. Nevertheless, Jinnah worked to bring the Congress and League together. In 1916, with Jinnah now president of the Muslim League, the two organisations signed the Lucknow Pact, setting quotas for Muslim and Hindu representation in the various provinces. Although the pact was never fully implemented, its signing ushered in a period of co-operation between the Congress and the League.
During the war, Jinnah joined other Indian moderates in supporting the British war effort, hoping that Indians would be rewarded with political freedoms. Jinnah played an important role in the founding of the All India Home Rule League in 1916. Along with political leaders Annie Besant and Tilak, Jinnah demanded "home rule '' for India -- the status of a self - governing dominion in the Empire similar to Canada, New Zealand and Australia, although, with the war, Britain 's politicians were not interested in considering Indian constitutional reform. British Cabinet minister Edwin Montagu recalled Jinnah in his memoirs, "young, perfectly mannered, impressive - looking, armed to the teeth with dialectics, and insistent on the whole of his scheme ''.
In 1918, Jinnah married his second wife Rattanbai Petit ("Ruttie ''), 24 years his junior. She was the fashionable young daughter of his friend Sir Dinshaw Petit, and was part of an elite Parsi family of Bombay. There was great opposition to the marriage from Rattanbai 's family and the Parsi community, as well as from some Muslim religious leaders. Rattanbai defied her family and nominally converted to Islam, adopting (though never using) the name Maryam Jinnah, resulting in a permanent estrangement from her family and Parsi society. The couple resided at South Court Mansion in Bombay, and frequently travelled across India and Europe. The couple 's only child, daughter Dina, was born on 15 August 1919. The couple separated prior to Ruttie 's death in 1929, and subsequently Jinnah 's sister Fatima looked after him and his child.
Relations between Indians and British were strained in 1919 when the Imperial Legislative Council extended emergency wartime restrictions on civil liberties; Jinnah resigned from it when it did. There was unrest across India, which worsened after the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar, in which British troops fired upon a protest meeting, killing hundreds. In the wake of Amritsar, Gandhi, who had returned to India and become a widely respected leader and highly influential in the Congress, called for satyagraha against the British. Gandhi 's proposal gained broad Hindu support, and was also attractive to many Muslims of the Khilafat faction. These Muslims, supported by Gandhi, sought retention of the Ottoman caliphate, which supplied spiritual leadership to many Muslims. The caliph was the Ottoman Emperor, who would be deprived of both offices following his nation 's defeat in the First World War. Gandhi had achieved considerable popularity among Muslims because of his work during the war on behalf of killed or imprisoned Muslims. Unlike Jinnah and other leaders of the Congress, Gandhi did not wear western - style clothing, did his best to use an Indian language instead of English, and was deeply rooted in Indian culture. Gandhi 's local style of leadership gained great popularity with the Indian people. Jinnah criticised Gandhi 's Khilafat advocacy, which he saw as an endorsement of religious zealotry. Jinnah regarded Gandhi 's proposed satyagraha campaign as political anarchy, and believed that self - government should be secured through constitutional means. He opposed Gandhi, but the tide of Indian opinion was against him. At the 1920 session of the Congress in Nagpur, Jinnah was shouted down by the delegates, who passed Gandhi 's proposal, pledging satyagraha until India was independent. Jinnah did not attend the subsequent League meeting, held in the same city, which passed a similar resolution. Because of the action of the Congress in endorsing Gandhi 's campaign, Jinnah resigned from it, leaving all positions except in the Muslim League.
The alliance between Gandhi and the Khilafat faction did not last long, and the campaign of resistance proved less effective than hoped, as India 's institutions continued to function. Jinnah sought alternative political ideas, and contemplated organising a new political party as a rival to the Congress. In September 1923, Jinnah was elected as Muslim member for Bombay in the new Central Legislative Assembly. He showed much skill as a parliamentarian, organising many Indian members to work with the Swaraj Party, and continued to press demands for full responsible government. In 1925, as recognition for his legislative activities, he was offered a knighthood by Lord Reading, who was retiring from the Viceroyalty. He replied: "I prefer to be plain Mr. Jinnah. ''
In 1927, the British Government, under Conservative Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, undertook a decennial review of Indian policy mandated by the Government of India Act 1919. The review began two years early as Baldwin feared he would lose the next election (which he did, in 1929). The Cabinet was influenced by minister Winston Churchill, who strongly opposed self - government for India, and members hoped that by having the commission appointed early, the policies for India which they favoured would survive their government. The resulting commission, led by Liberal MP John Simon, though with a majority of Conservatives, arrived in India in March 1928. They were met with a boycott by India 's leaders, Muslim and Hindu alike, angered at the British refusal to include their representatives on the commission. A minority of Muslims, though, withdrew from the League, choosing to welcome the Simon Commission and repudiating Jinnah. Most members of the League 's executive council remained loyal to Jinnah, attending the League meeting in December 1927 and January 1928 which confirmed him as the League 's permanent president. At that session, Jinnah told the delegates that "A constitutional war has been declared on Great Britain. Negotiations for a settlement are not to come from our side... By appointing an exclusively white Commission, (Secretary of State for India) Lord Birkenhead has declared our unfitness for self - government. ''
Birkenhead in 1928 challenged Indians to come up with their own proposal for constitutional change for India; in response, the Congress convened a committee under the leadership of Motilal Nehru. The Nehru Report favoured constituencies based on geography on the ground that being dependent on each other for election would bind the communities closer together. Jinnah, though he believed separate electorates, based on religion, necessary to ensure Muslims had a voice in the government, was willing to compromise on this point, but talks between the two parties failed. He put forth proposals that he hoped might satisfy a broad range of Muslims and reunite the League, calling for mandatory representation for Muslims in legislatures and cabinets. These became known as his Fourteen Points. He could not secure adoption of the Fourteen Points, as the League meeting in Delhi at which he hoped to gain a vote instead dissolved into chaotic argument.
After Baldwin was defeated at the 1929 British parliamentary election, Ramsay MacDonald of the Labour Party became prime minister. MacDonald desired a conference of Indian and British leaders in London to discuss India 's future, a course of action supported by Jinnah. Three Round Table Conferences followed over as many years, none of which resulted in a settlement. Jinnah was a delegate to the first two conferences, but was not invited to the last. He remained in Britain for most of the period 1930 through 1934, practising as a barrister before the Privy Council, where he dealt with a number of India - related cases. His biographers disagree over why he remained so long in Britain -- Wolpert asserts that had Jinnah been made a Law Lord, he would have stayed for life, and that Jinnah alternatively sought a parliamentary seat. Early biographer Hector Bolitho denied that Jinnah sought to enter the British Parliament, while Jaswant Singh deems Jinnah 's time in Britain as a break or sabbatical from the Indian struggle. Bolitho called this period "Jinnah 's years of order and contemplation, wedged in between the time of early struggle, and the final storm of conquest ''.
In 1931, Fatima Jinnah joined her brother in England. From then on, Muhammad Jinnah would receive personal care and support from her as he aged and began to suffer from the lung ailments which would kill him. She lived and travelled with him, and became a close advisor. Muhammad Jinnah 's daughter, Dina, was educated in England and India. Jinnah later became estranged from Dina after she decided to marry a Christian, Neville Wadia from a prominent Parsi business family. When Jinnah urged Dina to marry a Muslim, she reminded him that he had married a woman not raised in his faith. Jinnah continued to correspond cordially with his daughter, but their personal relationship was strained, and she did not come to Pakistan in his lifetime, but only for his funeral.
In 1933, Indian Muslims, especially from the United Provinces, began to urge Jinnah to return and take up again his leadership of the Muslim League, an organisation which had fallen into inactivity. He remained titular president of the League, but declined to travel to India to preside over its 1933 session in April, writing that he could not possibly return there until the end of the year.
Among those who met with Jinnah to seek his return was Liaquat Ali Khan, who would be a major political associate of Jinnah in the years to come and the first Prime Minister of Pakistan. At Jinnah 's request, Liaquat discussed the return with a large number of Muslim politicians and confirmed his recommendation to Jinnah. In early 1934, Jinnah relocated to the subcontinent, though he shuttled between London and India on business for the next few years, selling his house in Hampstead and closing his legal practice in Britain.
Muslims of Bombay elected Jinnah, though then absent in London, as their representative to the Central Legislative Assembly in October 1934. The British Parliament 's Government of India Act 1935 gave considerable power to India 's provinces, with a weak central parliament in New Delhi, which had no authority over such matters as foreign policy, defence, and much of the budget. Full power remained in the hands of the Viceroy, however, who could dissolve legislatures and rule by decree. The League reluctantly accepted the scheme, though expressing reservations about the weak parliament. The Congress was much better prepared for the provincial elections in 1937, and the League failed to win a majority even of the Muslim seats in any of the provinces where members of that faith held a majority. It did win a majority of the Muslim seats in Delhi, but could not form a government anywhere, though it was part of the ruling coalition in Bengal. The Congress and its allies formed the government even in the North - West Frontier Province (N.W.F.P.), where the League won no seats despite the fact that almost all residents were Muslim.
According to Singh, "the events of 1937 had a tremendous, almost a traumatic effect upon Jinnah ''. Despite his beliefs of twenty years that Muslims could protect their rights in a united India through separate electorates, provincial boundaries drawn to preserve Muslim majorities, and by other protections of minority rights, Muslim voters had failed to unite, with the issues Jinnah hoped to bring forward lost amid factional fighting. Singh notes the effect of the 1937 elections on Muslim political opinion, "when the Congress formed a government with almost all of the Muslim MLAs sitting on the Opposition benches, non-Congress Muslims were suddenly faced with this stark reality of near - total political powerlessness. It was brought home to them, like a bolt of lightning, that even if the Congress did not win a single Muslim seat... as long as it won an absolute majority in the House, on the strength of the general seats, it could and would form a government entirely on its own... ''
In the next two years, Jinnah worked to build support among Muslims for the League. He secured the right to speak for the Muslim - led Bengali and Punjabi provincial governments in the central government in New Delhi ("the centre ''). He worked to expand the League, reducing the cost of membership to two annas (1⁄8 of a rupee), half of what it cost to join the Congress. He restructured the League along the lines of the Congress, putting most power in a Working Committee, which he appointed. By December 1939, Liaquat estimated that the League had three million two - anna members.
Until the late 1930s, most Muslims of the British Raj expected, upon independence, to be part of a unitary state encompassing all of British India, as did the Hindus and others who advocated self - government. Despite this, other nationalist proposals were being made. In a speech given at Allahabad to a League session in 1930, Sir Muhammad Iqbal called for a state for Muslims in British India. Choudhary Rahmat Ali published a pamphlet in 1933 advocating a state "Pakistan '' in the Indus Valley, with other names given to Muslim - majority areas elsewhere in India. Jinnah and Iqbal corresponded in 1936 and 1937; in subsequent years, Jinnah credited Iqbal as his mentor, and used Iqbal 's imagery and rhetoric in his speeches.
Although many leaders of the Congress sought a strong central government for an Indian state, some Muslim politicians, including Jinnah, were unwilling to accept this without powerful protections for their community. Other Muslims supported the Congress, which advocated a secular state upon independence. Nevertheless, the Congress enjoyed considerable Muslim support up to about 1937.
Events which separated the communities included the failed attempt to form a coalition government including the Congress and the League in the United Provinces following the 1937 election. According to historian Ian Talbot, "The provincial Congress governments made no effort to understand and respect their Muslim populations ' cultural and religious sensibilities. The Muslim League 's claims that it alone could safeguard Muslim interests thus received a major boost. Significantly it was only after this period of Congress rule that it (the League) took up the demand for a Pakistan state... ''
Balraj Puri in his journal article about Jinnah suggests that the Muslim League president, after the 1937 vote, turned to the idea of partition in "sheer desperation ''. Historian Akbar S. Ahmed suggests that Jinnah abandoned hope of reconciliation with the Congress as he "rediscover (ed) his own Islamic roots, his own sense of identity, of culture and history, which would come increasingly to the fore in the final years of his life ''. Jinnah also increasingly adopted Muslim dress in the late 1930s. In the wake of the 1937 balloting, Jinnah demanded that the question of power sharing be settled on an all - India basis, and that he, as president of the League, be accepted as the sole spokesman for the Muslim community.
The well documented influence of Iqbal on Jinnah, with regard to taking the lead in creating Pakistan, has been described as "significant '', "powerful '' and even "unquestionable '' by scholars. Iqbal has also cited as an influential force in convincing Jinnah to end his self - imposed exile in London and re-enter the politics of India. Initially, however, Iqbal and Jinnah were opponents, as Iqbal believed Jinnah did not care about the crises confronting the Muslim community during the British Raj. According to Akbar S. Ahmed, this began to change during Iqbal 's final years prior to his death in 1938. Iqbal gradually succeeded in converting Jinnah over to his view, who eventually accepted Iqbal as his "mentor ''. Ahmed comments that in his annotations to Iqbal 's letters, Jinnah expressed solidarity with Iqbal 's view: that Indian Muslims required a separate homeland.
Iqbal 's influence also gave Jinnah a deeper appreciation for Muslim identity, as Jinnah came to appreciate not only Iqbal 's politics but his convictions. The evidence of this influence began to be revealed from 1937 onwards. Jinnah not only began to echo Iqbal in his speeches, he started using Islamic symbolism and began directing his addresses to the underprivileged. Ahmed noted a change in Jinnah 's words: while he still advocated freedom of religion and protection of the minorities, the model he was now aspiring to was that of the Prophet Muhammad, rather than that of a secular politician. Ahmed further avers that those scholars who have painted the later Jinnah as secular have misread his speeches which, he argues, must be read in the context of Islamic history and culture. Accordingly, Jinnah 's imagery of the Pakistan that was to be began to make it clear it was to have an Islamic nature. This change has been seen to last for the rest of Jinnah 's life. He continued to borrow ideas "directly from Iqbal -- including his thoughts on Muslim unity, on Islamic ideals of liberty, justice and equality, on economics, and even on practices such as prayers ''.
In a speech in 1940, two years after the death of Iqbal, Jinnah expressed his preference for implementing Iqbal 's vision for an Islamic Pakistan even if it meant he himself would never lead a nation. Jinnah stated, "If I live to see the ideal of a Muslim state being achieved in India, and I was then offered to make a choice between the works of Iqbal and the rulership of the Muslim state, I would prefer the former. ''
On 3 September 1939, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain announced the commencement of war with Nazi Germany. The following day, the Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, without consulting Indian political leaders, announced that India had entered the war along with Britain. There were widespread protests in India. After meeting with Jinnah and with Gandhi, Linlithgow announced that negotiations on self - government were suspended for the duration of the war. The Congress on 14 September demanded immediate independence with a constituent assembly to decide a constitution; when this was refused, its eight provincial governments resigned on 10 November and governors in those provinces thereafter ruled by decree for the remainder of the war. Jinnah, on the other hand, was more willing to accommodate the British, and they in turn increasingly recognised him and the League as the representatives of India 's Muslims. Jinnah later stated, "after the war began,... I was treated on the same basis as Mr. Gandhi. I was wonderstruck why I was promoted and given a place side by side with Mr. Gandhi. '' Although the League did not actively support the British war effort, neither did they try to obstruct it.
With the British and Muslims to some extent co-operating, the Viceroy asked Jinnah for an expression of the Muslim League 's position on self - government, confident that it would differ greatly from that of the Congress. To come up with such a position, the League 's Working Committee met for four days in February 1940 to set out terms of reference to a constitutional sub-committee. The Working Committee asked that the sub-committee return with a proposal that would result in "independent dominions in direct relationship with Great Britain '' where Muslims were dominant. On 6 February, Jinnah informed the Viceroy that the Muslim League would be demanding partition instead of the federation contemplated in the 1935 Act. The Lahore Resolution (sometimes called the "Pakistan Resolution '', although it does not contain that name), based on the sub-committee's work, embraced the Two - Nation Theory and called for a union of the Muslim - majority provinces in the northwest of British India, with complete autonomy. Similar rights were to be granted to the Muslim - majority areas in the east, and unspecified protections given to Muslim minorities in other provinces. The resolution was passed by the League session in Lahore on 23 March 1940.
Gandhi 's reaction to the Lahore Resolution was muted; he called it "baffling '', but told his disciples that Muslims, in common with other people of India, had the right to self - determination. Leaders of the Congress were more vocal; Jawaharlal Nehru referred to Lahore as "Jinnah 's fantastic proposals '' while Chakravarti Rajagopalachari deemed Jinnah 's views on partition "a sign of a diseased mentality ''. Linlithgow met with Jinnah in June 1940, soon after Winston Churchill became the British prime minister, and in August offered both the Congress and the League a deal whereby in exchange for full support for the war, Linlithgow would allow Indian representation on his major war councils. The Viceroy promised a representative body after the war to determine India 's future, and that no future settlement would be imposed over the objections of a large part of the population. This was satisfactory to neither the Congress nor the League, though Jinnah was pleased that the British had moved towards recognising Jinnah as the representative of the Muslim community 's interests. Jinnah was reluctant to make specific proposals as to the boundaries of Pakistan, or its relationships with Britain and with the rest of the subcontinent, fearing that any precise plan would divide the League.
The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 brought the United States into the war. In the following months, the Japanese advanced in Southeast Asia, and the British Cabinet sent a mission led by Sir Stafford Cripps to try to conciliate the Indians and cause them to fully back the war. Cripps proposed giving some provinces what was dubbed the "local option '' to remain outside of an Indian central government either for a period of time or permanently, to become dominions on their own or be part of another confederation. The Muslim League was far from certain of winning the legislative votes that would be required for mixed provinces such as Bengal and Punjab to secede, and Jinnah rejected the proposals as not sufficiently recognising Pakistan 's right to exist. The Congress also rejected the Cripps plan, demanding immediate concessions which Cripps was not prepared to give. Despite the rejection, Jinnah and the League saw the Cripps proposal as recognising Pakistan in principle.
The Congress followed the failed Cripps mission by demanding, in August 1942, that the British immediately "Quit India '', proclaiming a mass campaign of satyagraha until they did. The British promptly arrested most major leaders of the Congress and imprisoned them for the remainder of the war. Gandhi, however, was placed on house arrest in one of the Aga Khan 's palaces prior to his release for health reasons in 1944. With the Congress leaders absent from the political scene, Jinnah warned against the threat of Hindu domination and maintained his Pakistan demand without going into great detail about what that would entail. Jinnah also worked to increase the League 's political control at the provincial level. He helped to found the newspaper Dawn in the early 1940s in Delhi; it helped to spread the League 's message and eventually became the major English - language newspaper of Pakistan.
In September 1944, Jinnah and Gandhi, who had by then been released from his palatial prison, met formally at the Muslim leader 's home on Malabar Hill in Bombay. Two weeks of talks followed between them, which resulted in no agreement. Jinnah insisted on Pakistan being conceded prior to the British departure and to come into being immediately, while Gandhi proposed that plebiscites on partition occur sometime after a united India gained its independence. In early 1945, Liaquat and the Congress leader Bhulabhai Desai met, with Jinnah 's approval, and agreed that after the war, the Congress and the League should form an interim government with the members of the Executive Council of the Viceroy to be nominated by the Congress and the League in equal numbers. When the Congress leadership were released from prison in June 1945, they repudiated the agreement and censured Desai for acting without proper authority.
Field Marshal Viscount Wavell succeeded Linlithgow as Viceroy in 1943. In June 1945, following the release of the Congress leaders, Wavell called for a conference, and invited the leading figures from the various communities to meet with him at Simla. He proposed a temporary government along the lines which Liaquat and Desai had agreed. However, Wavell was unwilling to guarantee that only the League 's candidates would be placed in the seats reserved for Muslims. All other invited groups submitted lists of candidates to the Viceroy. Wavell cut the conference short in mid-July without further seeking an agreement; with a British general election imminent, Churchill 's government did not feel it could proceed.
The British people returned Clement Attlee and his Labour Party later in July. Attlee and his Secretary of State for India, Lord Frederick Pethick - Lawrence, immediately ordered a review of the Indian situation. Jinnah had no comment on the change of government, but called a meeting of his Working Committee and issued a statement calling for new elections in India. The League held influence at the provincial level in the Muslim - majority states mostly by alliance, and Jinnah believed that, given the opportunity, the League would improve its electoral standing and lend added support to his claim to be the sole spokesman for the Muslims. Wavell returned to India in September after consultation with his new masters in London; elections, both for the centre and for the provinces, were announced soon after. The British indicated that formation of a constitution - making body would follow the votes.
The Muslim League declared that they would campaign on a single issue: Pakistan. Speaking in Ahmedabad, Jinnah echoed this, "Pakistan is a matter of life or death for us. '' In the December 1945 elections for the Constituent Assembly of India, the League won every seat reserved for Muslims. In the provincial elections in January 1946, the League took 75 % of the Muslim vote, an increase from 4.4 % in 1937. According to his biographer Bolitho, "This was Jinnah 's glorious hour: his arduous political campaigns, his robust beliefs and claims, were at last justified. '' Wolpert wrote that the League election showing "appeared to prove the universal appeal of Pakistan among Muslims of the subcontinent ''. The Congress dominated the central assembly nevertheless, though it lost four seats from its previous strength. During this time Muhammad Iqbal introduced Jinnah to Ghulam Ahmed Pervez, whom Jinnah appointed to edit a magazine, Tolu - e-Islam, to propagate the idea of a separate Muslim state.
In February 1946, the British Cabinet resolved to send a delegation to India to negotiate with leaders there. This Cabinet Mission included Cripps and Pethick - Lawrence. The highest - level delegation to try to break the deadlock, it arrived in New Delhi in late March. Little negotiation had been done since the previous October because of the elections in India. The British in May released a plan for a united Indian state comprising substantially autonomous provinces, and called for "groups '' of provinces formed on the basis of religion. Matters such as defence, external relations and communications would be handled by a central authority. Provinces would have the option of leaving the union entirely, and there would be an interim government with representation from the Congress and the League. Jinnah and his Working Committee accepted this plan in June, but it fell apart over the question of how many members of the interim government the Congress and the League would have, and over the Congress 's desire to include a Muslim member in its representation. Before leaving India, the British ministers stated that they intended to inaugurate an interim government even if one of the major groups was unwilling to participate.
The Congress soon joined the new Indian ministry. The League was slower to do so, not entering until October 1946. In agreeing to have the League join the government, Jinnah abandoned his demands for parity with the Congress and a veto on matters concerning Muslims. The new ministry met amid a backdrop of rioting, especially in Calcutta. The Congress wanted the Viceroy to immediately summon the constituent assembly and begin the work of writing a constitution and felt that the League ministers should either join in the request or resign from the government. Wavell attempted to save the situation by flying leaders such as Jinnah, Liaquat, and Jawaharlal Nehru to London in December 1946. At the end of the talks, participants issued a statement that the constitution would not be forced on any unwilling parts of India. On the way back from London, Jinnah and Liaquat stopped in Cairo for several days of pan-Islamic meetings.
The Congress endorsed the joint statement from the London conference over the angry dissent from some elements. The League refused to do so, and took no part in the constitutional discussions. Jinnah had been willing to consider some continued links to Hindustan (as the Hindu - majority state which would be formed on partition was sometimes referred to), such as a joint military or communications. However, by December 1946, he insisted on a fully sovereign Pakistan with dominion status.
Following the failure of the London trip, Jinnah was in no hurry to reach an agreement, considering that time would allow him to gain the undivided provinces of Bengal and Punjab for Pakistan, but these wealthy, populous provinces had sizeable non-Muslim minorities, complicating a settlement. The Attlee ministry desired a rapid British departure from the subcontinent, but had little confidence in Wavell to achieve that end. Beginning in December 1946, British officials began looking for a viceregal successor to Wavell, and soon fixed on Admiral Lord Mountbatten of Burma, a war leader popular among Conservatives as the great - grandson of Queen Victoria and among Labour for his political views.
On 20 February 1947, Attlee announced Mountbatten 's appointment, and that Britain would transfer power in India not later than June 1948. Mountbatten took office as Viceroy on 24 March 1947, two days after his arrival in India. By then, the Congress had come around to the idea of partition. Nehru stated in 1960, "the truth is that we were tired men and we were getting on in years... The plan for partition offered a way out and we took it. '' Leaders of the Congress decided that having loosely tied Muslim - majority provinces as part of a future India was not worth the loss of the powerful government at the centre which they desired. However, the Congress insisted that if Pakistan were to become independent, Bengal and Punjab would have to be divided.
Mountbatten had been warned in his briefing papers that Jinnah would be his "toughest customer '' who had proved a chronic nuisance because "no one in this country (India) had so far gotten into Jinnah 's mind ''. The men met over six days beginning on 5 April. The sessions began lightly when Jinnah, photographed between Louis and Edwina Mountbatten, quipped "A rose between two thorns '' which the Viceroy took, perhaps gratuitously, as evidence that the Muslim leader had pre-planned his joke but had expected the vicereine to stand in the middle. Mountbatten was not favourably impressed with Jinnah, repeatedly expressing frustration to his staff about Jinnah 's insistence on Pakistan in the face of all argument.
Jinnah feared that at the end of the British presence in the subcontinent, they would turn control over to the Congress - dominated constituent assembly, putting Muslims at a disadvantage in attempting to win autonomy. He demanded that Mountbatten divide the army prior to independence, which would take at least a year. Mountbatten had hoped that the post-independence arrangements would include a common defence force, but Jinnah saw it as essential that a sovereign state should have its own forces. Mountbatten met with Liaquat the day of his final session with Jinnah, and concluded, as he told Attlee and the Cabinet in May, that "it had become clear that the Muslim League would resort to arms if Pakistan in some form were not conceded. '' The Viceroy was also influenced by negative Muslim reaction to the constitutional report of the assembly, which envisioned broad powers for the post-independence central government.
On 2 June, the final plan was given by the Viceroy to Indian leaders: on 15 August, the British would turn over power to two dominions. The provinces would vote on whether to continue in the existing constituent assembly or to have a new one, that is, to join Pakistan. Bengal and Punjab would also vote, both on the question of which assembly to join, and on the partition. A boundary commission would determine the final lines in the partitioned provinces. Plebiscites would take place in the North - West Frontier Province (which did not have a League government despite an overwhelmingly Muslim population), and in the majority - Muslim Sylhet district of Assam, adjacent to eastern Bengal. On 3 June, Mountbatten, Nehru, Jinnah and Sikh leader Baldev Singh made the formal announcement by radio. Jinnah concluded his address with "Pakistan Zindabad '' (Long live Pakistan), which was not in the script. In the weeks which followed Punjab and Bengal cast the votes which resulted in partition. Sylhet and the N.W.F.P. voted to cast their lots with Pakistan, a decision joined by the assemblies in Sind and Baluchistan.
On 4 July 1947, Liaquat asked Mountbatten on Jinnah 's behalf to recommend to the British king, George VI, that Jinnah be appointed Pakistan 's first governor - general. This request angered Mountbatten, who had hoped to have that position in both dominions -- he would be India 's first post-independence governor - general -- but Jinnah felt that Mountbatten would be likely to favour the new Hindu - majority state because of his closeness to Nehru. In addition, the governor - general would initially be a powerful figure, and Jinnah did not trust anyone else to take that office. Although the Boundary Commission, led by British lawyer Sir Cyril Radcliffe, had not yet reported, there were already massive movements of populations between the nations - to - be, as well as sectarian violence. Jinnah arranged to sell his house in Bombay and procured a new one in Karachi. On 7 August, Jinnah, with his sister and close staff, flew from Delhi to Karachi in Mountbatten 's plane, and as the plane taxied, he was heard to murmur, "That 's the end of that. '' On 11 August, he presided over the new constituent assembly for Pakistan at Karachi, and addressed them, "You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or to any other place of worship in this State of Pakistan... You may belong to any religion or caste or creed -- that has nothing to do with the business of the State... I think we should keep that in front of us as our ideal and you will find that in course of time Hindus would cease to be Hindus and Muslims would cease to be Muslims, not in the religious sense, because that is the personal faith of each individual, but in the political sense as citizens of the State. '' On 14 August, Pakistan became independent; Jinnah led the celebrations in Karachi. One observer wrote, "here indeed is Pakistan 's King Emperor, Archbishop of Canterbury, Speaker and Prime Minister concentrated into one formidable Quaid - e-Azam. ''
The Radcliffe Commission, dividing Bengal and Punjab, completed its work and reported to Mountbatten on 12 August; the last Viceroy held the maps until the 17th, not wanting to spoil the independence celebrations in both nations. There had already been ethnically charged violence and movement of populations; publication of the Radcliffe Line dividing the new nations sparked mass migration, murder, and ethnic cleansing. Many on the "wrong side '' of the lines fled or were murdered, or murdered others, hoping to make facts on the ground which would reverse the commission 's verdict. Radcliffe wrote in his report that he knew that neither side would be happy with his award; he declined his fee for the work. Christopher Beaumont, Radcliffe 's private secretary, later wrote that Mountbatten "must take the blame -- though not the sole blame -- for the massacres in the Punjab in which between 500,000 to a million men, women and children perished ''. As many as 14,500,000 people relocated between India and Pakistan during and after partition. Jinnah did what he could for the eight million people who migrated to Pakistan; although by now over 70 and frail from lung ailments, he travelled across West Pakistan and personally supervised the provision of aid. According to Ahmed, "What Pakistan needed desperately in those early months was a symbol of the state, one that would unify people and give them the courage and resolve to succeed. ''
Among he restive regions of the new nation was the North - West Frontier Province. The referendum there. in July 1947 had been tainted by low electoral turnou, t as less than 10 percent of the population were allowed to vote. On 22 August 1947, just after a week of becoming governor general, Jinnah dissolved the elected government of Dr. Khan Abdul Jabbar Khan. Later on, Abdul Qayyum Khan was put in place by Jinnah in the Pashtun - dominated province despite his being a Kashmiri. On 12 August 1948 the Babrra massacre in Charsadda occurred there, resulting in the death of 400 people aligned with the Khudai Khidmatgar movement.
Along with Liaquat and Abdur Rab Nishtar, Jinnah represented Pakistan 's interests in the Division Council to appropriately divide public assets between India and Pakistan. Pakistan was supposed to receive one - sixth of the pre-independence government 's assets, carefully divided by agreement, even specifying how many sheets of paper each side would receive. The new Indian state, however, was slow to deliver, hoping for the collapse of the nascent Pakistani government, and reunion. Few members of the Indian Civil Service and the Indian Police Service had chosen Pakistan, resulting in staff shortages. Partition meant that for some farmers, the markets to sell their crops were on the other side of an international border. There were shortages of machinery, not all of which was made in Pakistan. In addition to the massive refugee problem, the new government sought to save abandoned crops, establish security in a chaotic situation, and provide basic services. According to economist Yasmeen Niaz Mohiuddin in her study of Pakistan, "although Pakistan was born in bloodshed and turmoil, it survived in the initial and difficult months after partition only because of the tremendous sacrifices made by its people and the selfless efforts of its great leader. ''
The Indian Princely States, of which there were several hundred, were advised by the departing British to choose whether to join Pakistan or India. Most did so prior to independence, but the holdouts contributed to what have become lasting divisions between the two nations. Indian leaders were angered at Jinnah 's courting the princes of Jodhpur, Udaipur Bhopal and Indore to accede to Pakistan -- the latter princely states did not border Pakistan, while Jodhpur bordered it and had both a Hindu majority population and a Hindu ruler. The coastal princely state of Junagadh, which had a majority - Hindu population, did accede to Pakistan in September 1947, with its ruler 's dewan, Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto, personally delivering the accession papers to Jinnah. But the two states that were subject to the suzerainty of Junagadh -- Mangrol and Babariawad -- declared their independence from Junagadh and acceded to India. In response, the nawab of Junagadh militarily occupied the two states. Subsequently, the Indian army occupied the principality in November, forcing its former leaders, including Bhutto, to flee to Pakistan, beginning the politically powerful Bhutto family.
The most contentious of the disputes was, and continues to be, that over the princely state of Kashmir. It had a Muslim - majority population and a Hindu maharaja, Sir Hari Singh, who stalled his decision on which nation to join. With the population in revolt in October 1947, aided by Pakistani irregulars, the maharaja acceded to India; Indian troops were airlifted in. Jinnah objected to this action, and ordered that Pakistani troops move into Kashmir. The Pakistani Army was still commanded by British officers, and the commanding officer, General Sir Douglas Gracey, refused the order, stating that he would not move into what he considered the territory of another nation without approval from higher authority, which was not forthcoming. Jinnah withdrew the order. This did not stop the violence there, which has broken into war between India and Pakistan from time to time since.
Some historians allege that Jinnah 's courting the rulers of Hindu - majority states and his gambit with Junagadh are evidence of ill - intent towards India, as Jinnah had promoted separation by religion, yet tried to gain the accession of Hindu - majority states. In his book Patel: A Life, Rajmohan Gandhi asserts that Jinnah hoped for a plebiscite in Junagadh, knowing Pakistan would lose, in the hope the principle would be established for Kashmir. However, when Mountbatten proposed to Jinnah that, in all the princely States where the ruler did not accede to a Dominion corresponding to the majority population (which would have included Junagadh, Hyderabad and Kashmir), the accession should be decided by an ' impartial reference to the will of the people ', Jinnah rejected the offer. Despite the United Nations Security Council Resolution 47, issued at India 's request for a plebiscite in Kashmir after the withdrawal of Pakistani forces, this has never occurred.
In January 1948, the Indian government finally agreed to pay Pakistan its share of British India 's assets. They were impelled by Gandhi, who threatened a fast until death. Only days later, on 30 January, Gandhi was assassinated by Nathuram Godse, a Hindu nationalist, who believed that Gandhi was pro-Muslim. Jinnah made a brief statement of condolence, calling Gandhi "one of the greatest men produced by the Hindu community ''.
In March, Jinnah, despite his declining health, made his only post-independence visit to East Pakistan. In a speech before a crowd estimated at 300,000, Jinnah stated (in English) that Urdu alone should be the national language, believing a single language was needed for a nation to remain united. The Bengali - speaking people of East Pakistan strongly opposed this policy, and later in 1971 the official language issue was a factor in the region 's secession to form the country of Bangladesh.
From the 1930s, Jinnah suffered from tuberculosis; only his sister and a few others close to him were aware of his condition. Jinnah believed public knowledge of his lung ailments would hurt him politically. In a 1938 letter, he wrote to a supporter that "you must have read in the papers how during my tours... I suffered, which was not because there was anything wrong with me, but the irregularities (of the schedule) and over-strain told upon my health ''. Many years later, Mountbatten stated that if he had known Jinnah was so physically ill, he would have stalled, hoping Jinnah 's death would avert partition. Fatima Jinnah later wrote, "even in his hour of triumph, the Quaid - e-Azam was gravely ill... He worked in a frenzy to consolidate Pakistan. And, of course, he totally neglected his health... '' Jinnah worked with a tin of Craven "A '' cigarettes at his desk, of which he had smoked 50 or more a day for the previous 30 years, as well as a box of Cuban cigars. As his health got worse, he took longer and longer rest breaks in the private wing of Government House in Karachi, where only he, Fatima and the servants were allowed.
In June 1948, he and Fatima flew to Quetta, in the mountains of Balochistan, where the weather was cooler than in Karachi. He could not completely rest there, addressing the officers at the Command and Staff College saying, "you, along with the other Forces of Pakistan, are the custodians of the life, property and honour of the people of Pakistan. '' He returned to Karachi for 1 July opening ceremony for the State Bank of Pakistan, at which he spoke. A reception by the Canadian trade commissioner that evening in honour of Dominion Day was the last public event he attended.
On 6 July 1948, Jinnah returned to Quetta, but at the advice of doctors, soon journeyed to an even higher retreat at Ziarat. Jinnah had always been reluctant to undergo medical treatment, but realising his condition was getting worse, the Pakistani government sent the best doctors it could find to treat him. Tests confirmed tuberculosis, and also showed evidence of advanced lung cancer. Jinnah was informed and asked for full information on his disease and for care in how his sister was told. He was treated with the new "miracle drug '' of streptomycin, but it did not help. Jinnah 's condition continued to deteriorate despite the Eid prayers of his people. He was moved to the lower altitude of Quetta on 13 August, the eve of Independence Day, for which a statement ghost - written for him was released. Despite an increase in appetite (he then weighed just over 36 kilograms (79 lb)), it was clear to his doctors that if he was to return to Karachi in life, he would have to do so very soon. Jinnah, however, was reluctant to go, not wishing his aides to see him as an invalid on a stretcher.
By 9 September, Jinnah had also developed pneumonia. Doctors urged him to return to Karachi, where he could receive better care, and with his agreement, he was flown there on the morning of 11 September. Dr. Ilahi Bux, his personal physician, believed that Jinnah 's change of mind was caused by foreknowledge of death. The plane landed at Karachi that afternoon, to be met by Jinnah 's limousine, and an ambulance into which Jinnah 's stretcher was placed. The ambulance broke down on the road into town, and the Governor - General and those with him waited for another to arrive; he could not be placed in the car as he could not sit up. They waited by the roadside in oppressive heat as trucks and buses passed by, unsuitable for transporting the dying man and with their occupants not knowing of Jinnah 's presence. After an hour, the replacement ambulance came, and transported Jinnah to Government House, arriving there over two hours after the landing. Jinnah died later that night at 10: 20 pm at his home in Karachi on 11 September 1948 at the age of 71, just over a year after Pakistan 's creation.
Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru stated upon Jinnah 's death, "How shall we judge him? I have been very angry with him often during the past years. But now there is no bitterness in my thought of him, only a great sadness for all that has been... he succeeded in his quest and gained his objective, but at what a cost and with what a difference from what he had imagined. '' Jinnah was buried on 12 September 1948 amid official mourning in both India and Pakistan; a million people gathered for his funeral. Indian Governor - General Rajagopalachari cancelled an official reception that day in honour of the late leader. Today, Jinnah rests in a large marble mausoleum, Mazar - e-Quaid, in Karachi.
Dina Wadia, Jinnah 's daughter, remained in India after independence before ultimately settling in New York City. In the 1965 presidential election, Fatima Jinnah, by then known as Madar - e-Millat ("Mother of the Nation ''), became the presidential candidate of a coalition of political parties that opposed the rule of President Ayub Khan, but was not successful.
The Jinnah House in Malabar Hill, Bombay, is in the possession of the Government of India, but the issue of its ownership has been disputed by the Government of Pakistan. Jinnah had personally requested Prime Minister Nehru to preserve the house, hoping one day he could return to Bombay. There are proposals for the house be offered to the government of Pakistan to establish a consulate in the city as a goodwill gesture, but Dina Wadia has also staked claim on the property.
After Jinnah died, his sister Fatima asked the court to execute Jinnah 's will under Shia Islamic law. This subsequently became the part of the argument in Pakistan about Jinnah 's religious affiliation. Vali Nasr says Jinnah "was an Ismaili by birth and a Twelver Shia by confession, though not a religiously observant man. '' In a 1970 legal challenge, Hussain Ali Ganji Walji claimed Jinnah had converted to Sunni Islam. Witness Syed Sharifuddin Pirzada stated in court that Jinnah converted to Sunni Islam in 1901 when his sisters married Sunnis. In 1970, Liaquat Ali Khan and Fatima Jinnah 's joint affidavit that Jinnah was Shia was rejected. But in 1976 the court rejected Walji 's claim that Jinnah was Sunni; effectively accepting him as a Shia. In 1984 a high court bench reversed the 1976 verdict and maintained that "the Quaid was definitely not a Shia '', which suggested that Jinnah was Sunni. According to the journalist Khaled Ahmed, Jinnah publicly had a non-sectarian stance and "was at pains to gather the Muslims of India under the banner of a general Muslim faith and not under a divisive sectarian identity. '' Liaquat H. Merchant, Jinnah 's grandnephew, writes that "the Quaid was not a Shia; he was also not a Sunni, he was simply a Muslim ''. An eminent lawyer who practised in the Bombay High Court until 1940 testified that Jinnah used to pray as an orthodox Sunni. According to Akbar Ahmed, Jinnah became a firm Sunni Muslim by the end of his life.
Jinnah 's legacy is Pakistan. According to Mohiuddin, "He was and continues to be as highly honored in Pakistan as (first US president) George Washington is in the United States... Pakistan owes its very existence to his drive, tenacity, and judgment... Jinnah 's importance in the creation of Pakistan was monumental and immeasurable. '' Stanley Wolpert, giving a speech in honour of Jinnah in 1998, deemed him Pakistan 's greatest leader.
According to Jaswant Singh, "With Jinnah 's death Pakistan lost its moorings. In India there will not easily arrive another Gandhi, nor in Pakistan another Jinnah. '' Malik writes, "As long as Jinnah was alive, he could persuade and even pressure regional leaders toward greater mutual accommodation, but after his death, the lack of consensus on the distribution of political power and economic resources often turned controversial. '' According to Mohiuddin, "Jinnah 's death deprived Pakistan of a leader who could have enhanced stability and democratic governance... The rocky road to democracy in Pakistan and the relatively smooth one in India can in some measure be ascribed to Pakistan 's tragedy of losing an incorruptible and highly revered leader so soon after independence. ''
His birthday is observed as a national holiday, Quaid - e-Azam Day, in Pakistan. Jinnah earned the title Quaid - e-Azam (meaning "Great Leader ''). His other title is Baba - i - Qaum (Father of the Nation). The former title was reportedly given to Jinnah at first by Mian Ferozuddin Ahmed. It became an official title by effect of a resolution passed on 11 August 1947 by Liaquat Ali Khan in the Pakistan Constituent Assembly. There are some sources which endorse that Gandhi gave him that title. Within a few days of Pakistan 's creation Jinnah 's name was read in the khutba at mosques as Amir - ul - Millat, a traditional title of Muslim rulers.
The civil awards of Pakistan includes a ' Order of Quaid - i - Azam '. The Jinnah Society also confers the ' Jinnah Award ' annually to a person that renders outstanding and meritorious services to Pakistan and its people. Jinnah is depicted on all Pakistani rupee currency, and is the namesake of many Pakistani public institutions. The former Quaid - i - Azam International Airport in Karachi, now called the Jinnah International Airport, is Pakistan 's busiest. One of the largest streets in the Turkish capital Ankara, Cinnah Caddesi, is named after him, as is the Mohammad Ali Jenah Expressway in Tehran, Iran. The royalist government of Iran also released a stamp commemorating the centennial of Jinnah 's birth in 1976. In Chicago, a portion of Devon Avenue was named "Mohammed Ali Jinnah Way ''. The Mazar - e-Quaid, Jinnah 's mausoleum, is among Karachi 's landmarks. The "Jinnah Tower '' in Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India, was built to commemorate Jinnah.
There is a considerable amount of scholarship on Jinnah which stems from Pakistan; according to Akbar S. Ahmed, it is not widely read outside the country and usually avoids even the slightest criticism of Jinnah. According to Ahmed, some books published about Jinnah outside Pakistan mention that he consumed alcohol, but this is omitted from books published inside Pakistan. Ahmed suggests that depicting the Quaid drinking would weaken Jinnah 's Islamic identity, and by extension, Pakistan 's. Some sources allege he gave up alcohol near the end of his life. Yahya Bakhtiar, who observed Jinnah from close quarters, concluded that Jinnah was a ' ' very sincere, deeply committed and dedicated Mussalman. ' '
According to historian Ayesha Jalal, while there is a tendency towards hagiography in the Pakistani view of Jinnah, in India he is viewed negatively. Ahmed deems Jinnah "the most maligned person in recent Indian history... In India, many see him as the demon who divided the land. '' Even many Indian Muslims see Jinnah negatively, blaming him for their woes as a minority in that state. Some historians such as Jalal and H.M. Seervai assert that Jinnah never wanted the partition of India -- it was the outcome of the Congress leaders being unwilling to share power with the Muslim League. They contend that Jinnah only used the Pakistan demand in an attempt to mobilise support to obtain significant political rights for Muslims.
Jinnah has gained the admiration of Indian nationalist politicians such as Lal Krishna Advani, whose comments praising Jinnah caused an uproar in his Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). Indian politician Jaswant Singh 's book Jinnah: India, Partition, Independence (2009) caused controversy in India. The book was based on Jinnah 's ideology and alleged that Nehru 's desire for a powerful centre led to Partition. Upon the book release, Singh was expelled from his membership of Bharatiya Janata Party, to which he responded that BJP is "narrow - minded '' and has "limited thoughts ''.
Jinnah was the central figure of the 1998 film Jinnah, which was based on Jinnah 's life and his struggle for the creation of Pakistan. Christopher Lee, who portrayed Jinnah, called his performance the best of his career. The 1954 Hector Bolitho 's book Jinnah: Creator of Pakistan prompted Fatima Jinnah to release a book, titled My Brother (1987), as she thought that Bolitho 's book had failed to express the political aspects of Jinnah. The book received positive reception in Pakistan. Jinnah of Pakistan (1984) by Stanley Wolpert is regarded as one of the best biographical books on Jinnah.
The view of Jinnah in the West has been shaped to some extent by his portrayal in Sir Richard Attenborough 's 1982 film, Gandhi. The film was dedicated to Nehru and Mountbatten and was given considerable support by Nehru 's daughter, the Indian prime minister, Indira Gandhi. It portrays Jinnah (played by Alyque Padamsee) in an unflattering light, who seems to act out of jealousy of Gandhi. Padamsee later stated that his portrayal was not historically accurate.
In a journal article on Pakistan 's first governor - general, historian R.J. Moore wrote that Jinnah is universally recognised as central to the creation of Pakistan. Stanley Wolpert summarises the profound effect that Jinnah had on the world:
Few individuals significantly alter the course of history. Fewer still modify the map of the world. Hardly anyone can be credited with creating a nation - state. Mohammad Ali Jinnah did all three.
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what is the cutoff year for smog in ca | California smog check program - wikipedia
The California Smog Check Program requires vehicles that were manufactured in 1976 or later to participate in the biennial (every two years) smog check program in participating counties. The program 's stated aim is to reduce air pollution from vehicles by ensuring that cars with excessive emissions are repaired in accordance with federal and state guidelines. With some exceptions, gasoline - powered vehicles that are six years old or newer are not required to participate; instead, these vehicles pay a smog abatement fee for the first 6 years in place of being required to pass a smog check. The six - year exception does not apply to nonresident (previously registered out - of - state) vehicles being registered in California for the first time, diesel vehicles 1998 model or newer and weighing 14,000 lbs or less, or specially constructed vehicles 1976 and newer. The program is a joint effort between the California Air Resources Board, the California Bureau of Automotive Repair, and the California Department of Motor Vehicles.
A Smog Check is not required for electric, diesel powered manufactured before 1998 or weighing over 14,000 lbs, trailers, motorcycles, or gasoline powered vehicles 1975 or older. In April 2015, hybrid vehicles became subject to smog check requirements.
Although vehicles 1975 and older are not required to get a smog check, owners of these vehicles must still ensure that their emissions systems are intact.
Anyone wishing to sell a vehicle that is over four years old must first have a smog check performed. It is the seller 's responsibility to get the smog certificate prior to the sale. If the vehicle is registered in California and was acquired from a spouse, domestic partner, sibling, child, parent, grandparent, or grandchild it is exempt.
According to the California EPA, "Californians set the pace nationwide in their love affair with cars ''. The state 's 34 million residents own approximately 25 million cars -- one for every adult aged 18 years or older.
Smog is created when nitrogen oxides (NOx) and hydrocarbon gases (HC) are exposed to sunlight. The five gasses monitored during a smog check are Hydrocarbons (HC), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Carbon Dioxide (CO2), and Oxygen (O2).
In 1998 the Air Resource Board identified diesel particulate matter as carcinogenic. Further research revealed that it can cause life - shortening health problems such as respiratory illness, heart problems, asthma, and cancer. Diesel particulate matter is the most common airborne toxin that Californians breathe.
Between 2005 and 2007 air pollution led to almost 30,000 hospital and emergency room visits in California for asthma, pneumonia, and other respiratory and cardiovascular ailments. A study by RAND Corporation showed the cost to the state, federal and private health insurers was over $193 million in hospital - based medical care. John Romley lead author of the study. said "California 's failure to meet air pollution standards causes a large amount of expensive hospital care. '' According to the American Lung Association, California 's dirty air causes 19,000 premature deaths, 9,400 hospitalizations and more than 300,000 respiratory illnesses including asthma and acute bronchitis.
A study of children living in Southern California found that smog can cause asthma. The study of over 3,000 children showed those living in high - smog areas were more likely to develop asthma if they were avid athletes, when compared to children who did not participate in sports.
More people in California live in areas that do not meet federal clean air standards than in any other state. A report by the American Lung Association states that some areas in California are the most polluted in the United States, with air quality that is likely damaging the health of millions of people. The report finds that Los Angeles, Bakersfield (CA), and Visalia - Porterville (CA) rank among the five U.S. cities most polluted with particulates and ozone.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a greenhouse gas that is associated with global warming. Vehicles are a significant source of CO2 emissions and thus contribute to global warming. According to an advocacy group Environmental Defense, in 2004, automobiles from the three largest automakers in the US -- Ford, GM, and DaimlerChrysler -- contributed CO2 emissions that were comparable to those from the top 11 electric companies.
Historically, California was hottest in July and August, but as climate change takes place, the temperature may be extended from July through September, according to a report from the team established by the Air Resource Board. Some climate change simulations indicate the global warming impact on California will be an increase in the frequency of hot daytime and nighttime temperatures. The climate change simulations also indicate that drying in the Sacramento area may be evident by the mid 21st century. The California sea level has risen at about 7 inches per century, but this trend could change with global warming. According to the report by the Climate Action Team, "(t) he sea - level rise projections in the 2008 Impacts Assessment indicate that the rate and total sea - level rise in future decades may increase substantially above the recent historical rates ''. While all sectors are vulnerable to rising sea - levels, 70 percent of those at risk are residential areas. Hospitals, schools, water treatment plants, and other buildings may be at risk of flooding.
Climate change may also affect California 's diverse agricultural sector, since it is likely to change precipitation, temperature averages, pest and weed ranges, and the length of the growing season (this affecting crop productivity). In one study, researchers looked at the possible effects on the agricultural sector in the US and identified some possible effects. Results suggested that climate change will decrease annual crop yields in the long - term, especially for cotton.
Climate change in California could also impact energy consumption. Demand patterns for electricity might be affected as the mean temperatures and the frequency of hot days increases, increasing demand for cooling in summertime.
Air pollution has two primary sources, biogenic and anthropogenic. Biogenic sources are natural sources, such as volcanoes that spew particulate matter, lightning strikes that cause forest fires, and trees and other vegetation that release pollen and spores into the atmosphere.
Californian greenhouse gas emissions come mostly from transportation, utilities, and industries including refineries, cement, manufacturing, forestry, and agriculture. In 2004, transportation accounted for approximately 40 percent of total greenhouse gas emissions in California. About 80 percent of that came from road transportation.
Population growth increases air pollution, as more vehicles are on the road. California 's large population significantly contributes to the high amount of smog and air pollution in the state. In 1930, California 's population was less than six million people and the total registered vehicles were two million.
California has a unique topography which contributes to some of the problems; the warm, sunny climate is ideal for trapping and forming air pollutants. On hot, sunny days, pollutants from vehicles, industry, and many products may chemically react with each other. In the winter, temperature inversions can trap tiny particles of smoke and exhaust from vehicles and anything else that burns fuel. This keeps pollution closer to the ground.
The first "Smog Check '' program was implemented in March 1984. It came about as a result of "SB 33 '' which was passed in 1982. The program included a biennial and change of ownership testing, "BAR 84 '' idle emissions test plus a visual and functional inspection of various emission control components, a $50 repair cost limit, licensing shops to perform smog checks and mechanic certification for emissions repair competence. The program is generally known as "BAR 84 '' program. During the BAR 84 program, the first acceleration simulation mode (ASM) test was implemented which tests for 2 gases, HC and CO (hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide).
Motor vehicles from the 1966 model year and beyond were subjected to Smog Check I. Also automobiles with a motor swap performed prior to the March 19, 1984 mandate which was older than the model year of the vehicle e.g. a 1970 LT - 1 350 swapped into a 1975 Chevrolet with the 1970 smog gear intact (with documentation e.g. receipts) are considered noncompliant illegal engine swaps including nonstock exhaust swaps e.g. dual catalytic converters with a true dual exhaust not original to the vehicle - this means that the engine swap performed after the date of enactment must be the same model year or newer. Engine swaps which are the same year or newer where the vehicle class did not have it as a manufacturer option (from a Chevrolet S - 10 with a late model LSx powertrain transplant with the associated smog gear intact salvaged from the donor vehicle which includes the OBDII diagnostic connections and associated exhaust system with the catalytic converter attached including the secondary downstream oxygen sensor (catalytic converter must be California legal which has a serial number and build date mandated under California state law) must be approved by a ' referee ' smog test station where the engine / transmission package is certified where a silver tag is stickered to the door jamb. Although the engine may be newer than the vehicle model year even with an OBDII upgrade the automobile must be tested based on the model year using the test criteria based on the VIN and registration. This means that even with an OBDII powertrain upgrade regardless of the engine swap being 1996 and newer, the vehicle being smogged must be tested using BAR97 criteria, not the OBDII standard procedure.
In 1997 important laws were passed that made significant changes to Smog Check II.
In 1999, "AB 1105 '' made additional changes to the program. It authorized but did not require the Bureau of Automotive Repairs (BAR) to exempt vehicles up to six years old from the biennial smog check and gave the agency authorization to except additional vehicles by low - emitter profiling (Schwartz). It also created additional changes to the repair assistance program and provided BAR with increased flexibility for how much to pay drivers whose vehicle failed the smog check so that the vehicle may be scrapped.
In 2010 the Air Resource Board and the Bureau of Automotive Repair jointly sponsored legislation, "AB 2289 '', that is designed to improve the program to reduce air pollution through "the use of new technologies that provide considerable time and cost savings to consumers while at the same time improving consumer protections by adopting more stringent fine structures to respond to stations and technicians that perform improper and incomplete inspections ''. The bill, which passed and took effect in 2013, will allow for a major upgrade in technologies used to test vehicle emissions. According to ARB Chairman, Mary D. Nichols, "(t) his new and improved program will have the same result as taking 800,000 vehicles away from California residents, also resulting in a more cost effective program for California motorists ''. One way the program would reduce costs is by taking advantage of on - board diagnostic (OBDII) technology that has been installed on new vehicles since 1996. The program will eliminate tailpipe testing of post-1999 vehicles and instead use the vehicle 's own emissions monitoring systems. This system has saved consumers in 22 states time and money. Vehicles manufactured in the model years between 1976 and 1999 are now required to pass a more stringent dynamometer - based tail - pipe test than was previously required. A high number of vehicles in this range have begun to fail the emissions test with the arrival of their first test - year under the new rule; some question the influence of the automotive industry on the new rule and the inherent push and perceived unfair requirement to purchase a new or near - new vehicle to replace an otherwise functional and OBDII compliant vehicle.
The Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) sends a registration renewal notice which indicates if a smog check is required. If the DMV requires a smog check for a vehicle, the owner must comply with the notice within 90 days and provide a completed smog check certificate. Until a smog certificate can be provided registration will not be renewed. If the vehicle fails the smog check, the owner will be required to complete all necessary repairs and pass a smog check retest in order to complete the registration. If the costs of repairing the vehicle outweigh its value, the state may buy it and have it scrapped. The buyback program is part of California 's Consumer Assistance Program (CAP) that also offers consumer assistance for repairs related to smog check. The program is administered by the Bureau of Automotive Repair.
Air is susceptible to the Tragedy of the Commons, but that can be overcome with policy tools. In their book Environmental Law and Policy, Salzman and Thompson describe these policy tools as the "5 P 's '' - Prescriptive Regulation, Property Rights, Penalties, Payments, and Persuasion.
Throughout the years there have been some tensions between the US EPA and the California EPA with disagreements centered on California 's Smog Check Policy (The Press - Enterprise, 1997). One disagreement has been over where smog checks are performed. The EPA believes that smog checks and smog repairs must be done separately, to avoid conflicts of interest.
For years, California has been asking the US EPA to approve a waiver allowing it to enforce its own greenhouse gas emission standards for new motor vehicles. A request was made in December 2005, but denied in March 2008 under the Bush administration, when interpretations of the Clean Air Act found California did not have the need for special emission standards. However, shortly after taking office, president Obama asked the EPA to assess if it was appropriate to deny the waiver and subsequently allowed the waiver. US EPA 's interpretation of the Clean Air Act allows California to have its own vehicle emissions program and set greenhouse gas standards due to the state 's unique need.
Car manufacturers have been strongly opposed to the emission standards set by California, arguing that regulation imposes further costs on consumers. In 2004, California approved the world 's most stringent standards to reduce auto emissions, and the auto industry threatened to challenge the regulations in court. The new regulations required car makers to cut exhaust from cars and light trucks by 25 % and from larger trucks and SUVs by 18 %, standards that must be met by 2016. The auto industry argued that California 's Air Resource Board did not have the authority to adopt such regulation and that the new standards could not be met with the current technology. They further argued that it would raise vehicle costs by as much as $3,000. The agency, however, countered that argument by saying that the additional costs would only be about $1,000 by 2016.
The Obama administration has proposed setting a national standard for greenhouse gas emissions from vehicles, which could potentially increase fuel efficiency by an average of 5 % per year from 2012 to 2016.
According to the California Air Resources Board, the California Smog Check program removes about 400 tons of smog - forming pollutants from California 's air every day.
On March 12, 2009, the Bureau of Automotive Repair and the Air Resource Board hired Sierra Research, Inc. to analyze the data collected in the BAR 's Roadside Inspection Program to evaluate the effectiveness of the Smog Check Program from data collected in 2003 -- 2006. Under the Roadside Inspection Program vehicles are randomly inspected at checkpoints set up by the California Highway Patrol (CHP). One objective of the evaluation was to compare the post smog check performance of pre-1996 (1974 -- 1995) vehicles to the post smog check performance determined from a previous evaluation collected in 2000 -- 2002. The report made several recommendations to reduce the number of vehicles failing the Roadside test. One was to develop a method for evaluating station performance. The other was to perform inspections immediately following certifications at smog check stations. Finally, the report recommended continued use of the Roadside test to evaluate the effectiveness of the Smog Check program.
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them & van morrison- baby please don't go | Baby, Please Do n't Go - wikipedia
"Baby, Please Do n't Go '' is a blues song which has been called "one of the most played, arranged, and rearranged pieces in blues history '' by music historian Gerard Herzhaft (fr). Its roots have been traced back to nineteenth - century American songs which deal with themes of bondage and imprisonment. Delta blues musician Big Joe Williams popularized the song with several versions beginning in 1935.
After World War II, Chicago blues and rhythm and blues artists adapted the song to newer music styles. In 1952, a doo - wop version by the Orioles reached the top ten on the race records chart. In 1953, Muddy Waters recorded the song as an electric Chicago - ensemble blues piece, which influenced many subsequent renditions. By the early 1950s, the song became a blues standard.
In the 1960s, "Baby, Please Do n't Go '' became a popular rock song after the Northern Irish group Them recorded it in 1964. Several music writers have identified Jimmy Page, a studio guitarist at the time, as participating in the recording, although his exact contributions are unclear. Subsequently, Them 's uptempo rock arrangement also made it a rock standard. "Baby, Please Do n't Go '' has been inducted into both the Blues and Rock and Roll Halls of Fame.
"Baby, Please Do n't Go '' is likely an adaptation of "Long John '', an old folk theme which dates back to the time of slavery in the United States. Blues researcher Paul Garon notes that the melody is based on "Alabamy Bound '', composed by Tin Pan Alley writer Ray Henderson, with lyrics by Buddy DeSylva and Bud Green in 1925. The song, a vaudeville show tune, inspired several other songs between 1925 and 1935, such as "Elder Greene Blues '', "Alabama Bound '', and "Do n't You Leave Me Here ''. These variants were recorded by Charlie Patton, Lead Belly, Monette Moore, Henry Thomas, and Tampa Red.
Author Linda Dahl suggests a connection to a song with the same title by Mary Williams Johnson in the late 1920s and early 1930s. However, Johnson, who was married to jazz - influenced blues guitarist Lonnie Johnson, never recorded it and her song is not discussed as influencing later performers. Blues researcher Jim O'Neal notes that Williams "sometimes said that the song was written by his wife, singer Bessie Mae Smith (aka Blue Belle and St. Louis Bessie) (not the same as the popular Bessie Smith of the 1920s and 1930s) ''.
Big Joe Williams used the imprisonment theme for his October 31, 1935, recording of "Baby, Please Do n't Go ''. He recorded it during his first session for Lester Melrose and Bluebird Records in Chicago. It is an ensemble piece with Williams on vocal and guitar accompanied by Dad Tracy on one - string fiddle and Chasey "Kokomo '' Collins on washboard, who are listed as "Joe Williams ' Washboard Blues Singers '' on the single. Musical notation for the song indicates a moderate - tempo fifteen - bar blues in 4 4 or common time in the key of B flat. As with many Delta blues songs of the era, it remains on the tonic chord (I) throughout without the progression to the subdominant (IV) or dominant (V) chords. The lyrics express a prisoner 's anxiety about his lover leaving before he returns home:
Now baby please do n't go, now baby please do n't go Baby please do n't go back to New Orleans, and get your cold ice cream I believe there 's a man done gone, I believe there 's a man done gone I believe there 's a man done gone to the county farm, with a long chain on
The song became a hit and established Williams ' recording career. On December 12, 1941, he recorded a second version titled "Please Do n't Go '' in Chicago for Bluebird, with a more modern arrangement and lyrics. Blues historian Gerard Herzhaft calls it "the most exciting version '', which Williams recorded using his trademark nine - string guitar. Accompanying him are Sonny Boy Williamson I on harmonica and Alfred Elkins on imitation bass (possibly a washtub bass). Since both songs appeared before recording industry publications began tracking such releases, it is unknown which version was more popular. In 1947, he recorded it for Columbia Records with Williamson and Ransom Knowling on bass and Judge Riley on drums. This version did not reach the Billboard Race Records chart, but represents a move toward a more urban blues treatment of the song.
Big Joe Williams various recordings inspired other blues musicians to record their interpretations of the song and it became a blues standard. Early examples include Papa Charlie McCoy as "Tampa Kid '' (1936), Leonard "Baby Doo '' Caston (1939), Lightnin ' Hopkins (1947), John Lee Hooker (1949) and Big Bill Broonzy (1952). By the early 1950s, the song was reworked in contemporary musical styles, with an early rhythm and blues / jump blues version by Billy Wright (1951), a harmonized doo - wop version by the Orioles (a number eight R&B hit in 1952), and a Afro - Cuban - influenced rendition by Rose Mitchell (1954).
In 1953, Muddy Waters recast the song as a Chicago - blues ensemble piece with Little Walter and Jimmy Rogers. Chess Records originally issued the single with the title "Turn the Lamp Down Low '', although the song is also referred to as "Turn Your Lamp Down Low '', "Turn Your Light Down Low '', or "Baby Please Do n't Go ''. He regularly performed the song, several of which were recorded. Live versions appear on Muddy Waters at Newport 1960 and on Live at the Checkerboard Lounge, Chicago 1981 with members of the Rolling Stones. AllMusic critic Bill Janovitz cites the influence of Waters ' adaptation:
The most likely link between the Williams recordings and all the rock covers that came in the 1960s and 1970s would be the Muddy Waters 1953 Chess side, which retains the same swinging phrasing as the Williams takes, but the session musicians beef it up with a steady driving rhythm section, electrified instruments and Little Walter Jacobs wailing on blues harp.
"Baby Please Do n't Go '' was one of the earliest songs recorded by Them, fronted by a 19 - year - old Van Morrison. Their rendition of the song was derived from a John Lee Hooker version recorded in 1949 as "Do n't Go Baby '' using the pseudonym "Texas Slim '' (King 4334), which later appeared on a 1959 album, Highway of Blues, that Van Morrison heard and felt was "something really unique and different '' with "more soul '' than he 'd previously heard. Them recorded "Baby, Please Do n't Go '' for Decca Records in October 1964.
Besides Morrison, there is conflicting information about who participated in the session. In addition to the group 's original members (guitarist Billy Harrison, bassist Alan Henderson, drummer Ronnie Millings, and keyboard player Eric Wrixon), others have been suggested: Pat McAuley on keyboards, Bobby Graham on a second drum kit, Jimmy Page on second guitar, and Peter Bardens on keyboards. As Page biographer George Case notes, "There is a dispute over whether it is Page 's piercing blues line that defines the song, if he only played a run Harrison had already devised, or if Page only backed up Harrison himself ''. Morrison has acknowledged Page 's participation in the early sessions: "He played rhythm guitar on one thing and doubled a bass riff on the other '' and Morrison biographer Johnny Rogan notes that Page "doubled the distinctive riff already worked out by Billy Harrison ''. Music critic Greil Marcus comments that during the song 's quieter middle passage "the guitarist, session player Jimmy Page or not, seems to be feeling his way into another song, flipping half - riffs, high, random, distracted metal shavings ''. Them 's blues - rock arrangement is "now regarded justly as definitive '', with "much of its appeal emanat (ing) from the tingling lead guitar section '', according to music writer Adam Clayson.
"Baby, Please Do n't Go '' was released as Them 's second single on November 6, 1964. With the B - side, "Gloria '', it became their first hit, reaching number ten on the UK Singles Chart in February 1965. The single was released in the U.S. in 1965, but only "Gloria '' became a hit the following year. The song was not included on Them 's original British or American albums (The Angry Young Them and Them Again), however, it has appeared on several compilation albums, such as The Story of Them Featuring Van Morrison and The Best of Van Morrison. When it was reissued in 1991 as a single in the UK (London LON 292), it reached number 65 in the chart. Van Morrison also accompanied John Lee Hooker during a 1992 performance, where Hooker sings and plays "Baby, Please Do n't Go '' on guitar while sitting on a dock, with harmonica backing by Morrison; it was released on the 2004 Come See About Me Hooker DVD.
"Baby, Please Do n't Go '' was a feature of AC / DC 's live shows since their beginning. Although they have expressed their interest and inspiration in early blues songs, music writer Mick Wall identifies Them 's adaptation of the song as the likely source. In November 1974, Angus Young, Malcolm Young, and Bon Scott recorded it for their 1975 Australian debut album, High Voltage. Tony Currenti is sometimes identified as the drummer for the song, although he suggests that it had been already recorded by Peter Clack. Wall notes that producer George Young played bass for most of the album, although Rob Bailey claims that many of the album 's tracks were recorded with him.
High Voltage and a single with "Baby, Please Do n't Go '' were released simultaneously in Australia in February 1975. AllMusic critic Eduardo Rivadavia called the song "positively explosive ''. Albert Productions issued it as the single 's B - side. However, the A-side was largely ignored and "Baby, Please Do n't Go '' began receiving airplay. The single entered the chart at the end of March 1975 and peaked at number 10 in April. Also on 23 March 1975, one month after drummer Phil Rudd and bassist Mark Evans joined AC / DC, the group performed the song for the first time (this performance would also be repeated on 6 April and 27 April which is why there is often conflicting dates for this performance) on the Australian music program Countdown. For their appearance, "Angus wore his trade mark schoolboy uniform while Scott took the stage wearing a wig of blonde braids, a dress, make - up, and earrings '', according to author Heather Miller. Joe Bonomo describes Scott as "a demented Pippi Longstocking '', and Perkins notes his "tattoos and a disturbingly short skirt. '' Evans describes the reaction:
As soon as his vocals are about to begin he comes out from behind the drums dressed as a schoolgirl. And it was like a bomb went off in the joint; it was pandemonium, everybody broke out in laughter. (Scott) had a wonderful sense of humor.
Scott mugs for the camera and, during the guitar solo / vocal improvization section, he lights a cigarette as he duels with Angus with a green mallet. Rudd laughs throughout the performance. Although "Baby, Please Do n't Go '' was a popular part of AC / DC 's performances (often as the closing number), the song was not released internationally until their 1984 compilation EP ' 74 Jailbreak. The video from the Countdown show is included on the Family Jewels DVD compilation in 2005.
Aerosmith recorded "Baby, Please Do n't Go '' for their blues cover album, Honkin ' on Bobo, which was released on March 30, 2004. The album was produced by Jack Douglas, who had worked on the group 's earlier albums, and reflects a return to their hard rock roots. Billboard magazine describes the song as "the kind of straight - ahead, hard - driving track that always typified the band 's (1970s) records ''. Edna Gundersen of USA Today called their version a "terrific revival. '' It was the first single to be released from the album and reached number seven on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart. A music video, directed by Mark Haefeli, was produced to promote the single. Subsequently, the song has become a staple of the band 's concert repertoire.
Other recorded renditions include those by Mose Allison (Transfiguration of Hiram Brown, 1960), Paul Revere & the Raiders (Just Like Us!, 1966), the Amboy Dukes (reached number 106 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles record chart in 1968), Beacon Street Union (The Clown Died in Marvin Gardens, 1968), Gary Glitter (Glitter, 1972), Budgie (Never Turn Your Back on a Friend, 1973) and Renée Geyer (Swing, 2013).
Big Joe Williams ' "Baby, Please Do n't Go '' is included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame list of "500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll ''. In 1992, it was inducted into the Blues Foundation Hall of Fame in the "Classics of Blues Recordings '' category. The Foundation noted that, in addition to various blues recordings, "the song was revived in revved - up fashion by rock bands in the ' 60s such as Them, the Amboy Dukes, and Ten Years After ''.
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who sings it's too late baby now | It 's Too Late (Carole King song) - wikipedia
"It 's Too Late '' is a rock ballad from Carole King 's 1971 album Tapestry. Toni Stern wrote the lyrics and King wrote the music. It was released as a single in April 1971 and reached number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 and Adult Contemporary charts. Sales were later gold - certified by the RIAA. Billboard ranked "It 's Too Late '' and its fellow A-side, "I Feel the Earth Move '', as the No. 3 record for 1971.
The lyrics describe the blameless end of a loving relationship. Music critic Dave Marsh saw implicit feminism because the woman left the man. Marsh also remarked on the maturity of the theme. Music critic Robert Christgau wrote that "if there 's a truer song about breaking up than ' It 's Too Late, ' the world (or at least AM radio) is n't ready for it. '' Marsh described the melody as Tin Pan Alley and the arrangement as a cross between light jazz and "L.A. studio craftmanship. '' Rolling Stone remarked that King 's "warm, earnest singing '' on the song brought out the song 's sadness. According to author James Perone, the feel of the song is enhanced by the instrumental work of Danny Kortchmar on guitar, Curtis Amy on saxophone and King on piano. Kortchmar and Amy each have an instrumental solo.
The sadness of the song is emphasized by its minor key. Perone pointed out several melodic techniques used by King to help make the song a hit. She builds the melody out of syncopated rhythmic motifs which are modified and combined over the course of the song, in contrast to other songs commonly repeated rhythmic phrases. Perone also thought that she made the melody memorable by repeating the highest note several times before the descending to the tonic. This marks the highest and lowest notes in the listeners ear, aiding recognition. An important emotional element of the melody is that rather than resolving on the tonic at the end, as most songs do, "It 's Too Late '' ends on the mediant, which is related to the tonic but leaves a sense of inconclusiveness. This contrasts with the lyrics, which imply that the singer has fully accepted the end of the relationship.
Toni Stern told author Sheila Weller that she wrote the lyrics in a single day, after her love affair with James Taylor ended. The recording won a Grammy Award for Record of the Year in 1972, and the song is included in Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.
The song has been covered by
"It 's Too Late '' has been featured in Hollywood films, including Fandango (1985), The Lake House (2006), and Invincible (2006).
"It 's Too Late '' was the third promotional (US), and fourth overall single released by Gloria Estefan on her fourth studio album Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me.
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who played skeeter's mother in the help | The Help (film) - wikipedia
The Help is a 2011 American period drama film directed and written by Tate Taylor and adapted from Kathryn Stockett 's 2009 novel of the same name. The film features an ensemble cast, including Jessica Chastain, Viola Davis, Bryce Dallas Howard, Allison Janney, Octavia Spencer and Emma Stone. The film and novel recount the story of young white woman and aspiring journalist Eugenia "Skeeter '' Phelan. The story focuses on her relationship with two black maids, Aibileen Clark and Minny Jackson, during the Civil Rights Movement in 1963 Jackson, Mississippi. In an attempt to become a legitimate journalist and writer, Skeeter decides to write a book from the point of view of the maids -- referred to as "the help '' -- exposing the racism they are faced with as they work for white families.
DreamWorks Pictures acquired the screen rights to Stockett 's novel in March 2010 and quickly commissioned the film into production with Chris Columbus, Michael Barnathan, and Brunson Green as producers. The film 's casting began later that month, with principal photography following four months after in Mississippi.
Touchstone Pictures released The Help worldwide, with a general theatrical release in North America on August 10, 2011. The film was a critical and commercial success, receiving positive reviews and grossing $216 million in worldwide box office. The Help received four Academy Award nominations including Best Picture, Best Actress for Davis, and Best Supporting Actress for both Chastain and Spencer, with the latter winning the award. The film also won the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture.
In 1963, Aibileen Clark is an African - American maid in Jackson, Mississippi, and in intermittent voice overs she tells her "career '' story to the aspiring writer Eugenia "Skeeter '' Phelan, a recent graduate of Ole Miss and a friend of Aibileen 's employer and fellow socialite Elizabeth Leefolt. Aibileen cares for the Leefolt 's daughter, Mae Mobley, whom Elizabeth neglects. Aibileen 's best friend is the plain - spoken Minny Jackson, who works for Mrs. Walters, the mother of Hilly Holbrook, the leader of the women 's socialite group.
Skeeter is uncomfortable with the racist attitudes of her socialite friends towards their maids. She is shocked when Hilly forwards a letter to the Home Sanitation Initiative to install separate bathrooms for the help. Skeeter later learns that her mother Charlotte fired her childhood maid Constantine for unknown reasons.
During a terrible storm, Minny refuses to go out to use the help 's toilet and uses the guest 's bathroom, resulting in her getting fired by Hilly.
Minny finds a job with Celia, wife of Johnny Foote -- Hilly 's former beau. The two become friends through Minny 's cooking lessons, though they keep Minny 's employment secret from Johnny. Celia suffers a miscarriage and reveals to Minny that she suffered three miscarriages. Minny comes upon Skeeter 's visiting Aibileen and joins in the book project effort. Skeeter is advised by her book editor at Harper & Row, Elaine Stein, that the stories of two maids are not enough, but potential retribution from the maid 's employers hinders others from joining the project. Aibileen tells Skeeter about the pain she experiences about her son being fatally crushed while on the job. Aibileen has struggled to find closure from his death, and believes that helping with the book will enable her to find that closure.
Hilly refuses to lend more money to her replacement maid, Yule May, who is struggling to send her twin sons to college. One day, she discovers a discarded ring and pawns it. However, Yule May is brutally arrested after Hilly reports the theft. Following this and the assassination of Medgar Evers, more maids come forward with their stories, believing the book would put an end to the brutality against African - Americans.
Following the assassination of John F. Kennedy, Skeeter, Aibileen, and Minny fear that the maids ' stories will be recognized. Minny then reveals the "terrible awful '' that she did to Hilly. Following her termination, Minny baked her renowned chocolate pie and gave it to Hilly. Minny, however, prevented Mrs. Walters from having a slice and revealed that she baked her excrement into the pie. Its inclusion in the book would prompt Hilly to crusade in denial that the book is about Jackson.
Skeeter confronts her mother Charlotte about Constantine 's termination. Charlotte reveals that during a lunch with the local chapter of the Daughters of America, Constantine 's daughter Rachel arrived. Rachel disobeyed Charlotte 's orders of entering through the kitchen and embarrassed her. In order to save face, Charlotte fired Constantine and ordered them both to leave. Shortly afterward, Rachel took Constantine to Chicago, where she later died. Charlotte had every intention to bring Constantine back to Jackson.
The book is published anonymously, and it is a success. Minny reveals the "terrible awful '' to Celia, who finally sees Hilly as the manipulative bully that she is. Celia lets on that she knows about the "terrible awful '' by writing a check to one of Hilly 's charity groups. Hilly attempts to intimidate Skeeter through threat of legal proceedings, but she reminds Hilly that "that '' is in chapter 12. Charlotte then intervenes, lets on that she knows about the terrible awful and orders Hilly off the property. Charlotte and Skeeter reconcile when Charlotte tells her how proud she is about her courage, the book and the job offer in New York City.
Johnny approaches Minny and reveals that he knew that she 'd been working at his house, how appreciative he is about her friendship with Celia, how it saved her life, and that she has permanent job security. This act of kindness gives Minny the courage to take her children away from her abusive husband and never look back.
In an attempt to seek revenge for helping Skeeter, Hilly pressures Elizabeth to terminate Aibileen, with Hilly present and trying to frame Aibileen for theft. But Aibileen stands up to Hilly, calling her a godless woman, never satisfied until she gets what she wants. Elizabeth orders Aibileen to leave. Aibileen bids farewell to Elizabeth 's daughter and pleads with Elizabeth to give her daughter a chance, as Elizabeth begins to cry. Aibileen reflects on the ordeal and finds closure. She looks to the future of becoming a writer.
In December 2009, Variety reported that Chris Columbus, Michael Barnathan, and Mark Radcliffe would produce a film adaptation of The Help, under their production company 1492 Pictures. Brunson Green of Harbinger Productions also co-produced. The film was written and directed by Stockett 's childhood friend, Tate Taylor, who optioned film rights to the book before its publication. DreamWorks acquired the film rights to the novel in March 2010. Reliance Entertainment and Participant Media co-produced the film.
The first casting news for the production came in March 2010, was reported that Stone was attached to play the role of Eugenia "Skeeter '' Phelan. Other actors were since cast, including Davis as Aibileen; Howard as Hilly Holbrook, Jackson 's snooty town ringleader; Janney as Charlotte Phelan, Skeeter 's mother; and Lowell as Stuart Whitworth, Skeeter 's boyfriend and a senator 's son. Leslie Jordan appears as the editor of the fictional local newspaper, The Jackson Journal. Mike Vogel plays the character Johnny Foote. Octavia Spencer portrays Minny. A longtime friend of Stockett and Taylor, Spencer inspired the character of Minny in Stockett 's novel and voiced her in the audiobook version.
Filming began in July 2010 and extended through October. The town of Greenwood, Mississippi, was chosen to portray 1960s - era Jackson, and producer Green said he had expected to shoot "95 percent '' of the film there. Parts of the film were also shot in the real - life Jackson, as well as in nearby Clarksdale and Greenville. One of the few locations that existed in 1963 Jackson, the book and the film is Jackson landmark Brent 's Drugs, which dates to 1946. Other locations that can still be found in Jackson include the New Capitol Building and the Mayflower Cafe downtown. Scenes set at the Jackson Journal office were shot in Clarksdale at the building which formerly housed the Clarksdale Press Register for 40 years until April 2010.
The Help was the most significant film production in Mississippi since O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000) "Honestly, my heart would be broken if it were set anywhere but Mississippi '', Stockett wrote in an e-mail to reporters. In order to convince producers to shoot in Greenwood, Tate Taylor and others had previously come to the town and scouted out locations; at his first meeting with DreamWorks executives, he presented them with a photo album of potential filming spots in the area. The state 's tax incentive program for filmmakers was also a key enticement in the decision.
Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures distributed The Help worldwide through the studio 's Touchstone Pictures banner. On October 13, 2010, Disney gave the film a release date of August 12, 2011. On June 30, 2011, the film 's release date was rescheduled two days earlier to August 10, 2011.
The film was released by Touchstone Home Entertainment on Blu - ray Disc, DVD, and digital download on December 6, 2011. The release was produced in three different physical packages: a three - disc combo pack (Blu - ray, DVD, and Digital Copy); a two - disc combo pack (Blu - ray and DVD); and a single - disc DVD. It was also released as a digital download option in both standard and high definition. The DVD version includes two deleted scenes and The Living Proof music video by Mary J. Blige. The digital download version includes the same features as the DVD version, plus one additional deleted scene. Both the two - disc and three - disc combo packs include the same features as the DVD version, as well as "The Making of ' The Help ': From Friendship to Film '', "In Their Own Words: A Tribute to the Maids of Mississippi '', and three deleted scenes with introductions by director Taylor.
The Help received mostly positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 75 % of 208 professional critics gave the film a positive review, with an average score of 7.1 out of 10. The site 's consensus states, "Though arguably guilty of glossing over its racial themes, The Help rises on the strength of its cast -- particularly Viola Davis, whose performance is powerful enough to carry the film on its own. '' Metacritic, a review aggregator which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, gives the film a score of 62 based on 41 reviews. CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade moviegoers gave the film was an "A + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Tom Long from The Detroit News remarked about the film: "Appealling, entertaining, touching and perhaps even a bit healing, The Help is an old - fashioned grand yarn of a film, the sort we rarely get these days. '' Connie Ogle of The Miami Herald gave the film three out of four stars and said it "will make you laugh, yes, but it can also break your heart. In the dog days of August moviegoing, that 's a powerful recommendation. ''
A more mixed review from Karina Longworth of The Village Voice said: "We get a fairly typical Hollywood flattening of history, with powerful villains and disenfranchised heroes. '' Rick Groen of The Globe and Mail, giving the film two out of four stars, said: "Typically, this sort of film is an earnest tear - jerker with moments of levity. Instead, what we have here is a raucous rib - tickler with occasional pauses for a little dramatic relief. '' Referring to the film as a "big, ole slab of honey - glazed hokum '', The New York Times noted that "save for Ms. Davis 's, however, the performances are almost all overly broad, sometimes excruciatingly so, characterized by loud laughs, bugging eyes and pumping limbs. ''
Some of the negative reviews criticized the film for its inability to match the quality of the book. Chris Hewitt of the St. Paul Pioneer Press said about the film: "Some adaptations find a fresh, cinematic way to convey a book 's spirit but The Help does n't. ''
Many critics praised the performances of Davis and Spencer. Wilson Morales of Blackfilm.com gave the movie three out of four stars and commented, "With powerful performances given by Viola Davis and scene stealer Octavia Spencer, the film is an emotionally moving drama that remains highly entertaining. '' David Edelstein from New York magazine commented that, "The Help belongs to Viola Davis. ''
Ida E. Jones, the national director of the Association of Black Women Historians, released an open statement criticizing the film, stating "(d) espite efforts to market the book and the film as a progressive story of triumph over racial injustice, The Help distorts, ignores, and trivializes the experiences of black domestic workers. '' The ABWH accused both the book and the film of insensitive portrayals of African - American vernacular, a nearly uniform depiction of black men as cruel or absent, and a failure to acknowledge the sexual harassment that many black women endured in their white employers ' homes. Jones concluded by saying that "The Association of Black Women Historians finds it unacceptable for either this book or this film to strip black women 's lives of historical accuracy for the sake of entertainment. ''
Roxane Gay of literary web magazine The Rumpus argues the film might be offensive to African Americans, saying the film uses racial Hollywood tropes like the Magical Negro character. In 2014, the movie was one of several discussed by Keli Goff in The Daily Beast in an article concerning white savior narratives in film.
The Help earned $169,708,112 in North America and $46,931,000 in other territories for a worldwide total of $216,639,112.
In North America, on its opening day (Wednesday, August 10, 2011), it topped the box office with $5.54 million. It then added $4.33 million on Thursday, declining only 21 percent, a two - day total to $9.87 million. On its first weekend, the film grossed $26.0 million, coming in second place behind Rise of the Planet of the Apes. However, during its second weekend, the film jumped to first place with $20.0 million, declining only 23 percent, the smallest drop among films playing nationwide. The film crossed the $100 million mark on its 21st day of release, becoming one of only two titles in August 2011 that achieved this. On its fourth weekend (Labor Day three - day weekend), it became the first film since Inception (2010), to top the box - office charts for three consecutive weekends. Its four - day weekend haul of $19.9 million was the fourth largest for a Labor - day weekend. Notably, The Help topped the box office for 25 days in a row. This was the longest uninterrupted streak since The Sixth Sense (35 days), which was also a late summer release, in 1999.
To promote the film, TakePart.com hosted a series of three writing contests. Rebecca Lubin, of Mill Valley, California, who has been a nanny for nearly two decades won the recipe contest. Darcy Pattison 's "11 Ways to Ruin a Photograph '' won "The Help '' Children 's Story Contest with her story about a tenacious young girl who refuses to take a good photograph while her father is away "soldiering ''. After being chosen by guest judge and children 's - book author Lou Berger, the story was professionally illustrated. The final contest was about "someone who inspired you ''. Genoveva Islas - Hooker charmed guest judge Doc Hendley (founder of Wine to Water) with her story, A Heroine Named Confidential. A case manager for patients with HIV, Islas - Hooker was consistently inspired by one special individual who never gave up the fight to live.
At the 84th Academy Awards, Octavia Spencer won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her role in this film. The film also received three other Academy Award nominations: Academy Award for Best Picture, Academy Award for Best Actress for Viola Davis, and Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for Jessica Chastain.
The original song is "The Living Proof '' by Mary J. Blige. The soundtrack was released on July 26, 2011, through Geffen Records.
The film 's score was composed and conducted by Thomas Newman; Varese Sarabande released a score album on September 13, 2011.
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functions of parliamentary form of government in india | Parliamentary system - wikipedia
A parliamentary system is a system of democratic governance of a state where the executive branch derives its democratic legitimacy from its ability to command the confidence of the legislative branch, typically a parliament, and is also held accountable to that parliament. In a parliamentary system, the head of state is usually a different person from the head of government. This is in contrast to a presidential system, where the head of state often is also the head of government and, most importantly, the executive branch does not derive its democratic legitimacy from the legislature.
Countries with parliamentary systems may be constitutional monarchies, where a monarch is the head of state while the head of government is almost always a member of parliament (such as the United Kingdom, Denmark, Sweden and Japan), or parliamentary republics, where a mostly ceremonial president is the head of state while the head of government is regularly from the legislature (such as Ireland, Germany, India and Italy). In a few parliamentary republics, such as Botswana, South Africa, and Suriname, among some others, the head of government is also head of state, but is elected by and is answerable to parliament. In bicameral parliaments, the head of government is generally, though not always, a member of the lower house.
Parliamentarism is the dominant form of government in Europe, with 32 of its 50 sovereign states being parliamentarian. It is also common in the Caribbean, being the form of government of 10 of its 13 island states, and in Oceania. Elsewhere in the world, parliamentary countries are less common, but they are distributed through all continents, most often in former British Empire colonies.
Since ancient times, when societies were tribal, there were councils or a headman whose decisions were assessed by village elders. Eventually these councils have slowly evolved into the modern Parliamentary system.
The first parliaments date back to Europe in the Middle Ages, for example in 1188 Alfonso IX, King of Leon convened the three states in the Cortes of León. An early example of parliamentary government developed in today 's Netherlands and Belgium during the Dutch revolt (1581), when the sovereign, legislative and executive powers were taken over by the States General of the Netherlands from the then - monarch, King Philip II of Spain. The modern concept of parliamentary government emerged in the Kingdom of Great Britain between 1707 -- 1800 and its contemporary, the Parliamentary System in Sweden between 1721 -- 1772.
In England, Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for holding two famous parliaments. The first, in 1258, stripped the King of unlimited authority and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from the towns. Later, in the 17th century, the Parliament of England pioneered some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy culminating in the Glorious Revolution and passage of the Bill of Rights 1689.
In the Kingdom of Great Britain, the monarch, in theory, chaired cabinet and chose ministers. In practice, King George I 's inability to speak English led the responsibility for chairing cabinet to go to the leading minister, literally the prime or first minister, Robert Walpole. The gradual democratisation of parliament with the broadening of the voting franchise increased parliament 's role in controlling government, and in deciding who the king could ask to form a government. By the nineteenth century, the Great Reform Act of 1832 led to parliamentary dominance, with its choice invariably deciding who was prime minister and the complexion of the government.
Other countries gradually adopted what came to be called the Westminster Model of government, with an executive answerable to parliament, but exercising powers nominally vested in the head of state, in the name of the head of state. Hence the use of phrases like Her Majesty 's government or His Excellency 's government. Such a system became particularly prevalent in older British dominions, many of whom had their constitutions enacted by the British parliament; examples include Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the Irish Free State and the Union of South Africa. Some of these parliaments evolved, were reformed from, or were initially developed as distinct from their original British model: the Australian Senate, for instance, has since its inception more closely reflected the US Senate than the British House of Lords; whereas since 1950 there is no upper house in New Zealand.
Democracy and parliamentarism became increasingly prevalent in Europe in the years after World War I, partially imposed by the democratic victors, Great Britain and France, on the defeated countries and their successors, notably Germany 's Weimar Republic and the new Austrian Republic. Nineteenth century urbanisation, industrial revolution and, modernism had already fueled the political left 's struggle for democracy and parliamentarism for a long time. In the radicalised times at the end of World War I, democratic reforms were often seen as a means to counter popular revolutionary currents.
A parliamentary system may be either bicameral, with two chambers of parliament (or houses) or unicameral, with just one parliamentary chamber. In the case of a bicameral parliament, this is usually characterised by an elected lower house that has the power to determine the executive government and an upper house which may be appointed or elected through a different mechanism from the lower house.
Scholars of democracy such as Arend Lijphart distinguish two types of parliamentary democracies: the Westminster and Consensus systems.
Implementations of the parliamentary system can also differ on the manner of how the prime minister and government are appointed and as to whether the government needs the explicit approval of the parliament, rather than just the absence of its disapproval. Some countries such as India also require the prime minister to be a member of the legislature, though in other countries this only exists as a convention.
Furthermore, there are variations as to what conditions exist (if any) for the government to have the right to dissolve the parliament:
The parliamentary system can be contrasted with a presidential system which operates under a stricter separation of powers, whereby the executive does not form part of, nor is appointed by, the parliamentary or legislative body. In such a system, parliaments or congresses do not select or dismiss heads of governments, and governments can not request an early dissolution as may be the case for parliaments. There also exists the semi-presidential system that draws on both presidential systems and parliamentary systems by combining a powerful president with an executive responsible to parliament, as for example the French Fifth Republic.
Parliamentarism may also apply to regional and local governments. An example is the city of Oslo, which has an executive council (Byråd) as a part of the parliamentary system.
A few parliamentary democratic nations such as India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, have enacted an anti-defection law, which prohibits a member of the legislature from switching to another party after being elected. With this law, elected representatives lose their seats in parliament if they vote contrary to the directions of their party.
One of the commonly attributed advantages to parliamentary systems is that it is faster and easier to pass legislation, as the executive branch is formed by the direct or indirect support of the legislative branch and often includes members of the legislature. Thus the executive (as the majority party or coalition of parties in the legislature) has a majority of the votes, and can pass legislation at will. In a presidential system, the executive is often chosen independently from the legislature. If the executive and the majority of the legislature are from different political parties, then stalemate can occur. Thus the executive might not be able to implement its legislative proposals. An executive in any system (be it parliamentary, presidential or semi-presidential) is chiefly voted into office on the basis of his or her party 's platform / manifesto, and the same is also true of the legislature.
In addition to quicker legislative action, parliamentary government has attractive features for nations that are ethnically, racially, or ideologically divided. In a presidential system, all executive power is vested in one person: the president. In a parliamentary system, with a collegial executive, power is more divided. In the 1989 Lebanese Taif Agreement, in order to give Muslims greater political power, Lebanon moved from a semi-presidential system with a strong president to a system more structurally similar to classical parliamentary government. Iraq similarly disdained a presidential system out of fears that such a system would be tantamount to Shiite domination; Afghanistan 's minorities refused to go along with a presidency as strong as the Pashtuns desired.
It can also be argued that power is more evenly spread out in parliamentary government. The prime minister is seldom as important as a ruling president, and there tends to be a higher focus on voting for a party and its political ideas than voting for an actual person.
In his 1867 book The English Constitution, Walter Bagehot praised parliamentary government for producing serious debates, for allowing change in power without an election, and for allowing elections at any time. Bagehot considered the four - year election rule of the United States to be unnatural.
Some scholars like Juan Linz, Fred Riggs, Bruce Ackerman, and Robert Dahl claim that parliamentary government is less prone to authoritarian collapse. These scholars point out that since World War II, two - thirds of Third World countries establishing parliamentary governments successfully made the transition to democracy. By contrast, no Third World presidential system successfully made the transition to democracy without experiencing coups and other constitutional breakdowns.
A recent World Bank study found that parliamentary systems are associated with less corruption.
Some constituencies may have a popular local candidate under an unpopular leader (or the reverse), forcing a difficult choice on the electorate. Mixed - member proportional representation (where voters cast two ballots) can make this choice easier by allowing voters to cast one vote for the local candidate but also cast a second vote for another party.
Although Bagehot praised parliamentary government for allowing an election to take place at any time, the lack of a definite election calendar can be abused. Previously under some systems, such as the British, a ruling party could schedule elections when it felt that it was likely to retain power, and so avoid elections at times of unpopularity. (Election timing in the UK, however, is now partly fixed under the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011.) Thus, by wise timing of elections, in a parliamentary system a party can extend its rule for longer than is feasible in a functioning presidential system. This problem can be alleviated somewhat by setting fixed dates for parliamentary elections, as is the case in several of Australia 's state parliaments. In other systems, such as the Dutch and the Belgian, the ruling party or coalition has some flexibility in determining the election date. Conversely, flexibility in the timing of parliamentary elections can avoid periods of legislative gridlock that can occur in a fixed period presidential system.
Critics of the Westminster parliamentary system point out that people with significant popular support in the community are prevented from becoming prime minister if they can not get elected to parliament since there is no option to "run for prime minister '' as one can run for president under a presidential system. Additionally, prime ministers may lose their positions if they lose their seats in parliament, even though they may still be popular nationally. Supporters of parliamentary government respond by saying that as members of parliament, prime ministers are elected first to represent their electoral constituents and if they lose their support then consequently they are no longer entitled to be prime minister.
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tomato let's call the whole thing off lyrics | Let 's Call the Whole Thing Off - Wikipedia
"Let 's Call the Whole Thing Off '' is a song written by George Gershwin and Ira Gershwin for the 1937 film Shall We Dance, where it was introduced by Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers as part of a celebrated dance duet on roller skates. The song is most famous for its "You like to - may - toes / təˈmeɪtoʊz / and I like to - mah - toes / təˈmɑːtoʊz / '' and other verses comparing their different regional dialects.
The differences in pronunciation are not simply regional, however, but serve more specifically to identify class differences. At the time, typical American pronunciations were considered less "refined '' by the upper - class, and there was a specific emphasis on the "broader '' a sound. This class distinction with respect to pronunciation has been retained in caricatures, especially in the theater, where the longer a pronunciation is most strongly associated with the word "darling. ''
The song was ranked No. 34 on AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs.
The song has been re-used in filmmaking and television production, most notably in When Harry Met Sally... -- where it is performed by Harry Connick, Jr. -- and The Simpsons. It was featured in the 2012 Broadway Musical Nice Work If You Can Get It.
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map of the white house in washington dc | White House - Wikipedia
The White House is the official residence and workplace of the President of the United States. It is located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C. and has been the residence of every U.S. President since John Adams in 1800. The term, "White House '', is often used as a metonym for the president and his advisers.
The residence was designed by Irish - born architect James Hoban in the neoclassical style. Construction took place between 1792 and 1800 using Aquia Creek sandstone painted white. When Thomas Jefferson moved into the house in 1801, he (with architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe) added low colonnades on each wing that concealed stables and storage. In 1814, during the War of 1812, the mansion was set ablaze by the British Army in the Burning of Washington, destroying the interior and charring much of the exterior. Reconstruction began almost immediately, and President James Monroe moved into the partially reconstructed Executive Residence in October 1817. Exterior construction continued with the addition of the semi-circular South portico in 1824 and the North portico in 1829.
Because of crowding within the executive mansion itself, President Theodore Roosevelt had all work offices relocated to the newly constructed West Wing in 1901. Eight years later in 1909, President William Howard Taft expanded the West Wing and created the first Oval Office, which was eventually moved as the section was expanded. In the main mansion, the third - floor attic was converted to living quarters in 1927 by augmenting the existing hip roof with long shed dormers. A newly constructed East Wing was used as a reception area for social events; Jefferson 's colonnades connected the new wings. East Wing alterations were completed in 1946, creating additional office space. By 1948, the residence 's load - bearing exterior walls and internal wood beams were found to be close to failure. Under Harry S. Truman, the interior rooms were completely dismantled and a new internal load - bearing steel frame constructed inside the walls. Once this work was completed, the interior rooms were rebuilt.
The modern - day White House complex includes the Executive Residence, West Wing, East Wing, the Eisenhower Executive Office Building -- the former State Department, which now houses offices for the President 's staff and the Vice President -- and Blair House, a guest residence. The Executive Residence is made up of six stories -- the Ground Floor, State Floor, Second Floor, and Third Floor, as well as a two - story basement. The property is a National Heritage Site owned by the National Park Service and is part of the President 's Park. In 2007, it was ranked second on the American Institute of Architects list of "America 's Favorite Architecture ''.
Following his April 1789 inauguration, President George Washington occupied two executive mansions in New York City: the Samuel Osgood House at 3 Cherry Street (April 1789 -- February 1790), and the Alexander Macomb House at 39 -- 41 Broadway (February -- August 1790). In May 1790, New York began construction of Government House for his official residence, but he never occupied it. The national capital moved to Philadelphia in December 1790.
The July 1790 Residence Act named Philadelphia, Pennsylvania the temporary national capital for a 10 - year period while the Federal City was under construction. The City of Philadelphia rented Robert Morris 's city house at 190 High Street (now 524 -- 30 Market Street) for Washington 's presidential residence.
The first U.S. President occupied the Market Street mansion from November 1790 to March 1797 and altered it in ways that may have influenced the design of the White House. As part of a futile effort to have Philadelphia named the permanent national capital, Pennsylvania built a much grander presidential mansion several blocks away, but Washington declined to occupy it.
President John Adams also occupied the Market Street mansion from March 1797 to May 1800. On Saturday, November 1, 1800, he became the first president to occupy the White House. The President 's House in Philadelphia became a hotel and was demolished in 1832, while the unused presidential mansion became home to the University of Pennsylvania.
The President 's House was a major feature of Pierre (Peter) Charles L'Enfant's ' plan for the newly established federal city, Washington, D.C. (see: L'Enfant Plan). The architect of the White House was chosen in a design competition which received nine proposals, including one submitted anonymously by Thomas Jefferson.
President Washington visited Charleston, South Carolina in May 1791 on his "Southern Tour '', and saw the under - construction Charleston County Courthouse designed by Irish architect James Hoban. He is reputed to have met with Hoban then. The following year, he summoned the architect to Philadelphia and met with him in June 1792.
On July 16, 1792, the President met with the commissioners of the federal city to make his judgment in the architectural competition. His review is recorded as being brief, and he quickly selected Hoban 's submission.
The building has classical inspiration sources, that could be found directly or indirectly in the Roman architect Vitruvius or in Andrea Palladio styles; Palladio being an Italian architect of the Renaissance which had a considerable influence on the Western architecture (Palladian architecture). The building Hoban designed is verifiably influenced by the upper floors of Leinster House, in Dublin, which later became the seat of the Oireachtas (the Irish parliament). Several other Georgian - era Irish country houses have been suggested as sources of inspiration for the overall floor plan, details like the bow - fronted south front, and interior details like the former niches in the present Blue Room. These influences, though undocumented, are cited in the official White House guide, and in White House Historical Association publications. The first official White House guide, published in 1962, suggested a link between Hoban 's design for the South Portico and Château de Rastignac, a neoclassical country house located in La Bachellerie in the Dordogne region of France and designed by Mathurin Salat. Construction on the French house was initially started before 1789, interrupted by the French Revolution for twenty years and then finally built 1812 -- 1817 (based on Salat 's pre-1789 design). The theoretical link between the two houses has been criticized because Hoban did not visit France. Supporters of a connection posit that Thomas Jefferson, during his tour of Bordeaux in 1789, viewed Salat 's architectural drawings (which were on - file at the College) at the École Spéciale d'Architecture (Bordeaux Architectural College). On his return to the U.S. he then shared the influence with Washington, Hoban, Monroe, and Benjamin Henry Latrobe.
Construction of the White House began with the laying of the cornerstone on October 13, 1792, although there was no formal ceremony. The main residence, as well as foundations of the house, were built largely by enslaved and free African - American laborers, as well as employed Europeans. Much of the other work on the house was performed by immigrants, many not yet with citizenship. The sandstone walls were erected by Scottish immigrants, employed by Hoban, as were the high - relief rose and garland decorations above the north entrance and the "fish scale '' pattern beneath the pediments of the window hoods. There are conflicting claims as to where the sandstone used in the construction of the White House originated. Some reports suggest sandstone from the Croatian island of Brač (specifically the Pučišća querry whose stone was used to build the ancient Roman palace of Emperor Diocletian) was used in the original construction of the building, contrarily researchers believe limestone from the island was used in the 1902 renovations and not the original construction. Others suggest the original sandstone simply came from Aquia Creek in Stafford County, Virginia, as importing the stone would be too costly. The initial construction took place over a period of eight years, at a reported cost of $232,371.83 (equal to $3,350,711 today). Although not yet completed, the White House was ready for occupancy circa November 1, 1800.
Shortages, including material and labor, forced alterations to the earlier plan developed by French engineer Pierre Charles L'Enfant for a "palace '' that was five times larger than the house that was eventually built. The finished structure contained only two main floors instead of the planned three, and a less costly brick served as a lining for the stone façades. When construction was finished, the porous sandstone walls were whitewashed with a mixture of lime, rice glue, casein, and lead, giving the house its familiar color and name.
As it is a famed structure in America, several replicas of the White House have been constructed.
The north front is the principal façade of the White House and consists of three floors and eleven bays. The ground floor is hidden by a raised carriage ramp and parapet, thus the façade appears to be of two floors. The central three bays are behind a prostyle portico (this was a later addition to the house, built circa 1830) serving, thanks to the carriage ramp, as a porte cochere. The windows of the four bays flanking the portico, at first - floor level, have alternating pointed and segmented pediments, while at second - floor level the pediments are flat. The principal entrance at the center of the portico is surmounted by a lunette fanlight. Above the entrance is a sculpted floral festoon. The roofline is hidden by a balustraded parapet.
The mansion 's southern façade is a combination of the Palladian and neoclassical styles of architecture. It is of three floors, all visible. The ground floor is rusticated in the Palladian fashion. At the center of the façade is a neoclassical projecting bow of three bays. The bow is flanked by five bays, the windows of which, as on the north façade, have alternating segmented and pointed pediments at first - floor level. The bow has a ground floor double staircase leading to an Ionic colonnaded loggia (with the Truman Balcony at second - floor level), known as the south portico. The more modern third floor is hidden by a balustraded parapet and plays no part in the composition of the façade.
The building was originally variously referred to as the "President 's Palace '', "Presidential Mansion '', or "President 's House ''. The earliest evidence of the public calling it the "White House '' was recorded in 1811. A myth emerged that during the rebuilding of the structure after the Burning of Washington, white paint was applied to mask the burn damage it had suffered, giving the building its namesake hue. The name "Executive Mansion '' was used in official contexts until President Theodore Roosevelt established the formal name by having "White House -- Washington '' engraved on the stationery in 1901. The current letterhead wording and arrangement "The White House '' with the word "Washington '' centered beneath goes back to the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt.
Although the structure was not completed until some years after the presidency of George Washington, there is speculation that the name of the traditional residence of the President of the United States may have derived from Martha Washington 's home, White House Plantation in Virginia, where the nation 's first President had courted the First Lady in the mid-18th century.
On Saturday, November 1, 1800, John Adams became the first president to take residence in the building. During Adams ' second day in the house, he wrote a letter to his wife Abigail, containing a prayer for the house. Adams wrote:
I pray Heaven to bestow the best of blessings on this House, and all that shall hereafter inhabit it. May none but honest and wise men ever rule under this roof.
Franklin D. Roosevelt had Adams 's blessing carved into the mantel in the State Dining Room.
Adams lived in the house only briefly before Thomas Jefferson moved into the "pleasant country residence '' in 1801. Despite his complaints that the house was too big ("big enough for two emperors, one pope, and the grand lama in the bargain ''), Jefferson considered how the White House might be added to. With Benjamin Henry Latrobe, he helped lay out the design for the East and West Colonnades, small wings that help conceal the domestic operations of laundry, a stable and storage. Today, Jefferson 's colonnades link the residence with the East and West Wings.
In 1814, during the War of 1812, the White House was set ablaze by British troops during the Burning of Washington, in retaliation for burning Upper Canada 's Parliament Buildings in the Battle of York; much of Washington was affected by these fires as well. Only the exterior walls remained, and they had to be torn down and mostly reconstructed because of weakening from the fire and subsequent exposure to the elements, except for portions of the south wall. Of the numerous objects taken from the White House when it was ransacked by British troops, only two have been recovered. Employees and slaves rescued a painting of George Washington, and in 1939, a Canadian man returned a jewelry box to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, claiming that his grandfather had taken it from Washington. Some observers allege that most of these spoils were lost when a convoy of British ships led by HMS Fantome sank en route to Halifax off Prospect during a storm on the night of November 24, 1814, even though Fantome had no involvement in that action.
After the fire, President James Madison resided in The Octagon House from 1814 to 1815, and then the Seven Buildings from 1815 to the end of his term. Meanwhile, both architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe and Hoban contributed to the design and oversight of the reconstruction, which lasted from 1815 until 1817. The south portico was constructed in 1824 during the James Monroe administration; the north portico was built six years later. Though Latrobe proposed similar porticos before the fire in 1814, both porticos were built as designed by Hoban. An elliptical portico at Château de Rastignac in La Bachellerie, France with nearly identical curved stairs is speculated as the source of inspiration due to its similarity with the South Portico, although this matter is one of great debate. Italian artisans, brought to Washington to help in constructing the U.S. Capitol, carved the decorative stonework on both porticos. Contrary to speculation, the North Portico was not modeled on a similar portico on another Dublin building, the Viceregal Lodge (now Áras an Uachtaráin, residence of the President of Ireland), for its portico postdates the White House porticos ' design. For the North Portico, a variation on the Ionic Order was devised incorporating a swag of roses between the volutes. This was done to link the new portico with the earlier carved roses above the entrance.
The White House as it looked following the conflagration of August 24, 1814
Jefferson and Latrobe 's West Wing Colonnade, in this nineteenth - century engraved view, is now the James S. Brady Press Briefing Room.
Principal story plan for the white house by Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1807.
Earliest known photograph of the White House, taken c. 1846 by John Plumbe during the administration of James K. Polk.
By the time of the American Civil War, the White House had become overcrowded. The location of the White House was questioned, just north of a canal and swampy lands, which provided conditions ripe for malaria and other unhealthy conditions. Brigadier General Nathaniel Michler was tasked to propose solutions to address these concerns. He proposed abandoning the use of the White House as a residence and designed a new estate for the first family at Meridian Hill in Washington, D.C., but Congress rejected the plan.
When Chester Arthur took office in 1881, he ordered renovations to the White House to take place as soon as the recently widowed Lucretia Garfield moved out. Arthur inspected the work almost nightly and made several suggestions. Louis Comfort Tiffany was asked to send selected designers to assist. Over twenty wagonloads of furniture and household items were removed from the building and sold at a public auction. All that was saved were bust portraits of John Adams and Martin Van Buren. A proposal was made to build a new residence south of the White House, but it failed to gain support.
In the fall of 1882 work was done on the main corridor, including tinting the walls pale olive and adding squares of gold leaf, and decorating the ceiling in gold and silver, and colorful traceries woven to spell "USA ''. The Red Room was painted a dull Pomeranian red, and its ceiling was decorated with gold, silver, and copper stars and stripes of red, white, and blue. A fifty - foot jeweled Tiffany glass screen, supported by imitation marble columns, replaced the glass doors that separated the main corridor from the north vestibule.
In 1891, First Lady Caroline Harrison proposed major extensions to the White House, including a National Wing on the east for a historical art gallery, and a wing on the west for official functions. A plan was devised by Colonel Theodore A. Bingham, which reflected the Harrison proposal. These plans were ultimately rejected.
However, in 1902 Theodore Roosevelt hired McKim, Mead & White to carry out expansions and renovations in a neoclassical style suited to the building 's architecture, removing the Tiffany screen and all Victorian additions. Charles McKim himself designed and managed the project, which gave more living space to the President 's large family by removing a staircase in the West Hall and moving executive office staff from the second floor of the residence into the new West Wing.
President William Howard Taft enlisted the help of architect Nathan C. Wyeth to add additional space to the West Wing, which included the addition of the Oval Office. In 1925, Congress enacted legislation allowing the White House to accept gifts of furniture and art for the first time. The West Wing was damaged by fire in 1929, but rebuilt during the remaining years of the Herbert Hoover presidency. In the 1930s, a second story was added, as well as a larger basement for White House staff, and President Franklin Roosevelt had the Oval Office moved to its present location: adjacent to the Rose Garden.
Decades of poor maintenance, the construction of a fourth story attic during the Coolidge administration, and the addition of a second - floor balcony over the south portico for Harry S. Truman took a great toll on the brick and sandstone structure built around a timber frame. By 1948, the house was declared to be in imminent danger of collapse, forcing President Truman to commission a reconstruction and to live across the street at Blair House from 1949 to 1951. The work, done by the firm of Philadelphia contractor John McShain, required the complete dismantling of the interior spaces, construction of a new load - bearing internal steel frame and the reconstruction of the original rooms within the new structure. The total cost of the renovations was about $5.7 million (US $54 million in 2018). Some modifications to the floor plan were made, the largest being the repositioning of the grand staircase to open into the Entrance Hall, rather than the Cross Hall. Central air conditioning was added, as well as two additional sub-basements providing space for workrooms, storage, and a bomb shelter. The Trumans moved back into the White House on March 27, 1952. While the house 's structure was kept intact by the Truman reconstruction, much of the new interior finishes were generic, and of little historic value. Much of the original plasterwork, some dating back to the 1814 -- 1816 rebuilding, was too damaged to reinstall, as was the original robust Beaux Arts paneling in the East Room. President Truman had the original timber frame sawed into paneling; the walls of the Vermeil Room, Library, China Room, and Map Room on the ground floor of the main residence were paneled in wood from the timbers.
Jacqueline Kennedy, wife of President John F. Kennedy (1961 -- 63), directed a very extensive and historic redecoration of the house. She enlisted the help of Henry Francis du Pont of the Winterthur Museum to assist in collecting artifacts for the mansion, many of which had once been housed there. Other antiques, fine paintings, and improvements of the Kennedy period were donated to the White House by wealthy philanthropists, including the Crowninshield family, Jane Engelhard, Jayne Wrightsman, and the Oppenheimer family.
Stéphane Boudin of the House of Jansen, a Paris interior - design firm that had been recognized worldwide, was employed by Jacqueline Kennedy to assist with the decoration. Different periods of the early republic and world history were selected as a theme for each room: the Federal style for the Green Room, French Empire for the Blue Room, American Empire for the Red Room, Louis XVI for the Yellow Oval Room, and Victorian for the President 's study, renamed the Treaty Room. Antique furniture was acquired, and decorative fabric and trim based on period documents was produced and installed. The Kennedy restoration resulted in a more authentic White House of grander stature, which recalled the French taste of Madison and Monroe. In the Diplomatic Reception Room, Mrs. Kennedy installed an antique "Vue de l'Amérique Nord '' wallpaper which Zuber & Cie had designed in 1834. The wallpaper had hung previously on the walls of another mansion until 1961 when that house was demolished for a grocery store. Just before the demolition, the wallpaper was salvaged and sold to the White House.
The first White House guidebook was produced under the direction of curator Lorraine Waxman Pearce with direct supervision from Mrs. Kennedy. Sale of the guidebook helped finance the restoration.
Kennedy showed her restoration of the White House to the public in a televised tour of the house on Valentine 's Day in 1962.
Congress enacted legislation in September 1961 declaring the White House a museum. Furniture, fixtures, and decorative arts could now be declared either historic or of artistic interest by the President. This prevented them from being sold (as many objects in the executive mansion had been in the past 150 years). When not in use or display at the White House, these items were to be turned over to the Smithsonian Institution for preservation, study, storage, or exhibition. The White House retains the right to have these items returned.
Out of respect for the historic character of the White House, no substantive architectural changes have been made to the house since the Truman renovation. Since the Kennedy restoration, every presidential family has made some changes to the private quarters of the White House, but the Committee for the Preservation of the White House must approve any modifications to the State Rooms. Charged with maintaining the historical integrity of the White House, the congressionally authorized committee works with each First Family -- usually represented by the First Lady, the White House Curator, and the Chief Usher -- to implement the family 's proposals for altering the house.
During the Nixon Administration (1969 -- 1974), First Lady Pat Nixon refurbished the Green Room, Blue Room, and Red Room, working with Clement Conger, the curator appointed by President Richard Nixon. Mrs. Nixon 's efforts brought more than 600 artifacts to the house, the largest acquisition by any administration. Her husband created the modern press briefing room over Franklin Roosevelt 's old swimming pool. Nixon also added a single - lane bowling alley to the White House basement.
Computers and the first laser printer were added during the Carter administration, and the use of computer technology was expanded during the Reagan administration. A Carter - era innovation, a set of solar water heating panels that were mounted on the roof of the White House, was removed during Reagan 's presidency. Redecorations were made to the private family quarters and maintenance was made to public areas during the Reagan years. The house was accredited as a museum in 1988.
In the 1990s, Bill and Hillary Clinton refurbished some rooms with the assistance of Arkansas decorator Kaki Hockersmith, including the Oval Office, the East Room, Blue Room, State Dining Room, Lincoln Bedroom, and Lincoln Sitting Room. During the administration of George W. Bush, First Lady Laura Bush refurbished the Lincoln Bedroom in a style contemporary with the Lincoln era; the Green Room, Cabinet Room, and theater were also refurbished.
The White House became one of the first wheelchair - accessible government buildings in Washington when modifications were made during the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, who used a wheelchair because of his paralytic illness. In the 1990s, Hillary Clinton, at the suggestion of Visitors Office Director Melinda N. Bates, approved the addition of a ramp in the East Wing corridor. It allowed easy wheelchair access for the public tours and special events that enter through the secure entrance building on the east side.
In 2003, the Bush administration reinstalled solar thermal heaters. These units are used to heat water for landscape maintenance personnel and for the presidential pool and spa. 167 solar photovoltaic grid - tied panels were installed at the same time on the roof of the maintenance facility. The changes were not publicized as a White House spokeswoman said the changes were an internal matter. The story was picked up by industry trade journals. In 2013, President Barack Obama had a set of solar panels installed on the roof of the White House, making it the first time solar power would be used for the president 's living quarters.
The president usually travels to and from the White House grounds via official motorcade or helicopter. The journey by helicopter was inaugurated in the 1950s when President Dwight D. Eisenhower began traveling on Marine One to and from his official residence.
Today the group of buildings housing the presidency is known as the White House Complex. It includes the central Executive Residence flanked by the East Wing and West Wing. The Chief Usher coordinates day to day household operations. The White House includes: six stories and 55,000 ft (5,100 m) of floor space, 132 rooms and 35 bathrooms, 412 doors, 147 windows, twenty - eight fireplaces, eight staircases, three elevators, five full - time chefs, a tennis court, a (single - lane) bowling alley, a movie theater (officially called the White House Family Theater), a jogging track, a swimming pool, and a putting green. It receives up to 30,000 visitors each week.
The original residence is in the center. Two colonnades -- one on the east and one on the west -- designed by Jefferson, now serve to connect the East and West Wings added later. The Executive Residence houses the president 's dwelling, as well as rooms for ceremonies and official entertaining. The State Floor of the residence building includes the East Room, Green Room, Blue Room, Red Room, State Dining Room, Family Dining Room, Cross Hall, Entrance Hall, and Grand Staircase. The Ground Floor is made up of the Diplomatic Reception Room, Map Room, China Room, Vermeil Room, Library, the main kitchen, and other offices. The second floor family residence includes the Yellow Oval Room, East and West Sitting Halls, the White House Master Bedroom, President 's Dining Room, the Treaty Room, Lincoln Bedroom and Queens ' Bedroom, as well as two additional bedrooms, a smaller kitchen, and a private dressing room. The third floor consists of the White House Solarium, Game Room, Linen Room, a Diet Kitchen, and another sitting room (previously used as President George W. Bush 's workout room).
The West Wing houses the President 's office (the Oval Office) and offices of his senior staff, with room for about 50 employees. It also includes the Cabinet Room, where the president conducts business meetings and where the Cabinet meets, as well as the White House Situation Room, James S. Brady Press Briefing Room, and Roosevelt Room. In 2007, work was completed on renovations of the press briefing room, adding fiber optic cables and LCD screens for the display of charts and graphs. The makeover took 11 months and cost of $8 million, out of which news outlets paid $2 million. In September 2010, a two - year project began on the West Wing, creating a multistory underground structure; this will be followed with additional renovation of the wing.
The Oval Office, Roosevelt Room, and other portions of the West Wing were partially replicated on a sound stage and used as the setting for the popular television show The West Wing.
The East Wing, which contains additional office space, was added to the White House in 1942. Among its uses, the East Wing has intermittently housed the offices and staff of the First Lady, and the White House Social Office. Rosalynn Carter, in 1977, was the first to place her personal office in the East Wing and to formally call it the "Office of the First Lady ''. The East Wing was built during World War II in order to hide the construction of an underground bunker to be used in emergencies. The bunker has come to be known as the Presidential Emergency Operations Center.
The White House and grounds cover just over 18 acres (about 7.3 hectares). Before the construction of the North Portico, most public events were entered from the South Lawn, which was graded and planted by Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson also drafted a planting plan for the North Lawn that included large trees that would have mostly obscured the house from Pennsylvania Avenue. During the mid-to - late 19th century a series of ever larger greenhouses were built on the west side of the house, where the current West Wing is located. During this period, the North Lawn was planted with ornate carpet - style flowerbeds. The general layout of the White House grounds today is based on the 1935 design by Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. of the Olmsted Brothers firm, commissioned by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. During the Kennedy administration, the White House Rose Garden was redesigned by Rachel Lambert Mellon. The Rose Garden borders the West Colonnade. Bordering the East Colonnade is the Jacqueline Kennedy Garden, which was begun by Jacqueline Kennedy but completed after her husband 's assassination. On the weekend of June 23, 2006, a century - old American Elm (Ulmus americana L.) tree on the north side of the building, came down during one of the many storms amid intense flooding. Among the oldest trees on the grounds are several magnolias (Magnolia grandiflora) planted by Andrew Jackson, including the Jackson Magnolia, reportedly grown from a sprout taken from the favorite tree of Jackson 's recently deceased wife, the sprout planted after Jackson moved into the White House. The tree stood for over 200 years; but in 2017, having become too weak to stand on its own, it was decided it should be removed and replaced with one of its offspring. Michelle Obama planted the White House 's first organic garden and installed beehives on the South Lawn of the White House, which will supply organic produce and honey to the First Family and for state dinners and other official gatherings.
The Cross Hall, connecting the State Dining Room and the East Room on the State Floor
Marine One prepares for landing on the South Lawn where State Arrival Ceremonies for visiting heads of state take place.
The White House and surrounding grounds
The White House with fountain and grounds
White House from the north
Like the English and Irish country houses it was modeled on, the White House was, from the start, open to the public until the early part of the 20th century. President Thomas Jefferson held an open house for his second inaugural in 1805, and many of the people at his swearing - in ceremony at the Capitol followed him home, where he greeted them in the Blue Room. Those open houses sometimes became rowdy: in 1829, President Andrew Jackson had to leave for a hotel when roughly 20,000 citizens celebrated his inauguration inside the White House. His aides ultimately had to lure the mob outside with washtubs filled with a potent cocktail of orange juice and whiskey. Even so, the practice continued until 1885, when newly elected Grover Cleveland arranged for a presidential review of the troops from a grandstand in front of the White House instead of the traditional open house. Jefferson also permitted public tours of his house, which have continued ever since, except during wartime, and began the tradition of annual receptions on New Year 's Day and on the Fourth of July. Those receptions ended in the early 1930s, although President Bill Clinton briefly revived the New Year 's Day open house in his first term.
The White House remained accessible in other ways; President Abraham Lincoln complained that he was constantly beleaguered by job seekers waiting to ask him for political appointments or other favors, or eccentric dispensers of advice like "General '' Daniel Pratt, as he began the business day. Lincoln put up with the annoyance rather than risk alienating some associate or friend of a powerful politician or opinion maker.
In February 1974, a stolen army helicopter landed without authorization on the White House 's grounds. Twenty years later, in 1994, a light plane flown by Frank Eugene Corder crashed on the White House grounds, and he died instantly.
As a result of increased security regarding air traffic in the capital, the White House was evacuated in May 2005 before an unauthorized aircraft could approach the grounds.
On May 20, 1995, primarily as a response to the Oklahoma City bombing of April 19, 1995, the United States Secret Service closed off Pennsylvania Avenue to vehicular traffic in front of the White House from the eastern edge of Lafayette Park to 17th Street. Later, the closure was extended an additional block to the east to 15th Street, and East Executive Avenue, a small street between the White House and the Treasury Building.
After September 11, 2001, this was made permanent in addition to closing E Street between the South Portico of the White House and the Ellipse. In response to the Boston Marathon bombing, the road was closed to the public in its entirety for a period of two days.
The Pennsylvania Avenue closing has been opposed by organized civic groups in Washington, D.C. They argue that the closing impedes traffic flow unnecessarily and is inconsistent with the well - conceived historic plan for the city. As for security considerations, they note that the White House is set much farther back from the street than numerous other sensitive federal buildings are.
Prior to its inclusion within the fenced compound that now includes the Old Executive Office Building to the west and the Treasury Building to the east, this sidewalk served as a queuing area for the daily public tours of the White House. These tours were suspended in the wake of the September 11 attacks. In September 2003, they resumed on a limited basis for groups making prior arrangements through their Congressional representatives or embassies in Washington for foreign nationals and submitting to background checks, but the White House remained closed to the public. White House tours were suspended for most of 2013 due to budget constraints after sequestration. The White House reopened to the public in November 2013.
The White House Complex is protected by the United States Secret Service and the United States Park Police.
NASAMS (Norwegian Advanced Surface to Air Missile System) were used to guard air space over Washington, D.C. during the 2005 presidential inauguration. The same NASAMS units have since been used to protect the president and all airspace around the White House, which is strictly prohibited to aircraft.
For security reasons, the section of Pennsylvania Avenue on the north side of the White House is closed to all vehicular traffic, except government officials.
White House at night
North front of the White House on the reverse (back) of the U.S. $20 bill.
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how many arch angels are in the bible | Seven archangels - wikipedia
The most notable reference to a group of seven Archangels appears to have been borrowed from the Jewish Pseudepigrapha, namely the 250 BC Book of the Watchers, which at some point was merged with some other books in what is known today as 1 Enoch (the Book of Enoch), and was made part of the Ethiopian Christian movement scriptural cannon, though by the seventh century it was rejected by Christian leaders from all other denominations as canonical scripture, and despite having been prevalent in Jewish and early Christian Apostolic traditions (as well as the early Christian leaders writings) the book just fell from academic and religious status in regards to the rest of the canonical scripture, resulting in the text not being found in most parts of the World, as it was forbidden, from 7th Century AD onwards. The list of Angels survived only as part of oral traditions that differed to one another depending on the geographical area that they were present, and thus many different lists of angels (termed "Archangels '') exist, but to different levels of acceptance.
In all of the scriptures from Judeo - Christian traditions, only Michael is called "The Archangel '' (Biblical Greek: Μιχαὴλ ὁ ἀρχάγγελος) by Jude the Apostle in the epistle attributed to his authorship; And in the Book of Enoch, the Jewish traditions make him "one of the Archangels '', although none of the others is referred to as by name. In most Protestant Christian traditions only Michael and Gabriel are referred to as "Archangels '', whereas in the Roman Catholic and Orthodox traditions Raphael is included, resulting in a group of three.
Jewish people borrowed the names for angels from Babylonian star catalogues, a part of its folklore and cosmology, during their forced exile known as the Babylonian captivity starting in 605 BCE, first with the prophet Daniel, then later with Authors such as Ezekiel who styled the star constellations, that were held as "sons of the gods '' (Sons of the Sky Father deity in Babylonia), as angels from the Lord of Israel, in fact living animals in the heaven (the abstract forms of the constellations) that were referred to as Cherubim, and with that he styled what was revered as the sons of the gods in Babylonia as servants of the Lord of Israel. The 2 BC Book of the Parables, chapter XL, echoes such folkloric representations, and gives the name of the four angels with whom the Ancient of Days comes, the ones standing before the Lord of Spirits, the voices of those upon the four sides magnifying the Lord of Glory as: Michael, Raphael, Gabriel, and Phanuel.
From the Book of the Watchers chapter IX, a first list of group of angels is given, in this case, the ones who saw the quantity of blood which was shed on earth in account of the transgression of the "sons of the gods '', a group of rogue celestial spirits, termed "the Watchers '', that arrived to earth during the antediluvian times, and it is given as a group of five that interceded on behalf of humankind to the Most High: Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, Suryal (see Sarakiel), and Uriel. Whereas the most popular tradition was borrowed from chapter XX, in which a list of seven angels who watch is given as: Uriel, Raphael, Raguel, Michael, Sarakiel, Gabriel, and Remiel.
The earliest specific Christian references are in the late 5th to early 6th century: Pseudo-Dionysius gives them as Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, Uriel, Camael, Jophiel, and Zadkiel. Pope Saint Gregory I lists them as Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, Uriel (or Anael), Simiel, Oriphiel, and Raguel.
Lists of characters referred to as "angels '' also exist in traditions foreign to the largest religious groups, and are usually regarded as occultist or superstitious. A later reference to seven archangels appeared in an 8th or 9th - century talisman attributed to Auriolus, a "servant of God '' in north - western Spain. He issues a prayer to "all you patriarchs Michael, Gabriel, Cecitiel, Oriel, Raphael, Ananiel, Marmoniel.
In the Catholic Church, three archangels are mentioned by name in its canon of scripture: Michael, Gabriel, and Raphael. Raphael appears in the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit, where Raphael is described as "one of the seven angels who stand ready and enter before the glory of the lord of spirits '', a phrase recalled in Revelation 8: 2 - 6.
Some strands of the Eastern Orthodox Church, exemplified in the Orthodox Slavonic Bible (Ostrog Bible, Elizabeth Bible, and later consequently Russian Synodal Bible), recognize as authoritative also 2 Esdras, which mentions Uriel. The Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches of the Byzantine tradition, venerate seven archangels and sometimes an eighth. Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, Uriel, Selaphiel (Salathiel), Jegudiel (Jehudiel), Barachiel, and the eighth, Jerahmeel (Jeremiel) (The Synaxis of the Chief of the Heavenly Hosts, Archangel Michael and the Other Heavenly Bodiless Powers: Feast Day: November 8).
As well as Uriel, the Book of Enoch, not regarded as canonical by any of these Christian churches, mentions (chapter 21) Raguel, Sariel, and Jerahmeel, while other apocryphal sources give instead the names Izidkiel, Hanael, and Kepharel.
In the Coptic Orthodox tradition the seven archangels are named as Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, Suriel, Zadkiel, Sarathiel, and Aniel.
In Anglican and Episcopal tradition, there are three or four archangels in the calendar for September 29, the feast of St Michael and All Angels (also called Michaelmas), namely Michael, Gabriel, and Raphael, and often also Uriel.
Although in the Book of Enoch, Ramiel is described as one of the leaders of the 200 Grigori, the fallen angels, the leader is identified as Semjaza. Other names derived from pseudepigrapha and recognized by Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches are Selaphiel, Jegudiel, and Raguel.
Seven angels or archangels are given as related to the seven days of the week: Michael (Sunday), Gabriel (Monday), Raphael (Tuesday), Uriel (Wednesday), Selaphiel (Thursday), Raguel or Jegudiel (Friday), and Barachiel (Saturday).
Various occult systems associate each archangel with one of the traditional "seven luminaries '' (the seven naked - eye moving objects in the sky: the seven classical planets): the sun, the moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn; but there is disagreement as to which archangel corresponds to which body.
According to Rudolf Steiner, four important archangels also display periodic spiritual activity over the seasons: Spring is Raphael, summer is Uriel, autumn is Michael, and winter is Gabriel. Following this line of reasoning, Aries (astrologically ruled by Mars) represents spring, Cancer (ruled by the moon) represents summer, Libra (ruled by Venus) represents autumn, and Capricorn (ruled by Saturn) represents winter. Therefore, by association, Raphael is Mars, Uriel is the moon, Michael is Venus, and Gabriel is Saturn. Rudolf Steiner 's Northern Hemisphere indications regarding the seasons and their placement in the Zodiac will be the opposite in the Southern Hemisphere, making Michael the autumn archangel -- with Mars in Aries; Raphael the spring archangel -- with Venus in Libra; and in mid-winter Gabriel in Cancer; Uriel presides in Capricorn during mid-summer in the south.
The seven archangels figure in some systems of ritual magic, each archangel bearing a specific seal.
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what team does ronaldo play for in the world cup | Cristiano Ronaldo - wikipedia
Portuguese professional footballer
Namesakes
Films
Cristiano Ronaldo dos Santos Aveiro GOIH, ComM (European Portuguese: (kɾiʃˈtjɐnu ʁoˈnaɫdu); born 5 February 1985) is a Portuguese professional footballer who plays as a forward for Spanish club Real Madrid and the Portugal national team. Often considered the best player in the world and regarded by many as the greatest of all time, Ronaldo has a record - tying five Ballon d'Or awards, the most for a European player, and is the first player to win four European Golden Shoes. He has won 25 trophies in his career, including five league titles, four UEFA Champions League titles and one UEFA European Championship. Both a prolific goalscorer and playmaker, Ronaldo holds the records for most official goals scored in Europe 's top - five leagues (393), the UEFA Champions League (120), the UEFA European Championship (9), as well as those for most assists in the UEFA Champions League (34) and the UEFA European Championship (8). He has scored over 650 senior career goals for club and country.
Born and raised on the Portuguese island of Madeira, Ronaldo was diagnosed with a racing heart at age 15. He underwent an operation to treat his condition, and began his senior club career playing for Sporting CP, before signing with Manchester United at age 18 in 2003. After winning his first trophy, the FA Cup, during his first season in England, he helped United win three successive Premier League titles, a UEFA Champions League title, and a FIFA Club World Cup. By age 22, he had received Ballon d'Or and FIFA World Player of the Year nominations and at age 23, he won his first Ballon d'Or and FIFA World Player of the Year awards. In 2009, Ronaldo was the subject of the most expensive association football transfer when he moved from Manchester United to Real Madrid in a transfer worth € 94 million (£ 80 million).
In Spain, Ronaldo has won 14 trophies, including two La Liga titles, two Copas del Rey, three UEFA Champions League titles, two UEFA Super Cups, and three FIFA Club World Cups. After joining Real Madrid, Ronaldo finished runner - up for the Ballon d'Or three times, behind Lionel Messi, his perceived career rival, before winning back - to - back Ballons d'Or in 2013 and 2014. Real Madrid 's all - time leading goalscorer, Ronaldo has scored a record 34 La Liga hat - tricks, including a record - tying eight hat - tricks in the 2014 -- 15 season and is the only player to reach 30 league goals in six consecutive La Liga seasons. Ronaldo won back - to - back Ballons d'Or for a second time, winning by a record voting margin in 2016 after sealing La Undécima, Madrid 's 11th European title, and winning Euro 2016, and in 2017 after firing Madrid to the first back - to - back UEFA Champions League victory in history.
A Portuguese international, Ronaldo was named the best Portuguese player of all time by the Portuguese Football Federation in 2015. Ronaldo made his senior international debut in August 2003, at age 18. He is Portugal 's most capped player of all time with over 140 caps, and has participated in seven major tournaments. He is Portugal 's all - time top goalscorer. He scored his first international goal at Euro 2004 and helped Portugal reach the final. He took over full captaincy in July 2008, leading Portugal to their first - ever triumph in a major tournament by winning Euro 2016, and received the Silver Boot as the second - highest goalscorer of the tournament. One of the most marketable sportsmen, he was ranked the world 's highest - paid athlete by Forbes in 2016 and 2017, as well as the world 's most famous athlete by ESPN in 2016 and 2017.
Ronaldo was born in São Pedro, Funchal, and grew up in the Funchal parish of Santo António, as the youngest child of Maria Dolores dos Santos Aveiro, a cook, and José Dinis Aveiro, a municipal gardener and a part - time kit man. His second given name, "Ronaldo '', was chosen after then - U.S. president Ronald Reagan. He has one older brother, Hugo, and two older sisters, Elma and Liliana Cátia. His great - grandmother on his father 's side, Isabel da Piedade, was from São Vicente, Cape Verde. Ronaldo grew up in a Catholic and impoverished home, sharing a room with his brother and sisters.
As a child, Ronaldo played for amateur team Andorinha from 1992 to 1995, where his father was the kit man, and later spent two years with Nacional. In 1997, aged 12, he went on a three - day trial with Sporting CP, who signed him for a fee of £ 1,500. He subsequently moved from Madeira to Alcochete, near Lisbon, to join Sporting 's other youth players at the club 's football academy. By age 14, Ronaldo believed he had the ability to play semi-professionally, and agreed with his mother to cease his education in order to focus entirely on football. While popular with other students at school, he had been expelled after throwing a chair at his teacher, who he said had "disrespected '' him. However, one year later, he was diagnosed with a racing heart, a condition that could have forced him to give up playing football. He underwent an operation in which a laser was used to cauterise the affected area of his heart; discharged from hospital hours after the procedure, he resumed training only a few days later.
At age 16, Ronaldo was promoted from Sporting 's youth team by first - team manager László Bölöni, who was impressed with his dribbling. He subsequently became the first player to play for the club 's under - 16, under - 17 and under - 18 teams, the B team, and the first team, all within one season. A year later, on 7 October 2002, Ronaldo made his debut in the Primeira Liga, against Moreirense, and scored two goals in their 3 -- 0 win. Over the course of the 2002 -- 03 season, his representatives suggested the player to Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier and Barcelona president Joan Laporta. Manager Arsène Wenger, who was interested in signing the winger, met with him at Arsenal 's grounds in November to discuss a possible transfer.
Ronaldo came to the attention of Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson in August 2003, when Sporting defeated United 3 -- 1 at the inauguration of the Estádio José Alvalade in Lisbon. His performance impressed the Manchester United players, who urged Ferguson to sign him. Ferguson himself considered the 18 - year - old "one of the most exciting young players '' he had ever seen. A decade after his departure from the club, in April 2013, Sporting honoured Ronaldo by selecting him to become their 100,000 th member.
Ronaldo became Manchester United 's first - ever Portuguese player when he signed before the 2003 -- 04 season. His transfer fee of £ 12.24 million made him, at the time, the most expensive teenager in English football history. Although he requested the number 28, his number at Sporting, he received the number 7 shirt, which had previously been worn by such United players as George Best, Eric Cantona and David Beckham. Wearing the number 7 became an extra source of motivation for Ronaldo. A key element in his development during his time in England proved to be his manager, Alex Ferguson, of whom he later said, "He 's been my father in sport, one of the most important and influential factors in my career. ''
-- Former Manchester United player George Best on the 18 - year - old Ronaldo in 2003
Ronaldo made his debut in the Premier League in a 4 -- 0 home victory over Bolton Wanderers on 16 August 2003, receiving a standing ovation when he came on as a 60th - minute substitute for Nicky Butt. His performance earned praise from George Best, who hailed it as "undoubtedly the most exciting debut '' he had ever seen. Ronaldo scored his first goal for Manchester United with a free - kick in a 3 -- 0 win over Portsmouth on 1 November. Three other league goals followed in the second half of the campaign, the last of which came against Aston Villa on the final day of the season, a match in which he also received his first red card. Ronaldo ended his first season in English football by scoring the opening goal in United 's 3 -- 0 victory over Millwall in the FA Cup final, earning his first trophy.
At the start of 2005, Ronaldo played two of his best matches of the 2004 -- 05 season, producing a goal and an assist against Aston Villa and scoring twice against rivals Arsenal. After scoring four goals in United 's run to the FA Cup final, he played the full 120 minutes of the decisive match against Arsenal, which ended in a goalless draw, and scored his attempt in the lost penalty shootout. Ronaldo scored three braces during the next campaign, the 2005 -- 06 season, scoring two goals each against Bolton Wanderers, Fulham, and Portsmouth. He scored Manchester United 's 1000th Premier League goal on 29 October, their only strike in a 4 -- 1 loss to Middlesbrough. Midway through the season, in November, he signed a new contract which extended his previous deal by two years to 2010. Ronaldo won his second trophy in English football, the Football League Cup, after scoring the third goal in United 's 4 -- 0 final victory over Wigan Athletic.
During his third season in England, Ronaldo was involved in several incidents. He had a one - match ban imposed on him by UEFA for a "one - fingered gesture '' towards Benfica fans, and was sent off in the Manchester derby -- a 3 -- 1 defeat -- for kicking Manchester City 's former United player Andy Cole. Ronaldo clashed with a teammate, striker Ruud van Nistelrooy, who took offence at the winger 's showboating style of play. Following a training ground fight in January 2006, the two again fought in May, with Van Nistelrooy telling Ronaldo to "go crying to your daddy '', a reference to Ronaldo 's relationship with assistant manager Carlos Queiroz. Van Nistelrooy was left on the substitutes ' bench for the final game of the season against Charlton Athletic -- a 4 -- 0 victory in which Ronaldo scored his ninth league goal. Following the 2006 FIFA World Cup, in which he was involved in an incident where club teammate Wayne Rooney was sent off, Ronaldo publicly asked for a transfer, lamenting the lack of support he felt he had received from the club over the incident. United, however, denied the possibility of him leaving the club.
Although his World Cup altercation with Rooney resulted in Ronaldo being booed throughout the 2006 -- 07 season, it proved to be his breakout year, as he broke the 20 - goal barrier for the first time and won his first Premier League title. An important factor in this success was his one - to - one training by first - team coach René Meulensteen, who taught him to make himself more unpredictable, improve his teamwork, call for the ball, and capitalise on goalscoring opportunities rather than waiting for the chance to score the aesthetically pleasing goals for which he was already known. His upturn in form was showcased in November when he received a standing ovation from a section of Blackburn Rovers supporters as he was substituted. He scored three consecutive braces at the end of December, against Aston Villa -- a victory which put United on top of the league -- Wigan Athletic, and Reading. Ronaldo was named the Premier League Player of the Month in November and December, becoming only the third player to receive consecutive honours.
At the quarter - final stage of the 2006 -- 07 UEFA Champions League, Ronaldo scored his first - ever goals in the competition, finding the net twice in a 7 -- 1 victory over Roma. He subsequently scored four minutes into the first semi-final leg against Milan, which ended in a 3 -- 2 win, but was marked out of the second leg as United lost 3 -- 0 at the San Siro. He also helped United reach the FA Cup final, putting them 2 -- 1 up against Watford, but the decisive match against Chelsea ended in a 1 -- 0 defeat. Ronaldo scored the only goal in the Manchester derby on 5 May 2007 -- his 50th goal for the club -- as Manchester United claimed their first Premier League title in four years. As a result of his performances, he amassed a host of personal awards for the season. He won the Professional Footballers ' Association 's Player 's Player, Fans ' Player, and Young Player of the Year awards, as well as the Football Writers ' Association 's Footballer of the Year award, becoming the first player to win all four main PFA and FWA honours. His club wages were concurrently upgraded to £ 120,000 a week (£ 31 million total) as part of a five - year contract extension with United.
Ronaldo scored a total of 42 goals in all competitions during the 2007 -- 08 season, his most prolific campaign during his time in England. His first goal of the season came against his former club, Sporting, with a header in the first group match of the Champions League. He missed three matches after headbutting a Portsmouth player at the start of the season, an experience he said taught him not to let opponents provoke him, but still managed to score 13 league goals by the campaign 's midway point. At the end of 2007, Ronaldo was named runner - up to Kaká for the Ballon d'Or, and came third, behind Kaká and Lionel Messi, in the running for the FIFA World Player of the Year award.
-- Dutch player Johan Cruyff on the 23 - year - old Ronaldo, April 2008.
Ronaldo scored his first and only hat - trick for Manchester United in a 6 -- 0 win against Newcastle United on 12 January 2008, bringing United up to the top of the Premier League table. A month later, on 19 March, he captained United for the first time in a home win over Bolton, and scored both goals of the match. His second goal was his 33rd of the campaign, which bettered George Best 's total of 32 goals in the 1967 -- 68 season, thus setting the club 's new single - season record by a midfielder. Ronaldo scored his final league goal of the season from the penalty spot in the title decider against Wigan on 11 May, as United claimed a second successive Premier League title. His 31 league goals earned him the Premier League Golden Boot, as well as the European Golden Shoe, which made him the first winger to win the latter award.
In the knockout stage of the Champions League, Ronaldo scored the decisive goal against Lyon, which helped United advance to the quarter - finals 2 -- 1 on aggregate, and, while playing as a striker, scored with a header in the 3 -- 0 aggregate victory over Roma. Despite him missing a penalty in the first leg against Barcelona, United eventually advanced to the final in Moscow, where they faced Chelsea. His opening goal was negated by an equaliser as the match ended in a 1 -- 1 draw, but although his penalty was saved in the shoot - out, Manchester United emerged victorious. As the Champions League top scorer, Ronaldo was named the UEFA Club Footballer of the Year. He additionally received the PFA Players ' Player of the Year and FWA Footballer of the Year awards for the second consecutive season.
As rumours circulated of Ronaldo 's interest in moving to Real Madrid, United filed a tampering complaint with governing body FIFA over Madrid 's alleged pursuit of their player, but they declined to take action. FIFA president Sepp Blatter asserted that the player should be allowed to leave his club, describing the situation as "modern slavery ''. Despite Ronaldo publicly agreeing with Blatter, he remained at United for another year. Ahead of the 2008 -- 09 season, on 7 July, he underwent ankle surgery, which kept him out of action for 10 weeks. Following his return, he scored his 100th goal in all competitions for United with the first of two free kicks in a 5 -- 0 win against Stoke City on 15 November, which meant he had now scored against all 19 opposition teams in the Premier League at the time. Five days later, he received the third red card of his career when he was sent off against Manchester City. At the close of 2008, Ronaldo helped United win the FIFA Club World Cup in Japan, assisting the final - winning goal against Liga de Quito and winning the Silver Ball in the process. He subsequently became United 's first Ballon d'Or winner since George Best in 1968, and the first Premier League player to be named the FIFA World Player of the Year.
Ronaldo scored his first Champions League goal of the season, and his first since the final against Chelsea, in a 2 -- 0 victory over Inter Milan, sending United into the quarter - finals. His match - winning goal in the second leg against Porto, a 40 - yard strike, earned him the inaugural FIFA Puskás Award, presented by FIFA in recognition of the best goal of the year; he later called it the best goal he had ever scored. He scored twice against Arsenal, including a free kick from 39 yards, as United advanced to the final in Rome, where he made little impact in United 's 2 -- 0 defeat to Barcelona. Ronaldo ended his time in England with nine trophies, as United claimed their third successive Premier League title and a Football League Cup. He finished the campaign with 26 goals in all competitions, 16 goals fewer than the previous season, in four more appearances. His final ever goal for Manchester United came on 10 May 2009 with a free kick in the Manchester derby at Old Trafford.
-- Ronaldo 's former manager, Alex Ferguson, following his transfer to Real Madrid
Ahead of the 2009 -- 10 season, Ronaldo joined Real Madrid for a world record transfer fee at the time, of £ 80 million (€ 94 million). His contract, which ran until 2015, was worth € 11 million per year and contained a € 1 billion buy - out clause. At least 80,000 fans attended his presentation at the Santiago Bernabéu, surpassing the 25 - year record of 75,000 fans who had welcomed Diego Maradona at Napoli. Since club captain Raúl already wore the number 7, the number Ronaldo wore at Manchester United, Ronaldo received the number 9 shirt, which was presented to him by the former Madrid player Alfredo Di Stéfano.
Ronaldo made his debut in La Liga on 29 August 2009, against Deportivo La Coruña, and scored from the penalty spot in Madrid 's 3 -- 2 home win. He scored in each of his first four league fixtures with the club, the first Madrid player to do so. His first Champions League goals for the club followed with two free kicks in the first group match against Zürich. His strong start to the season, however, was interrupted when he suffered an ankle injury in October while on international duty, which kept him sidelined for seven weeks. A week after his return, he received his first red card in Spain in a match against Almería. Midway through the season, Ronaldo placed second in the running for the Ballon d'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award, behind Lionel Messi of Barcelona, Madrid 's historic rivals. He finished the campaign with 33 goals in all competitions, including a hat - trick in a 4 -- 1 win against Mallorca on 5 May 2010, his first in the Spanish competition. His first season at Real Madrid ended trophyless.
Following Raúl 's departure, Ronaldo was handed the number 7 shirt for Real Madrid before the 2010 -- 11 season. His subsequent return to his Ballon d'Or - winning form was epitomised when, for the first time in his career, he scored four goals in a single match during a 6 -- 1 rout against Racing Santander on 23 October. His haul concluded a goalscoring run of six consecutive matches -- three in La Liga, one in the Champions League, and two for Portugal -- totalling 11 goals, the most he had scored in a single month. Ronaldo subsequently scored further hat - tricks against Athletic Bilbao, Levante, Villarreal, and Málaga. Despite his performance, he failed to make the podium for the inaugural FIFA Ballon d'Or at the end of 2010.
During a historical series of four Clásicos against rivals Barcelona in April 2011, Ronaldo scored twice to equal his personal record of 42 goals in all competitions in a single season. Although he failed to find the net during Madrid 's eventual elimination in the Champions League semi-finals, he equalised from the penalty spot in the return league game and scored the match - winning goal in the 103rd minute of the Copa del Rey final, winning his first trophy in Spain. Over the next two weeks, Ronaldo scored another four - goal haul against Sevilla, a hat - trick against Getafe, and a brace of free kicks against Villarreal, taking his league total to 38 goals, which equalled the record for most goals scored in a season held by Telmo Zarra and Hugo Sánchez. His two goals in the last match of the season, against Almería, made him the first player in La Liga to score 40 goals. In addition to the Pichichi Trophy, Ronaldo consequently won the European Golden Shoe for a second time, becoming the first player to win the award in two different leagues. He ended his second season at Real Madrid with a total of 53 goals in all competitions.
During the following campaign, the 2011 -- 12 season, Ronaldo surpassed his previous goalscoring feats to achieve a new personal best of 60 goals across all competitions. His 100th goal for Real Madrid came at Camp Nou in the Supercopa de España, though Barcelona claimed the trophy 5 -- 4 on aggregate. He regained a place on the FIFA Ballon d'Or podium, as runner - up to Messi, after scoring hat - tricks against Real Zaragoza, Rayo Vallecano, Málaga, Osasuna, and Sevilla, the last of which put Madrid on top of the league by the season 's midway point. Despite two goals from Ronaldo, Madrid were subsequently defeated by Barcelona 4 -- 3 on aggregrate in the quarter - finals of the Copa del Rey. He again scored twice, including a penalty, in the Champions League semi-finals against Bayern Munich, resulting in a 3 -- 3 draw, but his penalty kick in the shootout was saved by Manuel Neuer, leading to Madrid 's elimination.
Ronaldo found greater team success in the league, as he helped Real Madrid win their first La Liga title in four years, with a record 100 points. Following a hat - trick against Levante, further increasing Madrid 's lead over Barcelona, he scored his 100th league goal for Madrid in a 5 -- 1 win over Real Sociedad on 24 March 2012, a milestone he reached in just 92 matches across three seasons, breaking the previous club record held by Ferenc Puskás. Another hat - trick in the Madrid derby against Atlético Madrid brought his total to 40 league goals, equalling his record of the previous season. His final league goal of the campaign, against Mallorca, took his total to 46 goals, four short of the new record set by Messi, and earned him the distinction of being the first player to score against all 19 opposition teams in a single season in La Liga.
Ronaldo began the 2012 -- 13 season by lifting the Supercopa de España, his third trophy in Spain. With a goal in each leg by the Portuguese, Madrid won the Spanish Super Cup on away goals following a 4 -- 4 aggregate draw against Barcelona. Although Ronaldo publicly commented that he was unhappy with a "professional issue '' within the club, prompted by his refusal to celebrate his 150th goal for Madrid, his goalscoring rate did not suffer. After netting a hat - trick, including two penalties, against Deportivo La Coruña, he scored his first hat - trick in the Champions League in a 4 -- 1 victory over Ajax. Four days later, he became the first player to score in six successive Clásicos when he hit a brace in a 2 -- 2 draw at Camp Nou. His performances in 2012 again saw Ronaldo voted second in the running for the FIFA Ballon d'Or, finishing runner - up to four - time winner Messi.
Following the 2012 -- 13 winter break, Ronaldo captained Real Madrid for the first time in an official match, scoring a brace to lift 10 - man Madrid to a 4 -- 3 victory over Real Sociedad on 6 January. He subsequently became the first non-Spanish player in 60 years to captain Madrid in El Clásico on 30 January, a match which also marked his 500th club appearance. Three days prior, he had scored his 300th club goal as part of a perfect hat - trick against Getafe. Following hat - tricks against Celta Vigo and Sevilla, he scored his 200th goal for Real Madrid on 8 May in a 6 -- 2 win against Málaga, reaching the landmark in 197 games. He helped Madrid reach the Copa del Rey final by scoring a brace in El Clásico, which marked the sixth successive match at Camp Nou in which he had scored, a Real Madrid record. In the final, he headed the opening goal of an eventual 2 -- 1 defeat to Atlético Madrid, but was shown a straight red card in the 114th minute for violent conduct. Real Madrid also failed to defend their La Liga title, finishing runners up to Barcelona.
In the first knockout round of the Champions League, Ronaldo faced his former club Manchester United for the first time. After scoring the equaliser in a 1 -- 1 draw at the Santiago Bernabéu, he scored the match - winning goal in a 2 -- 1 victory at Old Trafford, his first return to his former home ground. Ronaldo scored three goals in Madrid 's 5 -- 3 aggregate victory over Galatasaray to see them advance to the semi-finals, He scored Madrid 's only goal in the 4 -- 1 away defeat to Borussia Dortmund, but failed to increase his side 's 2 -- 0 victory in the second leg, as they were eliminated at the semi-final stage for the third consecutive year. Ronaldo had scored 12 goals, finishing as the Champions League top goalscorer for a second time in his career. Accounting for all competitions, he ended the season with a total of 55 goals.
Real Madrid 's failure to win major silverware and reports of division among the players prompted speculation regarding Ronaldo 's future at the club. At the start of the 2013 -- 14 season, however, he signed a new contract that extended his stay by three years to 2018, with a salary of € 17 million net, making him briefly the highest - paid player in football. He was joined at the club by winger Gareth Bale, whose world record transfer fee of € 100 million surpassed the fee Madrid had paid for Ronaldo four years prior. Together with striker Karim Benzema, they formed an attacking trio popularly dubbed "BBC '', an acronym of Bale, Benzema, and Cristiano, and a play off the name of the public service broadcaster. After enjoying a strong goalscoring run during the first half of the campaign, Ronaldo suggested that he was in the best form of his career. By late November, he had scored 32 goals from 22 matches played for both club and country, including hat - tricks against Galatasaray, Sevilla, Real Sociedad, Northern Ireland, and Sweden. He ended 2013 with a total of 69 goals in 59 appearances, his highest year - end goal tally. His efforts earned him the FIFA Ballon d'Or, an amalgamation of the Ballon d'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award, for the first time in his career.
Concurrently with his individual achievements, Ronaldo enjoyed his greatest team success in Spain to date, as he helped Real Madrid win La Décima, their tenth European Cup. In the knockout phase of the competition, he scored a brace in each leg of a 9 -- 2 aggregate win against Schalke 04, helping Madrid advance to the quarter - finals. His goal in a 3 -- 0 home win over Borussia Dortmund -- his 100th Champions League match -- took his total for the season to 14 goals, equalling the record Messi had set two years before. After hitting a brace in a 4 -- 0 defeat of Bayern Munich at the Allianz Arena, he scored from the penalty spot in the 120th minute of the 4 -- 1 final victory over Atlético Madrid, becoming the first player to score in two European Cup finals for two different winning teams. His overall performance in the final was subdued as a result of patellar tendinitis and related hamstring problems, which had plagued him in the last months of the campaign. Ronaldo played the final against medical advice, later commenting: "In your life you do not win without sacrifices and you must take risks. '' As the Champions League top goalscorer for the third time, with a record 17 goals, he was named the UEFA Best Player in Europe.
In the Copa del Rey, Ronaldo helped Madrid reach the final by scoring a brace of penalties against Atlético Madrid at the Vicente Calderón, the first of which meant he had now scored in every single minute of a 90 - minute football match. His continued issues with his knee and thigh caused him to miss the final, where Real Madrid defeated Barcelona 2 -- 1 to claim the trophy. While Madrid were less successful in La Liga, finishing third, Ronaldo was unmatched as a goalscorer. He scored 31 goals in 30 league games, which earned him the Pichichi and the European Golden Shoe, receiving the latter award jointly with Liverpool striker Luis Suárez. Among his haul was his 400th career goal, in 653 appearances for club and country, which came with a brace against Celta Vigo on 6 January; he dedicated his goals to compatriot Eusébio, who had died two days before. A last - minute, backheeled volley scored against Valencia on 4 May -- his 50th goal in all competitions -- was recognised as the best goal of the season by the Liga de Fútbol Profesional, which additionally named Ronaldo the Best Player in La Liga.
-- Former Manchester United player Bobby Charlton, November 2014
During the next campaign, the 2014 -- 15 season, Ronaldo set a new personal best of 61 goals in all competitions, starting with both goals in Real Madrid 's 2 -- 0 victory over Sevilla in the UEFA Super Cup. He subsequently achieved his best - ever goalscoring start to a league campaign, with a record 15 goals in the first eight rounds of La Liga, including a four - goal haul against Elche and hat - tricks against Deportivo La Coruña and Athletic Bilbao. His record 23rd hat - trick in La Liga, scored against Celta Vigo on 6 December, made him the fastest player to reach 200 goals in the Spanish league, as he reached the milestone in only his 178th game. After lifting the FIFA Club World Cup with Madrid in Morocco, again winning the Silver Ball, Ronaldo received a second successive FIFA Ballon d'Or, joining Johan Cruyff, Michel Platini, and Marco van Basten as a three - time Ballon d'Or winner.
Following the winter break, Ronaldo 's form faltered, concurrently with a decline in performance by his team. A 2 -- 1 defeat against Valencia in the first match of 2015, despite his opening goal, ended Real Madrid 's Spanish record winning streak of 22 matches in all competitions. Their season continued unsuccessfully as they failed to win a major trophy, earning a second - place league finish and a semi-final exit in Europe. In the latter competition, Ronaldo extended his run of scoring away to a record 12 matches with his strike in a 2 -- 0 win against Schalke 04, before hitting a brace in the 3 -- 4 return defeat that allowed Madrid to progress to the quarter - finals. He then scored both of his side 's goals in the semi-finals against Juventus, where Madrid were eliminated 2 -- 3 on aggregate. With 10 goals, he finished the campaign as top scorer for a third consecutive season, alongside Messi and Neymar.
In La Liga, where Madrid finished second, Ronaldo went on a prolific goalscoring run towards the very end of the season. For the first time in his career, he scored five goals in one game, including an eight - minute hat - trick, in a 9 -- 1 rout of Granada on 5 April. His 300th goal for his club followed three days later in a 2 -- 0 win against Rayo Vallecano. Subsequent hat - tricks against Sevilla, Espanyol, and Getafe took his number of hat - tricks for Real Madrid to 31, surpassing Di Stéfano 's club record of 28 trebles. As a result, Ronaldo finished the season with 48 goals, two ahead of his total in the 2011 -- 12 season, despite having missed two matches in February for assaulting a Córdoba player. In addition to a second consecutive Pichichi, he won the European Golden Shoe for a record fourth time.
At the start of his seventh season at Real Madrid, the 2015 -- 16 campaign, Ronaldo became the club 's all - time top scorer, first in the league and then in all competitions. His five - goal haul in a 6 -- 0 away win over Espanyol on 12 September took his tally in La Liga to 230 goals in 203 games, surpassing the club 's previous recordholder, Raúl. A month later, on 17 October, he again surpassed Raúl when he scored the second goal in a 3 -- 0 defeat of Levante at the Bernabéu to take his overall total for the club to 324 goals. Ronaldo also became the all - time top scorer in the Champions League with a hat - trick in the first group match against Shakhtar Donetsk, having finished the previous season level with Messi on 77 goals. A brace against Malmö FF, scoring in a 2 -- 0 away win on 30 September, saw him reach the milestone of 500 career goals for both club and country. He subsequently became the first player to score double figures in the competition 's group stage, setting the record at 11 goals, including another four - goal haul against Malmö.
Despite finishing runner - up to Messi for the FIFA Ballon d'Or, Ronaldo received criticism for his form and performances against top teams, with 14 of his goals coming against Espanyol and Malmö. However, during the second half of the season, his form gradually improved. By scoring four goals in a 7 -- 1 home win over Celta de Vigo on 5 March 2016, Ronaldo arrived at 252 goals in La Liga to become the competition 's second - highest scorer in history behind Messi. After netting the match - winning goal for 10 - man Madrid in a 2 -- 1 Clásico victory on 2 April, he scored a hat - trick against VfL Wolfsburg to send his club into the Champions League semi-finals despite a 2 -- 0 first - leg defeat. The treble took his tally in the competition to 16 goals, making him the top scorer for the fourth consecutive season and the fifth overall. Suffering apparent fitness issues, Ronaldo gave a poorly - received performance in the final against Atlético Madrid, in a repeat of the 2014 final, though his penalty in the subsequent shoot - out secured La Undécima, Madrid 's 11th victory. For the sixth successive year, he ended the season having scored more than 50 goals across all competitions. For his efforts during the season, he received the UEFA Best Player in Europe Award for a second time.
-- Former Real Madrid manager Carlo Ancelotti, on Cristiano Ronaldo in June 2016
Ronaldo missed Real Madrid 's first three matches of the 2016 -- 17 season, including the 2016 UEFA Super Cup against Sevilla, as he continued to rehabilitate the knee injury he suffered against France in the final of Euro 2016. On 6 November, Ronaldo signed a new contract which will keep him with Madrid until 2021. On 19 November, he scored a hat - trick in a 3 -- 0 away win against Atlético Madrid, making him the all - time top - scorer in the Madrid derby with 18 goals. On 15 December, Ronaldo scored his 500th club career goal in the 2 -- 0 victory over Club América in the semi-finals of the FIFA Club World Cup. He then scored a hat - trick in the 4 -- 2 win over Japanese club Kashima Antlers in the final. Ronaldo finished the tournament as top scorer with four goals and was also named the best player of the tournament. He won the Ballon d'Or for a fourth time and the inaugural Best FIFA Men 's Player, a revival of the old - style FIFA World Player of the Year, largely owing to his success with Portugal in winning Euro 2016.
In Real Madrid 's 3 -- 2 away win against Villarreal on 27 February 2017, Ronaldo overtook Hugo Sánchez as the most prolific penalty - kick scorer in La Liga history. As a result of the penalty scored by Ronaldo, Real Madrid reached its 5,900 th goal in the history of the league and became the first team to do so. On 12 April, in the 2016 -- 17 UEFA Champions League quarter - final against Bayern Munich, Ronaldo scored two goals in a 2 -- 1 away win to give Madrid the win and the lead going into the second leg. The two goals saw him make history in becoming the first player to reach 100 goals in UEFA club competition. During the second leg of the quarter - finals, Ronaldo scored a perfect hat - trick and reached his 100th UEFA Champions League goal, becoming the first player to do so as Real Madrid again defeated Bayern 4 -- 2 after extra-time. On 2 May, Ronaldo scored another hat - trick in the following Champions League match, as Real defeated Atlético Madrid 3 -- 0 in the semi-final first leg. His hat - trick made him the first player to reach 50 goals in the knockout stage of the competition.
On 17 May, Ronaldo overtook Jimmy Greaves as the all - time top - scorer in the top five European leagues, scoring a brace against Celta de Vigo. He finished the season with 42 goals in all competitions as he helped Madrid to win their first La Liga title since 2012 and the first team to win back - to - back finals in the Champions League era; the first to win consecutive European titles in the competition since Milan in 1989 and 1990, when the tournament was known as the European Cup. In the 2017 final, he scored two goals in the victory against Juventus and became the top goalscorer for the fifth - straight season, and sixth overall, with 12 goals, while also becoming the first person to score in three finals in the Champions League era as well as reaching his 600th senior career goal. Real Madrid 's title was its 12th, also known as La Duodécima, extending its record, and its third in four years.
Spanish: Cristiano Ronaldo ya puede abandonar la Tierra y ponerse a jugar contra los marcianos. ¡ Aquí ya lo ha hecho todo!
Cristiano Ronaldo can now leave Earth and play against the Martians. He 's done everything here.
3 Apr 2018
At the start of the 2017 -- 18 season, Ronaldo scored Madrid 's second goal in a 3 -- 1 Supercopa de España first - leg victory over Barcelona at Camp Nou. Having received a yellow card for taking his top off during his goal celebrations, he was sent off for a second yellow card offence minutes later before he shoved the referee lightly to depict his dissatisfaction. He was handed a five - match ban following the game. In his 400th game for Real Madrid, Ronaldo scored two goals away to Borussia Dortmund in the Champions league, taking his club tally to 411 goals. On 23 October, his performances in the first half of 2017 saw him claim his fifth FIFA Player of the Year award by receiving The Best FIFA Men 's Player award for the second consecutive year. On 6 December, Ronaldo became the first player to score in all six Champions League group stage matches with a curling strike at home to Borussia Dortmund. A day later, Ronaldo won the Ballon d'Or for a fifth time in his career, receiving the award on the Eiffel Tower in Paris. On 3 March 2018, he scored two goals in a 3 -- 1 home win over Getafe, his first being his 300th La Liga goal in his 286th La Liga appearance, making him the fastest player to reach this landmark, and only the second player after Lionel Messi. On 18 March, he reached his 50th career hat - trick, netting four goals in a 6 -- 3 win against Girona. On 3 April, Ronaldo scored the first two goals in a 3 -- 0 away win against Juventus in the quarter - finals of the 2017 -- 18 UEFA Champions League, with his second goal being an acrobatic bicycle kick. The goal, described as a "PlayStation goal '' by Juventus defender Andrea Barzagli, garnered him a standing ovation from the Juventus fans in the stadium, as well as a plethora of plaudits from peers, pundits, and coaches. The goal was also his 119th in European competition, and made him more prolific than 465 other clubs to have participated in the competition. If he were a club, it would be the 10th highest scorer in Champions League history. He would score his 650th career goal in a 1 -- 1 draw with city rivals Atlético Madrid on April 8. On 11 April, he scored the goal Real Madrid needed to advance to the semi-final, in the second leg of the Champions League quarter - final at home to Juventus, from a 98th minute injury time penalty in a 3 -- 1 defeat, with an overall 4 -- 3 aggregate win. It was also his 10th against Juventus, a UEFA Champions League record against a single club.
A Portuguese international, Ronaldo began his youth career in 2001. Apart from the under - 15 team, he also represented the under - 17, under - 20, under - 21, and under - 23 national sides, amassing 34 youth caps and scoring 18 goals overall. He represented his country at the 2002 UEFA European Under - 17 Football Championship, where they failed to progress past the group stage. Ronaldo also featured in the Olympic squad at the 2004 Summer Olympics, scoring one goal in the tournament, though the team was eliminated in the first round, finishing bottom of their group with three points after 4 -- 2 defeats to eventual semi-finalists Iraq and quarter - finalists Costa Rica.
At age 18, Ronaldo earned his first senior cap in a 1 -- 0 victory over Kazakhstan on 20 August 2003. He was subsequently called up for UEFA Euro 2004, held in his home country, and scored his first international goal in a 2 -- 1 group stage loss to eventual champions Greece. After converting his penalty in a shootout against England at the quarter - final stage, he helped Portugal reach the final by scoring the opening goal in a 2 -- 1 win over the Netherlands, but the crucial last match ended in a 0 -- 1 defeat. He was featured in the team of the tournament, having provided two assists in addition to his two goals.
Ronaldo was the second - highest scorer in the European qualification for the 2006 FIFA World Cup with seven goals. During the tournament, he scored his first World Cup goal against Iran with a penalty kick in Portugal 's second match of the group stage. In the quarter - finals against England, his Manchester United teammate Wayne Rooney was sent off for stamping on Portugal defender Ricardo Carvalho. Although the referee later clarified that the red card was only due to Rooney 's infraction, the English media speculated that Ronaldo had influenced his decision by aggressively complaining, after which he was seen in replays winking at Portugal 's bench following Rooney 's dismissal. Ronaldo was subsequently booed during their 1 -- 0 semi-final defeat to France. FIFA 's Technical Study Group overlooked him for the tournament 's Best Young Player award, citing his behaviour as a factor in the decision.
One day after his 22nd birthday, Ronaldo captained Portugal for the first time in a friendly game against Brazil on 6 February 2007, as requested by Portuguese Football Federation president Carlos Silva, who had died two days earlier. Ahead of Euro 2008, he was given the number 7 shirt for the first time. While he scored eight goals in the qualification, the second - highest tally, he scored just one goal in the tournament, netting the second goal of their 3 -- 1 win in the group stage match against the Czech Republic, where he was named man of the match. Portugal were eliminated in the quarter - finals with a 3 -- 2 loss against eventual finalists Germany.
After Portugal 's unsuccessful performance in the European Championship, Luiz Felipe Scolari was replaced as coach by Carlos Queiroz, formerly the assistant manager at United. Queiroz made Ronaldo the squad 's permanent captain in July 2008. Ronaldo failed to score a single goal in the qualification for the 2010 World Cup, as Portugal narrowly avoided a premature elimination from the tournament with a play - off victory over Bosnia. At the group stage of the World Cup, he was named man of the match in all three matches against Côte d'Ivoire, North Korea, and Brazil. His only goal of the tournament came in their 7 -- 0 rout of North Korea, which marked his first international goal in 16 months. Portugal 's World Cup ended with a 1 -- 0 loss against eventual champions Spain in the round of 16.
Ronaldo scored seven goals in the qualification for Euro 2012, including two strikes against Bosnia in the play - offs, to send Portugal into the tournament, where they were drawn in a "group of death ''. After the opening 0 -- 1 defeat to Germany, he also failed to score in the 3 -- 2 win against Denmark, missing two clear one - on - one chances. He redeemed himself in the last group match against the Netherlands, where he scored twice to secure a 2 -- 1 victory, and the quarter - finals against the Czech Republic, scoring a header to give his team a 1 -- 0 win. He was named man of the match against both opponents. After the semi-finals against Spain ended scoreless, with Ronaldo having sent three shots over the bar, Portugal were eliminated in the penalty shootout. Ronaldo did not take a penalty as he had been slated to take the unused fifth, a decision that drew criticism. As the joint top scorer with three goals, alongside five other players, he was again included in the team of the tournament.
During the qualification for the 2014 World Cup, Ronaldo scored a total of eight goals. A qualifying match on 17 October 2012, a 1 -- 1 draw against Northern Ireland, earned him his 100th cap. His first international hat - trick also came against Northern Ireland, when he found the net three times in a 15 - minute spell of a 4 -- 2 qualifying victory on 6 September 2013. After Portugal failed to qualify during the regular campaign, Ronaldo scored all four of the team 's goals in the play - offs against Sweden, which ensured their place at the tournament. His hat - trick in the second leg took his international tally to 47 goals, equalling Pauleta 's record. Ronaldo subsequently scored twice in a 5 -- 1 friendly win over Cameroon on 5 March 2014 to become his country 's all - time top scorer.
Ronaldo took part in the tournament despite suffering from patellar tendinitis and a related thigh injury, potentially risking his career. Ronaldo later commented: "If we had two or three Cristiano Ronaldos in the team I would feel more comfortable. But we do n't. '' Despite ongoing doubts over his fitness, being forced to abort practice twice, Ronaldo played the full 90 minutes of the opening match against Germany, though he was unable to prevent a 4 -- 0 defeat. After assisting an injury - time 2 -- 2 equaliser against the United States, he scored a late match - winning goal in a 2 -- 1 victory over Ghana. His 50th international goal made him the first Portuguese to play and score in three World Cups. Portugal were eliminated from the tournament at the close of the group stage on goal difference.
Ronaldo scored five goals, including a hat - trick against Armenia, in the qualification for Euro 2016. With the only goal in another victory over Armenia on 14 November 2014, he reached 23 goals in the European Championship, including qualifying matches, to become the competition 's all - time leading goalscorer. At the start of the tournament, however, Ronaldo failed to convert his chances in Portugal 's draws against Iceland and Austria, despite taking a total of 20 shots on goal. In the latter match, he overtook Luís Figo as his nation 's most capped player with his 128th international appearance, which ended scoreless after he missed a penalty in the second half. With two goals and an assist in the last match of the group stage, a 3 -- 3 draw against Hungary, Ronaldo became the first player to score in four European Championships, having made a record 17 appearances in the tournament. Though placed third in their group behind Hungary and Iceland, his team qualified for the knockout round as a result of the competition 's newly expanded format.
-- Former Portugal international Paulo Futre
In Portugal 's first knockout match, Ronaldo 's only attempt on goal was parried by Croatia 's goalkeeper into the path of Ricardo Quaresma, whose finish then secured a 1 -- 0 victory late in extra time. After his team progressed past Poland on penalties, Ronaldo became the first player to participate in three European Championship semi-finals; he scored the opening goal and assisted a second in a 2 -- 0 win against Wales, equalling Michel Platini as the competition 's all - time top scorer with 9 goals. In the final against hosts France, Ronaldo was forced off after just 25 minutes following a challenge from Dimitri Payet; after multiple treatments and attempts to play on, he was stretchered off the pitch and replaced by Quaresma. During extra time, substitute Eder scored in the 109th minute to earn Portugal a 1 -- 0 victory. As team captain, Ronaldo later lifted the trophy in celebration of his country 's first - ever triumph in a major tournament. He was awarded the Silver Boot as the joint second - highest goalscorer, with three goals and three assists, and was named to the team of the tournament for the third time in his career.
Following the Euro 2016 success, Ronaldo scored four goals against Andorra in the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifiers on 8 October 2016. His four goals against a nine - man team marked the highest number of goals he has scored in an international match. On 13 November, Ronaldo scored two goals (while also missing a penalty) in another qualifier against Latvia, which ended in a 4 -- 1 home victory; these goals brought his international tally to 68 goals, putting level with Gerd Müller and Robbie Keane as the fourth - highest European international goalscorer of all time. He played his first professional match on his home island of Madeira on 28 March 2017 at the age of 32, opening a 2 -- 3 friendly defeat to Sweden at the Estádio dos Barreiros; with the goal, he tied with Miroslav Klose on 71 goals as the third - highest scoring European in international football.
-- Pelé, in an interview with Sportsmail.
In Portugal 's opening match of the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup against Mexico on 17 June, Cristiano Ronaldo set - up Quaresma 's opening goal in a 2 -- 2 draw. Three days later, he scored in a 1 -- 0 win over hosts Russia. On 24 June, he scored from a penalty in a 4 -- 0 win over New Zealand, which saw Portugal top their group and advance to the semi-finals of the competition; with his 75th international goal, Ronaldo also equalled Sándor Kocsis as the second - highest European international goalscorer of all time, behind only Ferenc Puskás. He was named man of the match in all three of Portugal 's group matches. Ronaldo left the competition early. After Chile defeated Portugal 3 -- 0 on penalties in the semi-finals, he was allowed to return home to be with his newborn children. Therefore, he missed Portugal 's third - place play - off match in which Portugal defeated Mexico 2 -- 1 after extra time.
On 31 August 2017, Ronaldo scored a hat - trick in a 5 -- 1 win in a World Cup qualifier over the Faroe Islands, which saw him overtake Pelé and equal Hussein Saeed as the joint - fifth - highest goalscorer in international football, with 78 goals. These goals brought his tally in the 2018 World Cup qualifiers to 14, equalling Predrag Mijatović 's record for most goals in a single UEFA senior men 's qualifying campaign, and also saw him break the record for the most goals scored in a single European qualifying group, overtaking the previous record of 13 goals set by David Healy and Robert Lewandowski; Ronaldo 's hat - trick took his World Cup qualifying goals total to 29, making him the highest scorer in European World Cup qualifiers, ahead of Andriy Shevchenko, and the highest goalscorer in World Cup qualifying and finals matches combined, with 32 goals, ahead of Miroslav Klose.
A versatile attacker, Ronaldo is capable of playing on either wing as well as through the centre of the pitch, and, while ostensibly right - footed, is very strong with both feet. He ranks among the world 's fastest footballers, both with and without the ball. Tactically, Ronaldo has undergone several evolutions throughout his career. While at Sporting and during his first season at Manchester United, he was typically deployed as a traditional winger on the right side of midfield, where he regularly looked to deliver crosses into the penalty area. In this position, he was able to use his pace and acceleration, agility, and technical skills to take on opponents in one - on - one situations. Ronaldo became noted for his dribbling and flair, often displaying an array of tricks and feints, such as the step overs that became his trademark.
As Ronaldo matured, he underwent a major physical transformation, developing a muscular body type that allows him to retain possession of the ball. His strength, combined with his elevation and height of 1.85 m (6 ft 1 in), awarded him an edge in winning aerial challenges for balls; consequently, many of his goals have been headers. Concurrently with his increased stamina and work - rate, his goalscoring ability improved drastically on the left wing, where he was given the positional freedom to move into the centre to finish attacks. He also increasingly played a creative role for his team, participating in build - up plays courtesy of his good vision and passing ability.
In his final seasons at United, Ronaldo played an even more attacking and central role, functioning both as a striker and as a supporting forward, or even as an attacking midfielder on occasion. He developed into a prolific goalscorer, capable of finishing well both inside the penalty area and from distance with an accurate and powerful shot. An accurate penalty kick taker, he also became a set piece specialist, renowned for his powerful, bending free kicks, though his ability in this regard deteriorated later on in his career.
At Real Madrid, he continued to play a more offensive role, while his creative and defensive duties became more limited, although, not diminished. Initially deployed as a centre forward, he was later moved back onto the left wing, though in a free tactical role, allowing him to drift into the centre at will. Madrid 's counter-attacking style of play allowed him to become a more efficient and consistent player, as evidenced by his record - breaking goalscoring feats. This style also allowed for him to be used as a ' striking playmaker ', where he would rely on his vision, passing, footballing intelligence, and dribbling ability to draw out defenders and leave space for teammates. From 2013 onwards, he effectively adapted his style to the physical effects of ageing with increasingly reduced off - the - ball movement and general involvement, instead focusing on short - distance creating and goalscoring.
-- Former manager Alex Ferguson, January 2013
Ronaldo is widely regarded as one of the two best players of his generation, alongside Lionel Messi. As a teenager, Ronaldo quickly established himself among the world 's best players, featuring as the core component for Manchester United in the mid-to - late 2000s. However, after winning his first Ballon d'Or by a record - high vote count at age 23, the public debate regarding his qualities as a player moved beyond his status in contemporary football to the possibility that he was the greatest player in history. Acclaimed for his prolific and consistent goalscoring ability, he is considered a decisive player, who stands out in games and who can be a game changer. Ronaldo is noted for his work ethic and dedication to improvement on the training pitch, as well as a natural leader. His drive and determination to succeed are fuelled by a desire to be talked about alongside Pelé and Diego Maradona when he hangs up his boots.
Ronaldo has at times been criticised for diving when tackled, about which his Madrid teammate Sergio Ramos responded after a 3 -- 1 victory over Barcelona in the Spanish Super Cup: "He was a long way from me. I think it was a moment of play that unbalanced him and he did n't feign anything, ''. Despite his talent, he was also occasionally criticised early in his career by manager Alex Ferguson, teammates and the media for being a selfish or overly flamboyant player.
Earlier in his career, Ronaldo had also been described as having an "arrogant image '' on the pitch, with Ronaldo stating that he had become a "victim '', because of how he was portrayed in the media. He is often seen moaning, gesticulating and scowling while trying to inspire his team to victory, with Ronaldo insisting that his competitive nature should not be mistaken for arrogance. His managers, teammates and various journalists have commented that this reputation has caused an unfair image of him. In 2014, Ronaldo told France Football that he had made a "mistake '' when he said in 2011, "People are jealous of me as I am young, handsome and rich '', adding that he had matured since then and fans understood him better.
Both players have scored in at least two UEFA Champions League finals and have regularly broken the 50 - goal barrier in a single season. Sports journalists and pundits regularly argue the individual merits of both players in an attempt to argue who they believe is the best player in modern football. It has been compared to sports rivalries such as the Muhammad Ali -- Joe Frazier rivalry in boxing, the Borg -- McEnroe rivalry in tennis, and the Ayrton Senna -- Alain Prost rivalry from Formula One motor racing.
-- Cristiano Ronaldo commenting on his rivalry with Messi.
Some commentators choose to analyse the differing physiques and playing styles of the two, while part of the debate revolves around the contrasting personalities of the two players: Ronaldo is sometimes depicted as an arrogant and theatrical showoff, while Messi is portrayed as a shy, humble character.
In a 2012 interview, Ronaldo commented on the rivalry, saying "I think we push each other sometimes in the competition, this is why the competition is so high '', while Ronaldo 's manager during his time at Manchester United, Alex Ferguson, opined that "I do n't think the rivalry against each other bothers them. I think they have their own personal pride in terms of wanting to be the best ''. Messi himself denied any rivalry, saying that it was "only the media, the press, who wants us to be at loggerheads but I 've never fought with Cristiano ''. Responding to the claims that he and Messi do not get on well on a personal level, Ronaldo commented, "We do n't have a relationship outside the world of football, just as we do n't with a lot of other players '', before adding that in years to come he hopes they can laugh about it together, stating; "We have to look on this rivalry with a positive spirit, because it 's a good thing. '' Representing archrivals Barcelona and Real Madrid, the two players face each other at least twice every season in the world 's biggest club game, El Clásico, which had a global audience of 400 million viewers in March 2014.
In a debate at Oxford Union in October 2013, when asked whether FIFA president Sepp Blatter preferred Messi or Ronaldo, Blatter paid tribute to the work ethic of the Argentine before taking a swipe at Ronaldo, claiming "one of them has more expenses for the hairdresser than the other ''. Real Madrid demanded -- and promptly received -- a full apology, and the Portuguese issued his own riposte with a mock - salute celebration after scoring a penalty against Sevilla, after Blatter had described him as a "commander '' on the pitch.
Forbes has twice ranked Ronaldo first on their list of the world 's highest - paid football players; his combined income from salaries, bonuses and non-football earnings was $73 million in 2013 -- 14 and $79 million in 2014 -- 15. The latter earnings saw him listed behind only boxer Floyd Mayweather, Jr. on the magazine 's list of The World 's Highest - Paid Athletes. In 2016, he became the first footballer to top the Forbes list of highest - earning athletes, with a total income of $88 million from his salary and endorsements in 2015 -- 16. He topped the list for the second straight year with earnings of $93 million in 2016 -- 17. Ronaldo is one of the world 's most marketable athletes: SportsPro rated him the fifth most marketable athlete in 2012, and eighth most marketable athlete in 2013, with Brazilian footballer Neymar topping both lists. Sports market research company Repucom named Ronaldo the most marketable and most recognised football player in the world in May 2014. He was additionally named in the 2014 Time 100, Time 's annual list of the most influential people in the world. ESPN named Ronaldo the world 's most famous athlete in 2016 and 2017.
As his reputation grew from his time at Manchester United, Ronaldo signed many sponsorship deals for consumer products, including e.g. sportswear (he wears Nike Mercurial Vapor CR7 boots), soft drinks, clothing, automotive lubricants, financial services, electronics, computer video games, and much more. Ronaldo was featured as the cover athlete of EA Sports ' FIFA video game FIFA 18 and he was heavily involved in the game 's promotion.
Ronaldo has established a strong online presence; the most popular sportsperson on social media, he counted 158 million total followers across Facebook, Twitter and Instagram by June 2015. As of June 2015, he has the world 's biggest Facebook fanbase with 103 million followers: he became the first sportsperson to reach 50 million followers in August 2010, and in October 2014, he became the first sportsperson, and the second person after Shakira, to reach 100 million followers. By June 2017, Ronaldo had 277 million followers across social media. His sponsors earned $936 million in media value across his social media accounts between June 2016 to June 2017. Ronaldo has released two mobile apps: in December 2011, he launched an iPhone game called Heads Up with Cristiano, created by developer RockLive, and in December 2013, he launched Viva Ronaldo, a dedicated social networking website and mobile app. Computer security company McAfee produced a 2012 report ranking footballers by the probability of an internet search for their name leading to an unsafe website, with Ronaldo 's name first on the list.
Ronaldo 's life and person have been the subject of several works. His autobiography, titled Moments, was published in December 2007. His sponsor Castro produced the television film Ronaldo: Tested to the Limit, in which he is physically and mentally tested in several areas; his physical performance was consequently subject to scrutiny by world media upon the film 's release in September 2011. Cristiano Ronaldo: The World at His Feet, a documentary narrated by the actor Benedict Cumberbatch, was released via Vimeo in June 2014. A documentary film about his life and career, titled Ronaldo, was released worldwide on 9 November 2015. Directed by BAFTA - winner Anthony Wonke, the film is produced and distributed by Universal Pictures, while Asif Kapadia is the executive producer.
In 2007, C.D. Nacional renamed their youth campus Cristiano Ronaldo Campus Futebol (Cristiano Ronaldo Football Campus). In December 2013, Ronaldo opened a museum, Museu CR7, in his hometown of Funchal, Madeira, to house trophies and memorabilia of his life and playing career; the museum is an official sponsor of the local football team União da Madeira. At a ceremony held at the Belém Palace in January 2014, President of Portugal Aníbal Cavaco Silva raised Ronaldo to the rank of Grand Officer of the Order of Prince Henry, "to distinguish an athlete of world renown who has been a symbol of Portugal globally, contributing to the international projection of the country and setting an example of tenacity for future generations ''. A bronze statue of Ronaldo, designed by artist Ricardo Madeira Veloso, was unveiled in Funchal on 21 December 2014.
In June 2010, during the build - up to the World Cup, Ronaldo became the fourth footballer -- after Steven Gerrard, Pelé and David Beckham -- to be represented as a waxwork at Madame Tussauds London. Another waxwork of him was presented at the Madrid Wax Museum in December 2013. In June 2015, astronomers led by David Sobral from Lisbon and Leiden discovered a galaxy which they named CR7 (Cosmos Redshift 7) in tribute to Cristiano Ronaldo in reference to his CR7 mantle (his initials and shirt number). On 23 July 2016, following Portugal 's triumph at Euro 2016, Madeira Airport in Funchal was renamed the Cristiano Ronaldo International Airport. The unveiling of the rebranded terminal took place on 29 March 2017, which included a bust of his head being presented. Neither the bust nor the name change were unanimous, with the lack of the bust 's likeness to Ronaldo being ridicularized by Saturday Night Live 's character Cecilia Giminez portrayed by comedian and actress Kate McKinnon, while the name change was subject to much debate locally by some politicians and citizens who even started a petition against the move -- action that was criticised by Miguel Albuquerque, the president of Madeira.
Ronaldo 's father, José Dinis Aveiro, died of an alcoholism - related liver condition at age 52 in September 2005 when Ronaldo was 20. Ronaldo has said that he does not drink alcohol, and he received libel damages over a Daily Mirror article that reported him drinking heavily in a nightclub while recovering from an injury in July 2008.
-- During the filming of his authorized biography, Ronaldo admitted to often preferring solitude while working, attributing it to his autonomous way of living.
Ronaldo was in a relationship with Russian model Irina Shayk from 2010 -- 2015. Ronaldo became father to a son in June 2010. Ronaldo announced that he had full custody. Ronaldo has never publicly revealed the identity of his son 's mother. In June 2017, Ronaldo confirmed on Facebook that he had become the father to twins. Five months later, his girlfriend Georgina Rodriguez gave birth to their daughter.
Television footage of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami showed an eight - year - old boy survivor named Martunis wearing a number 7 Portuguese football shirt who was stranded for 19 days after his family was killed. Following this, Ronaldo visited Aceh, Indonesia, to raise funds for rehabilitation and reconstruction. After accepting undisclosed damages from a libel case against The Sun newspaper in 2008, Ronaldo donated the damages to a charity in Madeira. In 2009, Ronaldo donated £ 100,000 to the hospital that saved his mother 's life in Madeira following her battle with cancer, so that they could build a cancer centre on the island. In support of the victims of the 2010 Madeira flood, Ronaldo pledged to play in a charity match in Madeira between Primeira Liga club Porto and players from Madeiran - based clubs Marítimo and Nacional.
In 2012, Ronaldo and his agent paid for specialist treatment for a nine - year - old Canarian boy with apparently terminal cancer. In November 2012, Ronaldo sold the golden boot he had won in 2011 for € 1.5 million and gave the money to fund schools for children in Gaza. In December 2012, Ronaldo joined FIFA 's ' 11 for Health ' programme to raise awareness amongst kids of how to steer clear of conditions including drug addiction, HIV, malaria and obesity.
In January 2013, Ronaldo became Save the Children 's new Global Artist Ambassador, in which he hopes to help fight child hunger and obesity. In March, Ronaldo agreed to be the ambassador for The Mangrove Care Forum in Indonesia, an organisation aiming to raise awareness of mangrove conservation.
In November 2014, Ronaldo appeared in FIFA 's "11 against Ebola '' campaign with a selection of top football players from around the world, including Neymar, Gareth Bale, Xavi and Didier Drogba. Under the slogan "Together, we can beat Ebola '', FIFA 's campaign was done in conjunction with the Confederation of African Football and health experts, with the players holding up eleven messages to raise awareness of the disease and ways to combat it. He was named the world 's most charitable sportsperson in 2015. In June 2016, Ronaldo donated the entirety of his € 600,000 Champions League bonus after Real Madrid won the 2015 -- 16 UEFA Champions League.
In August 2016, Ronaldo launched CR7Selfie, a selfie app for charity to help Save the Children that lets participants take a selfie with him in one of several different outfits and poses. In the app, fans can select from among 68 photos of Ronaldo in different outfits and poses, and scroll through 39 filters to apply to their selfies.
Ronaldo is known as a fashion icon, and is a lucrative spokesperson sought after by clothing designers, health and fitness specialists, fashion magazines, perfume and cosmetics manufacturers, hair stylists, exercise promoters, and spa and recreation companies. One example is a line of fragrances called Legacy.
He opened his first fashion boutique under the name "CR7 '' (his initials and shirt number) on the island of Madeira, Portugal in 2006. Ronaldo expanded his business with a second clothes boutique in Lisbon in 2008.
In partnership with Scandinavian manufacturer JBS Textile Group and the New York fashion designer Richard Chai, Ronaldo co-designed a range of underwear and sock line, released in November 2013. He later expanded his CR7 fashion brand by launching a line of premium shirts and shoes by July 2014. In June 2015, Ronaldo announced that he would be releasing his own fragrance by the end of the year, in a partnership with Eden Parfums.
In 2017, Ronaldo was charged with fraudulently evading almost € 15 million in tax between 2011 and 2014, a claim which he denies. As of September 2017, the court case is ongoing.
In April 2017, a story was published by Der Spiegel based on leaked documents provided by Football Leaks relating to an alleged rape by Ronaldo, stating that the alleged assault occurred in 2009 but that a legal agreement and accompanying non-disclosure agreement was entered into, resulting in the alleged charges being dropped. Ronaldo 's agent Jorge Mendes denied the claims labelling them ' journalistic fiction ', with the player stating it was consensual sex. Der Spiegel published a further story in response to the denial, alleging that text messages sent by Ronaldo showed that he was aware of the legal negotiations.
Sporting CP
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when was the bible book of john written | Gospel of John - wikipedia
The Gospel According to John (Greek: Τὸ κατὰ Ἰωάννην εὐαγγέλιον, translit. Tò katà Iōánnēn euangélion; also called the Gospel of John, the Fourth Gospel, or simply John) is one of the four canonical gospels in the New Testament. It traditionally appears fourth, after the Synoptic Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke.
Although the Gospel of John is anonymous, Christian tradition historically has attributed it to John the Apostle, son of Zebedee and one of Jesus ' Twelve Apostles. The gospel is so closely related in style and content to the three surviving Johannine epistles that commentators treat the four books, along with the Book of Revelation, as a single corpus of Johannine literature, albeit not necessarily written by the same author.
C.K. Barrett, and later Raymond E. Brown, suggested that a tradition developed around the "Johannine Community '', and that this tradition gave rise to the gospel. The discovery of a large number of papyrus fragments of manuscripts with Johannine themes has led more scholars to recognize that the texts were among the most influential in the early Church.
The discourses contained in this gospel seem to be concerned with issues of the church -- synagogue debate at the time of composition. It is notable that in John, the community appears to define itself primarily in contrast to Judaism, rather than as part of a wider Christian community. Though Christianity started as a movement within Judaism, it gradually separated from Judaism because of mutual opposition between the two religions.
The Gospel of John can be divided into four sections: a prologue (1: 1 -- 18), a Book of Signs (1: 19 -- 12: 50), a Book of Glory (13: 1 -- 20: 31), and an epilogue (21). The structure is highly schematic: there are seven "signs '' culminating in the raising of Lazarus (foreshadowing the resurrection of Jesus), and seven "I am '' sayings and discourses, culminating in Thomas 's proclamation of Jesus as "my Lord and my God '' -- the same title (dominus et deus) claimed by Roman Emperor Domitian.
Jesus is placed in his cosmic setting as the Logos made flesh who reveals God and gives salvation to believers; John the Baptist, Andrew, and Nathanael bear witness to him as the Lamb of God, the Son of God, and the Christ.
The narrative of Jesus ' public ministry, beginning with the introduction of the first disciples of Jesus. It consists of seven miracles, or "signs '', interspersed with long dialogues, discourses, "Amen, amen '' sayings, and "I Am '' sayings, culminating with the raising of Lazarus from the dead. In John it is this, and not the cleansing of the Temple, that prompts the authorities to have Jesus executed. The seven signs consist of Jesus ' miracle at the wedding at Cana, his healing the royal official 's son, his healing the paralytic at Bethesda, his feeding the 5,000, his walking on water, his healing the man born blind, and his raising Lazarus from the dead. Other incidents recounted in this segment of the gospel include the cleansing of the Temple; Jesus ' conversation with the Pharisee Nicodemus, wherein he explains the importance of spiritual rebirth; his conversation with the Samaritan woman at the well, wherein he gives the Water of Life Discourse; the Bread of Life Discourse, which prompted many of his disciples to leave; the Woman Taken in Adultery; Jesus ' claims to be the Light of the World; Jesus ' answer to Pilate; the Good Shepherd pericope; Jesus ' rejection by the Jews; the Jesus wept; the plot to kill Jesus; the anointing of Jesus; Jesus ' triumphal entry into Jerusalem; the prediction of the glorification of the Son of Man; and the prediction of the Last Judgment.
The narrative of Jesus ' Passion, Resurrection, and post-Resurrection appearances. The Passion narrative opens with an account of the Last Supper that differs significantly from that found in the Synoptics, with Jesus washing the disciples ' feet instead of ushering in a new covenant of his body and blood. This is followed by Jesus ' Farewell Discourse, an account of his betrayal, arrest, trial, death, burial, post-Resurrection appearances, and final commission for his followers. It also includes Peter 's denial, the institution of the New Commandment and the New Covenant, the promise of the Paraclete, the allegory of the True Vine, the High Priestly Prayer, the ut omnes unum sint, the What is truth?, Jesus ' mocking and crowning with thorns, the Ecce homo, the discovery of the empty tomb, the noli me tangere, the Great Commission, and the incredulity of Thomas. The section ends with a conclusion on the purpose of the gospel: "that (the reader) may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing you may have life in his name. ''
The narrative of Jesus ' post-Resurrection appearance to his disciples by the lake, the miraculous catch of fish, the prophecy of the crucifixion of Peter, the restoration of Peter, and the fate of the Beloved Disciple. A majority of modern scholars believes this chapter not to be integral to the original gospel.
Most scholars consider the Gospel of John to be anonymous. According to a Church tradition dating from the 2nd century, first attested by Irenaeus, the author was "the Disciple whom Jesus loved '' mentioned in John 21: 24, who is understood to be John son of Zebedee, one of Jesus ' Twelve Apostles. These identifications, however, are rejected by many modern biblical scholars. Nevertheless, the author of the fourth Gospel is sometimes called John the Evangelist, often out of convenience since the definitive name of the author is still debated.
John is usually dated to AD 90 -- 110. It arose in a Jewish Christian community in the process of breaking from the Jewish synagogue. Scholars believe that the text went through two to three redactions, or "editions '', before reaching its current form.
John, which regularly describes Jesus ' opponents simply as "the Jews '', is more consistently hostile to "the Jews '' than any other body of New Testament writing. Historian and former Roman Catholic priest James Carroll states: "The climax of this movement comes in chapter 8 of John, when Jesus is portrayed as denouncing ' the Jews ' who were gathered at the Temple as the offspring of Satan. '' In John 8: 44 Jesus tells the Jews: "You are of your father the devil, and the desires of your father you will do. He was a murderer from the beginning, and he stood not in the truth; because truth is not in him. '' In 8: 38 and 11: 53, "the Jews '' are depicted as wishing to kill Jesus. However, Carroll cautions that this and similar statements in the Gospel of Matthew and the 1 Thessalonians should be viewed as "evidence not of Jew hatred but of sectarian conflicts among Jews '' in the early years of the Christian church.
As noted by New Testament scholar Obrey M. Hendricks, Jr.: "Although its scathing portrayal of the Jews has opened John to charges of anti-Semitism, a careful reading reveals ' the Jews ' to be a class designation, not a religious or ethnic grouping; rather than denoting adherents to Judaism in general, the term primarily refers to the hereditary Temple religious authorities. '' In later centuries, John was used to support anti-Semitic polemics, but the author of the gospel regarded himself as a Jew, championed Jesus and his followers as Jews, and probably wrote for a largely Jewish community.
Rudolf Bultmann, in a seminal work published in 1941, argued that John 's sources were a hypothetical "Signs Gospel '' listing Christ 's miracles, a revelation discourse, and a passion narrative. Bultmann 's work, combined with that of other scholars (the work of Raymond E. Brown was particularly influential in the English - speaking world), led to a scholarly consensus in the second half of the 20th century that the Gospel of John was independent of Matthew, Mark, and Luke, known as the "Synoptic Gospels. '' This agreement broke down in the last decade of the century, and there are now many scholars who believe that John did know the Synoptics, especially Mark, while the hypothesis of a "signs '' source has been increasingly undermined.
But theories of either complete independence or complete dependence on the Synoptics are largely rejected in current scholarship: on the one hand, elements such as distinctive Johannine language, the lengthy discourses, and the prologue on the Logos, are clearly unique to John; on the other, John clearly shares a multitude of episodes with the other three.
The most important sources used by the evangelist were the Jewish scriptures (the Tanakh, more or less identical with the Christian Old Testament), probably in the Greek translation. John quotes from them directly, references important figures from them, and uses narratives from them as the basis for several of the discourses. But the author was also familiar with non-Jewish sources: the Logos of the prologue (the Word that is with God from the beginning of creation) derives from both the Jewish concept of Lady Wisdom and from the Greek philosophers, while John 6 alludes not only to the exodus but also to Greco - Roman mystery cults, while John 4 alludes to Samaritan messianic beliefs.
Chapters 19 and 21 of John hint that "the Disciple whom Jesus loved '', or "the Beloved Disciple '', was an eyewitness to Jesus ' ministry, but the majority of scholars are cautious of accepting this at face value. With the exception of the "Johannine Thunderbolt '' passages, the teachings of Jesus found in the synoptic gospels are very different from those recorded in John, and since the 19th century some scholars have argued that these discourses in Johannine style are less likely to be historical, and more likely to have been written for theological purposes.
Scholars usually agree that John is not entirely without historical value. It has become generally accepted that certain sayings in John are as old or older than their synoptic counterparts. His representation of the topography around Jerusalem is often superior to that of the Synoptics, his testimony that Jesus was executed before, rather than on, Passover, might well be more accurate, and his presentation of Jesus in the garden and the prior meeting held by the Jewish authorities are possibly more historically plausible than their synoptic parallels.
Rylands Library Papyrus P52, a Greek papyrus fragment with John 18: 31 -- 33 on one side and 18: 37 -- 38 on the other, commonly dated to the first half of the 2nd century, is the oldest New Testament manuscript known. A substantially complete text of John exists from the beginning of the 3rd century at the latest, so that the textual evidence for this gospel is commonly accepted as both earlier and more reliable than that for any other. John stands fourth in the standard ordering of the gospels, after Matthew, Mark and Luke.
The Gospel of John presents a "high Christology, '' depicting Jesus as divine, and yet subordinate to the one God. John gives more focus to the relationship of the Son to the Father than the Synoptics, as seen in chapter 17 of the gospel. In the Synoptics, Jesus speaks often about the Kingdom of God while his own divine role is obscured (see Messianic Secret), but in John, Jesus talks openly about his divine role, echoing the Jewish God 's own statement of identity "I Am that I Am '' with several "I Am '' declarations that also identify him with symbols of major significance. He says "I am '':
In the prologue, John identifies Jesus as the Logos (Word). In Ancient Greek philosophy, the term logos meant the principle of cosmic reason. In this sense, it was similar to the Hebrew concept of Wisdom, God 's companion and intimate helper in creation. The Hellenistic Jewish philosopher Philo merged these two themes when he described the Logos as God 's creator of and mediator with the material world. The evangelist adapted Philo 's description of the Logos, applying it to Jesus, the incarnation of the Logos.
The opening verse of John is translated as "the Word was with God and the Word was God '' in all "orthodox '' English Bibles. There are alternative views. The Jehovah 's Witnesses ' New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures renders the verse as "The Word was with God, and the Word was a god. '' The Scholars Version of the gospel, developed by the Jesus Seminar, loosely translates the phrase as "The Logos was what God was, '' offered as a better representation of the original meaning of the evangelist.
The portrayal of Jesus ' death in John is unique among the four Gospels. It does not appear to rely on the kinds of atonement theology indicative of vicarious sacrifice (cf. Mk 10: 45, Rom 3: 25) but rather presents the death of Jesus as his glorification and return to the father. Likewise, the three "passion predictions '' of the Synoptic Gospels (Mk 8: 31, 9: 31, 10: 33 -- 34 and pars.) are replaced instead in John with three instances of Jesus explaining how he will be exalted or "lifted up '' (Jn 3: 14, 8: 28, 12: 32). The verb for "lifted up '' reflects the double entendre at work in John 's theology of the cross, for Jesus is both physically elevated from the earth at the crucifixion but also, at the same time, exalted and glorified.
Among the most controversial areas of interpretation of John is its sacramental theology. Scholars ' views have fallen along a wide spectrum ranging from anti-sacramental and non-sacramental, to sacramental, to ultra-sacramental and hyper - sacramental. Scholars disagree both on whether and how frequently John refers to the sacraments at all, and on the degree of importance he places upon them. Individual scholars ' answers to one of these questions do not always correspond to their answer to the other.
According to Rudolf Bultmann, there are three sacramental allusions: one to baptism (3: 5), one to the Eucharist (6: 51 -- 58), and one to both (19: 34). He believed these passages to be later interpolations, though most scholars now reject this assessment. Some scholars on the weaker - sacramental side of the spectrum deny that there are any sacramental allusions in these passages or in the gospel as a whole, while others see sacramental symbolism applied to other subjects in these and other passages. Oscar Cullmann and Bruce Vawter, a Protestant and a Catholic respectively, and both on the stronger - sacramental end of the spectrum, have found sacramental allusions in most chapters. Cullmann found references to baptism and the Eucharist throughout the gospel, and Vawter found additional references to matrimony in 2: 1 -- 11, anointing of the sick in 12: 1 -- 11, and penance in 20: 22 -- 23. Towards the center of the spectrum, Raymond Brown is more cautious than Cullmann and Vawter but more lenient than Bultmann and his school, identifying several passages as containing sacramental allusions and rating them according to his assessment of their degree of certainty.
Most scholars on the stronger - sacramental end of the spectrum assess the sacraments as being of great importance to the evangelist. However, perhaps counterintuitively, some scholars who find fewer sacramental references, such as Udo Schnelle, view the references that they find as highly important as well. Schnelle in particular views John 's sacramentalism as a counter to Docetist anti-sacramentalism. On the other hand, though he agrees that there are anti-Docetic passages, James Dunn views the absence of a Eucharistic institution narrative as evidence for an anti-sacramentalism in John, meant to warn against a conception of eternal life as dependent on physical ritual.
In comparison to the synoptic gospels, the Fourth Gospel is markedly individualistic, in the sense that it places emphasis more on the individual 's relation to Jesus than on the corporate nature of the Church. This is largely accomplished through the consistently singular grammatical structure of various aphoristic sayings of Jesus throughout the gospel. According to Richard Bauckham, emphasis on believers coming into a new group upon their conversion is conspicuously absent from John. There is also a theme of "personal coinherence '', that is, the intimate personal relationship between the believer and Jesus in which the believer "abides '' in Jesus and Jesus in the believer. According to C.F.D. Moule, the individualistic tendencies of the Fourth Gospel could potentially give rise to a realized eschatology achieved on the level of the individual believer; this realized eschatology is not, however, to replace "orthodox '', futurist eschatological expectations, but is to be "only (their) correlative. '' Some have argued that the Beloved Disciple is meant to be all followers of Jesus, inviting all into such a personal relationship with Christ. Beyond this, the emphasis on the individual 's relationship with Jesus in the Gospel has suggested its usefulness for contemplation on the life of Christ.
John 's account of the Baptist is different from that of the synoptic gospels. In this gospel, John is not called "the Baptist. '' The Baptist 's ministry overlaps with that of Jesus; his baptism of Jesus is not explicitly mentioned, but his witness to Jesus is unambiguous. The evangelist almost certainly knew the story of John 's baptism of Jesus and he makes a vital theological use of it. He subordinates the Baptist to Jesus, perhaps in response to members of the Baptist 's sect who regarded the Jesus movement as an offshoot of their movement.
In John 's gospel, Jesus and his disciples go to Judea early in Jesus ' ministry before John the Baptist was imprisoned and executed by Herod. He leads a ministry of baptism larger than John 's own. The Jesus Seminar rated this account as black, containing no historically accurate information. According to the biblical historians at the Jesus Seminar, John likely had a larger presence in the public mind than Jesus.
Although not commonly understood as Gnostic, many scholars, including Bultmann, have forcefully argued that the Gospel of John has elements in common with Gnosticism. Christian Gnosticism did not fully develop until the mid-2nd century, and so 2nd - century Proto - Orthodox Christians concentrated much effort in examining and refuting it. To say John 's gospel contained elements of Gnosticism is to assume that Gnosticism had developed to a level that required the author to respond to it. Bultmann, for example, argued that the opening theme of the Gospel of John, the pre-existing Logos, was actually a Gnostic theme. Other scholars, e.g. Raymond E. Brown have argued that the pre-existing Logos theme arises from the more ancient Jewish writings in the eighth chapter of the Book of Proverbs, and was fully developed as a theme in Hellenistic Judaism by Philo Judaeus.
Comparisons to Gnosticism are based not in what the author says, but in the language he uses to say it, notably, use of the concepts of Logos and Light. Other scholars, e.g. Raymond E. Brown, have argued that the ancient Jewish Qumran community also used the concept of Light versus Darkness. The arguments of Bultmann and his school were seriously compromised by the mid-20th - century discoveries of the Nag Hammadi library of genuine Gnostic writings (which are dissimilar to the Gospel of John) as well as the Qumran library of Jewish writings (which are often similar to the Gospel of John).
Gnostics read John but interpreted it differently from the way non-Gnostics did. Gnosticism taught that salvation came from gnosis, secret knowledge, and Gnostics did not see Jesus as a savior but a revealer of knowledge. Barnabas Lindars asserts that the gospel teaches that salvation can only be achieved through revealed wisdom, specifically belief in (literally belief into) Jesus.
Raymond Brown contends that "The Johannine picture of a savior who came from an alien world above, who said that neither he nor those who accepted him were of this world, and who promised to return to take them to a heavenly dwelling could be fitted into the gnostic world picture (even if God 's love for the world in 3: 16 could not). '' It has been suggested that similarities between John 's gospel and Gnosticism may spring from common roots in Jewish Apocalyptic literature.
The Gospel of John is significantly different from the synoptic gospels, with major variations in material, theological emphasis, chronology, and literary style. There are also some discrepancies between John and the Synoptics, some amounting to contradictions.
John lacks scenes from the Synoptics such as Jesus ' baptism, the calling of the Twelve, exorcisms, parables, the Transfiguration, and the Last Supper. Conversely, it includes scenes not found in the Synoptics, including Jesus turning water into wine at the wedding at Cana, the resurrection of Lazarus, Jesus washing the feet of his disciples, and multiple visits to Jerusalem.
In the fourth gospel, Jesus ' mother Mary, while frequently mentioned, is never identified by name. John does assert that Jesus was known as the "son of Joseph '' in 6: 42. For John, Jesus ' town of origin is irrelevant, for he comes from beyond this world, from God the Father.
While John makes no direct mention of Jesus ' baptism, he does quote John the Baptist 's description of the descent of the Holy Spirit as a dove, as happens at Jesus ' baptism in the Synoptics. Major synoptic speeches of Jesus are absent, including the Sermon on the Mount and the Olivet Discourse, and the exorcisms of demons are never mentioned as in the Synoptics. John never lists all of the Twelve Disciples and names at least one disciple, Nathanael, whose name is not found in the Synoptics. Thomas is given a personality beyond a mere name, described as "Doubting Thomas ''.
Jesus is identified with the Word ("Logos ''), and the Word is identified with theos ("god '' in Greek); no such identification is made in the Synoptics. In Mark, Jesus urges his disciples to keep his divinity secret, but in John he is very open in discussing it, even referring to himself as "I AM '', the title God gives himself in Exodus at his self - revelation to Moses. In the Synoptics, the chief theme is the Kingdom of God and the Kingdom of Heaven (the latter specifically in Matthew), while John 's theme is Jesus as the source of eternal life and the Kingdom is only mentioned twice. In contrast to the synoptic expectation of the Kingdom (using the term parousia, meaning "coming ''), John presents a more individualistic, realized eschatology.
In the Synoptics, the ministry of Jesus takes a single year, but in John it takes three, as evidenced by references to three Passovers. Events are not all in the same order: the date of the crucifixion is different, as is the time of Jesus ' anointing in Bethany and the cleansing of the temple occurs in the beginning of Jesus ' ministry rather than near its end.
In the Synoptics, quotations from Jesus are usually in the form of short, pithy sayings; in John, longer quotations are often given. The vocabulary is also different, and filled with theological import: in John, Jesus does not work "miracles '' (Greek: δῠνάμεις, translit. dynámeis, sing. δύνᾰμῐς, dýnamis), but "signs '' (Greek: σημεῖᾰ, translit. sēmeia, sing. σημεῖον, sēmeion) which unveil his divine identity. Most scholars consider John not to contain any parables. Rather it contains metaphorical stories or allegories, such as those of the Good Shepherd and of the True Vine, in which each individual element corresponds to a specific person, group, or thing. Some scholars, however, find some such parables as the short story of the childbearing woman (16: 21) or the dying grain (12: 24).
According to the Synoptics, the arrest of Jesus was a reaction to the cleansing of the temple, while according to John it was triggered by the raising of Lazarus. The Pharisees, portrayed as more uniformly legalistic and opposed to Jesus in the synoptic gospels, are instead portrayed as sharply divided; they debate frequently in John 's accounts. Some, such as Nicodemus, even go so far as to be at least partially sympathetic to Jesus. This is believed to be a more accurate historical depiction of the Pharisees, who made debate one of the tenets of their system of belief.
The gospel has been depicted in live narrations and dramatized in productions, skits, plays, and Passion Plays, as well as in film. The most recent such portrayal is the 2014 film ' The Gospel of John ', directed by David Batty and narrated by David Harewood and Brian Cox, with Selva Rasalingam as Jesus. The 2003 film The Gospel of John, was directed by Philip Saville, narrated by Christopher Plummer, with Henry Ian Cusick as Jesus.
Parts of the gospel have been set to music. One such setting is Steve Warner 's power anthem "Come and See '', written for the 20th anniversary of the Alliance for Catholic Education and including lyrical fragments taken from the Book of Signs. Additionally, some composers have made settings of the Passion as portrayed in the gospel, most notably the one composed by Johann Sebastian Bach, although some verses are borrowed from Matthew.
Online translations of the Gospel of John:
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the maximum strength of lok sabha and rajya sabha is | Lok Sabha - Wikipedia
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The Lok Sabha (House of the People) is the Lower house of India 's bicameral Parliament, with the Upper house being the Rajya Sabha. Members of the Lok Sabha are elected by adult universal suffrage and a first - past - the - post system to represent their respective constituencies, and they hold their seats for five years or until the body is dissolved by the President on the advice of the council of ministers. The house meets in the Lok Sabha Chambers of the Sansad Bhavan in New Delhi.
The maximum strength of the House envisaged by the Constitution of India is 552, which is made up by election of up to 530 members to represent the states; up to 20 members to represent the Union Territories and not more than two members of the Anglo - Indian Community to be nominated by the President of India, if, in his / her opinion, that community is not adequately represented in the House. Under the current laws, the strength of Lok Sabha is 545, including the two seats reserved for members of the Anglo - Indian community. The total elective membership is distributed among the states in proportion to their population. A total of 131 seats (18.42 %) are reserved for representatives of Scheduled Castes (84) and Scheduled Tribes (47). The quorum for the House is 10 % of the total membership.
The Lok Sabha, unless sooner dissolved, continues to operate for five years from the date appointed for its first meeting and the expiration of the period of five years. However, while a proclamation of emergency is in operation, this period may be extended by Parliament by law for a period not exceeding one year at a time and not extending, in any case, beyond a period of six months after the proclamation has ceased to operate.
An exercise to redraw Lok Sabha constituencies ' boundaries has been carried out by the Delimitation Commission based on the Indian census of 2001. This exercise, which was supposed to be carried out after every census, was suspended in 1976 following a constitutional amendment to avoid adverse effects on the family planning programme which was being implemented. The 16th Lok Sabha was elected in May 2014 and is the latest to date.
The Lok Sabha has its own television channel, Lok Sabha TV, headquartered within the premises of Parliament.
A major portion of the Indian subcontinent was under British rule from 1858 to 1947. During this period, the office of the Secretary of State for India (along with the Council of India) was the authority through whom British Parliament exercised its rule in the Indian sub-continent, and the office of Viceroy of India was created, along with an Executive Council in India, consisting of high officials of the British government. The Indian Councils Act 1861 provided for a Legislative Council consisting of the members of the Executive Council and non-official members. The Indian Councils Act 1892 established legislatures in each of the provinces of British India and increased the powers of the Legislative Council. Although these Acts increased the representation of Indians in the government, their power still remained limited, and the electorate very small. The Indian Councils Act 1909 and the Government of India Act 1919 further expanded the participation of Indians in the administration. The Indian Independence Act, passed by the British parliament on 18 July 1947, divided British India (which did not include the Princely States) into two new independent countries, India and Pakistan, which were to be dominions under the Crown until they had each enacted a new constitution. The Constituent Assembly was divided into two for the separate nations, with each new Assembly having sovereign powers transferred to it for the respective dominion.
The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into effect on 26 January 1950, proclaiming India to be a sovereign, democratic republic. This contained the founding principles of the law of the land which would govern India in its new form, which now included all the princely states which had not acceded to Pakistan.
According to Article 79 (Part V - The Union.) of the Constitution of India, the Parliament of India consists of the President of India and the two Houses of Parliament known as the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) and the House of the People (Lok Sabha).
The Lok Sabha (House of the Leaders) was duly constituted for the first time on 17 April 1952 after the first General Elections held from 25 October 1951 to 21 February 1952.
Article 84 (Part V. -- The Union) of Indian Constitution sets qualifications for being a member of Lok Sabha, which are as follows:
However, a member can be disqualified of being a member of Parliament:
A seat in the Lok Sabha will become vacant in the following circumstances: (during normal functioning of the House)
Furthermore, as per article 101 (Part V. -- The Union) of Indian Constitution; A person can not be: (1) a member of both Houses of Parliament and provision shall be made by Parliament by law for the vacation by a person who is chosen a member of both Houses of his seat in one House or the other. (2) a member both of Parliament and of a House of the Legislature of a State.
System of elections in Lok Sabha
Members of the Lok Sabha are directly elected by the people of India, on the basis of Universal Suffrage. For the purpose of holding direct elections to Lok Sabha; each state is divided into territorial constituencies. In this respect, the constitution of India makes the following two provisions:
Note: The expression population here refers to the population ascertained at the preceding census (2001 Census) of which relevant figure have been published.
The Lok Sabha has certain powers that make it more powerful than the Rajya Sabha.
In conclusion, it is clear that the Lok Sabha is more powerful than the Rajya Sabha in almost all matters. Even in those matters in which the Constitution has placed both Houses on an equal footing, the Lok Sabha has more influence due to its greater numerical strength. This is typical of any Parliamentary democracy, with the lower House always being more powerful than the upper.
The Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha and Directions issued by the Speaker from time to time there under regulate the procedure in Lok Sabha. The items of business, notice of which is received from the Ministers / Private Members and admitted by the Speaker, are included in the daily List of Business which is printed and circulated to members in advance. For various items of business to be taken up in the House the time is allotted by the House on the recommendations of the Business Advisory Committee. The Speaker presides over the sessions of the House and regulates procedure.
Three sessions of Lok Sabha take place in a year:
When in session, Lok Sabha holds its sittings usually from 11 A.M. to 1 P.M. and from 2 P.M. to 6 P.M. On some days the sittings are continuously held without observing lunch break and are also extended beyond 6 P.M. depending upon the business before the House. Lok Sabha does not ordinarily sit on Saturdays and Sundays and other closed holidays.
The first hour of every sitting is called Question Hour. Asking questions in Parliament is the free and unfettered right of members, and during Question Hour they may ask questions of ministers on different aspects of administration and government policy in the national and international spheres. Every minister whose turn it is to answer to questions has to stand up and answer for his department 's acts of omission or commission.
Questions are of three types -- Starred, Unstarred and Short Notice. A Starred Question is one to which a member desires an oral answer in the House and which is distinguished by an asterisk mark. An unstarred Question is one which is not called for oral answer in the house and on which no supplementary questions can consequently be asked. An answer to such a question is given in writing. Minimum period of notice for starred / unstarred question is 10 clear days. If the questions given notice of are admitted by the Speaker, they are listed and printed for answer on the dates allotted to the Ministries to which the subject matter of the question pertains.
The normal period of notice does not apply to short notice questions which relate to matters of urgent public importance. However, a Short Notice Question may be answered only on short notice if so permitted by the Speaker and the Minister concerned is prepared to answer it at shorter notice. A short notice question is taken up for answer immediately after the Question Hour, popularly known as Zero Hour.
Zero Hour: The time immediately following the Question Hour has come to be known as "Zero Hour ''. It starts at around 12 noon (hence the name) and members can, with prior notice to the Speaker, raise issues of importance during this time. Typically, discussions on important Bills, the Budget, and other issues of national importance take place from 2 pm onwards.
After the Question Hour, the House takes up miscellaneous items of work before proceeding to the main business of the day. These may consist of one or more of the following: Adjournment Motions, Questions involving breaches of Privileges, Papers to be laid on the Table, Communication of any messages from Rajya Sabha, Intimations regarding President 's assent to Bills, Calling Attention Notices, Matters under Rule 377, Presentation of Reports of Parliamentary Committee, Presentation of Petitions, miscellaneous statements by Ministers, Motions regarding elections to Committees, Bills to be withdrawn or introduced.
The main business of the day may be consideration of a Bill or financial business or consideration of a resolution or a motion.
Legislative proposals in the form of a Bill can be brought forward either by a Minister or by a private member. In the former case it is known as Government Bill and in the latter case it is known as a Private Members ' Bill. Every Bill passes through three stages -- called three readings -- before it is passed. To become law it must be passed by both the Houses of Parliament, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha, and then assented to by the president.
The presentation, discussion of, and voting on the annual General and Railways budgets -- followed by the passing of the Appropriations Bill and the Finance Bill -- is a long, drawn - out process that takes up a major part of the time of the House during its Budget Session every year.
Among other kinds of business that come up before the House are resolutions and motions. Resolutions and motions may be brought forward by Government or by private members. Government may move a resolution or a motion for obtaining the sanction to a scheme or opinion of the House on an important matter of policy or on a grave situation. Similarly, a private member may move a resolution or motion in order to draw the attention of the House and of the Government to a particular problem. The last two and half hours of sitting on every Friday are generally allotted for transaction of private members ' business. While private members ' bills are taken up on one Friday, private members ' resolutions are taken up on the succeeding Friday, and so on.
A Half - an - Hour Discussion can be raised on a matter of sufficient public importance which has been the subject of a recent question in Lok Sabha irrespective of the fact whether the question was answered orally or the answer was laid on the Table of the House and the answer which needs elucidation on a matter of fact. Normally not more than half an hour is allowed for such a discussion. Usually, half - an - hour discussion is listed on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays only. In one session, a member is allowed to raise not more than two half - an - hour discussions. During the discussion, the member, who has given notice, makes a short statement and not more than four members, who have intimated earlier and have secured one of the four places in the ballot, are permitted to ask a question each for further elucidating any matter of fact. Thereafter, the Minister concerned replies. There is no formal motion before the House nor voting.
Members may raise discussions on matters of urgent public importance with the permission of the Speaker. Such discussions may take place on two days in a week. No formal motion is moved in the House nor is there any voting on such a discussion.
After the member who initiates discussion on an item of business has spoken, other members can speak on that item of business in such order as the Speaker may call upon them. Only one member can speak at a time and all speeches are directed to the Chair. A matter requiring the decision of the House is decided by means of a question put by the Speaker on a motion made by a member.
A division is one of the forms in which the decision of the House is ascertained. Normally, when a motion is put to the House members for and against it indicate their opinion by saying "Aye '' or "No '' from their seats. The Chair goes by the voices and declares that the motion is either accepted or rejected by the House. If a member challenges the decision, the Chair orders that the lobbies be cleared. Then the division bell is rung and an entire network of bells installed in the various parts and rooms in Parliament House and Parliament House Annexe rings continuously for three and a half minutes. Members and Ministers rush to the Chamber from all sides. After the bell stops, all the doors to the Chamber are closed and nobody can enter or leave the Chamber till the division is over. Then the Chair puts the question for second time and declares whether in its opinion the "Ayes '' or the "Noes '', have it. If the opinion so declared is again challenged, the Chair asks the votes to be recorded by operating the Automatic Vote Recording Equipment.
With the announcement of the Speaker for recording the votes, the Secretary - General presses the button of a key board. Then a gong sounds serving as a signal to members for casting their votes. For casting a vote each member present in the Chamber has to press a switch and then operate one of the three push buttons fixed in his seat. The push switch must be kept pressed simultaneously until the gong sounds for the second time after 10 seconds. There are two Indicator Boards installed in the wall on either side of the Speaker 's Chair in the Chamber. Each vote cast by a member is flashed here. Immediately after the votes are cast, they are totalled mechanically and the details of the results are flashed on the Result Indicator Boards installed in the railings of the Speaker 's and Diplomatic Galleries.
Divisions are normally held with the aid of the Automatic Vote Recording Equipment. Where so directed by the Speaker in terms of relevant provision in the Rules of Procedure etc. in Lok Sabha, Divisions may be held either by distribution of ' Aye ' / ' No ' and ' Abstention ' slips to members in the House or by the members recording their votes by going into the lobbies. There is an Indicator Board in the machine room showing the name of each member. The result of Division and vote cast by each member with the aid of Automatic Vote Recording Equipment appear on this Board also. Immediately a photograph of the Indicator Board is taken. Later the Photograph is enlarged and the names of members who voted ' Ayes ' and for ' Noes ' are determined with the help of the photograph and incorporated in Lok Sabha Debates.
Three versions of Lok Sabha Debates are prepared viz., the Hindi version, the English version and the Original version. Only the Hindi and English versions are printed. The Original version, in cyclostyled form, is kept in the Parliament Library for record and reference. The Hindi version all Questions asked and Answers given thereto in Hindi and the speeches made in Hindi as also verbatim Hindi translation of Questions and Answers and of speeches made in English or in regional languages. The English version contains Lok Sabha proceedings in English and the English translation of the proceedings which take place in Hindi or in any regional language. The Original version, however, contains proceedings in Hindi or in English as they actually take place in the House and also the English / Hindi translation of speeches made in regional languages.
If conflicting legislation is enacted by the two Houses, a joint sitting is held to resolve the differences. In such a session, the members of the Lok Sabha would generally prevail, since the Lok Sabha includes more than twice as many members as the Rajya Sabha.
Speaker and Deputy Speaker
As per Article 93 of Indian Constitution, the Lok Sabha has a Speaker and a Deputy Speaker. In the Lok Sabha, the lower House of the Indian Parliament, both presiding officers -- the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker - are elected from among its members by a simple majority of members present and voting in the House. As such, no specific qualifications are prescribed for being elected the Speaker. The Constitution only requires that Speaker should be a member of the House. But an understanding of the Constitution and the laws of the country and the rules of procedure and conventions of Parliament is considered a major asset for the holder of the office of the Speaker. Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker is mentioned under Article 94 of the Constitution of India. As per Article 94 of Indian Constitution. A Speaker or a Deputy Speaker, should vacate his / her office, a) if he / she ceases to be a member of the House of the People, b) he / she resigns, c) removed from his office by a resolution of the House of the People passed by a majority.
The Speaker of Lok Sabha is at once a member of the House and also its Presiding Officer. The Speaker of the Lok Sabha conducts the business in the house. He / she decides whether a bill is a money bill or not. He / she maintains discipline and decorum in the house and can punish a member for their unruly behaviour by suspending them. He / she permits the moving of various kinds of motions and resolutions like the motion of no confidence, motion of adjournment, motion of censure and calling attention notice as per the rules. The Speaker decides on the agenda to be taken up for discussion during the meeting. It is the Speaker of the Lok Sabha who presides over joint sittings called in the event of disagreement between the two Houses on a legislative measure. Following the 52nd Constitution amendment, the Speaker is vested with the power relating to the disqualification of a member of the Lok Sabha on grounds of defection. The Speaker makes obituary references in the House, formal references to important national and international events and the valedictory address at the conclusion of every Session of the Lok Sabha and also when the term of the House expires. Though a member of the House, the Speaker does not vote in the House except on those rare occasions when there is a tie at the end of a decision. Till date, the Speaker of the Lok Sabha has not been called upon to exercise this unique casting vote. While the office of Speaker is vacant due to absence / resignation / removal, the duties of the office shall be performed by the Deputy Speaker or, if the office of Deputy Speaker is also vacant, by such member of the House of the People as the President may appoint for the purpose.
Shri G.V. Mavalankar was the first Speaker of Lok Sabha (15 May 1952 - 27 February 1956) and Shri M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar was the first Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha (30 May 1952 -- 7 March 1956). In the 16th Lok Sabha, Sumitra Mahajan was elected as the speaker on 3 June 2014, and is its second woman speaker and Shri M. Thambidurai as the deputy speaker.
The Lok Sabha has also a separate non-elected Secretariat staff.
Lok Sabha is constituted after the general election as follows:
Currently elected members of 16th Lok Sabha by their political party (As of 11 October 2017):
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when did they stop showing cartoons before movies | Pre-Code Hollywood - wikipedia
Pre-Code Hollywood refers to the brief era in the American film industry between the widespread adoption of sound in pictures in 1929 and the enforcement of the Motion Picture Production Code censorship guidelines, popularly known as the "Hays Code '', in mid-1934. Although the Code was adopted in 1930, oversight was poor and it did not become rigorously enforced until July 1, 1934, with the establishment of the Production Code Administration (PCA). Before that date, movie content was restricted more by local laws, negotiations between the Studio Relations Committee (SRC) and the major studios, and popular opinion, than by strict adherence to the Hays Code, which was often ignored by Hollywood filmmakers.
As a result, films in the late 1920s and early 1930s included depictions of sexual innuendo, miscegenation, profanity, illegal drug use, promiscuity, prostitution, infidelity, abortion, intense violence, and homosexuality. Strong female characters were ubiquitous in such pre-Code films as Female, Baby Face, and Red - Headed Woman. Gangsters in films like The Public Enemy, Little Caesar, and Scarface were seen by many as heroic rather than evil. Along with featuring stronger female characters, films examined female subject matters that would not be revisited until decades later in US films. Nefarious characters were seen to profit from their deeds, in some cases without significant repercussions, and drug use was a topic of several films. Many of Hollywood 's biggest stars such as Clark Gable, Barbara Stanwyck, Joan Blondell, and Edward G. Robinson got their start in the era. Other stars who excelled during this period, however, like Ruth Chatterton (who decamped to England) and Warren William (the so - called "king of Pre-Code '', who died in 1948), would wind up essentially forgotten by the general public within a generation.
Beginning in late 1933 and escalating throughout the first half of 1934, American Roman Catholics launched a campaign against what they deemed the immorality of American cinema. This, plus a potential government takeover of film censorship and social research seeming to indicate that movies which were seen to be immoral could promote bad behavior, was enough pressure to force the studios to capitulate to greater oversight.
In 1922, after some risqué films and a series of off - screen scandals involving Hollywood stars, the studios enlisted Presbyterian elder William H. "Will '' Hays, a figure of unblemished rectitude, to rehabilitate Hollywood 's image. Hays, later nicknamed the motion picture "Czar '', was paid the then - lavish sum of $100,000 a year (equivalent to more than $1.4 million in 2015 dollars). Hays, Postmaster General under Warren G. Harding and former head of the Republican National Committee, served for 25 years as president of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA), where he "defended the industry from attacks, recited soothing nostrums, and negotiated treaties to cease hostilities. '' Hollywood mimicked the decision Major League Baseball had made in hiring judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis as League Commissioner the previous year to quell questions about the integrity of baseball in wake of the 1919 World Series gambling scandal; The New York Times called Hays the "screen Landis ''.
Hays introduced a set of recommendations dubbed "The Formula '' in 1924, which the studios were advised to heed, and asked filmmakers to describe to his office the plots of pictures they were planning. The Supreme Court had already decided unanimously in 1915 in Mutual Film Corporation v. Industrial Commission of Ohio that free speech did not extend to motion pictures, and while there had been token attempts to clean up the movies before, such as when the studios formed the National Association of the Motion Picture Industry (NAMPI) in 1916, little had come of the efforts.
In 1929, an American Roman Catholic layman Martin Quigley, editor of the prominent trade paper Motion Picture Herald, and Father Daniel A. Lord, a Jesuit priest, created a code of standards (which Hays liked immensely), and submitted it to the studios. Lord 's concerns centered on the effects sound film had on children, whom he considered especially susceptible to their allure. Several studio heads, including Irving Thalberg of Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer (MGM), met with Lord and Quigley in February 1930. After some revisions, they agreed to the stipulations of the Code. One of the main motivating factors in adopting the Code was to avoid direct government intervention. It was the responsibility of the Studio Relations Committee, headed by Colonel Jason S. Joy, to supervise film production and advise the studios when changes or cuts were required.
The Code was divided into two parts. The first was a set of "general principles '' which mostly concerned morality. The second was a set of "particular applications '' which was an exacting list of items that could not be depicted. Some restrictions, such as the ban on homosexuality or the use of specific curse words, were never directly mentioned but were assumed to be understood without clear demarcation. Miscegenation, the mixing of the races, was forbidden. It stated that the notion of an "adults - only policy '' would be a dubious, ineffective strategy that would be difficult to enforce. However, it did allow that "maturer minds may easily understand and accept without harm subject matter in plots which does younger people positive harm. '' If children were supervised and the events implied elliptically, the code allowed what Brandeis University cultural historian Thomas Doherty called "the possibility of a cinematically inspired thought crime ''.
The Code sought not only to determine what could be portrayed on screen, but also to promote traditional values. Sexual relations outside of marriage could not be portrayed as attractive and beautiful, presented in a way that might arouse passion, nor be made to seem right and permissible. All criminal action had to be punished, and neither the crime nor the criminal could elicit sympathy from the audience. Authority figures had to be treated respectfully, and the clergy could not be portrayed as comic characters or villains. Under some circumstances, politicians, police officers and judges could be villains, as long as it was clear that they were the exception to the rule.
The entire document contained Catholic undertones and stated that art must be handled carefully because it could be "morally evil in its effects '' and because its "deep moral significance '' was unquestionable. The Catholic influence on the Code was initially kept secret. A recurring theme was "throughout, the audience feels sure that evil is wrong and good is right. '' The Code contained an addendum commonly referred to as the Advertising Code, which regulated film advertising copy and imagery.
On February 19, 1930, Variety published the entire contents of the Code and predicted that state film censorship boards would soon become obsolete. However, the men obligated to enforce the code -- Jason Joy, who was the head of the Committee until 1932, and his successor, Dr. James Wingate -- were seen as generally ineffective. The very first film the office reviewed, The Blue Angel, which was passed by Joy without revision, was considered indecent by a California censor. Although there were several instances where Joy negotiated cuts from films, and there were indeed definite -- albeit loose -- constraints, a significant amount of lurid material made it to the screen.
Joy had to review 500 films a year using a small staff and little power. The Hays office did not have the authority to order studios to remove material from a film in 1930, but instead worked by reasoning and sometimes pleading with them. Complicating matters, the appeals process ultimately put the responsibility for making the final decision in the hands of the studios themselves.
One factor in ignoring the Code was the fact that some found such censorship prudish. This was a period in which the Victorian era was sometimes ridiculed as being naïve and backward. When the Code was announced, The Nation, a liberal periodical, attacked it. The publication stated that if crime were never presented in a sympathetic light, then, taken literally, "law '' and "justice '' would become the same. Therefore, events such as the Boston Tea Party could not be portrayed. And if clergy were always to be presented positively, then hypocrisy could not be examined either. The Outlook agreed, and, unlike Variety, predicted from the beginning the Code would be difficult to enforce.
Additionally, the Great Depression of the 1930s motivated studios to produce films with racy and violent content, which boosted ticket sales. Soon, the flouting of the code became an open secret. In 1931, The Hollywood Reporter mocked the code, and Variety followed suit in 1933. In the same year as the Variety article, a noted screenwriter stated that "the Hays moral code is not even a joke any more; it 's just a memory. ''
Although the liberalization of sexuality in American film had increased during the 1920s, the pre-Code era is either dated to the start of the sound film era, or more generally to March 1930, when the Hays Code was first written. Over the protests of NAMPI, New York became the first state to take advantage of the Supreme Court 's decision in Mutual Film vs. Ohio by instituting a censorship board in 1921. Virginia followed suit the next year, and eight individual states had a board by the advent of sound film.
Many of these boards were ineffectual. By the 1920s, the New York stage, a frequent source of subsequent screen material, had topless shows; performances were filled with curse words, mature subject matter, and sexually suggestive dialogue. Early during the sound system conversion process, it became apparent that what might be acceptable in New York would not be so in Kansas. In 1927, Hays suggested studio executives form a committee to discuss film censorship. Irving G. Thalberg of Metro Goldwyn Mayer (MGM), Sol Wurtzel of Fox, and E.H. Allen of Paramount responded by collaborating on a list they called the "Don'ts and Be Carefuls '', based on items that were challenged by local censor boards, and which consisted of eleven subjects best avoided, and twenty - six to be handled very carefully. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) approved the list, and Hays created the SRC to oversee its implementation. However, there was still no way to enforce these tenets. The controversy surrounding film standards came to a head in 1929.
Director Cecil B. DeMille was responsible for the increasing discussion of sex in cinema in the 1920s. Starting with Male and Female (1919), he made a series of films that examined sex and were highly successful. Films featuring Hollywood 's original "It girl '' Clara Bow such as The Saturday Night Kid (released four days before the October 29, 1929, market crash) highlighted Bow 's sexual attractiveness. 1920s stars such as Bow, Gloria Swanson, and Norma Talmadge freely displayed their sexuality in a straightforward fashion.
The Great Depression presented a unique time for film - making in the United States. The economic disaster brought on by the stock market crash of 1929 changed American values and beliefs in various ways. Themes of American exceptionalism and traditional concepts of personal achievement, self - reliance, and the overcoming of odds lost great currency. Due to the constant empty economic reassurances from politicians in the early years of the Depression, the American public developed an increasingly jaded attitude.
The cynicism, challenging of traditional beliefs, and political controversy of Hollywood films during this period mirrored the attitudes of many of their patrons. Also gone was the carefree and adventurous lifestyle of the 1920s. "After two years the Jazz Age seems as far away as the days before the war '', F. Scott Fitzgerald commented in 1931. In the sense noted by Fitzgerald, understanding the moral climate of the early 1930s is complex. Although films experienced an unprecedented level of freedom and dared to portray things that would be kept hidden for several decades, many in America looked upon the stock market crash as a product of the excesses of the previous decade. In looking back upon the 1920s, events were increasingly seen as occurring in prelude to the market crash. In Dance, Fools, Dance (1931), lurid party scenes featuring 1920s flappers are played to excess. Joan Crawford ultimately reforms her ways and is saved; less fortunate is William Bakewell, who continues on the careless path that leads to his ultimate self - destruction.
For Rain or Shine (1930), Milton Ager and Jack Yellin composed "Happy Days Are Here Again ''. The song was repeated sarcastically by characters in several films such as Under Eighteen (1931) and 20,000 Years in Sing Sing (1933). Less comical was the picture of the United States ' future presented in Heroes for Sale that same year (1933), in which a hobo looks into a depressing night and proclaims, "It 's the end of America ''.
Heroes for Sale was directed by prolific pre-Code director William Wellman and featured silent film star Richard Barthelmess as a World War I veteran cast onto the streets with a morphine addiction from his hospital stay. In Wild Boys of the Road (1933), the young man played by Frankie Darrow leads a group of dispossessed juvenile drifters who frequently brawl with the police. Such gangs were common; around 250,000 youths traveled the country by hopping trains or hitchhiking in search of better economic circumstances in the early 1930s.
Complicating matters for the studios, the advent of sound film in 1927 required an immense expenditure in sound stages, recording booths, cameras, and movie - theater sound systems, not to mention the new - found artistic complications of producing in a radically altered medium. The studios were in a difficult financial position even before the market crash as the sound conversion process and some risky purchases of theater chains had pushed their finances near the breaking point. These economic circumstances led to a loss of nearly half of the weekly attendance numbers and closure of almost a third of the country 's theaters in the first few years of the depression. Even so, 60 million Americans went to the cinema weekly.
Apart from the economic realities of the conversion to sound, were the artistic considerations. Early sound films were often noted for being too verbose. In 1930, Carl Laemmle criticized the wall - to - wall banter of sound pictures, and director Ernst Lubitsch wondered what the camera was intended for if characters were going to narrate all the onscreen action. The film industry also withstood competition from the home radio, and often characters in films went to great lengths to belittle the medium. The film industry was not above using the new medium to broadcast commercials for its projects however, and occasionally turned radio stars into short feature performers to take advantage of their built - in following.
Seething beneath the surface of American life in the Depression was the fear of the angry mob, portrayed in panicked hysteria in films such as Gabriel Over the White House (1933), The Mayor of Hell (1933), and American Madness (1932). Massive wide shots of angry hordes, comprising sometimes hundreds of men, rush into action in terrifyingly efficient uniformity. Groups of agitated men either standing in breadlines, loitering in hobo camps, or marching the streets in protest became a prevalent sight during the Great Depression. The Bonus Army protests of World War I veterans on the capital in Washington, D.C., on which Hoover unleashed a brutal crackdown, prompted many of the Hollywood depictions. Although social issues were examined more directly in the pre-Code era, Hollywood still largely ignored the Great Depression, as many films sought to ameliorate patrons ' anxieties rather than incite them.
Hays remarked in 1932:
The function of motion pictures is to ENTERTAIN.... This we must keep before us at all times and we must realize constantly the fatality of ever permitting our concern with social values to lead us into the realm of propaganda... the American motion picture... owes no civic obligation greater than the honest presentment of clean entertainment and maintains that in supplying effective entertainment, free of propaganda, we serve a high and self - sufficing purpose.
Hays and others, such as Samuel Goldwyn, obviously felt that motion pictures presented a form of escapism that served a palliative effect on American moviegoers. Goldwyn had coined the famous dictum, "If you want to send a message, call Western Union '' in the pre-Code era. However, the MPPDA took the opposite stance when questioned about certain so - called "message '' films before Congress in 1932, claiming the audiences ' desire for realism led to certain unsavory social, legal, and political issues being portrayed in film.
The length of pre-Code films was usually comparatively short, but that running time often required tighter material and did not affect the impact of message films. Employees ' Entrance (1933) received the following review from Jonathan Rosenbaum: "As an attack on ruthless capitalism, it goes a lot further than more recent efforts such as Wall Street, and it 's amazing how much plot and character are gracefully shoehorned into 75 minutes. '' The film featured pre-Code megastar Warren William (later dubbed "the king of Pre-Code ''), "at his magnetic worst '', playing a particularly vile and heartless department store manager who, for example, terminates the jobs of two long - standing male employees, one of whom commits suicide as a result. He also threatens to fire Loretta Young 's character, who pretends to be single to stay employed, unless she sleeps with him, then attempts to ruin her husband after learning she is married.
Films that stated a position about a social issue were usually labeled either "propaganda films '' or "preachment yarns ''. In contrast to Goldwyn and MGM 's definitively Republican stance on social issue films, Warner Brothers, led by New Deal advocate Jack L. Warner, was the most prominent maker of these types of pictures and preferred they be called "Americanism stories ''. Pre-Code historian Thomas Doherty has written that two recurring elements marked the so - called preachment yarns. "The first is the exculpatory preface; the second is the Jazz Age prelude. '' The preface was essentially a softened version of a disclaimer that intended to calm any in the audience who disagreed with the film 's message. The Jazz Age prelude was almost singularly used to cast shame on the boisterous behavior of the 1920s.
Cabin in the Cotton (1932) is a Warner Bros. message film about the evils of capitalism. The film takes place in an unspecified southern state where workers are given barely enough to survive and taken advantage of by being charged exorbitant interest rates and high prices by unscrupulous landowners. The film is decidedly anti-capitalist; however, its preface claims otherwise:
In many parts of the South today, there exists an endless dispute between rich land - owners, known as planters, and the poor cotton pickers, known as "peckerwoods ''. The planters supply the tenants with the simple requirements of everyday life and; in return, the tenants work the land year in and year out. A hundred volumes could be written on the rights and wrongs of both parties, but it is not the object of the producers of Cabin in the Cotton to take sides. We are only concerned with the effort to picture these conditions.
In the end, however, the planters admit their wrongdoing and agree to a more equitable distribution of capital.
The avaricious businessman remained a recurring character in pre-Code cinema. In The Match King (1932), Warren William played an industrialist based on real - life Swedish entrepreneur Ivar Kreuger, himself nicknamed the "Match King '', who attempts to corner the global market on matches. William 's vile character, Paul Kroll, commits robbery, fraud, and murder on his way from a janitor to a captain of industry. When the market collapses in the 1929 crash, Kroll is ruined and commits suicide to avoid imprisonment. William played another unscrupulous businessman in Skyscraper Souls (1932): David Dwight, a wealthy banker who owns a building named after himself that is larger than the Empire State Building. He tricks everyone he knows into poverty to appropriate others ' wealth. He is ultimately shot by his secretary (Verree Teasdale), who then ends the film and her own life by walking off the roof of the skyscraper.
Americans ' mistrust and dislike of lawyers was a frequent topic of dissection in social problem films such Lawyer Man (1933), State 's Attorney, and The Mouthpiece (1932). In films such as Paid (1930), the legal system turns innocent characters into criminals. The life of Joan Crawford 's character is ruined and her romantic interest is executed so that she may live free, although she is innocent of the crime for which the district attorney wants to convict her. Religious hypocrisy was addressed in such films as The Miracle Woman (1931), starring Barbara Stanwyck and directed by Frank Capra. Stanwyck also portrayed a nurse and initially reluctant heroine who manages to save, via unorthodox means, two young children in danger from nefarious characters (including Clark Gable as a malevolent chauffeur) in Night Nurse (1931).
Many pre-Code films dealt with the economic realities of a country struggling to find its next meal. In Blonde Venus (1932), Marlene Dietrich 's character resorts to prostitution to feed her child, and Claudette Colbert 's character in It Happened One Night (1934) gets her comeuppance for throwing a tray of food onto the floor by later finding herself without food or financial resources. Joan Blondell 's character in Big City Blues (1932) reflects that as a chorus girl she regularly received diamonds and pearls as gifts, but now must content herself with a corned beef sandwich. In Union Depot (1932), Douglas Fairbanks Jr. puts a luscious meal as the first order of business on his itinerary after coming into money.
Given the social circumstances, politically oriented social problem films ridiculed politicians and portrayed them as incompetent bumblers, scoundrels, and liars. In The Dark Horse (1932), Warren William is again enlisted, this time to get an imbecile, who is accidentally in the running for Governor, elected. The candidate wins the election despite his incessant, embarrassing mishaps. Washington Merry - Go - Round portrayed the state of a political system stuck in neutral. Columbia Pictures nearly released the film with a scene of the public execution of a politician as the climax before deciding to cut it.
Cecil B. DeMille released This Day and Age in 1933, and it stands in stark contrast to his other films of the period. Filmed shortly after DeMille had completed a five - month tour of the Soviet Union, This Day and Age takes place in America and features several children torturing a gangster who got away with the murder of a popular local shopkeeper. The youngsters are seen lowering the gangster into a vat of rats when the police arrive, and their response is to encourage the youths to continue this. The film ends with the youngsters taking the gangster to a local judge and forcing the magistrate to conduct a trial in which the outcome is never in doubt.
The need for strong leaders who could take charge and steer America out of its crisis is seen in Gabriel Over the White House (1933), about a benevolent dictator who takes control of the United States. Walter Huston stars as a weak - willed, ineffectual president (likely modeled after Hoover) who is inhabited by the archangel Gabriel upon being knocked unconscious. The spirit 's behavior is similar to that of Abraham Lincoln. The president solves the nation 's unemployment crisis and executes an Al Capone - type criminal who has continually flouted the law.
Dictators were not just glorified in fiction. Columbia 's Mussolini Speaks (1933) was a 76 - minute paean to the Fascist leader, narrated by NBC radio commentator Lowell Thomas. After showing some of the progress Italy has made during Il Duce 's 10 - year reign, Thomas opines, "This is a time when a dictator comes in handy! '' The film was viewed by over 175,000 jubilant people during its first two weeks at the cavernous Palace Theater in Albany, New York.
The election of Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) in 1932 quelled the public affection for dictators. As the country became increasingly enthralled with FDR, who was featured in countless newsreels, it exhibited less desire for alternative forms of government. Many Hollywood films reflected this new optimism. Heroes for Sale, despite being a tremendously bleak and at times anti-American film, ends on a positive note as the New Deal appears as a sign of optimism. When Wild Boys of the Road (1933), directed by William Wellman, reaches its conclusion, a dispossessed juvenile delinquent is in court expecting a jail sentence. However the judge lets the boy go free, revealing to him the symbol of the New Deal behind his desk, and tells him "(t) hings are going to be better here now, not only here in New York, but all over the country. '' A box - office casualty of this hopefulness was Gabriel Over the White House, which entered production during the Hoover era malaise and sought to capitalize on it. By the time the film was released on March 31, 1933, FDR 's election had produced a level of hopefulness in America that rendered the film 's message obsolete.
Adolf Hitler 's rise to power in Germany and his regime 's anti-Semitic policies significantly affected American pre-Code filmmaking. Although Hitler had become unpopular in many parts of the United States, Germany was still a voluminous importer of American films and the studios wanted to appease the German government. The ban on Jews and negative portrayals of Germany in the Fatherland even led to a significant reduction in work for Jews in Hollywood until after the end of World War II. As a result, only two social problem films released by independent film companies addressed the mania in Germany during the pre-Code era (Are We Civilized? and Hitler 's Reign of Terror).
In 1933, Herman J. Mankiewicz and producer Sam Jaffe announced they were working on a picture, to be titled Mad Dog of Europe, which was intended to be a full - scale attack on Hitler. Jaffe had quit his job at RKO Pictures to make the film. Hays summoned the pair to his office and told them to cease production as they were causing needless headaches for the studios. Germany had threatened to seize all the properties of the Hollywood producers in Germany and ban the import of any future American films.
In the early 1900s, the United States was still primarily a rural country, especially in self - identity. D.W. Griffith 's The Musketeers of Pig Alley (1912) is one of the earliest American films to feature urban organized crime. Prohibition 's arrival in 1920 created an environment where anyone who wanted to drink had to consort with criminals, especially in urban areas. Nonetheless, the urban - crime genre was mostly ignored until 1927 when Underworld, which is recognized as the first gangster movie, became a surprise hit.
According to the Encyclopedia of Hollywood entry on Underworld, "The film established the fundamental elements of the gangster movie: a hoodlum hero; ominous, night - shrouded city streets; floozies; and a blazing finale in which the cops cut down the protagonist ''. Gangster films such as Thunderbolt (1929), and Doorway to Hell (1930) were released to capitalize on Underworld 's popularity, with Thunderbolt being described as "a virtual remake '' of the film. Other late 1920s crime films investigated the connection between mobsters and Broadway productions in movies such as Lights of New York (1928), Tenderloin (1928) and Broadway (1929).
The Hays Office had never officially recommended banning violence in any form in the 1920s -- unlike profanity, the drug trade or prostitution -- but advised that it be handled carefully. New York 's censor board was more thorough than that of any other state, missing only around 50 of the country 's 1,000 to 1,300 annual releases.
From 1927 to 1928, violent scenes removed were those in which a gun was pointed at the camera or "at or into the body of another character ''. Many shots where machine guns were featured, scenes where criminals shot at law enforcement officers, some scenes involving stabbing or knife brandishing (audiences considered stabbings more disturbing than shootings), most whippings, several involving choking, torture, or electrocution, and any scenes which could be considered educational in their depiction of crime methods. Sadistic violence and reaction shots showing the faces of individuals on the receiving end of violence were considered especially sensitive areas. The Code later recommended against scenes showing robbery, theft, safe - cracking, arson, "the use of firearms '', "dynamiting of trains, machines, and buildings '', and "brutal killings '', on the basis that they would be rejected by local censors.
No motion picture genre of the Pre-Code era was more incendiary than the gangster film; neither preachment yarns nor vice films so outraged the moral guardians or unnerved the city fathers as the high caliber scenarios that made screen heroes out of stone killers.
In the early 1930s, several real - life criminals became celebrities. Two in particular captured the American imagination: Al Capone and John Dillinger. Gangsters like Capone had transformed the perception of entire cities. Capone gave Chicago its "reputation as the locus classicus of American gangsterdom, a cityscape where bullet - proof roadsters with tommygun - toting hoodlums on running boards careened around State Street spraying fusillades of slugs into flower shop windows and mowing down the competition in blood - spattered garages ''. Capone appeared on the cover of Time magazine in 1930. He was even offered 7 - figure sums by two major Hollywood studios to appear in a film but declined.
Dillinger became a national celebrity as a bank robber who eluded arrest and escaped confinement several times. He had become the most celebrated public outlaw since Jesse James. His father appeared in a popular series of newsreels giving police homespun advice on how to catch his son. Dillinger 's popularity rose so quickly that Variety joked that "if Dillinger remains at large much longer and more such interviews are obtained, there may be some petitions circulated to make him our president. '' Hays wrote a cablegram to all the studios in March 1934 mandating that Dillinger not be portrayed in any motion picture.
The genre entered a new level following the release of Little Caesar (1931), which featured Edward G. Robinson as gangster Rico Bandello. Caesar, along with The Public Enemy starring James Cagney as Tom Powers and Scarface (1932), featuring Paul Muni as Tony Comante, were, by standards of the time, incredibly violent films that created a new type of anti-hero. Nine gangster films were released in 1930, 26 in 1931, 28 in 1932, and 15 in 1933, when the genre 's popularity began to subside after the end of Prohibition. The backlash against gangster films was swift. In 1931, Jack Warner announced that his studio would stop making them and that he himself had never allowed his 15 - year - old son to see them.
Generally considered the grandfather of gangster films, in Little Caesar, Robinson as Rico and his close friend Joe Massara (Douglas Fairbanks, Jr.) move to Chicago. Joe wants to go straight and meets a woman. Rico, however, seeks a life of crime and joins the gang of Sam Vettori. He rises to the rank of boss of the crime family. After becoming concerned his friend will betray him he threatens him, at which point Joe 's girlfriend goes to the police. Unable to bring himself to kill Joe and eliminate the witness against him, Rico goes into hiding. He is coaxed out by the police, who publish that he is a coward to the press. Rico is killed in a blaze of gunfire; his last words are "Mother of mercy, is this the end of Rico? '' Robinson was initially cast in a small role but persuaded the film 's producer to let him play the lead. Wingate, who then headed New York 's censorship board, told Hays that he was flooded with complaints from people who saw kids in theaters nationwide "applaud the gang leader as a hero. '' The success of Little Caesar inspired Fox 's The Secret Six (1931) and Quick Millions (1931), and Paramount 's City Streets (1931), but the next big Hollywood gangster would come from Warners.
William Wellman 's The Public Enemy (1931), released by Warner Brothers, features another career - defining performance, this time James Cagney as Tom Powers. The film is similar to the template set in Little Caesar in that it follows Powers from his rise to his eventual fall in the world of crime. The film was partially based on the real life of Chicago gangster Dion O'Banion. Cagney 's character is contrasted with his puritanical brother who wants him to go straight; their mother is at the center of the conflict. Tom Powers is egotistical, amoral, heartless, ruthless, and extremely violent. The best - remembered scene in the picture is referred to as the "grapefruit scene '': when Cagney 's girlfriend (Mae Clarke) angers him during breakfast, he shoves half a grapefruit in her face. Instead of scenes from the film, its trailer contained a voiceover warning of the picture 's intensity and showed a gun being fired directly at the camera.
Cagney was even more violent towards women in the gangster film Picture Snatcher (1933): in one scene, he knocks out an amorous woman whose feelings he does not reciprocate and violently throws her into the backseat of his car. In April 1931, the same month as the release of The Public Enemy, Hays recruited former police chief August Vollmer to conduct a study on the effect gangster pictures had on children. After he had finished his work, Vollmer stated that gangster films were innocuous and even overly favorable in depicting the police. Although Hays used the results to defend the film industry, the New York State censorship board was not impressed, and from 1930 through 1932, removed 2,200 crime scenes from pictures.
Some critics have named Scarface (1932) as the most incendiary pre-Code gangster film. Directed by Howard Hawks and starring Paul Muni as Tony Camonte, the film is partially based on the life of Al Capone and incorporates details of Capone 's biography into the storyline. The film begins with Camonte working for Johnny Lovo (Osgood Perkins), but he 's dissatisfied with being a subordinate and he 's also attracted to Lovo 's girlfriend Poppy (Karen Morley). He has an unhealthily controlling relationship with his sister Francesca (Ann Dvorak) -- whom he expects to remain chaste -- that many critics have described as incestuous. Lovo warns Camonte to leave the North Side alone as it is controlled by a rival mob, but he ignores this warning and launches a series of executions and extortions that result in a war with the North Side gang. Camonte then forcefully takes the gang over from Lovo, who tries unsuccessfully to kill him for this. Camonte 's attempt to kill Lovo is more successful, and Poppy happily becomes his girl. When Camonte finds Francesca in a hotel room with his closest friend, coin - flipping gangster Guino Rinaldo (George Raft), he kills Rinaldo in a rage. Afterward, he becomes despondent when he learns that the couple had wanted to surprise him with the news that they had gotten married.
The production of Scarface was troubled from the start. The Hays office warned producer Howard Hughes not to make the film; when it was completed in late 1931, the Hays office demanded numerous changes including a conclusion where Comante was captured, tried, convicted, and hanged and that the film carry the subtitle Shame of a Nation. Hughes sent the film to numerous state censorship boards, saying he hoped to show that the film was made to combat the "gangster menace ''. After he was unable to get the film past the New York State censor board (then headed by Wingate) even after the changes, Hughes sued the New York board and won, allowing him to release the film in a version close to its intended form. When other local censors refused to release the edited version, the Hays Office sent Jason Joy around to them to assure them that the cycle of gangster films of this nature was ending.
Scarface provoked outrage mainly because of its unprecedented violence, but also for its shifts of tone from serious to comedic. Dave Kehr, writing in the Chicago Reader, stated that the film blends "comedy and horror in a manner that suggests Chico Marx let loose with a live machine gun. '' In one scene, Camonte is inside a cafe while a torrent of machine - gun fire from the car of a rival gang is headed his way; when the barrage is over, Camonte picks up one of the newly released tommy guns the gangsters dropped and exhibits childlike wonder and unrestrained excitement over the new toy. Civic leaders became furious that gangsters like Capone (who was also the inspiration for Little Caesar) were being applauded in movie houses all across America. The screenplay, adapted by Ben Hecht who was a journalist in Chicago, contained biographical details for Muni 's character in Scarface that were so obviously taken from Capone, and the detail so close, that it was impossible not to draw the parallels.
One of the factors that made gangster pictures so subversive was that, in the difficult economic times of the Depression, there already existed the viewpoint that the only way to get financial success was through crime. The Kansas City Times argued that although adults may not be particularly affected, these films were "misleading, contaminating, and often demoralizing to children and youth. '' Exacerbating the problem, some cinema theater owners advertised gangster pictures with a singular irresponsibility. Real - life murders were tied into promotions and "theater lobbies displayed tommy guns and blackjacks ''. The situation reached such a nexus that the studios had to ask exhibitors to tone down the gimmickry in their promotions.
Prison films of the pre-Code era often involved men who were unjustly incarcerated, and films set in prisons of the north tended to portray them as a bastion of solidarity against the crumbling social system of the Great Depression. Sparked by the real - life Ohio penitentiary fire on April 21, 1930, in which guards refused to release prisoners from their cells, causing 300 deaths, the films depicted the inhumane conditions inside prisons in the early 1930s. The genre was composed of two archetypes: the prison film and the chain gang film. In the prison film, large hordes of men move about in identical uniforms, resigned to their fate, they live by a well defined code. In the chain gang film, Southern prisoners were subjected to a draconian system of discipline in the blazing outdoor heat, where they were treated terribly by their ruthless captors.
The prototype of the prison genre was The Big House (1930). In The Big House, Robert Montgomery plays a squirmy inmate who is sentenced to six years after committing vehicular manslaughter while under the influence. His cell mates are a murderer played by Wallace Beery and a forger played by Chester Morris. The picture features future staples of the prison genre such as solitary confinement, informers, riots, visitations, an escape, and the codes of prison life. The protagonist, Montgomery, ends up being a loathsome character, a coward who will sell anyone in the prison out to get an early release. The film was banned in Ohio, the site of the deadly prison riots that inspired it. Numbered Men, The Criminal Code, Shadow of the Law, Convict 's Code, and others, from no less than seven studios, followed. However, prison films mainly appealed to men, and had weak box office performances as a result.
Studios also produced children 's prison films that addressed the juvenile delinquency problems of America in the Depression. The Mayor of Hell, for instance, featured kids killing a murderously abusive reform school overseer without retribution.
The most searing criticism of the American prison system was reserved for the depiction of Southern chain gangs, with I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang being by far the most influential.
I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang, which is based on the true story of Robert E. Burns, is by far the most famous of the early 1930s chain gang films. In the first half of 1931, True Detective Mysteries magazine had published Burns ' work over six issues, and it was released as a book in January 1932. Decorated veteran James Allen (Paul Muni) returns from World War I a changed man, and seeks an alternative to the tedious job that he left behind. He travels the country looking for construction work. His ultimate goal is to become involved in construction planning. Allen follows a hobo he met at a homeless shelter into a cafe, taking him up on his offer of a free meal. When the hobo attempts to rob the eatery, Allen is charged as an accessory, convicted of stealing a few dollars, and sentenced to ten years in a chain gang. The men are chained together and transported to a quarry to break rocks every day. Even when unchained from each other, shackles remain around their ankles at all times. Allen convinces a large black prisoner who has particularly good aim to hit the shackles on his ankles with a sledgehammer to bend them. He removes his feet from the bent shackles, and in a famous sequence, escapes through the woods while being chased by bloodhounds. On the outside he develops a new identity and becomes a respected developer in Chicago. He is blackmailed into marriage by a woman he does not love who finds out his secret. When he threatens to leave her for a young woman he has fallen in love with, she turns him in. His case becomes a cause célèbre, and he agrees to turn himself in under the agreement that he will serve 90 days and then be released. He is tricked however, and not freed at the agreed upon time. This forces him to escape again, and he seeks out the young woman, telling her that they can not be together because he will always be hunted. The film ends with her asking him how he survives, and his ominous reply from the darkness: "I steal. ''
Although based on reality, Chain Gang changes the facts slightly to appeal to Depression - era audiences by making Allen 's return home one to a country that is struggling economically, even though Burns returned to the roaring twenties. The film 's bleak, anti-establishment ending shocked audiences. Laughter in Hell, a 1933 film directed by Edward L. Cahn and starring Pat O'Brien, was inspired in part by I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang. O'Brien plays a railroad engineer who kills his wife and her lover in a jealous rage, and is sent to prison. The dead man 's brother ends up being the warden of the prison and torments O'Brien's character. O'Brien and several others revolt, killing the warden and escaping with his new lover (Gloria Stuart). The film, rediscovered in 2012, drew controversy for its lynching scene in which several black men were hanged. Reports vary if the black men were hanged alongside other white men, or by themselves. The New Age (an African American weekly newspaper) film critic praised the filmmakers for being courageous enough to depict the atrocities that were occurring in some Southern states.
As films featuring prurient elements performed well at the box office, after the crackdown on crime films, Hollywood increased its production of pictures featuring the seven deadly sins. In 1932, Warner Bros formed an official policy decreeing that "two out of five stories should be hot '', and that nearly all films could benefit by "adding something having to do with ginger. '' Filmmakers (including the shrewd Mae West) began putting in overly suggestive material they knew would never reach theaters in hopes that lesser offenses would survive the cutting - room floor. MGM screenwriter Donald Ogden Stewart said "(Joy and Wingate) would n't want to take out too much, so you would give them five things to take out to satisfy the Hays Office -- and you would get away with murder with what they left in. ''
Films such as Laughing Sinners, The Devil 's Holiday, Safe in Hell, The Devil is Driving, Merrily We Go to Hell, Laughter in Hell, and The Road to Ruin were provocative in their mere titles. Studios marketed their films, sometimes dishonestly, by inventing suggestive tag lines and lurid titles, even going so far as to hold in - house contests for thinking up provocative titles for screenplays. Commonly labeled "sex films '' by the censors, these pictures offended taste in more categories than just sexuality. According to a Variety analysis of 440 pictures produced in 1932 -- 33, 352 had "some sex slant '', with 145 possessing "questionable sequences '', and 44 being "critically sexual ''. Variety summarized that "over 80 % of the world 's chief picture output was... flavored with bedroom essence. '' Attempts to create films for adults only (dubbed "pinking '') wound up bringing large audiences of all ages to cinemas.
Posters and publicity photos were often tantalizing. Women appeared in poses and garb not even glimpsed in the films themselves. In some cases actresses with small parts in films (or in the case of Dolores Murray in her publicity still for The Common Law, no part at all) appeared scantily clad. Hays became outraged at the steamy pictures circulating in newspapers around the country. The original Hays Code contained an often - ignored note about advertising imagery, but he wrote an entirely new advertising screed in the style of the Ten Commandments that contained a set of twelve prohibitions. The first seven addressed imagery. They prohibited women in undergarments, women raising their skirts, suggestive poses, kissing, necking, and other suggestive material. The last five concerned advertising copy and prohibited misrepresentation of the film 's contents, "salacious copy '', and the word "courtesan ''.
Studios found their way around the restrictions and published increasingly racy imagery. Ultimately this backfired in 1934 when a billboard in Philadelphia was placed outside the home of Cardinal Dennis Dougherty. Severely offended, Dougherty took his revenge by helping to launch the motion - picture boycott which would later facilitate enforcement of the Code. A commonly repeated theme by those supporting censorship, and one mentioned in the Code itself was the notion that the common people needed to be saved from themselves by the more refined cultural elite.
Despite the obvious attempts to appeal to red - blooded American males, most of the patrons of sex pictures were female. Variety squarely blamed women for the increase in vice pictures:
Women are responsible for the ever - increasing public taste in sensationalism and sexy stuff. Women who make up the bulk of the picture audiences are also the majority reader of the tabloids, scandal sheets, flashy magazines, and erotic books... the mind of the average man seems wholesome in comparison.... Women love dirt, nothing shocks ' em.
Pre-Code female audiences liked to indulge in the carnal lifestyles of mistresses and adulteresses while at the same time taking joy in their usually inevitable downfall in the closing scenes of the picture. While gangster films were claimed to corrupt the morals of young boys, vice films were blamed for threatening the purity of adolescent women.
In pre-Code Hollywood, the sex film became synonymous with women 's pictures -- Darryl F. Zanuck once told Wingate that he was ordered by Warner Brothers ' New York corporate office to reserve 20 % of the studio 's output for "women 's pictures, which inevitably means sex pictures. '' Vice films typically tacked on endings where the most sin - filled characters were either punished or redeemed. Films explored Code - defying subjects in an unapologetic manner with the premise that an end - reel moment could redeem all that had gone before. The concept of marriage was often tested in films such as The Prodigal (1931), in which a woman is having an affair with a seedy character, and later falls in love with her brother - in - law. When her mother - in - law steps in at the end of the film, it is to encourage one son to grant his wife a divorce so she can marry his brother, with whom she is obviously in love. The older woman proclaims the message of the film in a line near the end: "This the twentieth century. Go out into the world and get what happiness you can. ''
In Madame Satan (1930), adultery is explicitly condoned and used as a sign for a wife that she needs to act in a more enticing way to maintain her husband 's interest. In Secrets (1933), a husband admits to serial adultery, only this time he repents and the marriage is saved. The films took aim at what was already a damaged institution. During the Great Depression, relations between spouses often deteriorated due to financial strain, marriages lessened, and husbands abandoned their families in increased numbers. Marriage rates continually declined in the early 1930s, finally rising in 1934, the final year of the pre-Code era, and although divorce rates lowered, this is likely because desertion became a more common method of separation. Consequently, female characters, such as Ruth Chatterton 's in Female, live promiscuous bachelorette lifestyles, and control their own financial destiny (Chatterton supervises an auto factory) without regret.
In The Divorcee (1930), starring Norma Shearer, a wife discovers that her husband (played by Chester Morris), has been cheating on her. In reaction, she decides to have an affair with his best friend (played by Robert Montgomery). When the husband finds out, he decides to leave her. After pleading with him to stay, the wife unleashes her frustrations upon him, and in a moment of inspiration reveals her desire to live a fearless, sexually liberated life without him. According to at least one film historian, this was the motion picture that inspired other films centering upon sophisticated female protagonists, who stayed out late, had affairs, wore revealing gowns, and who basically destroyed the sexual double standard by asserting themselves both within society and in the bedroom. From The Divorcee onward, there developed "a trend toward a sophistication in women 's pictures that would continue unabated until the end of the Pre-Code era in mid-1934.
One of the most prominent examples of punishment for immoral transgressions in vice film can be seen in The Story of Temple Drake, based on the William Faulkner novel Sanctuary. In Drake, the title character (Miriam Hopkins), a cold, vapid "party girl '', the daughter of a judge, is raped and forced into prostitution by a backwoods character, and according to pre-Code scholar Thomas Doherty, the film implies that the deeds done to her are in recompense for her immorality. Later, in court, she confesses that she killed the man who raped and kept her. She faints after this confession, upon which her lawyer carries her out, leading to a "happy ending ''. In the RKO film Christopher Strong, Katharine Hepburn plays an aviator who becomes pregnant from an affair with a married man. She commits suicide by flying her plane directly upwards until she breaks the world altitude record, at which point she takes off her oxygen mask and plummets to earth. Strong female characters often ended films as "reformed '' women, after experiencing situations in which their progressive outlook proved faulty.
Female protagonists in aggressively sexual vice films were usually of two general kinds: the bad girl or the fallen woman. In so - called "bad girl '' pictures, female characters profited from promiscuity and immoral behavior. Jean Harlow, an actress who was by all reports a lighthearted, kind person offscreen, frequently played bad girl characters and dubbed them "sex vultures ''.
Two of the most prominent examples of bad girl films, Red - Headed Woman and Baby Face, featured Harlow and Stanwyck. In Red - Headed Woman Harlow plays a secretary determined to sleep her way into a more luxurious lifestyle, and in Baby Face Stanwyck is an abused runaway determined to use sex to advance herself financially.
In Baby Face Stanwyck moves to New York and sleeps her way to the top of Gotham Trust. Her progress is illustrated in a recurring visual metaphor of the movie camera panning ever upward along the front of Gotham Trust 's skyscraper. Men are driven mad with lust over her and they commit murder, attempt suicide, and are ruined financially for associating with her before she mends her ways in the final reel. In another departure from post Code films, Stanwyck 's sole companion for the duration of the picture is a black woman named Chico (Theresa Harris), whom she took with her when she ran away from home at age 14.
Red - Headed Woman begins with Harlow seducing her boss Bill LeGendre and intentionally breaking up his marriage. During her seductions, he tries to resist and slaps her, at which point she looks at him deliriously and says "Do it again, I like it! Do it again! '' They eventually marry but Harlow seduces a wealthy aged industrialist who is in business with her husband so that she can move to New York. Although this plan succeeds, she is cast aside when she is discovered having an affair with her chauffeur, in essence cheating on her paramour. Harlow shoots LeGendre, nearly killing him. When she is last seen in the film, she is in France in the back seat of a limousine with an elderly wealthy gentleman being driven along by the same chauffeur. The film was a boon to Harlow 's career and has been described as a "trash masterpiece ''.
Cinema classified as "fallen woman '' films was often inspired by real - life hardships women endured in the early Depression era workplace. The men in power in these pictures frequently sexually harassed the women working for them. Remaining employed often became a question of a woman 's virtue. In She Had to Say Yes (1933), starring Loretta Young, a struggling department store offers dates with its female stenographers as an incentive to customers. Employees ' Entrance was marketed with the tag line "See what out of work girls are up against these days. '' Joy complained in 1932 of another genre, the "kept woman '' film, which presented adultery as an alternative to the tedium of an unhappy marriage.
Until 1934, nudity involving "civilized '' women, which was understood to mean white women, was generally banned, but permitted with "uncivilized '' women, which was understood to mean non-white women. Filmmaker Deane Dickason took advantage of this loophole to release a quasi-pornographic documentary Virgins of Bali in September 1932, which concerns a day in the life of two Balinese teenagers, who are presumably "uncivilized ''. The film 's introduction notes that Balinese women were normally topless and only covered their breasts for ceremonial duties; Doherty commented dryly that, "fortunately '' for Dickason, his film 's two "stars '' rarely performed ceremonial duties. Typical of the film is the first scene where the two girls take a bath in the river while Dickason narrators, talking breathlessly about how the two girls "bathe their shamelessly nude bronze bodies ''. Virgins of Bali, which consisted almost entirely of scenes of Balinese women in various states of undress under the guise of showing what daily life in Bali was like was an immensely popular film with men at the time, and almost single handedly made Bali into a popular tourist destination.
Homosexuals were portrayed in such pre-Code films as Our Betters (1933), Footlight Parade (1933), Only Yesterday (1933), Sailor 's Luck (1933), and Cavalcade (1933). Although the topic was dealt with much more openly than in the decades that followed, the characterizations of gay and lesbian characters were usually derogatory. Gay male characters were portrayed as flighty with high voices, existing merely as buffoonish supporting characters.
A rare example of a homosexual character not being portrayed in the standard effeminate way, albeit still negatively, was the villain "Murder Legendre '', played by Bela Lugosi in White Zombie (1932), the Frenchman who mastered the magical powers of a Bokor (voodoo sorcerer). Legendre is hired by a wealthy plantation owner Charles Beaumont (Robert Frazer) to turn the woman he desires into a zombie, only to be informed later that Legendre desires him and is going to transform him into a zombie. In films like Ladies They Talk About, lesbians were portrayed as rough, burly characters, but in DeMille 's The Sign of the Cross, a female Christian slave is brought to a Roman prefect and seduced in dance by a statuesque lesbian dancer. Fox nearly became the first American studio to use the word "gay '' to refer to homosexuality, but the SRC made the studio muffle the word in the soundtrack of all footage that reached theaters.
Bisexual actress Marlene Dietrich cultivated a cross-gender fan base and started a trend when she began wearing men 's suits. She caused a commotion when she appeared at the premiere of The Sign of the Cross in 1932 in a tuxedo, complete with top hat and cane. The appearance of homosexual characters was at its height in 1933; in that year, Hays declared that all gay male characters would be removed from pictures. Paramount took advantage of the negative publicity Dietrich generated by signing a largely meaningless agreement stating that they would not portray women in male attire.
In the harsh economic times of the early Depression, films and performers often featured an alienated, cynical, and socially dangerous comic style. As with political films, comedy softened with the election of FDR and the optimism of the New Deal. Characters in the pre-Code era frequently engaged in comedic duels of escalating sexual innuendo. In Employee 's Entrance, a woman enters the office of a scoundrel boss who remarks, "Oh, it 's you -- I did n't recognize you with all your clothes on. '' Racial stereotypes were usually employed when ethnic characters appeared. Blacks in particular were usually the butt of the wisecrack, never the author. The most acknowledged black comedian was Stepin Fetchit, whose slow - witted comedic character was only meant to be successful in an unintentional manner, with himself as the punchline.
The New York stage was filled with ribald humor and sexually offensive comedy; when movie producers started to put wisecracks in their sound pictures, they sought New York performers. Popular comics such as the Marx Brothers got their start on Broadway in front of live audiences. Censors complained when they had to keep up with the deluge of jokes in pictures in the early 1930s, some of which were designed to go over their heads. The comic banter of some early sound films was rapid - fire, non-stop, and frequently exhausting for the audience by the final reel.
Mae West had already established herself as a comedic performer when her 1926 Broadway show Sex made national headlines. Tried and convicted of indecency by the New York City District Attorney, she served eight days in prison. West carefully constructed a stage persona and carried it over into her interviews and personal appearances. Despite her voluptuous physique, most of her appeal lay in her suggestive manner. She became a wordsmith in the art of the come - on and the seductive line, and despite her obvious appeal to male audiences, was popular with women as well. Over the cries of the censors, West got her start in the film Night After Night (1932), which starred George Raft and Constance Cummings, as a Texas Guinan-esque supporting character. She agreed to appear in the film only after producers agreed to let her write her own lines. In West 's first line on film, after a hat check girl remarks "Goodness, what beautiful diamonds '', West replies, "Goodness had nothing to do with it, dearie. '' Raft, who had wanted Texas Guinan herself for the role that went to West, later wrote, "In this picture, Mae West stole everything but the cameras. '' She went on to make She Done Him Wrong in 1933, which became a huge box office hit, grossing $3 million against a $200,000 budget, and then nine months later wrote and starred in I 'm No Angel. She became such a success that her career saved Paramount from financial ruin.
The arrival of sound film created a new job market for writers of screen dialogue. Many newspaper journalists moved to California and became studio - employed screenwriters. This resulted in a series of fast - talking comedy pictures featuring newsmen. The Front Page, later re-made as the much less cynical and more sentimental post-Code His Girl Friday (1940), was adapted from the Broadway play by Chicago newsmen, and Hollywood screenwriters, Ben Hecht and Charles MacArthur. It was based on Hecht 's experiences working as a reporter for the Chicago Daily Journal.
The Marx Brothers had been stage performers since the early 1900s. By the 1930s, their act consisted of wisecracking leader Groucho, the chronically silent Harpo, the overly ethnic Chico, and the strangely normal Zeppo. The plot of the seminal comedy Duck Soup (1933) is quite convoluted. Groucho 's plebeian character is named king of the fictional Freedonia, and he is pursued by two bumbling spies played by Chico and Harpo. Zeppo plays a typically normal secretary. Groucho 's con artist character leads Freedonia into war with neighboring Sylvania. The plot essentially exists to provide a framework for several comedic bits and long sketches. The film was unsuccessful at the box office and the anarchic zaniness and subversive nature of the comedy in the film would be unmatched in the brothers ' post-Code work, which was more standardly burlesque.
Theatrical cartoons were also covered by the Production Code. According to Leonard Maltin: "In early 1933 a Georgia theater owner wrote to Film Daily: ' The worst kicks we have are on smut in cartoons. They are primarily a kid draw, and parents frequently object to the filth that is put in them, incidentally without helping the comedy. The dirtiest ones are invariably the least funny. ' '' Betty Boop thus underwent some of the most dramatic changes after the Code was imposed: "gone was the garter, the short skirt, the décolletage ''.
As sound pictures became the norm in Hollywood, the "backstage '' film musical was a natural subject for the new medium. Not only could the studios present singing and dancing to their audiences -- many of whom were unlikely to have ever seen a stage musical before -- but the Pre-Code film musicals also tended to feature shapely young female chorus "girls '' wearing skimpy rehearsal clothing which revealed parts of the body which were still not normal to see on the street, and hinted at other parts in a way that normal fashion did not allow. But even if this could be considered to be exploitative use of the female body, the Pre-Code movie musicals were generally not derogatory in their presentation of the physical virtues of their women, but celebratory, with Busby Berkeley 's spectacular musical numbers being especially, and wittily, so; Berkeley avoided fetishizing his female performers.
Chorus "boys '', too, were generally well built, healthy - looking, virile specimens, but even so they never got nearly the attention that the women did. As well as these obvious displays of male and female sexual potential -- and the flirting and courting that went with it -- Pre-Code musicals also featured the energy and vitality of their youthful featured actors, as well as the comedic abilities of the many older character actors in Hollywood, who were often cast as producers, agents, Broadway "angels '' (financial backers) and stingy rich relatives, and brought a light -- if often stereotypical -- touch to these films.
Some Pre-Code musicals
Unlike silent - era sex and crime pictures, silent horror movies, despite being produced in the hundreds, were never a major concern for censors or civic leaders. When sound horror films were released however, they quickly caused controversy. Sound provided "atmospheric music and sound effects, creepy - voiced macabre dialogue and a liberal dose of blood - curdling screams '' which intensified its effects on audiences, and consequently on moral crusaders. The Hays Code did not mention gruesomeness, and filmmakers took advantage of this oversight. However, state boards usually had no set guidelines and could object to any material they found indecent. Although films such as Frankenstein and Freaks caused controversy when they were released, they had already been re-cut to comply with censors.
Comprising the nascent motion picture genres of horror and science fiction, the nightmare picture provoked individual psychological terror in its horror incarnations, while embodying group sociological terror in its science fiction manifestations. The two main types of pre-Code horror pictures were the single monster movie, and films where masses of hideous beasts rose up and attacked their putative betters. Frankenstein and Freaks exemplified both genres.
The pre-Code horror cycle was motivated by financial necessity. Universal in particular buoyed itself with the production of horror hits such as Dracula (1931) and Frankenstein, then followed those successes up with Murders in the Rue Morgue (1932), The Mummy (1932), and The Old Dark House (1932). Other major studios responded with their own productions. Much like the crime film cycle, however, the intense boom of the horror cycle was ephemeral, and had fallen off at the box office by the end of the pre-Code era.
While Joy declared Dracula "quite satisfactory from the standpoint of the Code '' before it was released, and the film had little trouble reaching theaters, Frankenstein was a different story. New York, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts removed the scene where the monster unintentionally drowns a little girl and lines that referenced Dr. Frankenstein 's God complex. Kansas, in particular, objected to the film. The state 's censor board requested the cutting of 32 scenes, which if removed, would have halved the length of the film.
Paramount 's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1931) played to the Freudian theories popular with the audience of its time. Fredric March played the split - personality title character. Jekyll represented the composed super-ego, and Hyde the lecherous id. Miriam Hopkins 's coquettish bar singer, Ivy Pierson, sexually teases Jekyll early in the film by displaying parts of her legs and bosom. Joy felt the scene had been "dragged in simply to titillate the audience. '' Hyde coerces her with the threat of violence into becoming his paramour and beats her when she attempts to stop seeing him. She is contrasted with his wholesome fiancée Muriel (Rose Hobart), whose chaste nature dissatisfies March 's baser alter ego. The film is considered the "most honored of the Pre-Code horror films. '' Many of the graphic scenes between Hyde and Ivy were cut by local censors because of their suggestiveness. Sex was intimately tied to horror in many pre-Code horror movies. In Murders in the Rue Morgue, an adaptation of Edgar Allan Poe 's classic tale which has little in common with the source material, Bela Lugosi plays a mad scientist who tortures and kills women, trying to mix human blood with ape blood during his experiments. His prized experiment, an intelligent ape named Erik, breaks into a woman 's second - floor apartment window and rapes her.
In Freaks, director Tod Browning of Dracula fame helms a picture that depicts a traveling circus populated by a group of deformed carnival freaks. Browning populated the movie with actual carnival sideshow performers including "midgets, dwarfs, hermaphrodites, Siamese twins, and, most awful, the armless and legless man billed as the ' living torso ' ''. There is also a group of Pinheads, who are depicted as fortunate in that they are not mentally capable enough to understand that they disgust people. But the truly unsavory characters here are the villains, the circus strongman Hercules and the beautiful high - wire artist Cleopatra, who intends to marry and poison Hans, the midget heir who is enamored of her. At a dinner celebrating their union, one of the freaks dances on the table as they chant "gooble - gobble, gobble, gobble, one of us, one of us, we accept her, we accept her. '' Disgusted, Cleopatra insults Hans and makes out with Hercules in front of him. When the freaks discover her plot, they exact revenge by mutilating Cleopatra into a freak. Although circus freaks were common in the early 1930s, the film was their first depiction on screen. Browning took care to linger over shots of the deformed, disabled performers with long takes of them including one of the "living torso '' lighting a match and then a cigarette with his mouth. The film was accompanied by a sensational marketing campaign that asked sexual questions such as "Do the Siamese Twins make love? '', "What sex is the half - man half - woman? '', and "Can a full grown woman truly love a midget? '' Surprisingly, given its reaction to Frankenstein, the state of Kansas objected to nothing in Freaks. However, other states, such as Georgia, were repulsed by the film and it was not shown in many locales. The film later became a cult classic spurred by midnight movie showings, but it was a box - office bomb in its original release.
In Island of Lost Souls (1932), an adaptation of H.G. Wells ' science - fiction novel, The Island of Doctor Moreau, Charles Laughton plays yet another mad scientist with a God complex. As Moreau, Laughton creates a mad scientist 's island paradise, an unmonitored haven where he is free to create a race of man - beasts and Lota, a beast - woman he wants to mate with a normal human male. A castaway lands on his island, providing him an opportunity to see how far his science experiment, the barely clothed, attractive Lota, has come. The castaway discovers Moreau vivisecting one of the beast - men and attempts to leave the island. He runs into the camp of the man - beasts and Moreau beats them back with a whip. The film ends with Lota dead, the castaway rescued, and the man - beasts chanting, "Are we not men? '' as they attack and then vivisect Moreau. The film has been described as "a rich man 's Freaks '' due to its esteemed source material. Wells, however, despised the movie for its lurid excesses. It was rejected by 14 local censor boards in the United States, and considered "against nature '' in Great Britain, where it was banned until 1958.
Pre-Code films contained a continual, recurring theme of white racism. In the early 1930s, the studios filmed a series of pictures that aimed to provide viewers a sense of the exotic, an exploration of the unknown and the forbidden. These pictures often imbued themselves with the allure of interracial sex according to pre-Code historian Thomas Doherty. "At the psychic core of the genre is the shiver of sexual attraction, the threat and promise of miscegenation. '' Films such as Africa Speaks were directly marketed by referencing interracial sex; moviegoers received small packets labeled "Secrets '' which contained pictures of naked black women. As portrayals of historic conditions, these movies are of little educational value, but as artifacts that show Hollywood 's attitude towards race and foreign cultures they are enlightening. The central point of interest in The Blonde Captive (1931), a film which depicted a blonde woman abducted by a savage tribe of Aboriginal Australians, was not that she was kidnapped, but that she enjoys living among the tribe. The lack of black characters in films highlights their status in Jim Crow America.
In Bird of Paradise, a white American man (Joel McCrea) enjoys a torrid affair with a Polynesian princess (Dolores del Río). The film created a scandal when released due to a scene featuring del Río swimming naked. Orson Welles said del Río represented the highest erotic ideal with her performance in the film.
The white protagonist in Tarzan, the Ape Man (1932) is the "King of the (African) Jungle ''. Tarzan (Johnny Weissmuller) is a monosyllabic half - naked jungle creature whose attractiveness is derived from his physical prowess; throughout the movie, he saves Jane (Maureen O'Sullivan) from danger and she swoons in his arms. When Jane 's father warns her "(h) e 's not like us '', she responds, "(h) e 's white '' as evidence to the contrary. In the racy 1934 sequel, Tarzan and His Mate (the last word meaning both a status and a biological function), men come from the U.S. with fancy gowns and other accoutrements to woo and clothe the bra-less, barely clothed Jane, again played by O'Sullivan, hoping to lure her away from the savage Tarzan. He detests the fancier clothing and tears it off. The film included a skinny - dipping scene with extensive nudity with a body double standing in for O'Sullivan. Breen, then head of the SRC, objected to the scene, and MGM, the movie 's producer, decided to take their case to the appeals review board. The board consisted of the heads of Fox, RKO, and Universal. After watching the scene "several times '', the board sided with Breen and the MPPDA, and the scene was removed, but MGM still allowed some uncut trailers and a few reels to stay in circulation. MGM marketed the film primarily towards women using taglines such as:
Girls! Would you live like Eve if you found the right Adam?
Ethnic characters were portrayed against stereotype in Massacre (1934). The protagonist (Richard Barthelmess) is a Native American who performs in a Wild West Show in full Indian garb, but then slips into a suit and speaks in American slang once the show is over. He has a black butler who is atypically intelligent; his character merely plays dumb by slipping into a stereotypical slow - witted "negro '' character when it suits him, rather than being genuinely unintelligent.
Films such as The Mask of Fu Manchu (1932), Shanghai Express (1932) and The Bitter Tea of General Yen (1933), explored the exoticism of the Far East -- by using white actors, not Asians, in the lead roles. The white actors frequently looked absurd in yellow - face makeup next to genuine Asians, so the studios would cast all the Asian parts white. Generally, "Yellow Peril '' stereotypes dominated the portrayal of Asian characters, who were almost always villains. The American scholar Huang Yunte wrote that the character of Charlie Chan, a Chinese - American detective aided by his bumbling, Americanized "Number One Son '' were virtually the only positive examples of Asian characters in Hollywood in this period. The actress Anna May Wong complained in a 1933 interview about the prevalence of "Yellow Peril '' stereotypes in Hollywood saying: "Why is it that the screen Chinese is always the villain? And so crude a villain -- murderous, treacherous, a snake in the grass! We are not like that. How could we be, with a civilization that is so many times older than the West? ''
In Fu Manchu, Karloff plays the evil Chinese mad scientist and gangster Dr. Fu Manchu, who wants to find the sword and mask of Genghis Khan, which will give him the power to control the "countless hordes '' of Asians, and lead them into battle against the West. Fu is a sexual deviant who engages in ritual torture and has occult powers. Several times, the film seems to suggest Fu is engaged in an incestuous relationship with his equally evil daughter Fah Lo See (Myrna Loy), which plays up a central theme of the "Yellow Peril '' fears, the alleged abnormal sexuality of Asians. In a scene cut from the film due to its depiction of miscegenation, the film shows Fu 's depraved daughter violating one of the chaste good characters. Fu is eventually conquered, but not before he temporarily lays his hand on the sword and proclaims to a vast Pan-Asian army made up of Asians and Muslims: "Would you have maidens like this (referring to Karen Morley) for your wives? Then conquer and breed! Kill the white man and take his women! ''
The Chinese warlord General Henry Chang (Warner Oland) in the 1932 film Shanghai Express, who is presented as being not only as Eurasian, but as having a menacing asexuality that places him outside of the conventionally defined world of Western sexuality and racial order, making him as dangerous to the Western characters who he has taken hostage as much as the fact that he is a vicious warlord. Though Chang is Eurasian, he takes pride in his Chinese heritage while rejecting his American heritage, which confirms his Eastern identity. War - torn China, circa 1931 is presented as a "hell '', which a diverse group of Westerners must travel through on a nightmarish train trip from Beijing to Shanghai, which takes a turn for the worse when the train is hijacked by Chang and his men. The film strongly hints that Chang is bisexual, who not only wants to rape the heroine Shanghai Lily (Marlene Dietrich), but also the hero Captain Donald "Doc '' Harvey (Clive Brook). When the German opium smuggler Erich Baum (Gustav von Seyffertitz) insults Chang, the result is a scene where the warlord commits a symbolic rape, as the sadistic Chang clearly takes sexual pleasure in branding Baum with a red - hot poker. After he is branded (the symbol of slavery), the once proud Baum becomes notably cowed and submissive towards Chang who in a certain sense now "owns '' him, which reflected the ultimate Yellow Peril fear of Westerners becoming the slaves of the East and its perverted sexuality. Later on, Chang does actually rape Hui Fei (Anna May Wong). Gina Marchetti suggests that Chang 's desire to blind Harvey is not only meant literally, but is also a metaphor for castration, which even under the more permissive Production code in effect in 1932 would have been a taboo subject. In a marked contrast to Chang 's twisted sexuality and his "almost effeminate polish '', the British Army Captain Harvey is a resolutely heterosexual, ruggedly tough soldier with a deep romantic streak who more than amply proved his manliness in the trenches of World War I, presenting a model of Western masculinity and strength.
At several times, the film hints that Shanghai Lily and Hui Fei are more than best friends, and are in fact engaged in a lesbian relationship, so when the film ends with Lily choosing Harvey as her lover, this serves as a testament to his manly Western sex appeal, which "redeems '' her from her life as a prostitute. At the same time that Shanghai Express embraces Yellow Peril stereotypes through the character of Chang, it also to some extent undermines them through the character of Hui, who is shown crying inconsolably after being raped by Chang, which gives her a certain humanity and allows the audience to sympathize with her. Hui is a courtesan who is looked down upon by all Western characters except for her best friend Lily on the account of her race and profession, but she is shown as possessing dignity and a willingness to stand up for herself. Several scenes seemed to suggest that Shanghai Lily and Hui are more attracted to one another then either are to Captain Harvey as the two women exchange longing glances more than once, through this may be suggesting Hui 's sexuality is not quite normal (most people in 1932 would considered bi-sexuality to be unnatural). At one point, Hui wears a tight cheongsam dress, which clearly reveal her erect nipples, which definitely captures Lily 's interest. The same criticism might be applied to Lily, but the film ends with Lily embracing heterosexual love by kissing Harvey while Hui walks off into the distance alone, sadder as a result of losing her best friend to Harvey and because she was raped, but otherwise unchanged. Finally, it is Hui who saves Harvey in the climax from being blinded / raped / castrated at the hands of Chang by killing Chang; Hui explains the killing as her way of regaining the self - respect that Chang had taken away from her.
Frank Capra 's The Bitter Tea of General Yen was not quite the same type of film: Stanwyck plays a missionary who goes to civil - war - torn China and meets the titular general (played by Nils Asther) after his car kills the driver of her rickshaw. When she is knocked unconscious in a riot, he takes her out of the rabble and onto a train car. She has lurid, horror - themed, symbolic dreams about the General, in which she is both titillated and repulsed by him. The film breaks precedent by developing into an interracial love story, but his army ends in ruins. Yen kills himself at the film 's conclusion -- by drinking poisoned tea -- rather than be captured and killed. Capra adored the script and disregarded the risk of making a film that broke California 's (and 29 other states ') laws concerning the portrayal of miscegenation. Cinematographer Joseph Walker tested a new technique he created, which he dubbed "Variable Diffusion '', in filming the picture. This rendered the entire picture in very soft focus.
From 1904 until 1967, when television finally killed them off, newsreels preceded films. In the early sound - film era, they lasted around eight minutes and featured highlights and clips of the world 's biggest stories. Updated twice a week by the five major studios, they became a highly profitable enterprise: in 1933, newsreels had a total box office take of almost $19.5 million against an outlay of under $10 million. The sound - film era created the narrator; among the first was Graham McNamee, who provided voiceover during the clips, often delivering hackneyed jokes while delineating the on - screen action. Sound newsreel interviews and monologues featured famous subjects unaccustomed to the new medium. These clips changed public perception of important historical figures depending on their elocution, the sound of their previously unheard voices, and their composure in front of the camera. Around 12 "newsreel theaters '' were soon created around the United States, the most successful being the Embassy Newsreel Theater on Broadway. The Embassy was a 578 - seat facility that presented fourteen 45 -- 50 minute programs a day, running from 10 in the morning until midnight. It was noted for its discerning, intellectual audience, many of whom did not attend motion - picture theaters.
The most gripping news story of the pre-Code era was the kidnapping of the Lindbergh baby on the evening of 1 March 1932. As the child was already enormously famous before the kidnapping, the event created a media circus, with news coverage more intense than anything since World War I. Newsreels featuring family photos of the child (the first time private pictures had been "conscripted for public service '') asked spectators to report any sight of him. On May 12, 1932, the child 's body was found less than five miles from the Lindbergh home. Although newsreels covered the most important topics of the day, they also presented human - interest stories (such as the immensely popular coverage of the Dionne quintuplets) and entertainment news, at times in greater detail than more pressing political and social matters.
Some of the images ' impact belies their historical accuracy; nearly all ceremonies and public events that were filmed for newsreels in the early sound era were staged, and in some cases even reenacted. For instance: when FDR signed an important bill, a member of his cabinet was called away before the staged reenactment began, so the film shows him absent at the time of the signing, although he had been present. The newsreels of FDR were staged to hide his hobbled gait caused by polio. Caught between the desire to present accurate hard - hitting news stories and the need to keep an audience in the mood for the upcoming entertainment, newsreels often soft - pedaled the difficulties Americans faced during the early years of the Great Depression. FDR in particular received favorable treatment from Hollywood, with all five of the major studios producing pro-FDR shorts by late 1933. These shorts featured some of the studios ' lesser contract talent extolling the virtues of FDR created government and social programs. Roosevelt himself was a natural before the camera. The newsreels were instrumental to the success of his initial campaign, and his enduring popularity while in office. He was described by Variety as the "Barrymore of the Capital ''.
Taking advantage of the existence of 30 years of newsreels archives were filmmakers who made early sound era documentaries. World War I was a popular topic of these pictures and spawned the following documentaries; The Big Drive (1933), World in Revolt (1933), This is America (1933), and Hell 's Holiday (1933). The most prescient pre-Code World War I documentary was aptly called The First World War (1934) and was the most critically and commercially successful documentary of the era.
Filmmakers also made feature - length documentaries that covered the dark recesses of the globe, including the Amazon rainforest, Native American settlements, the Pacific islands, and everywhere in between. Taking advantage of audiences ' voyeuristic impulses, aided by the allowance of nudity in tribal documentaries, the filming of lands untouched by modernity, and the presentation of locales never before filmed, these movies placated Depression era American audiences by showing them lifestyles more difficult than their own. Also captured were Arctic expeditions in films such 90 ° South and With Byrd at the South Pole, and Sub-Saharan Africa in the safari films of Martin and Osa Johnson, among others.
Some exploitation style documentaries purported to show actual events but were instead staged, elaborate ruses. The most prominent of which was Ingagi (1931), a film which claimed to show a ritual where African women were given over to gorillas as sex slaves, but instead was mostly filmed in Los Angeles using local blacks in place of natives. Douglas Fairbanks mocked the phoniness of many pre-Code documentaries in his parody Around the World in 80 Minutes with Douglas Fairbanks, in one scene of which he filmed himself wrestling a stuffed tiger doll, then a tiger - skin rug. Opposing these films was the travelogue which was shown before features and served as a short saccharine form of cinematic tourism.
The Code enumerated a number of key points known as the "Don'ts '' and "Be Carefuls '':
Resolved, That those things which are included in the following list shall not appear in pictures produced by the members of this Association, irrespective of the manner in which they are treated:
And be it further resolved, That special care be exercised in the manner in which the following subjects are treated, to the end that vulgarity and suggestiveness may be eliminated and that good taste may be emphasized:
Pre-Code films began to draw the ire of various religious groups, some Protestant but mostly a contingent of Roman Catholic crusaders. Amleto Giovanni Cicognani, apostolic delegate to the Catholic Church in the United States, called upon Roman Catholics in the United States to unite against the surging immorality of films. As a result, in 1933 the Catholic Legion of Decency, headed by the Reverend John T. McNicholas (later renamed the National Legion of Decency), was established to control and enforce decency standards and boycott films they deemed offensive. They created a rating system for films that started at "harmless '' and ended at "condemned '', with the latter denoting a film that was a sin to watch.
"I wish to join the Legion of Decency, which condemns vile and unwholesome moving pictures. I unite with all who protest against them as a grave menace to youth, to home life, to country and to religion. I condemn absolutely those salacious motion pictures which, with other degrading agencies, are corrupting public morals and promoting a sex mania in our land... Considering these evils, I hereby promise to remain away from all motion pictures except those which do not offend decency and Christian morality. '' (Catholic Legion of Decency Pledge)
The Legion spurred several million Roman Catholics across the U.S. to sign up for the boycott, allowing local religious leaders to determine which films to protest. Conservative Protestants tended to support much of the crackdown, particularly in the South, where anything relating to the state of race relations or miscegenation could not be portrayed. Although the Central Conference of American Rabbis joined in the protest, it was an uneasy alliance given the heavy presence of Jewish studio executives and producers, which, it was felt, had inspired at least some of the vitriol from the Catholic groups.
Hays opposed direct censorship, considering it "Un-American ''. He had stated that although there were some tasteless films in his estimation, working with filmmakers was better than direct oversight, and that, overall, films were not harmful to children. Hays blamed some of the more prurient films on the difficult economic times which exerted "tremendous commercial pressure '' on the studios more than a flouting of the code. Catholic groups became enraged with Hays and as early as July 1934 were demanding that he resign from his position, which he did not, although his influence waned and Breen took control, with Hays becoming a functionary.
The Payne Study and Experiment Fund was created in 1927 by Frances Payne Bolton to support a study of the influence of fiction on children. The Payne Fund Studies, a series of eight books published from 1933 to 1935 which detailed five (5) years of research aimed specifically at the cinema 's effects on children, were also gaining publicity at this time, and became a great concern to Hays. Hays had said certain pictures might alter "... that sacred thing, the mind of a child... that clean, virgin thing, that unmarked state '' and have "the same responsibility, the same care about the thing put on it that the best clergyman or the most inspired teacher would have. '' Despite its initial reception, the main findings of the study were largely innocuous. It found that cinema 's effect on individuals varied with age and social position, and that pictures reinforced audiences ' existing beliefs. The Motion Picture Research Council (MPRC, led by honorary vice president Sara Delano Roosevelt (mother of President Franklin D. Roosevelt), and executive director the Rev. William H. Short) which funded the study, was not pleased. An "alarmist summary '' of the study 's results written by Henry James Forman appeared in McCall 's, a leading women 's magazine of the time, and Forman 's book, Our Movie Made Children, which became a best - seller, publicized the Payne Fund 's results, emphasizing its more negative aspects.
The social environment created by the publicity of the Payne Fund Studies and religious protests reached such a fever pitch that a member of the Hays Office described it as a "state of war ''. However, newspapers including The Plain Dealer (Cleveland), New Orleans Times Picayune, Chicago Daily News, Atlanta Journal, Saint Paul Dispatch, the Philadelphia Record and Public Ledger, the Boston American and New York 's Daily News, Daily Mirror, and Evening Post all lambasted the studies. When discussing the Supreme Court 's 1915 decision, film historian Gregory Black argues that the efforts of reformers might have been lessened had "filmmakers been willing to produce films for specialized audiences (adults only, family, no children)... but the movers and shakers of the industry wanted or needed the largest possible market. '' The most provocative pictures were the most profitable, with the 25 % of the motion picture industry 's output that was the most sensational supporting the cleaner 75 %.
By 1932, there was an increasing movement for government control. By mid-1934 when Cardinal Dougherty of Philadelphia called for a Catholic boycott of all films, and Raymond Cannon was privately preparing a congressional bill supported by both Democrats and Republicans which would introduce Government oversight, the studios decided they had had enough. They re-organized the enforcement procedures giving Hays and the recently appointed Joseph I. Breen, a devout Roman Catholic, head of the new Production Code Administration (PCA), greater control over censorship. The studios agreed to disband their appeals committee and to impose a $25,000 fine for producing, distributing, or exhibiting any film without PCA approval. Hays had originally hired Breen, who had worked in public relations, in 1930 to handle Production Code publicity, and the latter was popular among Catholics. Joy began working solely for Fox Studios, and Wingate had been bypassed in favor of Breen in December 1933. Hays became a functionary, while Breen handled the business of censoring films.
Breen was an extreme anti-Semite, who was quoted as stating that Jews "are, probably, the scum of the earth. '' When Breen died in 1965, the trade magazine Variety stated, "More than any single individual, he shaped the moral stature of the American motion picture. '' Although the Legion 's impact on the more effective enforcement of the Code is unquestionable, its influence on the general populace is harder to gauge. A study done by Hays after the Code was finally fully implemented found that audiences were doing the exact opposite of what the Legion had recommended. Each time the Legion protested a film it meant increased ticket sales; unsurprisingly, Hays kept these results to himself and they were not revealed until many years later. In contrast to big cities, boycotts in smaller towns were more effective and theater owners complained of the harassment they received when they exhibited salacious films.
Many actors and actresses, such as Edward G. Robinson, Barbara Stanwyck, and Clark Gable, continued their careers apace after the Code was enforced. However, others, such as Ruth Chatterton (who decamped to England around 1936) and Warren William (who died relatively young in the 1940s), who excelled during this period, are mostly forgotten today.
Censors like Martin Quigley and Joseph Breen understood that:
a private industry code, strictly enforced, is more effective than government censorship as a means of imposing religious dogma. It is secret, for one thing, operating at the pre-production stage. The audience never knows what has been trimmed, cut, revised, or never written. For another, it is uniform -- not subject to hundreds of different licensing standards. Finally and most important, private censorship can be more sweeping in its demands, because it is not bound by constitutional due process or free - expression rules -- in general, these apply to only the government -- or by the command of church - state separation... there is no question that American cinema today is far freer than in the heyday of the Code, when Joe Breen 's blue pencil and the Legion of Decency 's ever - present boycott threat combined to assure that films adhered to Catholic Church doctrine.
Termed by Breen as "Compensating moral value '', the maxim was that "any theme must contain at least sufficient good in the story to compensate for, and to counteract, any evil which relates. '' Hollywood could present evil behavior, but only if it were eradicated by the end of the film, "with the guilty punished, and the sinner redeemed ''.
Pre-Code scholar Thomas Doherty summarized the practical effects:
Even for moral guardians of Breen 's dedication, however, film censorship can be a tricky business. Images must be cut, dialogue overdubbed or deleted, and explicit messages and subtle implications excised from what the argot of film criticism calls the "diegesis ''. Put simply, the diegesis is the world of the film, the universe inhabited by the characters existing in the landscape of cinema. "Diegetic '' elements are experienced by the characters in the film and (vicariously) by the spectator; "nondiegetic '' elements are apprehended by the spectator alone... The job of the motion picture censor is to patrol the diegesis, keeping an eye and ear out for images, languages, and meanings that should be banished from the world of film... The easiest part of the assignment is to connect the dots and connect what is visually and verbally forbidden by name.... More challenging is the work of the textual analysis and narrative rehabilitation that discerns and redirects hidden lessons and moral meanings.
The censors thus expanded their jurisdiction from what was seen to what was implied in the spectator 's mind. In The Office Wife (1930), several of Joan Blondell 's disrobing maneuvers were strictly forbidden and the implied image of the actress being naked just off - screen was deemed too suggestive even though it relied upon the audience using their imaginations, so post-Code releases of the film had scenes which were blurred or rendered indistinct, if allowed at all.
Following the July 1, 1934 decision by the studios put the power over film censorship in Breen 's hands, he appeared in a series of newsreel clips promoting the new order of business, assuring Americans that the motion - picture industry would be cleansed of "the vulgar, the cheap, and the tawdry '' and that pictures would be made "vital and wholesome entertainment ''. All scripts now went through PCA, and several films playing in theaters were ordered withdrawn.
The first film Breen censored in the production stage was the Joan Crawford film Forsaking All Others. Although Independent film producers vowed they would give "no thought to Mr. Joe Breen or anything he represents '', they caved on their stance within one month of making it. The major studios still owned most of the successful theaters in the country, and studio heads such as Harry Cohn of Columbia Pictures had already agreed to stop making indecent films. In several large cities audiences booed when the Production seal appeared before films. But the Catholic Church was pleased, and in 1936 Pope Pius XI stated that the U.S. film industry "has recognized and accepts its responsibility before society. '' The Legion condemned zero films produced by the MPPDA between 1936 and 1943.
A coincidental upswing in the fortunes of several studios was publicly explained by Code proponents such as the Motion Picture Herald as proof positive that the code was working. Another fortunate coincidence for Code supporters was the torrent of famous criminals such as John Dillinger, Baby Face Nelson, and Bonnie and Clyde that were killed by police shortly after the PCA took power. Corpses of the outlaws were shown in newsreels around the country, alongside clips of Al Capone and Machine Gun Kelly in Alcatraz. Among the unarguably positive aspects of the Code being enforced was the money it saved studios in having to edit, cut, and alter films to get approval from the various state boards and censors. The money saved was in the millions annually. A spate of more wholesome family films featuring performers such as Shirley Temple took off.
Stars such as James Cagney redefined their images. Cagney played a series of patriots, and his gangster in Angels with Dirty Faces (1937) purposefully acts like a coward when he is executed so children who had looked up to him would cease any such admiration. Breen in essence neutered Groucho Marx, removing most of his jokes which directly referenced sex, although some sexual references slipped through unnoticed in the Marx Brothers post-Code pictures. In the political realm, films such Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939) in which James Stewart tries to change the American system from within while reaffirming its core values, stand in stark contrast to Gabriel Over the White House where a dictator is needed to cure America 's woes.
Some pre-Code movies suffered irreparable damage from censorship after 1934. When studios attempted to re-issue films from the 1920s and early 1930s, they were forced to make extensive cuts. Films such as Mata Hari (1931), Arrowsmith (1931), and A Farewell to Arms (1932) exist only in their censored versions. Many other films survived intact because they were too controversial to be re-released, such as The Maltese Falcon (1931), which was remade a decade later with the same name, and thus never had their master negatives edited. In the case of Convention City (1933), which Breen would not allow to be re-released in any form, the entire film remains missing. Although it has been rumored that all prints and negatives were ordered destroyed by Jack Warner in the late thirties, further research shows the negative was in the vaults as late as 1948 when it was junked due to nitrate decomposition.
In the 1980s, New York City Film Forum programmer Bruce Goldstein held the first film festivals featuring pre-Code films. Goldstein is also credited by San Francisco film critic Mick LaSalle as the person to bring the term "pre-Code '' into general use.
UCLA ran several series of pre-Code films during the 2000s, showcasing films which had not been seen for decades, and not available on any home media.
In 2014 the British Film Institute ran a 21 - film season titled Hollywood Babylon: Early Talkies Before the Censors, at the BFI Southbank.
In the 1990s, MGM released several pre-Code films on laserdisc and VHS. "The Forbidden Hollywood Collection '' included: Baby Face; Beauty and the Boss; Big Business Girl; Blessed Event; Blonde Crazy; Bombshell; Dance, Fools, Dance; Employees ' Entrance; Ex-Lady; Female; Havana Widows; Heroes for Sale; Illicit; I 've Got Your Number; Ladies They Talk About; Lady Killer; Madam Satan; Night Nurse; Our Dancing Daughters; Our Modern Maidens; The Purchase Price; Red - Headed Woman; Scarlet Dawn; Skyscraper Souls; The Strange Love of Molly Louvain; They Call It Sin; and Three on a Match.
MGM / UA and Turner Classic Movies also released other pre-Code films such as The Divorcee, Doctor X, A Free Soul, Little Caesar, Mystery of the Wax Museum, Possessed, The Public Enemy, Red Dust (remade in 1953 as Mogambo), and Riptide under other labels.
In 1999, the Roan Group / Troma Entertainment released two pre-Code DVD collections: Pre-Code Hollywood: The Risqué Years # 1, featuring Of Human Bondage, Millie and Kept Husbands, and Pre-Code Hollywood 2, featuring Bird of Paradise and The Lady Refuses.
Warner Bros. Home Video has released a number of their pre-Code films on DVD under the Forbidden Hollywood banner. To date, ten volumes have been released:
Universal Home Video followed suit with the Pre-Code Hollywood Collection: Universal Backlot Series box set (April 7, 2009). It includes The Cheat, Merrily We Go to Hell, Hot Saturday, Torch Singer, Murder at the Vanities, and Search for Beauty, together with a copy of the entire Hays Code.
There have been numerous releases of manufactured - on - demand DVD - Rs, with Warner also issuing various pre-Coders individually and as dual - film sets via their Warner Archive Collection imprint. These include:
Turner have also released MOD DVDs, including:
Notes
Sources
Further reading
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name an american city that is easy to get lost in | List of City nicknames in the United States - wikipedia
This partial list of city nicknames in the United States compiles the aliases, sobriquets and slogans that cities are known by (or have been known by historically), officially and unofficially, to municipal governments, local people, outsiders or their tourism boards or chambers of commerce. City nicknames can help in establishing a civic identity, helping outsiders recognize a community or attracting people to a community because of its nickname; promote civic pride; and build community unity. Nicknames and slogans that successfully create a new community "ideology or myth '' are also believed to have economic value. Their economic value is difficult to measure, but there are anecdotal reports of cities that have achieved substantial economic benefits by "branding '' themselves by adopting new slogans.
In 2005 the consultancy Tagline Guru conducted a small survey of professionals in the fields of branding, marketing, and advertising aimed at identifying the "best '' U.S. city slogans and nicknames. Participants were asked to evaluate about 800 nicknames and 400 slogans, considering several criteria in their assessments. The assigned criteria were: whether the nickname or slogan expresses the "brand character, affinity, style, and personality '' of the city, whether it "tells a story in a clever, fun, and memorable way, '' uniqueness and originality, and whether it "inspires you to visit there, live there, or learn more. ''
The top - ranked nickname in the survey was New York City 's "The Big Apple, '' followed by "Sin City '' (Las Vegas), "The Big Easy '' (New Orleans), "Motor City '' (Detroit), and "The Windy City '' (Chicago). In addition to the number - two nickname, Las Vegas had the top - rated slogan: "What Happens Here, Stays Here. '' The second - through fifth - place slogans were "So Very Virginia '' (Charlottesville, Virginia), "Always Turned On '' (Atlantic City, New Jersey), "Cleveland Rocks! '' (Cleveland, Ohio), and "The Sweetest Place on Earth '' (Hershey, Pennsylvania).
Some unofficial nicknames are positive, while others are derisive. The unofficial nicknames listed here have been in use for a long time or have gained wide currency.
Sleazeside
Duluth -- The Air - Conditioned City
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when considering cost-of-living differences between locations which type of costs stands out | Cost of living - wikipedia
Cost of living is the cost of maintaining a certain standard of living. Changes in the cost of living over time are often operationalized in a cost of living index. Cost of living calculations are also used to compare the cost of maintaining a certain standard of living in different geographic areas. Differences in cost of living between locations can also be measured in terms of purchasing power parity rates.
Employment contracts, pension benefits, and government entitlements such as Social Security can be tied to a cost - of - living index, typically to the consumer price index (CPI). A COLA adjusts salaries based on changes in a cost - of - living index. Salaries are typically adjusted annually. They may also be tied to a cost - of - living index that varies by geographic location if the employee moves. In this later case, the expatriate employee will likely see only the discretionary income part of their salary indexed by a differential CPI between the new and old employment locations, leaving the non-discretionary part of the salary (e.g., mortgage payments, insurance, car payments) unmodified.
Annual escalation clauses in employment contracts can specify retroactive or future percentage increases in worker pay which are not tied to any index. These negotiated increases in pay are colloquially referred to as cost - of - living adjustments or cost - of - living increases because of their similarity to increases tied to externally determined indexes. Cost - of - living allowance is equal to the nominal interest minus the real interest rate.
When cost - of - living adjustments, negotiated wage settlements and budgetary increases exceed CPI, media reports frequently compare the two without consideration of the pertinent tax code. However, CPI is based on the retail pricing of a basket of goods and services. Most purchases of that same basket require the use of after - tax dollars -- dollars that were often subject to the highest marginal tax rate. Consequently, the COLA will necessarily have to exceed the CPI inflation rate to maintain purchasing power.
The widely recognized problem known as bracket - creep can also occur in countries where the marginal tax brackets themselves are not indexed -- COLA increases simply place more dollars into higher tax rate brackets. (Only under a flat tax system would a percentage gain on gross income translate into a comparable inflation - offsetting gain at the after - tax level.)
Some salaries and pensions in the United States with a COLA (they vary by type) include:
Pensions in Canada with a COLA include:
For 2018, the Social Security Cost of Living Adjustment ("COLA '') is 2.0 % (a significant increase over the 0.3 % figure used for 2017). The maximum Supplemental Security Income ("SSI '') benefit will go from $735 to $750, while the maximum SSI payment for a couple will go from $1,103 to $1,125. The estimated average monthly benefit for a disabled person will increase from $1,173 to $1,197. The estimated average monthly benefit for a retired person will increase from $1,377 to $1,404. The presumptive Substantial Gainful Activity ("SGA '') threshold will increase from $1,170 to $1,180 for non-blind individuals, but from $1,950 to $1,970 for blind individuals. The Trial Work Period ("TWP '') monthly amount will increase from $840 to $850. The amount of earnings needed for a worker to obtain a "quarter of coverage '' or "credit '' will increase from $1,300 to $1,320. Maximum taxable earnings under the Social Security OASDI program will go from $127,200 to $128,700.
The Economist Intelligence Unit produces a semi-annual (twice yearly) worldwide cost of living survey that compares more than 400 individual prices across 160 products and services. They include food, drink, clothing, household supplies and personal care items, home rents, transport, utility bills, private schools, domestic help and recreational costs.
The survey itself is an internet tool designed to calculate cost - of - living allowances and build compensation packages for corporate executives maintaining a western lifestyle. The survey incorporates easy - to - understand comparative cost of living indices between cities. The survey allows city - to - city comparisons, but for the purpose of this report all cities are compared to a base city of New York City, which has an index set at 100. The survey has been carried out for more than 30 years.
The most recent survey was published in March 2017. Singapore remains the most expensive city in the world for the fourth year running, in a rare occurrence where the entire top five most expensive cities were unchanged from the year prior. Sydney and Melbourne have both cemented their positions as top - ten staples, with Sydney becoming the fifth most expensive, and Melbourne becoming the sixth. Asia is home to more than five most expensive cities in the top twenty but also home to eight cheapest cities of the cheapest ten.
Stipends or extra pay provided to employees who are being temporarily relocated may also be called cost - of - living adjustments or cost - of - living allowances. Such adjustments are intended to offset changes in welfare due to geographic differences in the cost of living. Such adjustments might more accurately be described as a per diem allowance or tied to a specific item, as with housing allowances. Employees who are being permanently relocated are less likely to receive such allowances, but may receive a base salary adjustment to reflect local market conditions.
A cost - of - living allowance is frequently given to members of the U.S. military stationed at overseas bases if the area to which a service member is assigned has a higher cost of living than the average area in the United States. For example, service members stationed in Japan receive a cost of living allowance of between $300 and $700 per month (depending on pay grade, years of service, and number of dependents), in addition to their base pay. This additional pay is non-taxable.
Specific:
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when did the 13 colonies join the union | List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union - wikipedia
A state of the United States is one of the 50 constituent entities that shares its sovereignty with the federal government. Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside, due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government. Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names.
States are the primary subdivisions of the United States. They possess all powers not granted to the federal government, nor prohibited to them by the United States Constitution. In general, state governments have the power to regulate issues of local concern, such as: regulating intrastate commerce, running elections, creating local governments, public school policy, and non-federal road construction and maintenance. Each state has its own constitution grounded in republican principles, and government consisting of executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
All states and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state is represented by two Senators, and at least one Representative, while the size of a state 's House delegation depends on its total population, as determined by the most recent constitutionally - mandated decennial census. Additionally, each state is entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College, the body that elects the President of the United States, equal to the total of Representatives and Senators in Congress from that state.
Article IV, Section 3, Clause 1 of the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states.
The following table is a list of all 50 states and their respective dates of statehood. The first 13 became states in July 1776 upon agreeing to the United States Declaration of Independence, and each joined the first Union of states between 1777 and 1781, upon ratifying the Articles of Confederation, its first constitution. (A separate table is included below showing AoC ratification dates.) These states are presented in the order in which each ratified the 1787 Constitution, thus joining the present federal Union of states. The date of admission listed for each subsequent state is the official date set by Act of Congress.
The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation for ratification by the individual states on November 15, 1777. The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states. On March 4, 1789, the general government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the present Constitution.
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who plays steve mcgarrett's sister on hawaii five o | Taryn Manning - Wikipedia
Taryn Manning (born November 6, 1978) is an American actress, singer - songwriter, and fashion designer. Manning made her film debut in the teen drama Crazy / Beautiful (2001), followed by a lead part opposite Britney Spears in Crossroads (2002), which garnered her mainstream attention. She then appeared in 8 Mile (2002), White Oleander (2002), A Lot Like Love (2005) and Hustle & Flow (2005). Manning has also had a main role on Hawaii Five - 0 and had recurring roles in television on Sons of Anarchy, and plays the role of Tiffany "Pennsatucky '' Doggett in the Netflix original series Orange Is the New Black.
Manning is the vocalist for the electronic duo Boomkat, and is also a co-owner of the clothing brand Born Uniqorn.
Taryn Manning was born in Falls Church, Virginia, the daughter of Bill Manning, a musician, and his wife, Sharyn Louise (White). Manning 's parents divorced when she was two months old, and her brother, Kellin, and she were raised by their mother in Tucson, Arizona. Manning grew up living in a trailer park with her brother and single mother, who supported the family on a strict income. "My mom did n't buy herself a new pair of shoes and a new outfit until I moved out, '' said Manning. "Literally when I asked my mom for a dollar I got one single dollar. ''
In spite of the family 's financial troubles, her mother was able to enroll Manning in karate, dance, and acting classes. When Manning was 12, her family relocated to San Diego, California. Two years later, her father committed suicide. As a teenager, she worked as a waitress and a barista to help support her family.
Manning began acting in the late 1990s, appearing in small roles in several film and television productions, including episodes of The Practice, Get Real, Speedway Junky, NYPD Blue and Popular. She also made a guest - appearance on the TV series Boston Public, in a role that was specifically written for her. In 1999, she was featured in an independent film called Speedway Junky. She also auditioned for the American version of Popstars, which aired in early 2001 on The WB.
She made her film debut with a part in the romantic drama Crazy / Beautiful, which was followed by a role in the 2002 feature film Crossroads, where she played one of two best friends of singer Britney Spears. She appeared in 8 Mile as B - Rabbit 's ex-girlfriend, Janeane, and in Peter Kosminsky 's White Oleander. Along with supporting roles in the films Lucky 13 and Debating Robert Lee, Manning appeared briefly in Anthony Minghella 's Civil War melodrama Cold Mountain (2003) and in the romantic comedy A Lot Like Love (2005).
E! Online picked her for its "Sizzlin ' 16 '' list of 2002. She has appeared on the covers of the July 2003 issue of FHM, the May 2007 issue of Stuff and was the December 2007 entry in Stuff magazine 's 2006 - 2007 pin up calendar. She was ranked # 33 in Stuff magazine 's 103 Sexiest Women in 2003, # 59 in Maxim ` s Hot 100 Women 2003 and # 60 in 2008.
Her breakthrough role was as Nola, a prostitute in Memphis, Tennessee, in the 2005 film Hustle & Flow. Manning was nominated in the Washington, DC Area Film Critics Association Awards for Best Breakthrough Performance. Director Craig Brewer saw Manning 's picture in a photography book and was convinced that the actress who played Nola should look just like her. "There are some people who put on trashy like a wardrobe, and Taryn can play those roles with dignity and earnestness, '' Brewer said of Manning. In a "making of '' featurette on the Hustle & Flow DVD, "Behind the Hustle '', Brewer talks about how surprised and delighted he was to later realize that the model who had originally inspired his image of Nola 's look turned out to also be the actress playing her.
Her other subsequent film roles included roles in Unbeatable Harold and When the Nines Roll Over. When the Nines Roll Over is a drama film centred around a jaded hipster A&R executive tries to steal a talented and sexy young singer away from a small label. Her next film was Weirdsville, a dark comedy co-starring Scott Speedman and Wes Bentley. Boomkat 's song "It 's Not My Fault '' appeared on the soundtrack for the film as a duet by Manning and John Rowley. In 2007, she played Ivy Chitty on the short - lived Fox television series Drive, which was a drama about various people competing in an illegal cross-country road race. In After Sex, seven short films within one, Manning played the supporting role of Alanna. She had leading roles in the horror films Cult and Banshee; in the latter, she performed her own stunts. "I got hurt one day during one of the chase scenes, where another car crashed into my car, '' Manning explained of her stunts.
Manning appeared in the romantic comedy Jack and Jill vs. the World. She played Rita Cherry on four episodes of Sons of Anarchy; co-star Katey Sagal called her performance fantastic. At first she made a guest appearance on the show and later rejoined, because her performance was so well received. Later in 2008 she appeared as the female lead in Butch Walker 's music video for "The Weight Of Her '' and in will.i.am 's collage - style music video, "Yes We Can ''. She co-starred with Bill Pullman in the surreal drama film Your Name Here, in which she played Nikki, who is based on Victoria Principal. The film is based loosely on sci - fi writer Philip K. Dick 's life.
She admires her friend Gina Gershon 's musical appearances. In 2009, she appeared as Rose Atropos in a dramatic music - themed film The Perfect Age of Rock ' n ' Roll. The film received mostly favorable reviews from critics and fans. Manning joined forces with Ron Perlman in two 2009 films, The Devil 's Tomb and The Job. She also appeared in a horror film Kill Theory, which tells the story of a group of college students, who find themselves targeted by a sadistic killer. Drama film The Job premiered at the San Diego Film Festival on September 25, 2009. Critics called the film "entertaining and fun with twists that arrives like clockwork ''.
In 2009, Taryn portrayed Caroline Bishop, the love interest to Kris Black 's coal miner turned boxer in Five Good Years. In February 2010, she was cast in the 2010 remake of Hawaii Five - 0 as the younger sister of main character Steve McGarrett.
In early 2012, Taryn signed on to star in the supernatural web series The Unknown, which premiered on Crackle on July 13, 2012. In 2013, she began playing Tiffany "Pennsatucky '' Doggett in the original Netflix series Orange Is the New Black.
In 2001, Manning auditioned for the musical reality television show popstar on the WB. In 2003, Manning and her brother Kellin formed the band Boomkat. The band first signed a major label deal with American Idol producer Randy Jackson, but the deal fell through. Robbie Robertson then signed them to DreamWorks Records, which was Boomkat 's label from 2002 to 2004. In 2002, she sang a rendition of "I 'll Take You There '' with Tweet in several Gap commercials directed by Peter Lindbergh. Their debut album, Boomkatalog. One, was released on March 18, 2003. Boomkat released two singles "The Wreckoning '' and "What U Do 2 Me ''. The first single, "The Wreckoning '', hit No. 1 on the Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart. The band closed out 2003 as the No. 5 Hot Dance Club Play Artist for the year in Billboard Magazine. Music from Boomkatalog. One has also appeared in movies, including Mean Girls, Crossroads, The Hot Chick, 8 Mile and The Italian Job.
After a hiatus, in an interview in October 2005 's issue of Nylon magazine, Manning mentioned that Boomkat would be back eventually, and that she is writing songs for the new album once they find another record label. Boomkat released their first single in four years, called "Runaway '' on April 8, 2008. In early June 2008 Boomkat 's second album A Million Trillion Stars became available in online stores.
In October 2008, Boomkat played several shows throughout the Los Angeles area, hitting spots like North Hollywood 's NOHO Scene Festival and venues such as the Viper Room and Hotel Cafe. In December 2008 Manning recorded a version of Tom Petty 's "Christmas All Over Again '', which premiered on her official Myspace page. On March 3, 2009, their official first single, "Run Boy '' was released along with a visually electric music video. The single premiered on People.com. A Million Trillion Stars was officially released in stores on March 10 by independent record label, Little Vanilla Records. In 2009, Manning was featured on indie band Dreamers ' song "Lonely World '', as well as in their new music video called "The Dreamers ''. In the music video, she takes on the role of Ring Master. On October 28, she announced that Boomkat is working on their third studio album. The band 's fifth music video from A Million Trillion Stars premiered on MySpace on Wednesday, February 17, 2010.
In September 2009, Manning stated that she is working on a solo album. The album is "dance music and it 's colorful, flamboyant, if you will. Boomkat 's a little darker, experimental, like Portishead kind of stuff, '' she told in an interview with Adam Bernard.
She sang her first solo single, "So Talented '' in an episode of Melrose Place. The song was written with the producer Linney (Darkchild Entertainment). On September 3, 2009, it was confirmed that two tracks were completed for the album.
After the song "Spotlight '' was featured in an episode of Manning 's show Hawaii Five - 0, it was released as a teaser for the album via iTunes & Amazon MP3. "Turn It Up '' is being released as the first official single. The music video premiered on People.com on May 4, 2011. "Turn It Up '' peaked at No. 21 on Billboard (magazine) 's Dance Club Songs Chart for the week of October 22, 2011.
Manning 's single "Send Me Your Love '' was released digitally worldwide on August 21, 2012. The song is the first official single from her solo album entitled Freedom City, which was released in September. It topped the Dance Club Songs chart. Manning followed "Send Me Your Love '' with "Summer Ashes '', a collaboration with KDrew released on July 23, 2013.
Her single with Bynon ' All The Way ' was released January 12, 2015.
Boomkat 's record company, Little Vanilla Records is owned by Manning. She has a clothing line called Born Uniqorn with best friend Tara Jane. The brand was founded in fall 2005. Born Uniqorn has hosted many benefits for charity organizations in Los Angeles. Her fashion icons are Kate Moss, Nicole Kidman, Cate Blanchett and Kate Winslet. Manning was honored with "Film Fashion Visionary '' award at the 2009 Bel Air Film Festival.
She has appeared in Juicy Couture 's advertising campaign and in Frankie B ` s spring 2009 campaign. They shot a short film, which follows a day in the life of a Frankie B. woman. The video is called "Let 's Get Lost '' which is the original song featured in the video by musician Gilby Clarke with vocals by Manning.
Manning posed nude for Playboy in the April 2011 issue of the magazine.
Manning supports American Dog Rescue Foundation; the Human Rights Campaign, the largest LGBT civil rights advocacy group and political lobbying organization in the United States; Save The Music Foundation, which advocates keeping music classes in schools; and the Somaly Mam Foundation, which works on eliminating human trafficking in Asia; as well as several breast cancer charities. Manning owns a home in Los Angeles, as well as an apartment in New York City 's Greenwich Village.
Manning was aboard JetBlue Airways Flight 292 when it made an emergency landing at Los Angeles International Airport on September 21, 2005, after the nose gear jammed in an abnormal position. No one was injured. She stated that "it was the most surreal, out - of - body experience I ever had. ''
On October 12, 2012, Manning was arrested for assaulting her personal assistant and makeup artist, Holli Hartman. The victim declined to prosecute and in November 2012, Manning took a plea bargain of one day of community service, and if she stayed out of trouble for the next six months, the case would be closed.
In 2016, Manning was accused of violently attacking Hartman yet again. The victim sought a restraining order against Manning but was denied due to jurisdictional filing issues. The attack was one of several Hartman claimed to have suffered with the most recent abuse occurring in late 2015 at Manning 's Manhattan apartment.
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lok sabha and rajya sabha seats in different states | Rajya Sabha - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 28 ° 37 ′ 0 '' N 77 ° 12 ′ 30 '' E / 28.61667 ° N 77.20833 ° E / 28.61667; 77.20833
245 (233 Elected + 12 Nominated by the President)
Government coalition (89) National Democratic Alliance (89)
Opposition (155) United Progressive Alliance (57)
Janata Parivar Alliance (6)
Other Parties (82)
Others (10)
Vacant (1)
The Rajya Sabha or Council of States is the upper house of the Parliament of India. Membership of Rajya Sabha is limited by the Constitution to a maximum of 250 members, and current laws have provision for 245 members. Most of the members of the House are indirectly elected by state and territorial legislatures using single transferable votes, while the President can appoint 12 members for their contributions to art, literature, science, and social services. Members sit for staggered six - year terms, with one third of the members retiring every two years.
The Rajya Sabha meets in continuous sessions, and unlike the Lok Sabha, the lower house of Parliament, is not subject to dissolution. However, the Rajya Sabha, like the Lok Sabha can be prorogued by the President. The Rajya Sabha has equal footing in all areas of legislation with Lok Sabha, except in the area of supply, where the Lok Sabha has overriding powers. In the case of conflicting legislation, a joint sitting of the two houses can be held. However, since the Lok Sabha has twice as many members as the Rajya Sabha, the former would normally hold the greater power. Joint sittings of the Houses of Parliament of India are rare, and in the history of the Republic, only three such joint - sessions have been held; the latest one for the passage of the 2002 Prevention of Terrorism Act.
The Vice President of India (currently, Venkaiah Naidu) is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha, who presides over its sessions. The Deputy Chairman, who is elected from amongst the house 's members, takes care of the day - to - day matters of the house in the absence of the Chairman. The Rajya Sabha held its first sitting on 13 May 1952. The salary and other benefits for a member of Rajya Sabha are same as for a member of Lok Sabha.
Rajya Sabha members are elected by state legislatures rather than directly through the electorate by single transferable vote method. From 18 July 2018, Rajya Sabha MPs can speak in 22 Indian languages in House as the Upper House has facility for simultaneous interpretation in all 22 Indian languages.
Article 84 of the Constitution lays down the qualifications for membership of Parliament. A member of the Rajya Sabha must:
In addition, twelve members are nominated by the President of India having special knowledge in various areas like arts and science. However, they are not entitled to vote in Presidential elections as per Article 55 of the Constitution.
The Constitution of India places some restrictions on Rajya Sabha which makes Lok Sabha more powerful in certain areas of comparison.
The definition of a money bill is given in article 110 of constitution of India. A money bill can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha by a minister and only on recommendation of President of India. When the Lok Sabha passes a money bill then the Lok Sabha sends money bill to the Rajya Sabha for 14 days during which it can make recommendations. Even if Rajya Sabha fails to return the money bill in 14 days to the Lok Sabha, that bill is deemed to have passed by both the Houses. Also, if the Lok Sabha rejects any (or all) of the amendments proposed by the Rajya Sabha, the bill is deemed to have been passed by both Houses of Parliament of India in the form the Lok Sabha finally passes it. This is because the Lok Sabha has largest number of representatives of peoples of India and so the Lok Sabha, the lower house is more powerful in comparison with Rajya Sabha, the upper house. Hence, Rajya Sabha can only give recommendations for a money bill but Rajya Sabha can not amend a money bill this is to ensure that Rajya Sabha must not add any non money matters in money bill. Lok Sabha can reject all the recommendations of Rajya Sabha or can accept some or all of the recommendations. Decisions of the speaker of the Lok Sabha are final. There is no joint sitting of both the houses with respect to money bills, because all final decisions are taken by the Lok Sabha.
Article 108 provides for a joint sitting of the two Houses of Parliament in certain cases. A joint sitting can be convened by the President of India when one house has either rejected a bill passed by the other house, has not taken any action on a bill transmitted to it by the other house for six months, or has disagreed to the amendments proposed by the Lok Sabha on a bill passed by it. Considering that the numerical strength of Lok Sabha is more than twice that of Rajya Sabha, Lok Sabha tends to have a greater influence in a joint sitting of Parliament. A joint session is chaired by the Speaker of Lok Sabha. Also, because the joint session is convened by the President on advice of the government, which already has a majority in Lok Sabha, the joint session is usually convened to get bills passed through a Rajya Sabha in which the government has a minority.
Joint sessions of Parliament are a rarity, and have been convened three times in last 71 years, for the purpose of passage of a specific legislative act, the latest time being in 2002:
Unlike the Lok Sabha, a member of the Rajya Sabha can not bring to the house a no - confidence motion against the government.
In Indian federal structure, Rajya Sabha is a representative of the States in the Union legislature (Hence the name, Council of States). Hence, Rajya Sabha is granted powers that protect the rights of States against the Union.
The Constitution empowers Parliament of India to make laws on the matters reserved for States (States List). However, this can only be done if Rajya Sabha first passes a resolution by two - thirds special majority granting such a power to the Union Parliament. The union government can not make a law on a matter reserved for states without any authorisation from Rajya Sabha.
Rajya Sabha, by a two - thirds super majority can pass a resolution empowering the Government of India to create more All - India Services common to both Union and States, including a judicial service.
Seats are allotted in proportion to the population of people of each state or union territory in such a manner that smaller states have slight advantage over more populous states. As the members are elected by the state legislature, smaller Union Territories which are not States and do not have legislatures can not have representation in Rajya Sabha. Hence, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Chandigarh, Daman and Diu & Dadra and Nagar Haveli do not send any representatives to Rajya Sabha. 12 members are nominated by the President.
As per the Fourth Schedule to the Constitution of India on 26 January 1950, the Rajya Sabha was to consist of 216 members of which 12 members were to be nominated by the President and the remaining 204 elected to represent the States. The present strength, however, is 245 members of whom 233 are representatives of the states and union territories and 12 are nominated by the President. The 12 nominated members of the Rajya Sabha are persons who are eminent in particular fields, and are well known contributors in the particular field.
Members of Rajya Sabha by their political party (As of 26 October 2018):
Besides the Chairman (Vice-President of India) and the Deputy Chairman, there is also a position called Leader of the House. This is a cabinet minister -- the Prime Minister if he is a member of the House, or another nominated Minister. The Leader has a seat next to the Chairman, in the front row.
Besides the Leader of the House, who is leading the majority, there is also a Leader of the Opposition (LOP) -- leading the opposition parties. The function was only recognized in the Salary and Allowances of Leaders of the Opposition in Parliament Act 1977. This is commonly the leader of the largest non-government party, and is recognized as such by the Chairman.
The following people have been the Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha:
The Secretariat of Rajya Sabha was set up pursuant to the provisions contained in Article 98 of the Constitution. The said Article, which provides for a separate secretarial staff for each House of Parliament, reads as follows: - 98. Secretariat of Parliament -- Each House of Parliament shall have a separate secretarial staff: Provided that nothing in this clause shall be construed as preventing the creation of posts common to both Houses of Parliament. (2) Parliament may by law regulate the recruitment and the conditions of service of persons appointed to the secretarial staff of either House of Parliament.
The Rajya Sabha Secretariat functions under the overall guidance and control of the Chairman. The main activities of the Secretariat inter alia include the following:
(i) providing secretarial assistance and support to the effective functioning of the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) possible to Members of Rajya Sabha; (iv) servicing the various Parliamentary Committees; (v) preparing research and reference material and bringing out various publications; (vi) recruitment of manpower in the Sabha Secretariat and attending to personnel matters; and (vii) preparing and publishing a record of the day - to - day proceedings of the Rajya Sabha and bringing out such other publications, as may be required concerning the functioning of the Rajya Sabha and its Committees.
In the discharge of his constitutional and statutory responsibilities, the Chairman, Rajya Sabha is assisted by the Secretary - General, who holds the rank equivalent (16) to the Cabinet Secretary to the Government of India. The Secretary - General, in turn, is assisted by senior functionaries at the level of Secretary, Additional Secretary, Joint Secretary and other officers and staff of the Secretariat. Present secretary - general is Desh Deepak Sharma, IAS.
Rajya Sabha Television (RSTV) is a 24 - hour a day, seven day a week parliamentary TV channel fully owned and operated by the Rajya Sabha. The channel is aimed at providing in - depth coverage and analysis of parliamentary affairs especially the functioning of and developments related to Rajya Sabha. During sessions of Parliament, apart from telecasting live coverage of the proceedings of Rajya Sabha, RSTV presents incisive analysis of the proceedings of the House as well as other day - to - day parliamentary events and developments.
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when is the earth said to be at perihelion | Perihelion and aphelion - wikipedia
The perihelion (/ ˌpɛrɪˈhiːliən /) of any orbit of a celestial body about the Sun is the point where the body comes nearest to the Sun. It is the opposite of aphelion (/ æpˈhiːliən /), which is the point in the orbit where the celestial body is farthest from the Sun.
The words perihelion and aphelion were coined by Johannes Kepler to describe the orbital motion of the planets. The words are formed from the prefixes peri - (Greek: περί, near) and apo - (Greek: ἀπό, away from) affixed to the Greek word for the sun, ἥλιος.
Perihelion and aphelion are sometimes incorrectly used for the orbits of objects about bodies other than the Sun. The correct terms are:
According to Kepler 's first law of planetary motion, all planets, comets, and asteroids in the Solar System have approximately elliptical orbits around the Sun. It is only approximate because of perturbations due to the gravity of other bodies. Every ellipse has two focus points, and the Sun is at one of these focus points for the elliptical orbits of its satellites. Hence, an orbiting body has a closest and a farthest point from its parent object, that is, a perihelion and an aphelion. Each extreme is known as an apsis.
Orbital eccentricity measures the flatness (departure from a perfect circle) of the orbit.
Earth is about 147.1 million kilometers (91.4 million miles) from the Sun at perihelion around January 3, in contrast to about 152.1 million kilometers (94.5 million miles) at aphelion around July 4 -- a difference of about 5.0 million kilometers (3.1 million miles). (These dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as Milankovitch cycles. For a table of these dates for various years, see Apsis.)
Because of the increased distance at aphelion, only 93.55 % of the solar radiation from the Sun falls on a given area of land as does at perihelion. However, this fluctuation does not account for the seasons, as it is summer in the northern hemisphere when it is winter in the southern hemisphere and vice versa. Instead, seasons result from the tilt of Earth 's axis, which is 23.4 degrees away from perpendicular to the plane of Earth 's orbit around the sun. Winter falls on the hemisphere where sunlight strikes least directly, and summer falls where sunlight strikes most directly, regardless of the Earth 's distance from the Sun.
In the northern hemisphere, summer occurs at the same time as aphelion. Despite this, there are larger land masses in the northern hemisphere, which are easier to heat than the seas. Consequently, summers are 2.3 ° C (4 ° F) warmer in the northern hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere under similar conditions.
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rocky mountains on a map of north america | Rocky Mountains - wikipedia
The Rocky Mountains, commonly known as the Rockies, are a major mountain range in western North America. The Rocky Mountains stretch more than 3,000 miles (4,800 km) from the northernmost part of British Columbia, in western Canada, to New Mexico, in the Southwestern United States. Within the North American Cordillera, the Rockies are somewhat distinct from the Pacific Coast Ranges and the Cascade Range and Sierra Nevada, which all lie further to the west.
The Rocky Mountains were initially formed from 80 million to 55 million years ago during the Laramide orogeny, in which a number of plates began to slide underneath the North American plate. The angle of subduction was shallow, resulting in a broad belt of mountains running down western North America. Since then, further tectonic activity and erosion by glaciers have sculpted the Rockies into dramatic peaks and valleys. At the end of the last ice age, humans started to inhabit the mountain range. After Europeans, such as Sir Alexander Mackenzie, and Americans, such as the Lewis and Clark expedition, started to explore the range, minerals and furs drove the initial economic exploitation of the mountains, although the range itself never became densely populated.
Much of the mountain range is protected by public parks and forest lands and is a popular tourist destination, especially for hiking, camping, mountaineering, fishing, hunting, mountain biking, skiing, and snowboarding.
The name of the mountains is a translation of an Amerindian name that is closely related to Algonquian; the Cree name as - sin - wati is given as, "when seen from across the prairies, they looked like a rocky mass ''. The first mention of their present name by a European was in the journal of Jacques Legardeur de Saint - Pierre in 1752, where they were called "Montagnes de Roche ''.
The Rocky Mountains are commonly defined as stretching from the Liard River in British Columbia south to the Rio Grande in New Mexico. Other mountain ranges continue beyond those two rivers, including the Selwyn Mountains in Yukon, the Brooks Range in Alaska, and the Sierra Madre in Mexico, but those are not part of the Rockies, though they are part of the American Cordillera. The United States definition of the Rockies includes the Cabinet and Salish Mountains of Idaho and Montana. Their counterparts north of the Kootenai River, the Columbia Mountains, are considered a separate system in Canada, lying to the west of the huge Rocky Mountain Trench. This runs the length of British Columbia from its beginnings in the middle Flathead River valley in western Montana to the south bank of the Liard River. The Rockies vary in width from 70 to 300 miles (110 to 480 kilometers). Also west of the Rocky Mountain Trench, farther north and facing the Muskwa Range across the trench, are the Stikine Ranges and Omineca Mountains of the Interior Mountains system of British Columbia. A small area east of Prince George, British Columbia on the eastern side of the Trench, the McGregor Plateau, resembles the Rockies but is considered part of the Interior Plateau.
The eastern edge of the Rockies rises dramatically above the Interior Plains of central North America, including the Sangre de Cristo Mountains of New Mexico and Colorado, the Front Range of Colorado, the Wind River Range and Big Horn Mountains of Wyoming, the Absaroka - Beartooth ranges and Rocky Mountain Front of Montana and the Clark Range of Alberta. In Canada geographers define three main groups of ranges: the Continental Ranges, Hart Ranges and Muskwa Ranges (the latter two flank the Peace River, the only river to pierce the Rockies, and are collectively referred to as the Northern Rockies). The Muskwa and Hart Ranges together comprise what is known as the Northern Rockies (the Mackenzie Mountains north of the Liard River are sometimes referred to as being part of the Rocky Mountains but this is an unofficial designation).
The western edge of the Rockies includes ranges such as the Wasatch near Salt Lake City and the Bitterroots along the Idaho - Montana border. The Great Basin and Columbia River Plateau separate these subranges from distinct ranges further to the west, most prominent among which are the Sierra Nevada, Cascade Range and Coast Mountains. The Rockies do not extend into the Yukon or Alaska, or into central British Columbia, where the Rocky Mountain System (but not the Rocky Mountains) includes the Columbia Mountains, the southward extension of which is considered part of the Rockies in the United States. The Rocky Mountain System within the United States is a United States physiographic region; the Rocky Mountain System is known in Canada as the Eastern System.
The Rocky Mountains are notable for containing the highest peaks in central North America. The range 's highest peak is Mount Elbert located in Colorado at 14,440 feet (4,401 m) above sea level. Mount Robson in British Columbia, at 12,972 feet (3,954 m), is the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies.
The Continental Divide of the Americas is located in the Rocky Mountains and designates the line at which waters flow either to the Atlantic or Pacific Oceans. Triple Divide Peak (8,020 feet (2,440 m)) in Glacier National Park is so named because water that falls on the mountain reaches not only the Atlantic and Pacific but Hudson Bay as well. Farther north in Alberta, the Athabasca and other rivers feed the basin of the Mackenzie River, which has its outlet on the Beaufort Sea of the Arctic Ocean. See Rivers of the Rocky Mountains for a list of rivers.
Human population is not very dense in the Rocky Mountains, with an average of four people per square kilometer and few cities with over 50,000 people. However, the human population grew rapidly in the Rocky Mountain states between 1950 and 1990. The 40 - year statewide increases in population range from 35 % in Montana to about 150 % in Utah and Colorado. The populations of several mountain towns and communities have doubled in the last 40 years. Jackson Hole, Wyoming, increased 260 %, from 1,244 to 4,472 residents, in 40 years.
The rocks in the Rocky Mountains were formed before the mountains were raised by tectonic forces. The oldest rock is Precambrian metamorphic rock that forms the core of the North American continent. There is also Precambrian sedimentary argillite, dating back to 1.7 billion years ago. During the Paleozoic, western North America lay underneath a shallow sea, which deposited many kilometers of limestone and dolomite.
In the southern Rocky Mountains, near present - day Colorado, these ancestral rocks were disturbed by mountain building approximately 300 Ma, during the Pennsylvanian. This mountain - building produced the Ancestral Rocky Mountains. They consisted largely of Precambrian metamorphic rock forced upward through layers of the limestone laid down in the shallow sea. The mountains eroded throughout the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic, leaving extensive deposits of sedimentary rock.
Terranes started to collide with the western edge of North America in the Mississippian (approximately 350 million years ago), causing the Antler orogeny. For 270 million years, the effects of plate collisions were focused very near the edge of the North American plate boundary, far to the west of the Rocky Mountain region. It was not until 80 Ma that these effects began to reach the Rockies.
The current Rocky Mountains were raised in the Laramide orogeny from between 80 and 55 Ma. For the Canadian Rockies, the mountain building is analogous to a rug being pushed on a hardwood floor: the rug bunches up and forms wrinkles (mountains). In Canada, the terranes and subduction are the foot pushing the rug, the ancestral rocks are the rug, and the Canadian Shield in the middle of the continent is the hardwood floor.
Further south, the growth of the Rocky Mountains in the United States was probably caused by an unusual subduction, where the Farallon plate dove at a shallow angle below the North American plate. This low angle moved the focus of melting and mountain building much farther inland than the normal 200 to 300 miles (300 to 500 km). It is postulated that the shallow angle of the subducting plate greatly increased the friction and other interactions with the thick continental mass above it. Tremendous thrusts piled sheets of crust on top of each other, building the extraordinarily broad, high Rocky Mountain range.
The current southern Rockies were forced upwards through the layers of Pennsylvanian and Permian sedimentary remnants of the Ancestral Rocky Mountains. Such sedimentary remnants were often tilted at steep angles along the flanks of the modern range; they are now visible in many places throughout the Rockies, and are prominently shown along the Dakota Hogback, an early Cretaceous sandstone formation that runs along the eastern flank of the modern Rockies.
Immediately after the Laramide orogeny, the Rockies were like Tibet: a high plateau, probably 6,000 metres (20,000 ft) above sea level. In the last 60 million years, erosion stripped away the high rocks, revealing the ancestral rocks beneath, and forming the current landscape of the Rockies.
Periods of glaciation occurred from the Pleistocene Epoch (1.8 million -- 70,000 years ago) to the Holocene Epoch (fewer than 11,000 years ago). These ice ages left their mark on the Rockies, forming extensive glacial landforms, such as U-shaped valleys and cirques. Recent glacial episodes included the Bull Lake Glaciation that began about 150,000 years ago and the Pinedale Glaciation that probably remained at full glaciation until 15,000 -- 20,000 years ago.
All of the geological processes, above, have left a complex set of rocks exposed at the surface. For example, volcanic rock from the Paleogene and Neogene periods (66 million -- 2.6 million years ago) occurs in the San Juan Mountains and in other areas. Millennia of severe erosion in the Wyoming Basin transformed intermountain basins into a relatively flat terrain. The Tetons and other north - central ranges contain folded and faulted rocks of Paleozoic and Mesozoic age draped above cores of Proterozoic and Archean igneous and metamorphic rocks ranging in age from 1.2 billion (e.g., Tetons) to more than 3.3 billion years (Beartooth Mountains).
There are a wide range of environmental factors in the Rocky Mountains. The Rockies range in latitude between the Liard River in British Columbia (at 59 ° N) and the Rio Grande in New Mexico (at 35 ° N). Prairie occurs at or below 1,800 feet (550 m), while the highest peak in the range is Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet (4,400 m). Precipitation ranges from 10 inches (250 mm) per year in the southern valleys to 60 inches (1,500 mm) per year locally in the northern peaks. Average January temperatures can range from 20 ° F (− 7 ° C) in Prince George, British Columbia, to 43 ° F (6 ° C) in Trinidad, Colorado. Therefore, there is not a single monolithic ecosystem for the entire Rocky Mountain Range.
Instead, ecologists divide the Rocky Mountain into a number of biotic zones. Each zone is defined by whether it can support trees and the presence of one or more indicator species. Two zones that do not support trees are the Plains and the Alpine tundra. The Great Plains lie to the east of the Rockies and is characterized by prairie grasses (below roughly 1,800 feet (550 m)). Alpine tundra occurs in regions above the treeline for the Rocky Mountains, which varies from 12,000 feet (3,700 m) in New Mexico to 2,500 feet (760 m) at the northern end of the Rocky Mountains (near the Yukon).
The USGS defines ten forested zones in the Rocky Mountains. Zones in more southern, warmer, or drier areas are defined by the presence of pinyon pines / junipers, ponderosa pines, or oaks mixed with pines. In more northern, colder, or wetter areas, zones are defined by Douglas firs, Cascadian species (such as western hemlock), lodgepole pines / quaking aspens, or firs mixed with spruce. Near treeline, zones can consist of white pines (such as whitebark pine or bristlecone pine); or a mixture of white pine, fir, and spruce that appear as shrub - like krummholz. Finally, rivers and canyons can create a unique forest zone in more arid parts of the mountain range.
The Rocky Mountains are an important habitat for a great deal of well - known wildlife, such as elk, moose, mule and white - tailed deer, pronghorn, mountain goats, bighorn sheep, badgers, black bears, grizzly bears, coyotes, lynxes, and wolverines. For example, North America 's largest herds of moose is in the Alberta - British Columbia foothills forests.
The status of most species in the Rocky Mountains is unknown, due to incomplete information. European - American settlement of the mountains has adversely impacted native species. Examples of some species that have declined include western toads, greenback cutthroat trout, white sturgeon, white - tailed ptarmigan, trumpeter swan, and bighorn sheep. In the United States portion of the mountain range, apex predators such as grizzly bears and gray wolves had been extirpated from their original ranges, but have partially recovered due to conservation measures and reintroduction. Other recovering species include the bald eagle and the peregrine falcon.
Since the last great ice age, the Rocky Mountains were home first to indigenous peoples including the Apache, Arapaho, Bannock, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Coeur d'Alene, Kalispel, Crow Nation, Flathead, Shoshone, Sioux, Ute, Kutenai (Ktunaxa in Canada), Sekani, Dunne - za, and others. Paleo - Indians hunted the now - extinct mammoth and ancient bison (an animal 20 % larger than modern bison) in the foothills and valleys of the mountains. Like the modern tribes that followed them, Paleo - Indians probably migrated to the plains in fall and winter for bison and to the mountains in spring and summer for fish, deer, elk, roots, and berries. In Colorado, along with the crest of the Continental Divide, rock walls that Native Americans built for driving game date back 5,400 -- 5,800 years. A growing body of scientific evidence indicates that indigenous people had significant effects on mammal populations by hunting and on vegetation patterns through deliberate burning.
Recent human history of the Rocky Mountains is one of more rapid change. The Spanish explorer Francisco Vázquez de Coronado -- with a group of soldiers, missionaries, and African slaves -- marched into the Rocky Mountain region from the south in 1540. The introduction of the horse, metal tools, rifles, new diseases, and different cultures profoundly changed the Native American cultures. Native American populations were extirpated from most of their historical ranges by disease, warfare, habitat loss (eradication of the bison), and continued assaults on their culture.
In 1739, French fur traders Pierre and Paul Mallet, while journeying through the Great Plains, discovered a range of mountains at the headwaters of the Platte River, which local American Indian tribes called the "Rockies '', becoming the first Europeans to report on this uncharted mountain range.
Sir Alexander MacKenzie (1764 -- March 11, 1820) became the first European to cross the Rocky Mountains in 1793. He found the upper reaches of the Fraser River and reached the Pacific coast of what is now Canada on July 20 of that year, completing the first recorded transcontinental crossing of North America north of Mexico. He arrived at Bella Coola, British Columbia, where he first reached saltwater at South Bentinck Arm, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean.
The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804 -- 1806) was the first scientific reconnaissance of the Rocky Mountains. Specimens were collected for contemporary botanists, zoologists, and geologists. The expedition was said to have paved the way to (and through) the Rocky Mountains for European - Americans from the East, although Lewis and Clark met at least 11 European - American mountain men during their travels.
Mountain men, primarily French, Spanish, and British, roamed the Rocky Mountains from 1720 to 1800 seeking mineral deposits and furs. The fur - trading North West Company established Rocky Mountain House as a trading post in what is now the Rocky Mountain Foothills of present - day Alberta in 1799, and their business rivals the Hudson 's Bay Company established Acton House nearby. These posts served as bases for most European activity in the Canadian Rockies in the early 19th century. Among the most notable are the expeditions of David Thompson (explorer), who followed the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean. On his 1811 expedition, he camped at the junction of the Columbia River and the Snake River and erected a pole and notice claiming the area for the United Kingdom and stating the intention of the North West Company to build a fort at the site.
By the Anglo - American Convention of 1818, which established the 49th parallel north as the international boundary west from Lake of the Woods to the "Stony Mountains ''; the UK and the USA agreed to what has since been described as "joint occupancy '' of lands further west to the Pacific Ocean. Resolution of the territorial and treaty issues, the Oregon dispute, was deferred until a later time.
In 1819, Spain ceded their rights north of the 42nd Parallel to the United States, though these rights did not include possession and also included obligations to Britain and Russia concerning their claims in the same region.
After 1802, American fur traders and explorers ushered in the first widespread Caucasian presence in the Rockies south of the 49th parallel. The more famous of these include Americans William Henry Ashley, Jim Bridger, Kit Carson, John Colter, Thomas Fitzpatrick, Andrew Henry, and Jedediah Smith. On July 24, 1832, Benjamin Bonneville led the first wagon train across the Rocky Mountains by using South Pass in the present State of Wyoming. Similarly, in the wake of Mackenzie 's 1793 expedition, fur trading posts were established west of the Northern Rockies in a region of the northern Interior Plateau of British Columbia which came to be known as New Caledonia, beginning with Fort McLeod (today 's community of McLeod Lake) and Fort Fraser, but ultimately focused on Stuart Lake Post (today 's Fort St. James).
Negotiations between the United Kingdom and the United States over the next few decades failed to settle upon a compromise boundary and the Oregon Dispute became important in geopolitical diplomacy between the British Empire and the new American Republic. In 1841 James Sinclair, Chief Factor of the Hudson 's Bay Company, guided some 200 settlers from the Red River Colony west to bolster settlement around Fort Vancouver in an attempt to retain the Columbia District for Britain. The party crossed the Rockies into the Columbia Valley, a region of the Rocky Mountain Trench near present - day Radium Hot Springs, British Columbia, then traveled south. Despite such efforts, in 1846, Britain ceded all claim to Columbia District lands south of the 49th parallel to the United States; as resolution to the Oregon boundary dispute by the Oregon Treaty.
Thousands passed through the Rocky Mountains on the Oregon Trail beginning in the 1840s. The Mormons began to settle near the Great Salt Lake in 1847. From 1859 to 1864, gold was discovered in Colorado, Idaho, Montana, and British Columbia, sparking several gold rushes bringing thousands of prospectors and miners to explore every mountain and canyon and to create the Rocky Mountains ' first major industry. The Idaho gold rush alone produced more gold than the California and Alaska gold rushes combined and was important in the financing of the Union Army during the American Civil War. The transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, and Yellowstone National Park was established as the world 's first national park in 1872. Meanwhile, a transcontinental railroad in Canada was originally promised in 1871. Though political complications pushed its completion to 1885, the Canadian Pacific Railway eventually followed the Kicking Horse and Rogers Passes to the Pacific Ocean. Canadian railway officials also convinced Parliament to set aside vast areas of the Canadian Rockies as Jasper, Banff, Yoho, and Waterton Lakes National Parks, laying the foundation for a tourism industry which thrives to this day. Glacier National Park (MT) was established with a similar relationship to tourism promotions by the Great Northern Railway. While settlers filled the valleys and mining towns, conservation and preservation ethics began to take hold. U.S. President Harrison established several forest reserves in the Rocky Mountains in 1891 -- 92. In 1905, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt extended the Medicine Bow Forest Reserve to include the area now managed as Rocky Mountain National Park. Economic development began to center on mining, forestry, agriculture, and recreation, as well as on the service industries that support them. Tents and camps became ranches and farms, forts and train stations became towns, and some towns became cities.
Economic resources of the Rocky Mountains are varied and abundant. Minerals found in the Rocky Mountains include significant deposits of copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, silver, tungsten, and zinc. The Wyoming Basin and several smaller areas contain significant reserves of coal, natural gas, oil shale, and petroleum. For example, the Climax mine, located near Leadville, Colorado, was the largest producer of molybdenum in the world. Molybdenum is used in heat - resistant steel in such things as cars and planes. The Climax mine employed over 3,000 workers. The Coeur d'Alene mine of northern Idaho produces silver, lead, and zinc. Canada 's largest coal mines are near Fernie, British Columbia and Sparwood, British Columbia; additional coal mines exist near Hinton, Alberta, and in the Northern Rockies surrounding Tumbler Ridge, British Columbia.
Abandoned mines with their wakes of mine tailings and toxic wastes dot the Rocky Mountain landscape. In one major example, eighty years of zinc mining profoundly polluted the river and bank near Eagle River in north - central Colorado. High concentrations of the metal carried by spring runoff harmed algae, moss, and trout populations. An economic analysis of mining effects at this site revealed declining property values, degraded water quality, and the loss of recreational opportunities. The analysis also revealed that cleanup of the river could yield $2.3 million in additional revenue from recreation. In 1983, the former owner of the zinc mine was sued by the Colorado Attorney General for the $4.8 million cleanup costs; five years later, ecological recovery was considerable.
The Rocky Mountains contain several sedimentary basins that are rich in coalbed methane. Coalbed methane is natural gas that arises from coal, either through bacterial action or through exposure to high temperature. Coalbed methane supplies 7 percent of the natural gas used in the United States. The largest coalbed methane sources in the Rocky Mountains are in the San Juan Basin in New Mexico and Colorado and the Powder River Basin in Wyoming. These two basins are estimated to contain 38 trillion cubic feet of gas. Coalbed methane can be recovered by dewatering the coal bed, and separating the gas from the water; or injecting water to fracture the coal to release the gas (so - called hydraulic fracturing).
Agriculture and forestry are major industries. Agriculture includes dryland and irrigated farming and livestock grazing. Livestock are frequently moved between high - elevation summer pastures and low - elevation winter pastures, a practice known as transhumance.
See also: List of U.S. Rocky Mountain ski resorts, List of Alberta ski resorts, List of B.C. ski resorts
Every year the scenic areas and recreational opportunities of the Rocky Mountains draw millions of tourists. The main language of the Rocky Mountains is English. But there are also linguistic pockets of Spanish and indigenous languages.
People from all over the world visit the sites to hike, camp, or engage in mountain sports. In the summer season, examples of tourist attractions are:
In the United States:
In Canada, the mountain range contains these national parks:
Glacier National Park in Montana and Waterton Lakes National Park in Alberta border each other and are collectively are known as Waterton - Glacier International Peace Park
In the winter, skiing is the main attraction, with dozens of Rocky Mountain ski areas and resorts.
The adjacent Columbia Mountains in British Columbia contain major resorts such as Panorama and Kicking Horse, as well as Mount Revelstoke National Park and Glacier National Park.
There are numerous provincial parks in the British Columbia Rockies, the largest and most notable being Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park, Mount Robson Provincial Park, Northern Rocky Mountains Provincial Park, Kwadacha Wilderness Provincial Park, Stone Mountain Provincial Park and Muncho Lake Provincial Park.
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which is not a privilege of members of congress | United States Congress - wikipedia
535 voting members
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives.
The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D.C. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Congress has 535 voting members: 435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members. These members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. These members represent Washington, D.C., Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
The members of the House of Representatives serve two - year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a "district ''. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by population using the United States Census results, provided that each state has at least one congressional representative. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators. Currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at - large in their state for a six - year term, with terms staggered, so every two years approximately one - third of the Senate is up for election.
To be eligible for election, a candidate must be aged at least 25 (House) or 30 (Senate), have been a citizen of the United States for seven (House) or nine (Senate) years, and be an inhabitant of the electing state when elected.
The Congress was created by the Constitution of the United States and first met in 1789, replacing in its legislative function the Congress of the Confederation. Although not constitutionally mandated, in practice since the 19th century, Congress members are typically affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party and only rarely to a third party or as independents.
Article One of the United States Constitution states, "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. '' The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process -- legislation can not be enacted without the consent of both chambers. However, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue - raising bills. The House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two - thirds vote of the Senate is required before an impeached person can be forcibly removed from office.
The term Congress can also refer to a particular meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years; the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3, 2017, and will end on January 3, 2019. The Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd - numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators; members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen.
Scholar and representative Lee H. Hamilton asserted that the "historic mission of Congress has been to maintain freedom '' and insisted it was a "driving force in American government '' and a "remarkably resilient institution ''. Congress is the "heart and soul of our democracy '', according to this view, even though legislators rarely achieve the prestige or name recognition of presidents or Supreme Court justices; one wrote that "legislators remain ghosts in America 's historical imagination ''. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played an active role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress:
Congress reflects us in all our strengths and all our weaknesses. It reflects our regional idiosyncrasies, our ethnic, religious, and racial diversity, our multitude of professions, and our shadings of opinion on everything from the value of war to the war over values. Congress is the government 's most representative body... Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the great public policy issues of the day.
Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux. In recent times, the American south and west have gained House seats according to demographic changes recorded by the census and includes more minorities and women although both groups are still underrepresented, according to one view. While power balances among the different parts of government continue to change, the internal structure of Congress is important to understand along with its interactions with so - called intermediary institutions such as political parties, civic associations, interest groups, and the mass media.
The Congress of the United States serves two distinct purposes that overlap: local representation to the federal government of a congressional district by representatives and a state 's at - large representation to the federal government by senators.
Most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent.
The historical records of the House of Representatives and the Senate are maintained by the Center for Legislative Archives, which is a part of the National Archives and Records Administration.
Congress is directly responsible for the governing of the District of Columbia, the current seat of the federal government.
The First Continental Congress was a gathering of representatives from twelve of the thirteen British Colonies in North America. On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, referring to the new nation as the "United States of America ''. The Articles of Confederation in 1781 created the Congress of the Confederation, a unicameral body with equal representation among the states in which each state had a veto over most decisions. Congress had executive but not legislative authority, and the federal judiciary was confined to admiralty. and lacked authority to collect taxes, regulate commerce, or enforce laws.
Government powerlessness led to the Convention of 1787 which proposed a revised constitution with a two -- chamber or bicameral congress. Smaller states argued for equal representation for each state. The two - chamber structure had functioned well in state governments. A compromise plan was adopted with representatives chosen by population (benefiting larger states) and exactly two senators chosen by state governments (benefiting smaller states). The ratified constitution created a federal structure with two overlapping power centers so that each citizen as an individual was subjected to both the power of state government and the national government. To protect against abuse of power, each branch of government -- executive, legislative, and judicial -- had a separate sphere of authority and could check other branches according to the principle of the separation of powers. Furthermore, there were checks and balances within the legislature since there were two separate chambers. The new government became active in 1789.
Political scientist Julian E. Zelizer suggested there were four main congressional eras, with considerable overlap, and included the formative era (1780s -- 1820s), the partisan era (1830s -- 1900s), the committee era (1910s -- 1960s), and the contemporary era (1970s -- today).
Federalists and anti-federalists jostled for power in the early years as political parties became pronounced, surprising the Constitution 's Founding Fathers of the United States. With the passage of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights, the Anti-Federalist movement was exhausted. Some activists joined the Anti-Administration Party that James Madison and Thomas Jefferson were forming about 1790 -- 91 to oppose policies of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton; it soon became the Democratic - Republican Party or the Jeffersonian Democrat Party and began the era of the First Party System. Thomas Jefferson 's election to the presidency marked a peaceful transition of power between the parties in 1800. John Marshall, 4th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court empowered the courts by establishing the principle of judicial review in law in the landmark case Marbury v. Madison in 1803, effectively giving the Supreme Court a power to nullify congressional legislation.
These years were marked by growth in the power of political parties. The watershed event was the Civil War which resolved the slavery issue and unified the nation under federal authority, but weakened the power of states rights. The Gilded Age (1877 -- 1901) was marked by Republican dominance of Congress. During this time, lobbying activity became more intense, particularly during the administration of President Ulysses S. Grant in which influential lobbies advocated for railroad subsidies and tariffs on wool. Immigration and high birth rates swelled the ranks of citizens and the nation grew at a rapid pace. The Progressive Era was characterized by strong party leadership in both houses of Congress as well as calls for reform; sometimes reformers would attack lobbyists as corrupting politics. The position of Speaker of the House became extremely powerful under leaders such as Thomas Reed in 1890 and Joseph Gurney Cannon. The Senate was effectively controlled by a half dozen men.
A system of seniority -- in which long - time Members of Congress gained more and more power -- encouraged politicians of both parties to serve for long terms. Committee chairmen remained influential in both houses until the reforms of the 1970s.
Important structural changes included the direct election of senators by popular election according to the Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in April 8, 1913, with positive effects (senators more sensitive to public opinion) and negative effects (undermining the authority of state governments). Supreme Court decisions based on the Constitution 's commerce clause expanded congressional power to regulate the economy. One effect of popular election of senators was to reduce the difference between the House and Senate in terms of their link to the electorate. Lame duck reforms according to the Twentieth Amendment ended the power of defeated and retiring members of Congress to wield influence despite their lack of accountability.
The Great Depression ushered in President Franklin Roosevelt and strong control by Democrats and historic New Deal policies. Roosevelt 's election in 1932 marked a shift in government power towards the executive branch. Numerous New Deal initiatives came from the White House rather than being initiated by Congress. The Democratic Party controlled both houses of Congress for many years. During this time, Republicans and conservative southern Democrats formed the Conservative Coalition. Democrats maintained control of Congress during World War II. Congress struggled with efficiency in the postwar era partly by reducing the number of standing congressional committees. Southern Democrats became a powerful force in many influential committees although political power alternated between Republicans and Democrats during these years. More complex issues required greater specialization and expertise, such as space flight and atomic energy policy. Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited the fear of communism and conducted televised hearings. In 1960, Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy narrowly won the presidency and power shifted again to the Democrats who dominated both houses of Congress until 1994.
Congress enacted Johnson 's Great Society program to fight poverty and hunger. The Watergate Scandal had a powerful effect of waking up a somewhat dormant Congress which investigated presidential wrongdoing and coverups; the scandal "substantially reshaped '' relations between the branches of government, suggested political scientist Bruce J. Schulman. Partisanship returned, particularly after 1994; one analyst attributes partisan infighting to slim congressional majorities which discouraged friendly social gatherings in meeting rooms such as the Board of Education. Congress began reasserting its authority. Lobbying became a big factor despite the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act. Political action committees or PACs could make substantive donations to congressional candidates via such means as soft money contributions. While soft money funds were not given to specific campaigns for candidates, the money often benefited candidates substantially in an indirect way and helped reelect candidates. Reforms such as the 2002 McCain - Feingold act limited campaign donations but did not limit soft money contributions. One source suggests post-Watergate laws amended in 1974 meant to reduce the "influence of wealthy contributors and end payoffs '' instead "legitimized PACs '' since they "enabled individuals to band together in support of candidates ''. From 1974 to 1984, PACs grew from 608 to 3,803 and donations leaped from $12.5 million to $120 million along with concern over PAC influence in Congress. In 2009, there were 4,600 business, labor and special - interest PACs including ones for lawyers, electricians, and real estate brokers. From 2007 to 2008, 175 members of Congress received "half or more of their campaign cash '' from PACs.
From 1970 to 2009, the House expanded delegates, along with their powers and privileges representing U.S. citizens in non-state areas, beginning with representation on committees for Puerto Rico 's Resident Commissioner in 1970. In 1971, a delegate for the District of Columbia was authorized, and in 1972 new delegate positions were established for U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam. 1978 saw an additional delegate for American Samoa, and another for the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands began in 2009. These six Members of Congress enjoy floor privileges to introduce bills and resolutions, and in recent congresses they vote in permanent and select committees, in party caucuses and in joint conferences with the Senate. They have Capitol Hill offices, staff and two annual appointments to each of the four military academies. While their votes are constitutional when Congress authorizes their House Committee of the Whole votes, recent Congresses have not allowed for that, and they can not vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives.
In the late 20th century, the media became more important in Congress 's work. Analyst Michael Schudson suggested that greater publicity undermined the power of political parties and caused "more roads to open up in Congress for individual representatives to influence decisions ''. Norman Ornstein suggested that media prominence led to a greater emphasis on the negative and sensational side of Congress, and referred to this as the tabloidization of media coverage. Others saw pressure to squeeze a political position into a thirty - second soundbite. A report characterized Congress in 2013 as being unproductive, gridlocked, and "setting records for futility ''. In October 2013, with Congress unable to compromise, the government was shut down for several weeks and risked a serious default on debt payments, causing 60 % of the public to say they would "fire every member of Congress '' including their own representative. One report suggested Congress posed the "biggest risk to the US economy '' because of its brinksmanship, "down - to - the - wire budget and debt crises '' and "indiscriminate spending cuts '', resulting in slowed economic activity and keeping up to two million people unemployed. There has been increasing public dissatisfaction with Congress, with extremely low approval ratings which dropped to 5 % in October 2013.
Article I of the Constitution creates and sets forth the structure and most of the powers of Congress. Sections One through Six describe how Congress is elected and gives each House the power to create its own structure. Section Seven lays out the process for creating laws, and Section Eight enumerates numerous powers. Section Nine is a list of powers Congress does not have, and Section Ten enumerates powers of the state, some of which may only be granted by Congress. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from the Constitution 's Necessary and Proper Clause.
Congress has authority over financial and budgetary policy through the enumerated power to "lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States ''. There is vast authority over budgets, although analyst Eric Patashnik suggested that much of Congress 's power to manage the budget has been lost when the welfare state expanded since "entitlements were institutionally detached from Congress 's ordinary legislative routine and rhythm ''. Another factor leading to less control over the budget was a Keynesian belief that balanced budgets were unnecessary.
The Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 extended congressional power of taxation to include income taxes without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. The Constitution also grants Congress the exclusive power to appropriate funds, and this power of the purse is one of Congress 's primary checks on the executive branch. Congress can borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. Generally, both the Senate and the House of Representatives have equal legislative authority, although only the House may originate revenue and appropriation bills.
Congress has an important role in national defense, including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces, and to make rules for the military. Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress 's constitutionally defined task of declaring war. While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812, the Mexican -- American War, the Spanish -- American War, World War I, and World War II, although President Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get congressional approval. In the early days after the North Korean invasion of 1950, President Truman described the American response as a "police action ''. According to Time magazine in 1970, "U.S. presidents (had) ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times. '' In 1993, Michael Kinsley wrote that "Congress 's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution, '' and that the "real erosion (of Congress 's war power) began after World War II. '' Disagreement about the extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation 's history. ''
Congress can establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights, fix standards of weights and measures, establish Courts inferior to the Supreme Court, and "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. '' Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union.
One of Congress 's foremost non-legislative functions is the power to investigate and oversee the executive branch. Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress 's subpoena power. Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing the other branches of government. In the Plame affair, critics including Representative Henry A. Waxman charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. There have been concerns about congressional oversight of executive actions such as warrantless wiretapping, although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of presidential decisions. Political scientists Ornstein and Mann suggested that oversight functions do not help members of Congress win reelection. Congress also has the exclusive power of removal, allowing impeachment and removal of the president, federal judges and other federal officers. There have been charges that presidents acting under the doctrine of the unitary executive have assumed important legislative and budgetary powers that should belong to Congress. So - called signing statements are one way in which a president can "tip the balance of power between Congress and the White House a little more in favor of the executive branch, '' according to one account. Past presidents, including Ronald Reagan, George H.W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush have made public statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it, and commentators including the American Bar Association have described this practice as against the spirit of the Constitution. There have been concerns that presidential authority to cope with financial crises is eclipsing the power of Congress. In 2008, George F. Will called the Capitol building a "tomb for the antiquated idea that the legislative branch matters. ''
The Constitution enumerates the powers of Congress in detail. In addition, other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of African Americans, including voting rights, due process, and equal protection under the law. Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress.
Congress also has implied powers deriving from the Constitution 's Necessary and Proper Clause which permit Congress to "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. '' Broad interpretations of this clause and of the Commerce Clause, the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v Maryland, have effectively widened the scope of Congress 's legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section 8.
Constitutional responsibility for the oversight of Washington, D.C., the federal district and national capital and the U.S. territories of Guam, American Samoa, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands rests with Congress. The republican form of government in territories is devolved by Congressional statute to the respective territories including direct election of governors, the D.C. mayor and locally elective territorial legislatures.
Each territory and Washington, D.C. elect a non-voting delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives as they have throughout Congressional history. They "possess the same powers as other members of the House, except that they may not vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives. '' They are assigned offices and allowances for staff, participate in debate, and appoint constituents to the four military service academies for the Army, Navy, Air Force and Coast Guard.
Washington, D.C. citizens alone among U.S. territories have the right to directly vote for the President of the United States, although the Democratic and Republican political parties nominate their presidential candidates at national conventions which include delegates from the five major territories.
Representative Lee H. Hamilton explained how Congress functions within the federal government:
To me the key to understanding it is balance. The founders went to great lengths to balance institutions against each other -- balancing powers among the three branches: Congress, the president, and the Supreme Court; between the House of Representatives and the Senate; between the federal government and the states; among states of different sizes and regions with different interests; between the powers of government and the rights of citizens, as spelled out in the Bill of Rights... No one part of government dominates the other.
The Constitution provides checks and balances among the three branches of the federal government. Its authors expected the greater power to lie with Congress as described in Article One.
The influence of Congress on the presidency has varied from period to period depending on factors such as congressional leadership, presidential political influence, historical circumstances such as war, and individual initiative by members of Congress. The impeachment of Andrew Johnson made the presidency less powerful than Congress for a considerable period afterwards. The 20th and 21st centuries have seen the rise of presidential power under politicians such as Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, and George W. Bush. However, in recent years, Congress has restricted presidential power with laws such as the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 and the War Powers Resolution. Nevertheless, the Presidency remains considerably more powerful today than during the 19th century. Executive branch officials are often loath to reveal sensitive information to members of Congress because of concern that information could not be kept secret; in return, knowing they may be in the dark about executive branch activity, congressional officials are more likely to distrust their counterparts in executive agencies. Many government actions require fast coordinated effort by many agencies, and this is a task that Congress is ill - suited for. Congress is slow, open, divided, and not well matched to handle more rapid executive action or do a good job of overseeing such activity, according to one analysis.
The Constitution concentrates removal powers in the Congress by empowering and obligating the House of Representatives to impeach both executive and judicial officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors. '' Impeachment is a formal accusation of unlawful activity by a civil officer or government official. The Senate is constitutionally empowered and obligated to try all impeachments. A simple majority in the House is required to impeach an official; however, a two - thirds majority in the Senate is required for conviction. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in addition, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from holding office in the future. Impeachment proceedings may not inflict more than this; however, a convicted party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law. In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. Another resigned before the Senate could complete the trial. Only two presidents have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1999. Both trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson 's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two - thirds majority required for conviction. In 1974, Richard Nixon resigned from office after impeachment proceedings in the House Judiciary Committee indicated he would eventually be removed from office.
The Senate has an important check on the executive power by confirming Cabinet officials, judges, and other high officers "by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate. '' It confirms most presidential nominees but rejections are not uncommon. Furthermore, treaties negotiated by the President must be ratified by a two - thirds majority vote in the Senate to take effect. As a result, presidential arm - twisting of senators can happen before a key vote; for example, President Obama 's secretary of state, Hillary Clinton, urged her former senate colleagues to approve a nuclear arms treaty with Russia in 2010. The House of Representatives has no formal role in either the ratification of treaties or the appointment of federal officials, other than in filling a vacancy in the office of the vice president; in such a case, a majority vote in each House is required to confirm a president 's nomination of a vice president.
In 1803, the Supreme Court established judicial review of federal legislation in Marbury v. Madison, holding, however, that Congress could not grant unconstitutional power to the Court itself. The Constitution does not explicitly state that the courts may exercise judicial review; however, the notion that courts could declare laws unconstitutional was envisioned by the founding fathers. Alexander Hamilton, for example, mentioned and expounded upon the doctrine in Federalist No. 78. Originalists on the Supreme Court have argued that if the constitution does not say something explicitly it is unconstitutional to infer what it should, might or could have said. Judicial review means that the Supreme Court can nullify a congressional law. It is a huge check by the courts on the legislative authority and limits congressional power substantially. In 1857, for example, the Supreme Court struck down provisions of a congressional act of 1820 in its Dred Scott decision. At the same time, the Supreme Court can extend congressional power through its constitutional interpretations.
Investigations are conducted to gather information on the need for future legislation, to test the effectiveness of laws already passed, and to inquire into the qualifications and performance of members and officials of the other branches. Committees may hold hearings, and, if necessary, compel individuals to testify when investigating issues over which it has the power to legislate by issuing subpoenas. Witnesses who refuse to testify may be cited for contempt of Congress, and those who testify falsely may be charged with perjury. Most committee hearings are open to the public (the House and Senate intelligence committees are the exception); important hearings are widely reported in the mass media and transcripts published a few months afterwards. Congress, in the course of studying possible laws and investigating matters, generates an incredible amount of information in various forms, and can be described as a publisher. Indeed, it publishes House and Senate reports and maintains databases which are updated irregularly with publications in a variety of electronic formats.
Congress also plays a role in presidential elections. Both Houses meet in joint session on the sixth day of January following a presidential election to count the electoral votes, and there are procedures to follow if no candidate wins a majority.
The main result of congressional activity is the creation of laws, most of which are contained in the United States Code, arranged by subject matter alphabetically under fifty title headings to present the laws "in a concise and usable form ''.
Congress is split into two chambers -- House and Senate -- and manages the task of writing national legislation by dividing work into separate committees which specialize in different areas. Some members of Congress are elected by their peers to be officers of these committees. Further, Congress has ancillary organizations such as the Government Accountability Office and the Library of Congress to help provide it with information, and members of Congress have staff and offices to assist them as well. In addition, a vast industry of lobbyists helps members write legislation on behalf of diverse corporate and labor interests.
The committee structure permits members of Congress to study a particular subject intensely. It is neither expected nor possible that a member be an expert on all subject areas before Congress. As time goes by, members develop expertise in particular subjects and their legal aspects. Committees investigate specialized subjects and advise the entire Congress about choices and trade - offs. The choice of specialty may be influenced by the member 's constituency, important regional issues, prior background and experience. Senators often choose a different specialty from that of the other senator from their state to prevent overlap. Some committees specialize in running the business of other committees and exert a powerful influence over all legislation; for example, the House Ways and Means Committee has considerable influence over House affairs.
Committees write legislation. While procedures such as the House discharge petition process can introduce bills to the House floor and effectively bypass committee input, they are exceedingly difficult to implement without committee action. Committees have power and have been called independent fiefdoms. Legislative, oversight, and internal administrative tasks are divided among about two hundred committees and subcommittees which gather information, evaluate alternatives, and identify problems. They propose solutions for consideration by the full chamber. In addition, they perform the function of oversight by monitoring the executive branch and investigating wrongdoing.
At the start of each two - year session the House elects a speaker who does not normally preside over debates but serves as the majority party 's leader. In the Senate, the Vice President is the ex officio president of the Senate. In addition, the Senate elects an officer called the President pro tempore. Pro tempore means for the time being and this office is usually held by the most senior member of the Senate 's majority party and customarily keeps this position until there 's a change in party control. Accordingly, the Senate does not necessarily elect a new president pro tempore at the beginning of a new Congress. In both the House and Senate, the actual presiding officer is generally a junior member of the majority party who is appointed so that new members become acquainted with the rules of the chamber.
The Library of Congress was established by an act of Congress in 1800. It is primarily housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill, but also includes several other sites: the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped in Washington, D.C.; the National Audio - Visual Conservation Center in Culpeper, Virginia; a large book storage facility located at Ft. Meade, Maryland; and multiple overseas offices. The Library had mostly law books when it was burned by a British raiding party during the War of 1812, but the library 's collections were restored and expanded when Congress authorized the purchase of Thomas Jefferson 's private library. One of the Library 's missions is to serve the Congress and its staff as well as the American public. It is the largest library in the world with nearly 150 million items including books, films, maps, photographs, music, manuscripts, graphics, and materials in 470 languages.
The Congressional Research Service provides detailed, up - to - date and non-partisan research for senators, representatives, and their staff to help them carry out their official duties. It provides ideas for legislation, helps members analyze a bill, facilitates public hearings, makes reports, consults on matters such as parliamentary procedure, and helps the two chambers resolve disagreements. It has been called the "House 's think tank '' and has a staff of about 900 employees.
The Congressional Budget Office or CBO is a federal agency which provides economic data to Congress.
It was created as an independent nonpartisan agency by the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974. It helps Congress estimate revenue inflows from taxes and helps the budgeting process. It makes projections about such matters as the national debt as well as likely costs of legislation. It prepares an annual Economic and Budget Outlook with a mid-year update and writes An Analysis of the President 's Budgetary Proposals for the Senate 's Appropriations Committee. The Speaker of the House and the Senate 's President pro tempore jointly appoint the CBO Director for a four - year term.
Lobbyists represent diverse interests and often seek to influence congressional decisions to reflect their clients ' needs. Lobby groups and their members sometimes write legislation and whip bills. In 2007 there were approximately 17,000 federal lobbyists in Washington. They explain to legislators the goals of their organizations. Some lobbyists represent non-profit organizations and work pro bono for issues in which they are personally interested.
Congress has alternated between periods of constructive cooperation and compromise between parties known as bipartisanship and periods of deep political polarization and fierce infighting known as partisanship. The period after the Civil War was marked by partisanship as is the case today. It is generally easier for committees to reach accord on issues when compromise is possible. Some political scientists speculate that a prolonged period marked by narrow majorities in both chambers of Congress has intensified partisanship in the last few decades but that an alternation of control of Congress between Democrats and Republicans may lead to greater flexibility in policies as well as pragmatism and civility within the institution.
A term of Congress is divided into two "sessions '', one for each year; Congress has occasionally been called into an extra or special session. A new session commences on January 3 each year unless Congress decides differently. The Constitution requires Congress meet at least once each year and forbids either house from meeting outside the Capitol without the consent of the other house.
Joint Sessions of the United States Congress occur on special occasions that require a concurrent resolution from both House and Senate. These sessions include counting electoral votes after a presidential election and the president 's State of the Union address. The constitutionally - mandated report, normally given as an annual speech, is modeled on Britain 's Speech from the Throne, was written by most presidents after Jefferson but personally delivered as a spoken oration beginning with Wilson in 1913. Joint Sessions and Joint Meetings are traditionally presided over by the Speaker of the House except when counting presidential electoral votes when the Vice President (acting as the President of the Senate) presides.
Ideas for legislation can come from members, lobbyists, state legislatures, constituents, legislative counsel, or executive agencies. Anyone can write a bill, but only members of Congress may introduce bills. Most bills are not written by Congress members, but originate from the Executive branch; interest groups often draft bills as well. The usual next step is for the proposal to be passed to a committee for review. A proposal is usually in one of these forms:
Representatives introduce a bill while the House is in session by placing it in the hopper on the Clerk 's desk. It 's assigned a number and referred to a committee which studies each bill intensely at this stage. Drafting statutes requires "great skill, knowledge, and experience '' and sometimes take a year or more. Sometimes lobbyists write legislation and submit it to a member for introduction. Joint resolutions are the normal way to propose a constitutional amendment or declare war. On the other hand, concurrent resolutions (passed by both houses) and simple resolutions (passed by only one house) do not have the force of law but express the opinion of Congress or regulate procedure. Bills may be introduced by any member of either house. However, the Constitution states, "All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives. '' While the Senate can not originate revenue and appropriation bills, it has power to amend or reject them. Congress has sought ways to establish appropriate spending levels.
Each chamber determines its own internal rules of operation unless specified in the Constitution or prescribed by law. In the House, a Rules Committee guides legislation; in the Senate, a Standing Rules committee is in charge. Each branch has its own traditions; for example, the Senate relies heavily on the practice of getting "unanimous consent '' for noncontroversial matters. House and Senate rules can be complex, sometimes requiring a hundred specific steps before becoming a law. Members sometimes use experts such as Walter Oleszek, a senior specialist in American national government at the Congressional Research Service, to learn about proper procedures.
Each bill goes through several stages in each house including consideration by a committee and advice from the Government Accountability Office. Most legislation is considered by standing committees which have jurisdiction over a particular subject such as Agriculture or Appropriations. The House has twenty standing committees; the Senate has sixteen. Standing committees meet at least once each month. Almost all standing committee meetings for transacting business must be open to the public unless the committee votes, publicly, to close the meeting. A committee might call for public hearings on important bills. Each committee is led by a chair who belongs to the majority party and a ranking member of the minority party. Witnesses and experts can present their case for or against a bill. Then, a bill may go to what 's called a mark - up session where committee members debate the bill 's merits and may offer amendments or revisions. Committees may also amend the bill, but the full house holds the power to accept or reject committee amendments. After debate, the committee votes whether it wishes to report the measure to the full house. If a bill is tabled then it is rejected. If amendments are extensive, sometimes a new bill with amendments built in will be submitted as a so - called clean bill with a new number. Both houses have procedures under which committees can be bypassed or overruled but they are rarely used. Generally, members who have been in Congress longer have greater seniority and therefore greater power.
A bill which reaches the floor of the full house can be simple or complex and begins with an enacting formula such as "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled. '' Consideration of a bill requires, itself, a rule which is a simple resolution specifying the particulars of debate -- time limits, possibility of further amendments, and such. Each side has equal time and members can yield to other members who wish to speak. Sometimes opponents seek to recommit a bill which means to change part of it. Generally, discussion requires a quorum, usually half of the total number of representatives, before discussion can begin, although there are exceptions. The house may debate and amend the bill; the precise procedures used by the House and Senate differ. A final vote on the bill follows.
Once a bill is approved by one house, it is sent to the other which may pass, reject, or amend it. For the bill to become law, both houses must agree to identical versions of the bill. If the second house amends the bill, then the differences between the two versions must be reconciled in a conference committee, an ad hoc committee that includes both senators and representatives sometimes by using a reconciliation process to limit budget bills. Both houses use a budget enforcement mechanism informally known as pay - as - you - go or paygo which discourages members from considering acts which increase budget deficits. If both houses agree to the version reported by the conference committee, the bill passes, otherwise it fails.
The Constitution specifies that a majority of members known as a quorum be present before doing business in each house. However, the rules of each house assume that a quorum is present unless a quorum call demonstrates the contrary. Since representatives and senators who are present rarely demand quorum calls, debate often continues despite the lack of a majority.
Voting within Congress can take many forms, including systems using lights and bells and electronic voting. Both houses use voice voting to decide most matters in which members shout "aye '' or "no '' and the presiding officer announces the result. The Constitution, however, requires a recorded vote if demanded by one - fifth of the members present. If the voice vote is unclear or if the matter is controversial, a recorded vote usually happens. The Senate uses roll - call voting, in which a clerk calls out the names of all the senators, each senator stating "aye '' or "no '' when their name is announced. In the Senate, the vice president may cast the tie - breaking vote if present.
The House reserves roll - call votes for the most formal matters, as a roll call of all 435 representatives takes quite some time; normally, members vote by using an electronic device. In the case of a tie, the motion in question fails. Most votes in the House are done electronically, allowing members to vote yea or nay or present or open. Members insert a voting ID card and can change their votes during the last five minutes if they choose; in addition, paper ballots are used on some occasions -- yea indicated by green and nay by red. One member can not cast a proxy vote for another. Congressional votes are recorded on an online database.
After passage by both houses, a bill is enrolled and sent to the president for approval. The president may sign it making it law or veto it, perhaps returning it to Congress with their objections. A vetoed bill can still become law if each house of Congress votes to override the veto with a two - thirds majority. Finally, the president may do nothing -- neither signing nor vetoing the bill -- and then the bill becomes law automatically after ten days (not counting Sundays) according to the Constitution. But if Congress is adjourned during this period, presidents may veto legislation passed at the end of a congressional session simply by ignoring it; the maneuver is known as a pocket veto, and can not be overridden by the adjourned Congress.
Senators face reelection every six years, and representatives every two. Reelections encourage candidates to focus their publicity efforts at their home states or districts. Running for reelection can be a grueling process of distant travel and fund - raising which distracts senators and representatives from paying attention to governing, according to some critics although others respond that the process is necessary to keep members of Congress in touch with voters.
Nevertheless, incumbent members of Congress running for reelection have strong advantages over challengers. They raise more money because donors expect incumbents to win, they give their funds to them rather than challengers, and donations are vital for winning elections. One critic compared being elected to Congress to receiving life tenure at a university. Another advantage for representatives is the practice of gerrymandering. After each ten - year census, states are allocated representatives based on population, and officials in power can choose how to draw the congressional district boundaries to support candidates from their party. As a result, reelection rates of members of Congress hover around 90 percent, causing some critics to accuse them of being a privileged class. Academics such as Princeton 's Stephen Macedo have proposed solutions to fix gerrymandering. Both senators and representatives enjoy free mailing privileges called franking privileges.
In 1971, the cost of running for congress in Utah was $70,000 but costs have climbed. The biggest expense is television ads. Today 's races cost more than a million dollars for a House seat, and six million or more for a Senate seat. Since fundraising is vital, "members of Congress are forced to spend ever - increasing hours raising money for their re-election. ''
Nevertheless, the Supreme Court has treated campaign contributions as a free speech issue. Some see money as a good influence in politics since it "enables candidates to communicate with voters. '' Few members retire from Congress without complaining about how much it costs to campaign for reelection. Critics contend that members of Congress are more likely to attend to the needs of heavy campaign contributors than to ordinary citizens.
Elections are influenced by many variables. Some political scientists speculate there is a coattail effect (when a popular president or party position has the effect of reelecting incumbents who win by "riding on the president 's coattails ''), although there is some evidence that the coattail effect is irregular and possibly declining since the 1950s. Some districts are so heavily Democratic or Republican that they are called a safe seat; any candidate winning the primary will almost always be elected, and these candidates do not need to spend money on advertising. But some races can be competitive when there is no incumbent. If a seat becomes vacant in an open district, then both parties may spend heavily on advertising in these races; in California in 1992, only four of twenty races for House seats were considered highly competitive.
Since members of Congress must advertise heavily on television, this usually involves negative advertising, which smears an opponent 's character without focusing on the issues. Negative advertising is seen as effective because "the messages tend to stick. '' However, these ads sour the public on the political process in general as most members of Congress seek to avoid blame. One wrong decision or one damaging television image can mean defeat at the next election, which leads to a culture of risk avoidance, a need to make policy decisions behind closed doors, and concentrating publicity efforts in the members ' home districts.
Prominent Founding Fathers writing in The Federalist Papers felt that elections were essential to liberty, and that a bond between the people and the representatives was particularly essential and that "frequent elections are unquestionably the only policy by which this dependence and sympathy can be effectually secured. '' In 2009, however, few Americans were familiar with leaders of Congress. The percentage of Americans eligible to vote who did, in fact, vote was 63 % in 1960, but has been falling since, although there was a slight upward trend in the 2008 election. Public opinion polls asking people if they approve of the job Congress is doing have, in the last few decades, hovered around 25 % with some variation. Scholar Julian Zeliger suggested that the "size, messiness, virtues, and vices that make Congress so interesting also create enormous barriers to our understanding the institution... Unlike the presidency, Congress is difficult to conceptualize. '' Other scholars suggest that despite the criticism, "Congress is a remarkably resilient institution... its place in the political process is not threatened... it is rich in resources '' and that most members behave ethically. They contend that "Congress is easy to dislike and often difficult to defend '' and this perception is exacerbated because many challengers running for Congress run against Congress, which is an "old form of American politics '' that further undermines Congress 's reputation with the public:
The rough - and - tumble world of legislating is not orderly and civil, human frailties too often taint its membership, and legislative outcomes are often frustrating and ineffective... Still, we are not exaggerating when we say that Congress is essential to American democracy. We would not have survived as a nation without a Congress that represented the diverse interests of our society, conducted a public debate on the major issues, found compromises to resolve conflicts peacefully, and limited the power of our executive, military, and judicial institutions... The popularity of Congress ebbs and flows with the public 's confidence in government generally... the legislative process is easy to dislike -- it often generates political posturing and grandstanding, it necessarily involves compromise, and it often leaves broken promises in its trail. Also, members of Congress often appear self - serving as they pursue their political careers and represent interests and reflect values that are controversial. Scandals, even when they involve a single member, add to the public 's frustration with Congress and have contributed to the institution 's low ratings in opinion polls. -- Smith, Roberts & Wielen
An additional factor that confounds public perceptions of Congress is that congressional issues are becoming more technical and complex and require expertise in subjects such as science, engineering and economics. As a result, Congress often cedes authority to experts at the executive branch.
Since 2006, Congress has dropped 10 points in the Gallup confidence poll with only 9 % having "a great deal '' or "quite a lot '' of confidence in their legislators. Since 2011, Gallup poll has reported Congress 's approval rating among Americans at 10 % or below three times. Public opinion of Congress plummeted further to 5 % in October 2013 after parts of the U.S. government deemed ' nonessential government ' shut down.
When the Constitution was ratified in 1787, the ratio of the populations of large states to small states was roughly twelve to one. The Connecticut Compromise gave every state, large and small, an equal vote in the Senate. Since each state has two senators, residents of smaller states have more clout in the Senate than residents of larger states. But since 1787, the population disparity between large and small states has grown; in 2006, for example, California had seventy times the population of Wyoming. Critics such as constitutional scholar Sanford Levinson have suggested that the population disparity works against residents of large states and causes a steady redistribution of resources from "large states to small states. '' However, others argue that the Connecticut compromise was deliberately intended by the Framers to construct the Senate so that each state had equal footing not based on population, and contend that the result works well on balance.
A major role for members of Congress is providing services to constituents. Constituents request assistance with problems. Providing services helps members of Congress win votes and elections and can make a difference in close races. Congressional staff can help citizens navigate government bureaucracies. One academic described the complex intertwined relation between lawmakers and constituents as home style.
One way to categorize lawmakers, according to political scientist Richard Fenno, is by their general motivation:
Members of Congress enjoy parliamentary privilege, including freedom from arrest in all cases except for treason, felony, and breach of the peace and freedom of speech in debate. This constitutionally derived immunity applies to members during sessions and when traveling to and from sessions. The term arrest has been interpreted broadly, and includes any detention or delay in the course of law enforcement, including court summons and subpoenas. The rules of the House strictly guard this privilege; a member may not waive the privilege on their own, but must seek the permission of the whole house to do so. Senate rules, however, are less strict and permit individual senators to waive the privilege as they choose.
The Constitution guarantees absolute freedom of debate in both houses, providing in the Speech or Debate Clause of the Constitution that "for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. '' Accordingly, a member of Congress may not be sued in court for slander because of remarks made in either house, although each house has its own rules restricting offensive speeches, and may punish members who transgress.
Obstructing the work of Congress is a crime under federal law and is known as contempt of Congress. Each branch has the power to cite individuals for contempt but can only issue a contempt citation -- the judicial system pursues the matter like a normal criminal case. If convicted in court, an individual found guilty of contempt of Congress may be imprisoned for up to one year.
The franking privilege allows members of Congress to send official mail to constituents at government expense. Though they are not permitted to send election materials, borderline material is often sent, especially in the run - up to an election by those in close races. Indeed, some academics consider free mailings as giving incumbents a big advantage over challengers.
From 1789 to 1815, members of Congress received only a daily payment of $6 while in session. Members received an annual salary of $1,500 per year from 1815 to 1817, then a per diem salary of $8 from 1818 to 1855; since then they have received an annual salary, first pegged in 1855 at $3,000. In 1907, salaries were raised to $7,500 per year, the equivalent of $173,000 in 2010. In 2006, members of Congress received a yearly salary of $165,200. Congressional leaders were paid $183,500 per year. The Speaker of the House of Representatives earns $212,100 annually. The salary of the President pro tempore for 2006 was $183,500, equal to that of the majority and minority leaders of the House and Senate. Privileges include having an office and paid staff. In 2008, non-officer members of Congress earned $169,300 annually. Some critics complain congressional pay is high compared with a median American income of $45,113 for men and $35,102 for women. Others have countered that congressional pay is consistent with other branches of government. In January 2014, it was reported that for the first time over half of the members of Congress were millionaires. Congress has been criticized for trying to conceal pay raises by slipping them into a large bill at the last minute. Others have criticized the wealth of members of Congress. Representative Jim Cooper of Tennessee told Harvard professor Lawrence Lessig that a chief problem with Congress was that members focused on lucrative careers as lobbyists after serving -- -- that Congress was a "Farm League for K Street '' -- -- instead of on public service.
Members elected since 1984 are covered by the Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS). Like other federal employees, congressional retirement is funded through taxes and participants ' contributions. Members of Congress under FERS contribute 1.3 % of their salary into the FERS retirement plan and pay 6.2 % of their salary in Social Security taxes. And like Federal employees, members contribute one - third of the cost of health insurance with the government covering the other two - thirds.
The size of a congressional pension depends on the years of service and the average of the highest three years of their salary. By law, the starting amount of a member 's retirement annuity may not exceed 80 % of their final salary. In 2006, the average annual pension for retired senators and representatives under the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS) was $60,972, while those who retired under FERS, or in combination with CSRS, was $35,952.
Members of Congress make fact - finding missions to learn about other countries and stay informed, but these outings can cause controversy if the trip is deemed excessive or unconnected with the task of governing. For example, the Wall Street Journal reported in 2009 that lawmaker trips abroad at taxpayer expense had included spas, $300 - per - night extra unused rooms, and shopping excursions. Lawmakers respond that "traveling with spouses compensates for being away from them a lot in Washington '' and justify the trips as a way to meet officials in other nations.
1 (1789) 2 (1791) 3 (1793) 4 (1795) 5 (1797) 6 (1799) 7 (1801) 8 (1803) 9 (1805) 10 (1807)
11 (1809) 12 (1811) 13 (1813) 14 (1815) 15 (1817) 16 (1819) 17 (1821) 18 (1823) 19 (1825) 20 (1827)
21 (1829) 22 (1831) 23 (1833) 24 (1835) 25 (1837) 26 (1839) 27 (1841) 28 (1843) 29 (1845) 30 (1847)
31 (1849) 32 (1851) 33 (1853) 34 (1855) 35 (1857) 36 (1859) 37 (1861) 38 (1863) 39 (1865) 40 (1867)
41 (1869) 42 (1871) 43 (1873) 44 (1875) 45 (1877) 46 (1879) 47 (1881) 48 (1883) 49 (1885) 50 (1887)
51 (1889) 52 (1891) 53 (1893) 54 (1895) 55 (1897) 56 (1899) 57 (1901) 58 (1903) 59 (1905) 60 (1907)
61 (1909) 62 (1911) 63 (1913) 64 (1915) 65 (1917) 66 (1919) 67 (1921) 68 (1923) 69 (1925) 70 (1927)
71 (1929) 72 (1931) 73 (1933) 74 (1935) 75 (1937) 76 (1939) 77 (1941) 78 (1943) 79 (1945) 80 (1947)
81 (1949) 82 (1951) 83 (1953) 84 (1955) 85 (1957) 86 (1959) 87 (1961) 88 (1963) 89 (1965) 90 (1967)
91 (1969) 92 (1971) 93 (1973) 94 (1975) 95 (1977) 96 (1979) 97 (1981) 98 (1983) 99 (1985) 100 (1987)
101 (1989) 102 (1991) 103 (1993) 104 (1995) 105 (1997) 106 (1999) 107 (2001) 108 (2003) 109 (2005) 110 (2007)
111 (2009) 112 (2011) 113 (2013) 114 (2015) 115 (2017) 116 (2019)
Coordinates: 38 ° 53 ′ 23 '' N 77 ° 0 ′ 32 '' W / 38.88972 ° N 77.00889 ° W / 38.88972; - 77.00889
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when did the song i love rock and roll come out | I Love Rock ' n ' Roll - wikipedia
"I Love Rock ' n ' Roll '' is a rock song written in 1975 by Alan Merrill of the Arrows, who recorded the first released version. The song was later made famous by Joan Jett & the Blackhearts in 1982. Alan Merrill still plays the song live in Europe, Japan and most often in his home town New York City.
The song was originally recorded and released by the Arrows in 1975 on Rak Records, with lead vocals, guitar, music & lyrics written by Alan Merrill and produced by Mickie Most. In an interview with Songfacts, Merrill said he wrote it as "a knee - jerk response to the Rolling Stones ' ' It 's Only Rock ' n Roll (But I Like It) '. '' This version was first released as a B - side, but was soon re-recorded and flipped to A-side status on a subsequent pressing of the record. The Arrows performed the song in 1975 on the Muriel Young - produced show 45, after which Young offered the Arrows a weekly UK television series, Arrows, which was broadcast on ITV starting in March 1976.
Joan Jett saw the Arrows perform "I Love Rock ' n Roll '' on their weekly UK television series Arrows when she was touring England with the Runaways in 1976. She first recorded the song in 1979 with two of the Sex Pistols: Steve Jones and Paul Cook. This first version was released on vinyl in 1979 on Vertigo records as a B - side to "You Do n't Own Me ''. In 1981, Jett re-recorded the song, this time with her band, the Blackhearts. This recording became a U.S. Billboard Hot 100 number - one single for seven weeks. Billboard ranked it at the No. 3 song for 1982. The single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America, representing two million units shipped to stores with Jett 's I Love Rock ' n Roll album reaching number two on the Billboard 200. Joan Jett 's version was ranked No. 89 in the list 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of Rolling Stone and has also been inducted into the Grammys Hall of Fame in 2016.
"I Love Rock ' n Roll '' 's black - and - white music video received heavy play from the just - launched MTV network. In it, Jett and the Blackhearts travel to a small, dingy bar and proceed to excite the drunken crowd by performing the song and yelling out its chorus. A snippet of Jett 's 1981 hit "Bad Reputation '' can be heard at the beginning of the video. The video was originally in color, but it was converted to black and white because Jett hated the look of her red leather jumpsuit in color.
In 1993 Joan Jett & the Blackhearts made another music video for the song as part of the Wayne 's World 2 soundtrack. In the video appear several scenes from the movie with Mike Myers and Dana Carvey mixed with footage of Jett and her band in concert. It was again released as a single by Warner / Reprise with "Activity Grrrl '' as the B - side.
Jett 's version has received many accolades, including:
"I Love Rock ' n ' Roll '' is the fourth European single released by pop singer Britney Spears from the album Britney on 27 May 2002. The song was used in her 2002 movie Crossroads. Spears 's character, Lucy, performs it in a karaoke bar. Spears said of the song, "They asked me to sing karaoke in the movie Crossroads and I 've actually sung I Love Rock ' n ' Roll in a lot of clubs that I 've been to. '' Spears has publicly admitted the original song to be one of her favorites. Spears listened to the original Arrows Mickie Most - produced version just before she recorded the song, according to Jive A&R representative Steve Lunt. The scratches performed on this song were performed by Corey Chase, at Hit Factory Miami. When promoting the single 's release she mistakenly attributed the hit version of the song to Pat Benatar instead of Joan Jett.
Spears ' cover was met with mostly favorable reviews. NME 's Ted Kessler wrote that Britney "still works best when making a good pop cheese and dance sandwich: there 's the ace Rodney Jerkins - produced version of Joan Jett 's ' I Love Rock'n'Roll ', which does exactly what is says on the tin. '' Rolling Stone 's Barry Walters wrote that "producer Rodney Jerkins ' hip - hop blaspheming of Joan Jett 's "I Love Rock ' n ' Roll '' does n't go as far as it should (is a Limp Bizkit remix in its future?), but it certainly beats what her earlier studio architects did to those Sonny and Cher ("The Beat Goes On '' on... Baby One More Time) and Stones ("(I Ca n't Get No) Satisfaction '' on Oops!... I Did It Again) songs. '' Another positive reception came from PopMatters 's editor Nikki Tranter, who enjoyed that the song is "different from the average run - of - the - mill pop offering, '' and praised that "she does strange justice to the tune, vamping up her vocals and turning out something, that while silly and camp, is actually a fun listen. '' In contrast, David Browne wrote for Entertainment Weekly that "her remake is neither imaginative (it simply xeroxes Joan Jett 's arrangement) nor all that believable. ''
"I Love Rock ' n ' Roll '' charted moderately upon release, reaching the top twenty in most regions. The song was moderately successful in the UK, where it peaked at number thirteen (which, at the time, was her lowest peak for a single released there, until "Radar '' only managed to reach number forty - six in 2009, and then "I Wanna Go, which peaked at one - hundred and eleven). The single sold a total of 65,000 copies. It was also certified Gold in Australia.
Directed by Chris Applebaum, the music video for "I Love Rock ' n ' Roll '' shows Spears with her own band, a stack of speakers, and flashing lights. It was shot at The Inn, a bar in Long Beach, New York. The video was ranked at No. 2 on the 100 Best Videos of 2002 at MTV Latin America 's countdown. The Director 's Cut version of the video was later leaked; it included previously unseen scenes from the video.
The song was performed live during Spears 's Dream Within a Dream Tour (2001 -- 02). In 2016, it was added to the revamped set list of her Las Vegas residency show, Britney: Piece of Me (2016 -- 17), marking the first time Spears performed the song in 14 years. During the performance, Britney Spears rides a mechanical electric guitar, which simulates a mechanical bull, as it rotates on stage. The same prop electric guitar was previously used during her Femme Fatale Tour (2011) for a segment in which she covered the song "Burning Up '' by Madonna. In the 2016 Billboard Music Awards, the song was performed as part of a medley, using the same guitar proposed
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
The Alex Gaudino & Jason Rooney cover version was released in 2008.
"I Love Rock ' n ' Roll '' is an often - covered song, and has been notably recorded by such artists as:
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who was the delegate that wrote the first draft of the constitution | Constitutional Convention (United states) - wikipedia
The Constitutional Convention (also known as the Philadelphia Convention, the Federal Convention, or the Grand Convention at Philadelphia) took place from May 25 to September 17, 1787, in the old Pennsylvania State House (later known as Independence Hall because of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence there eleven years before) in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Although the Convention was intended to revise the league of states and first system of government under the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, which were first proposed in 1776, adopted by the Second Continental Congress in 1778 and only finally unanimously ratified by the Original Thirteen States by 1781), the intention from the outset of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison of Virginia and Alexander Hamilton of New York, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The delegates elected George Washington of Virginia, former commanding general of the Continental Army in the late American Revolutionary War (1775 - 1783), to preside over the Convention. The result of the Convention was the creation of the Constitution of the United States, placing the Convention among the most significant events in the history of the United States and indeed of worldwide historical, political and social influence.
The most contentious disputes revolved around composition and election of the upper legislative house in the future bicameral Congress, to be known as the Senate, how "proportional representation '' was to be defined (whether to include slaves or other property), whether to divide the executive power between three persons or invest the power into a single chief executive to be called the President, how to elect the President, how long his term was to be and whether he could run for reelection, what offenses should be impeachable, the nature of a fugitive slave clause, whether to allow the abolition of the slave trade, and whether judges should be chosen by the legislature or executive. Most of the time during the Convention was spent on deciding these issues, while the powers of legislature, executive, and judiciary were not heavily disputed. Once the Convention began, the delegates first agreed on the principles of the Convention, then they agreed on Madison 's proposed Virginia Plan and began to modify it. A Committee of Detail, assembled during the July 4th recess, eventually produced a rough draft of the constitution. Most of the rough draft remained in place, and can be found in the final version of the constitution. After the final issues were resolved, the Committee on Style produced the final version, and it was voted on by the delegates, inscribed on parchment with engraving for printing and sent to the states and their legislatures.
Before the Constitution was drafted, the nearly 4 million inhabitants of the 13 newly independent states were governed under the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, created by the Second Continental Congress. It soon became evident to nearly all that the chronically underfunded Confederation government, as originally organized, was inadequate for managing the various conflicts that arose among the states. As the Articles of Confederation could only be amended by unanimous vote of the states, any state had effective veto power over any proposed change. In addition, the Articles gave the weak federal government no taxing power: it was wholly dependent on the states for its money, and had no power to force delinquent states to pay.
Once the immediate task of winning the American Revolutionary War of 1775 to 1783 had passed, the states began to look to their own interests, and disputes arose. These included a dispute between Maryland and Virginia over the Potomac River and opposition to Rhode Island 's imposing taxes on all traffic passing through it on the post road. James Madison suggested that state governments should appoint commissioners "to take into consideration the trade of the United States; to examine the relative situation and trade of said states; to consider how far a uniform system in their commercial regulations may be necessary to their common interests and permanent harmony ''.
Another impetus for the convention was Shays ' Rebellion of 1786 - 1787. A political conflict between Boston merchants and rural farmers over issues including tax debts had broken out into an open rebellion. This rebellion was led by a former Revolutionary War captain, Daniel Shays, a small farmer with tax debts, who had never received payment for his service in the Continental Army. The rebellion took months for Massachusetts to put down completely, and some desired a federal army that would be able to put down such insurrections.
In September 1786, at the Annapolis Convention, delegates from five states called for a Constitutional Convention in order to discuss possible improvements to the Articles of Confederation. The subsequent Constitutional Convention took place in Philadelphia, convening in the Old Pennsylvania State House (then becoming known as Independence Hall) on May 14, 1787. Rhode Island, fearing that the Convention would work to its disadvantage, boycotted the Convention and, when the Constitution was put to the states during the next year of controversial debates, initially refused to ratify it, waiting until May 1790 to become the thirteenth, a year after the new federal government commenced.
Due to the difficulty of travel in the late 18th century, very few of the selected delegates were present on the designated day of May 14, 1787, and it was not until May 25 that a quorum of seven states was secured. (New Hampshire delegates would not join the Convention until more than halfway through the proceedings, on July 23.) James Madison arrived first, and soon most of the Virginia delegation arrived. While waiting for the other delegates, the Virginia delegation produced the Virginia Plan, which was designed and written by James Madison. On May 25, the delegations convened in the Pennsylvania State House.
George Washington was unanimously elected president of the Convention, and it was agreed that the discussions and votes would be kept secret until the conclusion of the meeting. Despite the sweltering summer heat, the windows of the meeting hall were nailed shut to keep the proceedings a secret from the public. Although William Jackson was elected as secretary, his records were brief and included very little detail. Madison 's Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787, supplemented by the notes of Robert Yates, remain the most complete record of the Convention. Throughout the debate, delegates constantly referred to precedents from history in support of their position. Most commonly, they referred to the history of England, in particular the Glorious Revolution (often simply called "The Revolution ''), classical history (mainly the Roman Republic and the leagues of Greek city - states), and recent precedents from Holland and Germany.
Outside the Convention in Philadelphia, there was a national convening of the Society of the Cincinnati. Washington was said to be embarrassed. The 1776 "old republican '' delegates like Elbridge Gerry (MA) found anything military or hereditary anathema. The Presbyterian Synod of Philadelphia and New York convention was meeting to redefine its Confession, dropping the faith requirement for civil authority to prohibit false worship. Protestant Episcopalian Washington attended a Roman Catholic Mass and dinner. Revolution veteran Jonas Phillips, of the Mikveh Israel Synagogue, petitioned the Convention to avoid a national oath including belief in both Old and New Testaments. Merchants of Providence, Rhode Island, petitioned for consideration, though their Assembly had not sent a delegation.
Manasseh Cutler came directly from the capital in New York and found himself a frequent dinner guest among the delegates. He carried grants of five million acres to parcel out among The Ohio Company and "speculators '', including some who were attending the Convention. A Philadelphia guest of Robert Morris, Noah Webster would write a pamphlet immediately after the signing. "Leading Principles of the Federal Convention '' advocated adoption of the Constitution. It was published much earlier and more widely circulated than today 's better known Federalist Papers.
While waiting for the Convention to formally begin, James Madison sketched out his initial draft, which became known as the Virginia Plan and reflected his views as a strong nationalist. By the time the rest of the Virginia delegation arrived, most of the Pennsylvania delegation had arrived as well. They agreed on Madison 's plan, and formed what came to be the predominant coalition. By the time the Convention started, the only blueprints that had been assembled were Madison 's Virginia Plan, and Charles Pinckney 's plan. As Pinckney did n't have a coalition behind his plan, Madison 's plan was the starting point for deliberations.
The Convention agreed on several principles. Most importantly, they agreed that the Convention should go beyond its mandate merely to amend the Articles of Confederation, and instead should produce a new constitution outright. While some delegates thought this illegal, the Articles of Confederation were closer to a treaty between sovereign states than they were to a national constitution, so the genuine legal problems were limited. Another principle they agreed on was that the new government would have all the powers of the Confederation Congress, plus additional powers over the states. Once agreeing on these principles, the Convention voted on the Virginia plan and signaled their approval for it. Once this was done, they began modifying it.
Madison 's plan operated on several assumptions that were not seriously challenged. During the deliberations, few raised serious objections to the planned bicameral congress, nor the separate executive function, nor the separate judicial function. As English law had typically recognized government as having two separate functions, law making embodied in the legislature, and law executing embodied in the king and his courts, the division of the legislature from the executive and judiciary was a natural and uncontested point.
The division of the legislature into an upper and lower house was n't questioned either, despite the obscure origins of the English House of Lords and its role as the representative of the hereditary nobility. Americans had seldom known any but bicameral legislatures, both in Britain and in most state governments. The main exceptions to this were the dysfunctional Confederation Congress and the unicameral Pennsylvania legislature, which was seen as quickly vacillating between partisan extremes after each election. Experience had convinced the delegates that an upper house was necessary to tame the passions of the lower classes against the interests of wealthy merchants and landowners. Since America had no native hereditary aristocracy, the character of this upper house was designed to protect the interests of this wealthy elite, the "minority of the opulent, '' against the interests of the lower classes, who constituted the majority of the population.
On Thursday, June 7, it was proposed that senators should be chosen directly by the state legislatures, instead of by popular vote, as this method was more likely to preserve the power of the upper classes. Convention delegate Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts observed that "the great mercantile interest and of stockholders, is not provided for in any mode of election - they will however be better represented if the State legislatures choose the second branch. '' The proposal was carried unanimously.
The delegates also agreed with Madison that the executive function had to be independent of the legislature. In their aversion to kingly power, American legislatures had created state governments where the executive was beholden to the legislature, and by the late 1780s this was widely seen as being a source of paralysis. The Confederation government was the ultimate example of this.
Furthermore, in the English tradition, judges were seen as being agents of the King and his court, who represented him throughout his realm. Madison believed that in the American states, this direct link between state executives and judges was a source of corruption through patronage, and thought the link had to be severed between the two, thus creating the "third branch '' of the judiciary which had been without any direct precedent before this point. Madison, however, did not believe that the judiciary should be truly independent, but rather beholden to the legislature rather than the executive. At the Convention, some sided with Madison that the legislature should choose judges, while others believed the president should choose judges. A compromise was eventually reached that the president should choose judges and the Senate confirm them.
In a few areas, Madison 's plan included provisions that had little support among the delegates. Few agreed with Madison that the legislature should be able to invalidate state laws, so the idea was dropped. While most thought there should be some mechanism to invalidate bad laws by congress, few agreed with Madison that a board of the executive and judges should decide on this. Instead, the power was given solely to the executive in the form of the veto. Many also thought this would be useful to protect the executive, whom many worried might become beholden to an imperial legislature. Also, during the deliberations, the New Jersey Plan was introduced, although it was more of a protest to the excessive national character of the Virginia plan, and was not seriously considered. The office of Vice President was also included later in the deliberations, mainly to provide the president a successor if he was unable to complete his term but also to provide presidential electors with an incentive to vote for at least one out of state candidate in addition to a "favorite son '' from their own state or region.
Each state was allowed to cast a single vote either for or against a proposal during the debates in accordance with the majority opinion of the state 's delegates. Throughout the Convention, delegates would regularly come and go, with only 30 -- 40 being present on a typical day. Consequently, if a state 's delegates were equally divided in their views on a given proposal, or if too few of the state 's delegates were in attendance to establish a quorum for the delegation when votes were being cast on a particular proposal, that state 's delegation had essentially no effect on the outcome of the vote on the proposal. Thus, for example, after two of New York 's three delegates abandoned the Convention in mid July with no intention of returning, New York was left unable to vote on any further proposals at the Convention, although Hamilton would continue to periodically attend and occasionally to speak during the debates.
The first area of major dispute was the manner by which the lower house would be apportioned. A minority wanted it to be apportioned so that all states would have equal weight, though this was never seriously considered. Most wanted it apportioned in accordance with some mixture of property and population. Though there was discussion on how to calculate property for this purpose, the issue of property was later dropped because of its difficulty, and an assumption that property would closely correlate to population.
Most accepted the desire among the slave states to count slaves as part of the population, although their servile status was raised as a major objection against this. The Three - Fifths Compromise assessing population by adding the number of free persons to three - fifths of "all other persons '' (slaves) was agreed to without serious dispute. In 1783, when attempting to assess a national taxation system, the Confederation Congress had considered a three fifths ratio, which did not achieve unanimity. This compromise resulted in a large coalition of states, including the small slave states of South Carolina and Georgia, backing the Virginia plan and thus expanding the power of the primary coalition. That the lower house was to be elected directly by the voters was also accepted without major dispute.
More contentious than the lower house was the question of the upper house. Few agreed with Madison that its members should be elected by the lower house. James Wilson suggested election by popular vote versus election by state legislature, but his proposal was shot down 10 -- 1 by the delegates. Most delegates did n't question the intelligence of the voters, rather what concerned them was the slowness by which information spread in the late 18th century.
At the time of the Convention, they noted that local newspapers said little of current events, and what little they had was sketchy and dated. Local papers even said little about the meeting of the Convention. Alexander Hamilton proposed extending the term in office for senators to life, considering earlier proposals of four and seven years inefficient to enable the "rich and well born '' to have a "distinct, permanent share in the government, '' which could "check the imprudence of democracy. '' Moreover, Hamilton proposed that senators not be elected directly by the general public, but by "electors '' chosen for that purpose.
Besides the problems of direct election, the new Constitution was seen as such a radical break with the old system, by which delegates were elected to the Confederation Congress by state legislatures, that the Convention agreed to retain this method of electing senators to make the constitutional change less radical. The more difficult problem was the issue of apportionment. The Connecticut delegation offered a compromise, whereby the number of representatives for each state in the lower house would be apportioned based on the relative size of the state 's population, while the number of representatives in the upper house would be the same for all of the states, irrespective of size. The large states, fearing a diminution of their influence in the legislature under this plan, opposed this proposal. Unable to reach agreement, the delegates decided to leave this issue for further consideration later during the meeting.
The delegates could n't agree on whether the executive should be a single person, or a board of three. Many wished to limit the power of the executive and thus supported the proposal to divide the executive power between three persons. The possible problems of this system, in addition to the knowledge that George Washington would probably be the first president, calmed the fears enough so that the proponents of a singular executive could accumulate a large coalition. This issue came up occasionally after the matter was settled, but was never again seriously doubted.
Another issue concerned the election of the president. Few agreed with Madison that the executive should be elected by the legislature. There was widespread concern with direct election, because information diffused so slowly in the late 18th century, and because of concerns that people would only vote for candidates from their state or region. A vocal minority wanted the national executive to be chosen by the governors of the states.
The issue was one of the last major issues to be resolved, and was done so in the electoral college. At the time, before the formation of modern political parties, there was widespread concern that candidates would routinely fail to secure a majority of electors in the electoral college. The method of resolving this problem therefore was a contested issue. Most thought that the house should then choose the president, since it most closely reflected the will of the people. This caused dissension among delegates from smaller states, who realized that this would put their states at a disadvantage. To resolve this dispute, the Convention agreed that the house would elect the president if no candidate had an electoral college majority, but that each state delegation would vote as a bloc, rather than individually.
As the Convention was entering its second full month of deliberations, it was decided that further consideration of the prickly question of how to apportion representatives in the national legislature should be referred to a committee composed of one delegate from each of the eleven states that were present at that time at the Convention. The members of this "Grand Committee, '' as it has come to be known, included Elbridge Gerry, Oliver Ellsworth, Robert Yates, William Paterson, Gunning Bedford, Jr., George Mason, William Davie, John Rutledge, Abraham Baldwin, and Benjamin Franklin. In its report to the Convention on July 5, the committee offered a compromise. The large states had opposed the Connecticut Compromise, because they felt it gave too much power to the smaller states. The Grand Committee 's proposal added the requirement that revenue bills originate in the lower house and not be subject to modification by the upper house (although this Origination Clause would later be modified so that revenue bills could be amended in the upper house, or Senate). With this modification, the Convention in a close vote adopted the compromise on July 16. Nationalist delegates remained bitterly opposed, however, until on July 23 they succeeded in further modifying the compromise to give members of the Senate individual voting power, rather than having votes taken by each state 's representatives en bloc, as had occurred in Congress under the Articles of Confederation. This accomplished the nationalist goal of preventing state governments from having a direct say in Congress 's choice to make national laws. The final document was thus a mixture of Madison 's original "national '' constitution and the desired "federal '' Constitution that many of the delegates sought.
The Convention adjourned from July 26 to August 6 to await the report of the Committee of Detail, which was to produce a first draft of the Constitution. It was chaired by John Rutledge, with the other members including Edmund Randolph, Oliver Ellsworth, James Wilson, and Nathaniel Gorham.
Though the committee did not record minutes of its proceedings, three key surviving documents offer clues to the committee 's handiwork: an outline by Randolph with edits by Rutledge, extensive notes and a second draft by Wilson, also with Rutledge 's edits, and the committee 's final report to the Convention. From this evidence it is thought that the committee used the original Virginia Plan, the decisions of the Convention on modifications to that plan, and other sources, such as the Articles of Confederation, provisions of the state constitutions, and even Charles Pinckney 's plan, to produce the first full draft, which author David O. Stewart has called a "remarkable copy - and - paste job. ''
Randolph adopted two rules in preparing his initial outline: that the Constitution should only include essential principles, avoiding minor provisions that would change over time, and that it should be stated in simple and precise language.
Much of what was included in the committee 's report consisted of numerous details that the Convention had never discussed but which the committee correctly viewed as uncontroversial and unlikely to be challenged; and as such, much of the committee 's proposal would ultimately be incorporated into the final version of the Constitution without debate. Examples of these details included the Speech and Debate Clause, which grants members of Congress immunity for comments made in their jobs, and the rules for organizing the House of Representatives and the Senate.
However, Rutledge, himself a former state governor, was determined that while the new national government should be stronger than the Confederation government had been, the national government 's power over the states should not be limitless; and at Rutledge 's urging, the committee went beyond what the Convention had proposed. As Stewart describes it, the committee "hijacked '' and remade the Constitution, altering critical agreements the Convention delegates had already made, enhancing the powers of the states at the expense of the national government, and adding several far - reaching provisions that the Convention had never discussed.
The first major change, insisted on by Rutledge, was meant to sharply curtail the essentially unlimited powers to legislate "in all cases for the general interests of the Union '' that the Convention only two weeks earlier had agreed to grant the Congress. Rutledge and Randolph worried that the broad powers implied in the language agreed on by the Convention would have given the national government too much power at the expense of the states. In Randolph 's outline the committee replaced that language with a list of 18 specific "enumerated '' powers, many adopted from the Articles of Confederation, that would strictly limit the Congress ' authority to measures such as imposing taxes, making treaties, going to war, and establishing post offices. Rutledge, however, was not able to completely convince all of the members of the committee to accept the change. Over the course of a series of drafts, a catchall provision (the "Necessary and Proper Clause '') was eventually added, most likely by Wilson, a nationalist little concerned with the sovereignty of individual states, giving the Congress the broad power "to make all Laws that shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. '' Another revision of Wilson 's draft also placed eight specific limits on the states, such as barring them from independently entering into treaties and from printing their own money, providing a certain degree of balance to the limits on the national government intended by Rutledge 's list of enumerated powers. In addition, Wilson 's draft modified the language of the Supremacy Clause adopted by the Convention, to ensure that national law would take precedence over inconsistent state laws.
These changes set the final balance between the national and state governments that would be entered into the final document, as the Convention never challenged this dual - sovereignty between nation and state that had been fashioned by Rutledge and Wilson.
Another set of radical changes introduced by the Committee of Detail proved far more contentious when the committee 's report was presented to the Convention. On the day the Convention had agreed to appoint the committee, Southerner Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, of South Carolina, had warned of dire consequences should the committee fail to include protections for slavery in the Southern states, or allow for taxing of Southern agricultural exports. Pinckney and his fellow Southern delegates must have been delighted to see that the committee had included three provisions that explicitly restricted the Congress ' authority in ways favorable to Southern interests. The proposed language would bar the Congress from ever interfering with the slave trade. It would also prohibit taxation of exports, and would require that any legislation concerning regulation of foreign commerce through tariffs or quotas (that is, any laws akin to England 's "Navigation Acts '') pass only with two - thirds majorities of both houses of Congress. While much of the rest of the committee 's report would be accepted without serious challenge on the Convention floor, these last three proposals would provoke outrage from Northern delegates and slavery opponents.
The final report of the committee, which became the first draft of the Constitution, was the first workable constitutional plan, as Madison 's Virginia Plan had simply been an outline of goals and a broad structure. Even after it issued this report, the committee continued to meet off and on until early September.
Another month of discussion and relatively minor refinement followed, during which several attempts were made to alter the Rutledge draft, though few were successful. Some wanted to add property qualifications for people to hold office, while others wanted to prevent the national government from issuing paper money. Madison in particular wanted to push the Constitution back in the direction of his Virginia plan.
One important change that did make it into the final version included the agreement between northern and southern delegates to empower Congress to end the slave trade starting in 1808. Southern and northern delegates also agreed to strengthen the Fugitive Slave Clause in exchange for removing a requirement that two - thirds of Congress agree on "navigation acts '' (regulations of commerce between states and foreign governments). The two - thirds requirement was favored by southern delegates, who thought Congress might pass navigation acts that would be economically harmful to slaveholders.
Once the Convention had finished amending the first draft from the Committee of Detail, a new set of unresolved questions were sent to several different committees for resolution. The Committee of Detail was considering several questions related to habeas corpus, freedom of the press, and an executive council to advise the president. Two committees addressed questions related to the slave trade and the assumption of war debts.
A new committee was created, the Committee on Postponed Parts, to address other questions that had been postponed. Its members, such as Madison, were delegates who had shown a greater desire for compromise and were chosen for this reason as most in the Convention wanted to finish their work and go home. The committee dealt with questions related to the taxes, war making, patents and copyrights, relations with Indian tribes, and Franklin 's compromise to require money bills to originate in the House. The biggest issue they addressed was the presidency, and the final compromise was written by Madison with the committee 's input. They adopted Wilson 's earlier plan for choosing the president by an electoral college, and settled on the method of choosing the president if no candidate had an electoral college majority, which many such as Madison thought would be "nineteen times out of twenty ''.
The committee also shortened the president 's term from seven years to four years, freed the president to seek re-election after an initial term, and moved impeachment trials from the courts to the Senate. They also created the office of the vice president, whose only roles were to succeed a president unable to complete a term of office, to preside over the Senate, and to cast tie - breaking votes in the Senate. The committee transferred important powers from the Senate to the president, for example the power to make treaties and appoint ambassadors. One controversial issue throughout much of the Convention had been the length of the president 's term, and whether the president was to be term limited. The problem had resulted from the understanding that the president would be chosen by Congress; the decision to have the president be chosen instead by an electoral college reduced the chance of the president becoming beholden to Congress, so a shorter term with eligibility for re-election became a viable option.
Near the end of the Convention, Gerry, Randolph, and Mason emerged as the main force of opposition. Their fears were increased as the Convention moved from Madison 's vague Virginia Plan to the concrete plan of Rutledge 's Committee of Detail. Some have argued that Randolph 's attacks on the Constitution were motivated by political ambition, in particular his anticipation of possibly facing rival Patrick Henry in a future election. The main objection of the three was the compromise that would allow Congress to pass "navigation acts '' with a simple majority in exchange for strengthened slave provisions. Among their other objections was an opposition to the office of vice president.
Though most of their complaints did not result in changes, a couple did. Mason succeeded in adding "high crimes and misdemeanors '' to the impeachment clause. Gerry also convinced the Convention to include a second method for ratification of amendments. The report out of the Committee of Detail had included only one mechanism for constitutional amendment, in which two - thirds of the states had to ask Congress to convene a convention for consideration of amendments. Upon Gerry 's urging, the Convention added back the Virginia Plan 's original method whereby Congress would propose amendments that the states would then ratify. All amendments to the Constitution, save the 21st amendment, have been made through this latter method.
Despite their successes, these three dissenters grew increasingly unpopular as most other delegates wanted to bring the Convention 's business to an end and return home. As the Convention was drawing to a conclusion, and delegates prepared to refer the Constitution to the Committee on Style to pen the final version, one delegate raised an objection over civil trials. He wanted to guarantee the right to a jury trial in civil matters, and Mason saw in this a larger opportunity. Mason told the Convention that the constitution should include a bill of rights, which he thought could be prepared in a few hours. Gerry agreed, though the rest of the committee overruled them. They wanted to go home, and thought this was nothing more than another delaying tactic.
Few at the time realized how important the issue would become, with the absence of a bill of rights becoming the main argument of the anti-Federalists against ratification. Most of the Convention 's delegates thought that states already protected individual rights, and that the Constitution did not authorize the national government to take away rights, so there was no need to include protections of rights. Once the Convention moved beyond this point, the delegates addressed a couple of last - minute issues. Importantly, they modified the language that required spending bills to originate in the House of Representatives and be flatly accepted or rejected, unmodified, by the Senate. The new language empowered the Senate to modify spending bills proposed by the House.
Once the final modifications had been made, the Committee of Style and Arrangement was appointed "to revise the style of and arrange the articles which had been agreed to by the house. '' Unlike other committees, whose members were named so the committees included members from different regions, this final committee included no champions of the small states. Its members were mostly in favor of a strong national government and unsympathetic to calls for states ' rights. They were William Samuel Johnson (Connecticut), Alexander Hamilton (New York), Gouverneur Morris (Pennsylvania), James Madison (Virginia), and Rufus King (Massachusetts). On Wednesday, September 12, the report of the "committee of style '' was ordered printed for the convenience of the delegates. For three days, the Convention compared this final version with the proceedings of the Convention. The Constitution was then ordered engrossed on Saturday, September 15 by Jacob Shallus, and was submitted for signing on September 17. It made at least one important change to what the Convention had agreed to; King wanted to prevent states from interfering in contracts. Although the Convention never took up the matter, his language was now inserted, creating the contract clause.
Gouverneur Morris is credited, both now and then, as the chief draftsman of the final document, including the stirring preamble. Not all the delegates were pleased with the results; thirteen left before the ceremony, and three of those remaining refused to sign: Edmund Randolph of Virginia, George Mason of Virginia, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts. George Mason demanded a Bill of Rights if he was to support the Constitution. The Bill of Rights was not included in the Constitution submitted to the states for ratification, but many states ratified the Constitution with the understanding that a bill of rights would soon follow. Shortly before the document was to be signed, Gorham proposed to lower the size of congressional districts from 40,000 to 30,000 citizens. A similar measure had been proposed earlier, and failed by one vote. George Washington spoke up here, making his only substantive contribution to the text of the Constitution in supporting this move. The Convention adopted it without further debate. Gorham would sign the document, although he had openly doubted whether the United States would remain a single, unified nation for more than 150 years. Ultimately, 39 of the original 55 delegates ended up signing, but it is likely that none were completely satisfied. Their views were summed up by Benjamin Franklin, who said,
I confess that There are several parts of this Constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not sure I shall never approve them... I doubt too whether any other Convention we can obtain, may be able to make a better Constitution... It therefore astonishes me, Sir, to find this system approaching so near to perfection as it does; and I think it will astonish our enemies...
Rhode Island never sent delegates, and two of New York 's three delegates did not stay at the Convention for long. Therefore, as George Washington stated, the document was executed by "eleven states, and Colonel Hamilton. '' Washington signed the document first, and then moving by state delegation from north to south, as had been the custom throughout the Convention, the delegates filed to the front of the room to sign their names.
At the time the document was signed, Franklin gave a persuasive speech involving an anecdote on a sun that was painted on the back of Washington 's Chippendale chair. As recounted in Madison 's notes:
Whilst the last members were signing it Doctor. Franklin looking towards the Presidents Chair, at the back of which a rising sun happened to be painted, observed to a few members near him, that Painters had found it difficult to distinguish in their art a rising from a setting sun. I have said he, often and often in the course of the Session, and the vicissitudes of my hopes and fears as to its issue, looked at that behind the President without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting: But now at length I have the happiness to know that it is a rising and not a setting Sun.
The Constitution was then submitted to the states for ratification, pursuant to its own Article VII.
Several plans were introduced, with the most important plan being that of James Madison (the Virginia Plan). The Convention 's work was mostly a matter of modifying this plan. Charles Pinckney also introduced a plan, although this was n't considered and its exact character has been lost to history. After the Convention was well under way, the New Jersey Plan was introduced though never seriously considered. It was mainly a protest to what some delegates thought was the excessively radical change from the Articles of Confederation. Alexander Hamilton also offered a plan after the Convention was well under way, though it included an executive serving for life and therefore the delegates felt it too closely resembled a monarchy. Historians are unsure how serious he was about this, and some have speculated that he may have done it to make Madison 's plan look moderate by comparison. The Connecticut Compromise was n't a plan but one of several compromises offered by the Connecticut delegation. It was key to the ultimate ratification of the constitution, but was only included after being modified by Benjamin Franklin in order to make it more appealing to larger states.
Prior to the start of the Convention, the Virginian delegates met and, drawing largely from Madison 's suggestions, came up with what came to be known as the Virginia Plan, also known as the Large State Plan. For this reason, James Madison is sometimes called the Father of the Constitution. Presented by Virginia governor Edmund Randolph on May 29, 1787, the Virginia Plan proposed a very powerful bicameral legislature. Both houses of the legislature would be determined proportionately. The lower house would be elected by the people, and the upper house would be elected by the lower house. The executive would exist solely to ensure that the will of the legislature was carried out and would therefore be selected by the legislature. The Virginia Plan also created a judiciary, and gave both the executive and some of the judiciary the power to veto, subject to override.
After the Virginia Plan was introduced, New Jersey delegate William Paterson asked for an adjournment to contemplate the Plan. Under the Articles of Confederation, each state had equal representation in Congress, exercising one vote each. The Virginia Plan threatened to limit the smaller states ' power by making both houses of the legislature proportionate to population. On June 14 and 15, 1787, a small - state caucus met to create a response to the Virginia Plan. The result was the New Jersey Plan, otherwise known as the Small State Plan.
Paterson 's New Jersey Plan was ultimately a rebuttal to the Virginia Plan, and was much closer to the initial call for the Convention: drafting amendments to the Articles of Confederation to fix the problems in it. Under the New Jersey Plan, the existing Continental Congress would remain, but it would be granted new powers, such as the power to levy taxes and force their collection. An executive branch was created, to be elected by Congress (the plan allowed for a multi-person executive). The executives would serve a single term and were subject to recall on the request of state governors. The plan also created a judiciary that would serve for life, to be appointed by the executives. Lastly, any laws set by Congress would take precedence over state laws. When Paterson reported the plan to the Convention on June 15, 1787, it was ultimately rejected, but it gave the smaller states a rallying point for their interests.
Unsatisfied with the New Jersey Plan and the Virginia Plan, Alexander Hamilton proposed his own plan. It also was known as the British Plan, because of its resemblance to the British system of strong centralized government. In his plan, Hamilton advocated virtually doing away with state sovereignty and consolidating the states into a single nation. The plan featured a bicameral legislature, the lower house elected by the people for three years. The upper house would be elected by electors chosen by the people and would serve for life. The plan also gave the Governor, an executive elected by electors for a life - term of service, an absolute veto over bills. State governors would be appointed by the national legislature, and the national legislature had veto power over any state legislation.
Hamilton presented his plan to the Convention on June 18, 1787. The plan was perceived as a well - thought - out plan, but it was not considered, because it resembled the British system too closely. It also contemplated the loss of most state authority, which the states were unwilling to allow.
Immediately after Randolph finished laying out the Virginia Plan, Charles Pinckney of South Carolina presented his own plan to the Convention. As Pinckney did not write it down, the only evidence of the plan are Madison 's notes, so the details are somewhat vague. It was a confederation, or treaty, among the thirteen states. There was to be a bicameral legislature made up of a Senate and a House of Delegates. The House would have one member for every one thousand inhabitants. The House would elect Senators who would serve by rotation for four years and represent one of four regions. Congress would meet in a joint session to elect a President, and would also appoint members of the cabinet. Congress, in joint session, would serve as the court of appeal of last resort in disputes between states. Pinckney did also provide for a supreme Federal Judicial Court. The Pinckney plan was not debated, but it may have been referred to by the Committee of Detail.
The Connecticut Compromise, forged by Roger Sherman from Connecticut, was proposed on June 11. In a sense it blended the Virginia (large - state) and New Jersey (small - state) proposals. Ultimately, however, its main contribution was in determining the apportionment of the Senate, and thus retaining a federal character in the constitution. Sherman sided with the two - house national legislature of the Virginia Plan, but proposed "That the proportion of suffrage in the 1st. branch (house) should be according to the respective numbers of free inhabitants; and that in the second branch or Senate, each State should have one vote and no more. '' This plan failed at first, but on July 23 the question was finally settled.
What was ultimately included in the constitution was a modified form of this plan. In the Grand Committee, Benjamin Franklin successfully proposed the requirement that revenue bills originate in the house. But the final July 16 vote on the compromise still left the Senate looking like the Confederation Congress. In the preceding weeks of debate, Madison, King, and Gouverneur Morris each vigorously opposed the compromise for this reason. Then on July 23, just before most of the convention 's work was referred to the Committee of Detail, Morris and King moved that state representatives in the Senate be given individual votes, rather than voting en bloc, as they had in the Confederation Congress. Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut, a leading proponent of the compromise, supported their motion, and the Convention adopted it. As the personally powerful senators were to receive terms much longer than the state legislators who appointed them, they became substantially independent. The compromise nonetheless continued to serve the self - interest of small - state political leaders, who were assured of access to more seats in the Senate than they might otherwise have obtained.
Among the most controversial issues confronting the delegates was that of slavery. Slavery was widespread in the states at the time of the Convention. At least a third of the Convention 's 55 delegates owned slaves, including all of the delegates from Virginia and South Carolina. Slaves comprised approximately one - fifth of the population of the states; and apart from northernmost New England, where slavery had largely been eliminated, slaves lived throughout all regions of the country. The majority of the slaves (more than 90 %), however, lived in the South, where approximately 1 in 3 families owned slaves (in the largest and wealthiest state, Virginia, that figure was nearly 1 in 2 families). The entire agrarian economy of the South was based on slave labor, and the Southern delegates to the Convention were unwilling to accept any proposals that they believed would threaten the institution.
Whether slavery was to be regulated under the new Constitution was a matter of such intense conflict between the North and South that several Southern states refused to join the Union if slavery were not to be allowed. Delegates opposed to slavery were forced to yield in their demands that slavery practiced within the confines of the new nation be completely outlawed. However, they continued to argue that the Constitution should prohibit the states from participating in the international slave trade, including in the importation of new slaves from Africa and the export of slaves to other countries. The Convention postponed making a final decision on the international slave trade until late in the deliberations because of the contentious nature of the issue. During the Convention 's late July recess, the Committee of Detail had inserted language that would prohibit the federal government from attempting to ban international slave trading and from imposing taxes on the purchase or sale of slaves. The Convention could not agree on these provisions when the subject came up again in late August, so they referred the matter to an eleven - member committee for further discussion. This committee helped work out a compromise: Congress would have the power to ban the international slave trade, but not for another twenty years (that is, not until 1808). In exchange for this concession, the federal government 's power to regulate foreign commerce would be strengthened by provisions that allowed for taxation of slave trades in the international market and that reduced the requirement for passage of navigation acts from two - thirds majorities of both houses of Congress to simple majorities.
Another contentious slavery - related question was whether slaves would be counted as part of the population in determining representation of the states in the Congress, or would instead be considered property and as such not be considered for purposes of representation. Delegates from states with a large population of slaves argued that slaves should be considered persons in determining representation, but as property if the new government were to levy taxes on the states on the basis of population. Delegates from states where slavery had become rare argued that slaves should be included in taxation, but not in determining representation. Finally, delegate James Wilson proposed the Three - Fifths Compromise. This was eventually adopted by the Convention.
Fifty - five delegates attended sessions of the Constitutional Convention, and are considered the Framers of the Constitution, although only 39 delegates actually signed. The states had originally appointed 70 representatives to the Convention, but a number of the appointees did not accept or could not attend, leaving 55 who would ultimately craft the Constitution.
Almost all of the 55 Framers had taken part in the Revolution, with at least 29 having served in the Continental forces, most in positions of command. All but two or three had served in colonial or state government during their careers. The vast majority (about 75 %) of the delegates were or had been members of the Confederation Congress, and many had been members of the Continental Congress during the Revolution. Several had been state governors. Just two delegates, Roger Sherman and Robert Morris, would be signatories to all three of the nation 's founding documents: the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the Constitution.
More than half of the delegates had trained as lawyers (several had even been judges), although only about a quarter had practiced law as their principal means of business. There were also merchants, manufacturers, shippers, land speculators, bankers or financiers, two or three physicians, a minister, and several small farmers. Of the 25 who owned slaves, 16 depended on slave labor to run the plantations or other businesses that formed the mainstay of their income. Most of the delegates were landowners with substantial holdings, and most, with the possible exception of Roger Sherman and William Few, were very comfortably wealthy. George Washington and Robert Morris were among the wealthiest men in the entire country.
(*) Did not sign the final draft of the U.S. Constitution. Randolph, Mason, and Gerry were the only three present in Philadelphia at the time who refused to sign.
Several prominent Founders are notable for not participating in the Constitutional Convention. Thomas Jefferson was abroad, serving as the minister to France (nonetheless, Jefferson, in a letter to John Adams, would describe the delegates approvingly as a gathering of "demi - gods ''). John Adams was in Britain, serving as minister to that country, but he wrote home to encourage the delegates. Patrick Henry refused to participate because he "smelt a rat in Philadelphia, tending toward the monarchy. '' Also absent were John Hancock and Samuel Adams. Many of the states ' older and more experienced leaders may have simply been too busy with the local affairs of their states to attend the Convention, which had originally been planned to strengthen the existing Articles of Confederation, not to write a constitution for a completely new national government.
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analyze the events that led to the decline of the spanish empire | Spanish American wars of Independence - wikipedia
Independentist states victory
The Spanish American wars of independence were the numerous wars against Spanish rule in Spanish America with the aim of political independence that took place during the early 19th century, after the French invasion of Spain during Europe 's Napoleonic Wars.
These conflicts started in 1809 with short - lived governing juntas established in Chuquisaca and Quito in opposing the government of the Supreme Central Junta of Seville. In 1810, numerous new juntas appeared across the Spanish domains in the Americas when the Central Junta fell to the French invasion. Although various regions of Spanish America objected to many crown policies, "there was little interest in outright independence; indeed there was widespread support for the Spanish Central Junta formed to lead the resistance against the French. '' While some Spanish Americans believed that independence was necessary, most who initially supported the creation of the new governments saw them as a means to preserve the region 's autonomy from the French. Over the course of the next decade, the political instability in Spain and the absolutist restoration under Ferdinand VII convinced many Spanish Americans of the need to formally establish independence from the mother country.
These conflicts were fought both as irregular warfare and conventional warfare, and both wars of national liberation and civil wars, since on the one hand the goal of one group of belligerents was the independence from Spain, and on the other the majority of combatants on both sides were Spanish Americans and indigenous peoples, not European Spaniards. Both armies faced were originated from Spanish colonial troops of Americas.
The conflicts among these colonies and with Spain eventually resulted in a chain of newly independent countries stretching from Argentina and Chile in the south to Mexico in the north in the first third of the 19th century. Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule until the Spanish -- American War in 1898. The new republics from the beginning abolished the formal system of racial classification and hierarchy, casta system, the Inquisition, and noble titles. Slavery was not abolished immediately, but ended in all of the new nations within a quarter century. Criollos (those of Spanish descent born in the New World) and mestizos (those of mixed Indian and Spanish blood or culture) replaced Spanish - born appointees in most political governments. Criollos remained at the top of a social structure which retained some of its traditional features culturally, if not legally. For almost a century thereafter, conservatives and liberals fought to reverse or to deepen the social and political changes unleashed by those rebellions.
The events in Spanish America were related to the wars of independence in the former French colony of St - Domingue, Haiti, and the transition to independence in Brazil. Brazil 's independence, in particular, shared a common starting point with Spanish America 's, since both conflicts were triggered by Napoleon 's invasion of the Iberian Peninsula, which forced the Portuguese royal family to flee to Brazil in 1807. The process of Latin American independence took place in the general political and intellectual climate that emerged from the Age of Enlightenment and that influenced all of the Atlantic Revolutions, including the earlier revolutions in the United States and France. A more direct cause of the Spanish American wars of independence were the unique developments occurring within the Kingdom of Spain and its monarchy during this period.
Political independence was not necessarily the foreordained outcome of the political turmoil in Spanish America. "There was little interest in outright independence. '' As historians R.A. Humphreys and John Lynch note, "it is all too easy to equate the forces of discontent or even the forces of change with the forces of revolution. '' Since "by definition, there was no history of independence until it happened, '' because Spanish American independence did occur, explanations for why it came about have been sought.
There are a number of factors that have been identified. First, increasing control by the Crown of its overseas empire via the Bourbon Reforms of the mid-eighteenth century introduced changes to the relationship of Spanish Americans to the Crown. The language used to describe the overseas empire shifted from "kingdoms '' with independent standing with the crown to "colonies '' subordinate to Spain. In an effort to better control the administration and economy of the overseas possessions the Crown reintroduced the practice of appointing outsiders, almost all peninsulars, to the royal offices throughout the empire. This meant that Spanish American elites were thwarted in their expectations and ambitions by the crown 's upending of long - standing practices of creole access to office holding.
The regalist and secularizing policies of the Bourbon monarchy were aimed at decreasing the power of the Roman Catholic Church. The crown had already expelled the Jesuits in 1767, which saw many creole members of the Society of Jesus go into permanent exile. Later in the eighteenth century the crown sought to decrease the privileges (fueros) of the clergy, restricting clerical authority to spiritual matters and undermining the power of parish priests, who often acted as agents of the crown in rural parishes. By desacralizing power and frontal attacks on the clergy, the crown, according to William B. Taylor, undermined its own legitimacy, since parish priests had been traditionally the "natural local representatives of their Catholic king. ''
In the economic sphere, the crown sought to gain control over church revenues. In a financial crisis of 1804, the crown attempted to call in debts owed the church, mainly in the form of mortgages for haciendas owned by the elites. The Act of Consolidation simultaneously threatened the wealth of the church, whose capital was mainly lent for mortgages, as well as threatening the financial well - being of elites, who depended on mortgages for acquiring and keeping their estates. Shortening the repayment period meant many elites were faced with bankruptcy. The crown also sought to gain access to benefices elite families set aside to support a priest, often their own family members, by eliminating these endowed funds (capellanías) that the lower clergy depended on disproportionately. Prominently in Mexico, lower clergy participated in the insurgency for independence with priests Miguel Hidalgo and José María Morelos.
The reforms had mixed results. In some areas -- such as Cuba, Río de la Plata and New Spain -- the reforms had positive effects, improving the local economy and the efficiency of the government. In other areas, the changes in the crown 's economic and administrative policies led to tensions with locals, which at times erupted into open revolts, such as the Revolt of the Comuneros in New Granada and the Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II in Peru.
The loss of high offices to Criollos and the eighteenth - century revolts in Spanish South America were the direct causes of the wars of independence, which took place decades later, but they have been considered important elements of the political background in which the wars took place.
Other factors may include Enlightenment thinking and the examples of the Atlantic Revolutions. The Enlightenment spurred the desire for social and economic reform to spread throughout Spanish America and the Iberian Peninsula. Ideas about free trade and physiocratic economics were raised by the Enlightenment in Spain and spread to the overseas empire and a homegrown Spanish American Enlightenment. The political reforms implemented and the many constitutions written both in Spain and throughout the Spanish world during the wars of independence were influenced by these factors.
The Peninsular War was the trigger for conflicts in Spanish America in the absence of a legitimate monarch. The Peninsular War began an extended period of instability in the worldwide Spanish monarchy that lasted until 1823. Napoleon 's capture of the Bourbon monarchs precipitated a political crisis in Spain and Spanish America. Although the Spanish world almost uniformly rejected Napoleon 's plan to place his brother, Joseph, on the throne, there was no clear solution to the lack of a king. Following traditional Spanish political theories on the contractual nature of the monarchy (see Philosophy of Law of Francisco Suárez), the peninsular provinces responded to the crisis by establishing juntas. The move, however, led to more confusion, since there was no central authority and most juntas did not recognize the claim of some juntas to represent the monarchy as a whole. The Junta of Seville, in particular, claimed authority over the overseas empire, because of the province 's historic role as the exclusive entrepôt of the empire.
This impasse was resolved through negotiations between the several juntas in Spain counted with the participation of the Council of Castile, which led to the creation of a main government: the "Supreme Central and Governmental Junta of Spain and the Indies '' on September 25, 1808. It was agreed that the kingdoms of the peninsula would send two representatives to this Supreme Central Junta, and that the overseas kingdoms would send one representative each. These kingdoms were defined as "the viceroyalties of New Spain (Mexico), Peru, New Granada, and Buenos Aires, and the independent captaincies general of the island of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guatemala, Chile, Province of Venezuela, and the Philippines. '' This plan was criticized for providing unequal representation to Spanish America; nevertheless, throughout the end of 1808 and early 1809, the regional capitals elected candidates, whose names were forwarded to the capitals of the viceroyalties or captaincies general. Several important and large cities were left without direct representation in the Supreme Junta. In particular Quito and Chuquisaca, which saw themselves as the capitals of kingdoms, resented being subsumed in the larger Viceroyalty of Peru. This unrest led to the establishment of juntas in these cities in 1809, which were eventually quashed by the authorities within the year. An unsuccessful attempt at establishing a junta in New Spain was also stopped.
The scape to Cádiz and the dissolution of the Supreme Central Junta on January 29, 1810, because of the reverses suffered after the Battle of Ocaña by the Spanish forces paid with Spanish American money, set off another wave of juntas being established in the Americas. French forces had taken over southern Spain and forced the Supreme Junta to seek refuge in the island - city of Cádiz.
The Supreme Junta replaced itself with a smaller, five - man council, called the Regency, or the Council of Regency of Spain and the Indies. Next, in order to establish a more legitimate government system, the Regency called for the convening of an "extraordinary and general Cortes of the Spanish Nation '': the "Cádiz Cortes ''. The plan for the election of the Cortes, based on provinces, and not kingdoms, was more equitable and provided more time to determine what would be considered an overseas province. The Cádiz Cortes was the first national assembly to claim sovereignty in Spain. It represented the abolition of the old kingdoms. The opening session was held on 24 September 1810, in the building now known as the Real Teatro de las Cortes under the siege of french army. It met as one body and its members represented the entire Spanish empire.
Most Spanish Americans saw no reason to recognize a rump government that was under the threat of being captured by the French at any moment, and began to work for the creation of local juntas to preserve the region 's independence from the French. Junta movements were successful in New Granada (Colombia), Venezuela, Chile and Río de la Plata (Argentina). Less successful, though serious movements, also occurred in Central America. Ultimately, Central America, along with most of New Spain, Quito (Ecuador), Peru, Upper Peru (Bolivia), the Caribbean and the Philippine Islands remained in control of royalists for the next decade and participated in the Spanish Cortes effort to establish a liberal government for the Spanish Monarchy.
The creation of juntas in Spanish America, such as the Junta Suprema de Caracas on April 19, 1810, set the stage for the fighting that would afflict the region for the next decade and a half. Political fault lines appeared, and were often the causes of military conflict. On the one hand the juntas challenged the authority of all royal officials, whether they recognized the Regency or not. On the other hand, royal officials and Spanish Americans who desired to keep the empire together were split between liberals, who supported the efforts of the Cortes, and conservatives (often called "absolutists '' in the historiography), who did not want to see any innovations in government. Finally, although the juntas claimed to carry out their actions in the name of the deposed king, Ferdinand VII, their creation provided an opportunity for people who favored outright independence to publicly and safely promote their agenda. The proponents of independence called themselves patriots, a term which eventually was generally applied to them.
The idea that independence was not the initial concern is evidenced by the fact that few areas declared independence in the years after 1810. The congresses of Venezuela and New Granada did so in 1811 and also Paraguay in same year (14 and 15 of May 1811). Some historians explain the reluctance to declare independence as a "mask of Ferdinand VII '': that is, that patriot leaders felt that they needed to claim loyalty to the deposed monarch in order to prepare the masses for the radical change that full independence eventually would entail. Nevertheless, even areas such as Río de la Plata and Chile, which more or less maintained de facto independence from the peninsular authorities, did not declare independence until quite a few years later, in 1816 and 1818, respectively. Overall, despite achieving formal or de facto independence, many regions of Spanish America were marked by nearly continuous civil wars, which lasted well into the 1820s. In Mexico, where the junta movement had been stopped in its early stages by a coalition of Peninsular merchants and government officials, efforts to establish a government independent of the Regency or the French took the form of rebellion, under the leadership of Miguel Hidalgo. Hidalgo was captured and executed in 1811, but a resistance movement continued, which declared independence from Spain in 1813. In Central America, attempts at establishing juntas were also put down, but resulted in significantly less violence. The Caribbean islands, like the Philippines on the other side of the world, were relatively peaceful. Any plots to set up juntas were denounced to the authorities early enough to stop them before they gained widespread support.
Major cities and regional rivalry played an important role in the wars. The disappearance of a central, imperial authority -- and in some cases of even a local, viceregal authority (as in the cases of New Granada and Río de la Plata) -- initiated a prolonged period of balkanization in many regions of Spanish America. It was not clear which political units which should replace the empire, and there were no new national identities to replace the traditional sense of being Spaniards. The original juntas of 1810 appealed first, to a sense of being Spanish, which was counterposed to the French threat; second, to a general American identity, which was counterposed to the Peninsula lost to the French; and third, to a sense of belonging to the major cities or local province, the patria in Spanish. More often than not, juntas sought to maintain a province 's independence from the capital of the former viceroyalty or captaincy general as much as from the Peninsula itself. Armed conflicts broke out between the provinces over the question of whether some cities or provinces were to be subordinate to others as they had been under the crown. This phenomenon was particularly evident in South America. This rivalry also leads some regions to adopt the opposite political cause to that chosen by their rivals. Peru seems to have remained strongly royalist in large part because of its rivalry with Río de la Plata, to which it had lost control of Upper Peru when the latter was elevated to a viceroyalty in 1776. The creation of juntas in Río de la Plata allowed Peru to regain formal control of Upper Peru for the duration of the wars.
Underlying social and racial tensions also had a great impact on the nature of the fighting. Rural areas were pitted against urban centers, as grievances against the authorities found an outlet in the political conflict. This was the case with Hidalgo 's peasant revolt, which was fueled as much by discontent over several years of bad harvests as with events in the Peninsular War. Hidalgo was originally part of a circle of liberal urbanites in Querétaro, who sought to establish a junta. After this conspiracy was discovered, Hidalgo turned to the rural people of the Mexican Bajío to build his army, and their interests soon overshadowed those of the urban intellectuals. A similar tension existed in Venezuela, where the Spanish immigrant José Tomás Boves was able to form a nearly invincible, though informal, royalist army out of the Llanero, mixed - race, slave and plains people, by seeking to destroy the white landowning class. Boves and his followers often disregarded the command of Spanish officials and were not concerned with actually reestablishing the toppled royal government, choosing instead to keep real power among themselves. Finally in the backcountry of Upper Peru, the republiquetas kept the idea of independence alive by allying with disenfranchised members of rural society and Native groups, but were never able to take the major population centers. This period witnessed increasingly violent confrontations between Spaniards and Spanish Americans, but this tension was often related to class issues or fomented by patriot leaders to create a new sense of nationalism. After being incited to rid the country of the gachupines (a disparaging term for Peninsulares), Hidalgo 's forces indiscriminately massacred hundreds of Criollos and Peninsulares who had taken refuge at the Alhóndiga de Granaditas in Guanajuato. In Venezuela during his Admirable Campaign, Simón Bolívar instituted a policy of a war to the death -- in which and royalist Spanish Americans would be purposely spared but even neutral Peninsulares would be killed -- in order to drive a wedge between the two groups. This policy laid the ground for the violent royalist reaction under Boves. Often though, royalism or patriotism simply provided a banner to organize the aggrieved, and the political causes could be discarded just as quickly as they were picked up. The Venezuelan Llaneros switched to the patriot banner once the elites and the urban centers became securely royalist after 1815, and it was the royal army in Mexico that ultimately brought about that nation 's independence.
By 1815 the general outlines of which areas were controlled by royalists and pro-independence forces were established and a general stalemate set in the war. In areas where royalists controlled the main population centers, most of the fighting by those seeking independence was done by isolated guerrilla bands. In New Spain, the two main guerrilla groups were led by Guadalupe Victoria in Puebla and Vicente Guerrero in Oaxaca. In northern South America, New Granadan and Venezuelan patriots, under leaders such as Simón Bolívar, Francisco de Paula Santander, Santiago Mariño, Manuel Piar and José Antonio Páez, carried out campaigns in the vast Orinoco River basin and along the Caribbean coast, often with material aid coming from Curaçao and Haiti. Also, as mentioned above, in Upper Peru, guerrilla bands controlled the isolated, rural parts of the country.
In March 1814, following with the collapse of the First French Empire, Ferdinand VII was restored to the Spanish throne. This signified an important change, since most of the political and legal changes made on both sides of the Atlantic -- the myriad of juntas, the Cortes in Spain and several of the congresses in the Americas, and many of the constitutions and new legal codes -- had been made in his name. Before entering Spanish territory, Ferdinand made loose promises to the Cortes that he would uphold the Spanish Constitution. But once in Spain he realized that he had significant support from conservatives in the general population and the hierarchy of the Spanish Catholic Church; so, on May 4, he repudiated the Constitution and ordered the arrest of liberal leaders on May 10. Ferdinand justified his actions by stating that the Constitution and other changes had been made by a Cortes assembled in his absence and without his consent. He restored the former legal codes and political institutions and promised to convene a new Cortes under its traditional form (with separate chambers for the clergy and the nobility), a promise never fulfilled. News of the events arrived through Spanish America during the next three weeks to nine months, depending on time it took goods and people to travel from Spain.
Ferdinand 's actions constituted a definitive de facto break both with the autonomous governments, which had not yet declared formal independence, and with the effort of Spanish liberals to create a representative government that would fully include the overseas possessions. Such a government was seen as an alternative to independence by many in New Spain, Central America, the Caribbean, Quito, Peru, Upper Peru and Chile. Yet the news of the restoration of the "ancien régime '' did not initiate a new wave of juntas, as had happened in 1809 and 1810, with the notable exception of the establishment of a junta in Cuzco demanding the implementation of the Spanish Constitution. Instead most Spanish Americans were moderates who decided to wait and see what would come out of the restoration of normalcy. In fact, in areas of New Spain, Central America and Quito, governors found it expedient to leave the elected constitutional ayuntamientos in place for several years in order to prevent conflict with the local society. Liberals on both sides of the Atlantic, nevertheless, continued to conspire to bring back a constitutional monarchy, ultimately succeeding in 1820. The most dramatic example of transatlantic collaboration is perhaps Francisco Javier Mina 's expedition to Texas and northern Mexico in 1816 and 1817.
Spanish Americans in royalist areas who were committed to independence had already joined the guerrilla movements. However, Ferdinand 's actions did set areas outside of the control of the crown on the path to full independence. The governments of these regions, which had their origins in the juntas of 1810, and even moderates there, who had entertained a reconciliation with the crown, now saw the need to separate from Spain if they were to protect the reforms they had enacted.
During this period, royalist forces made advances into New Granada, which they controlled from 1815 to 1819, and into Chile, which they controlled from 1814 to 1817. Except for royalist areas in the northeast and south, the provinces of New Granada had maintained independence from Spain since 1810, unlike neighboring Venezuela, where royalists and pro-independence forces had exchanged control of the region several times. To pacify Venezuela and to retake New Granada, Spain organized in 1815 the largest armed force it ever sent to the New World, consisting of 10,500 troops and nearly sixty ships. (See, Spanish reconquest of New Granada.) Although this force was crucial in retaking a solidly pro-independence region like New Granada, its soldiers were eventually spread out throughout Venezuela, New Granada, Quito, and Peru and were lost to tropical diseases, diluting their impact on the war. More importantly, the majority of the royalist forces were composed, not of soldiers sent from the peninsula, but of Spanish Americans.
Overall, Europeans formed only about a tenth of the royalist armies in Spanish America, and only about half of the expeditionary units, once they were deployed in the Americas. Since each European soldier casualty was replaced by a Spanish American soldier, over time, there were more and more Spanish American soldiers in the expeditionary units. For example, Pablo Morillo, commander in chief of the expeditionary force sent to South America, reported that he had only 2,000 European soldiers under his command in 1820; in other words, only half the soldiers of his expeditionary force were European. It is estimated that in the Battle of Maipú only a quarter of the royalist forces were European soldiers, in the Battle of Carabobo about a fifth, and in the Battle of Ayacucho less than 1 % was European.
The American militias reflected the racial make - up of the local population. For example, in 1820 the royalist army in Venezuela had 843 white (español), 5,378 Casta and 980 Indigenous soldiers.
Towards the end of this period the pro-independence forces made two important advances. In the Southern Cone, a veteran of the Spanish army with experience in the Peninsular War, José de San Martín, became the governor of the Province of Cuyo. He used this position to begin organizing an army as early as 1814 in preparation for an invasion of Chile. This was an important change in strategy after three United Provinces campaigns had been defeated in Upper Peru. San Martín 's army became the nucleus of the Army of the Andes, which received crucial political and material support in 1816 when Juan Martín de Pueyrredón became Supreme Director of the United Provinces. In January 1817, San Martín was finally ready to advance against the royalists in Chile. Ignoring an injunction from the congress of the Río de la Plata not to move against Chile, San Martín together with General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme, later Supreme Director of Chile, led the Army over the Andes in a move that turned the tables on the royalists. By February 10, San Martín had control of northern and central Chile, and a year later, after a war with no quarter, the south. With the aid of a fleet under the command of former British naval officer Thomas Cochrane, Chile was secured from royalist control and independence was declared that year. San Martín and his allies spent the next two years planning an invasion of Peru, which began in 1820.
In northern South America, after several failed campaigns to take Caracas and other urban centers of Venezuela, Simón Bolívar devised a similar plan in 1819 to cross the Andes and liberate New Granada from the royalists. Like San Martín, Bolívar personally undertook the efforts to create an army to invade a neighboring country, collaborated with pro-independence exiles from that region, and lacked the approval of the Venezuelan congress. Unlike San Martín, however, Bolívar did not have a professionally trained army, but rather a quickly assembled mix of Llanero guerrillas, New Granadan exiles led by Santander and British recruits. From June to July 1819, using the rainy season as cover, Bolívar led his army across the flooded plains and over the cold, forbidding passes of the Andes, with heavy losses -- a quarter of the British Legion perished, as well as many of his Llanero soldiers, who were not prepared for the nearly 4,000 - meter altitudes -- but the gamble paid off. By August Bolívar was in control of Bogotá and its treasury, and gained the support of many in New Granada, which still resented the harsh reconquest carried out under Morillo. Nevertheless, Santander found it necessary to continue the policy of the "war to the death '' and carried out the execution of thirty - eight royalist officers who had surrendered. With the resources of New Granada, Bolívar became the undisputed leader of the patriots in Venezuela and orchestrated the union of the two regions in a new state called Colombia (Gran Colombia).
To counter the advances the pro-independence forces had made in South America, Spain prepared a second, large, expeditionary force in 1819. This force, however, never left Spain. Instead, it became the means by which liberals were finally able to reinstate a constitutional regime. On January 1, 1820, Rafael Riego, commander of the Asturias Battalion, headed a rebellion among the troops, demanding the return of the 1812 Constitution. His troops marched through the cities of Andalusia with the hope of extending the uprising to the civilian population, but locals were mostly indifferent. An uprising, however, did occur in Galicia in northern Spain, and from there it quickly spread throughout the country. On March 7, the royal palace in Madrid was surrounded by soldiers under the command of General Francisco Ballesteros, and three days later, on March 10, the besieged Ferdinand VII, now a virtual prisoner, agreed to restore the Constitution.
Riego 's Revolt had two significant effects on the war in the Americas. Militarily, the large numbers of reinforcements, which were especially needed to retake New Granada and defend the Viceroyalty of Peru, would never arrive. Furthermore, as the royalists ' situation became more desperate in region after region, the army experienced wholesale defections of units to the patriot side. Politically, the reinstitution of a liberal regime changed the terms under which the Spanish government sought to engage the insurgents. The new government naively assumed that the insurgents were fighting for Spanish liberalism and that the Spanish Constitution could still be the basis of reconciliation between the two sides. The government implemented the Constitution and held elections in the overseas provinces, just as in Spain. It also ordered military commanders to begin armistice negotiations with the insurgents with the promise that they could participate in the restored representative government.
In effect, the Spanish Constitution of 1812 adopted by the Cortes de Cadiz served as the basis for independence in New Spain and Central America, since in both regions it was a coalition of conservative and liberal royalist leaders who led the establishment of new states. The restoration of the Spanish Constitution and representative government was enthusiastically welcomed in New Spain and Central America. Elections were held, local governments formed and deputies sent to the Cortes. Among liberals, however, there was fear that the new regime would not last; and conservatives and the Church worried that the new liberal government would expand its reforms and anti-clerical legislation. This climate of instability created the conditions for the two sides to forge an alliance. This alliance coalesced towards the end of 1820 behind Agustín de Iturbide, a colonel in the royal army, who at the time was assigned to destroy the guerrilla forces led by Vicente Guerrero.
In January 1821, Iturbide began peace negotiations with Guerrero, suggesting they unite to establish an independent New Spain. The simple terms that Iturbide proposed became the basis of the Plan of Iguala: the independence of New Spain (now to be called the Mexican Empire) with Ferdinand VII or another Bourbon as emperor; the retention of the Catholic Church as the official state religion and the protection of its existing privileges; and the equality of all New Spaniards, whether immigrants or native - born. The following month the other important guerrilla leader, Guadalupe Victoria, joined the alliance, and March 1 Iturbide was proclaimed head of a new Army of the Three Guarantees. The representative of the new Spanish government, Superior Political Chief Juan O'Donojú, who replaced the previous viceroys, arrived in Veracruz on July 1, 1821; but he found that royalists the entire country except for Veracruz, Mexico City and Acapulco. Since at the time that O'Donojú had left Spain, the Cortes was considering greatly expanding the autonomy of the overseas Spanish possessions, O'Donojú proposed to negotiate a treaty with Iturbide on the terms of the Plan of Iguala. The resulting Treaty of Córdoba, which was signed on August 24, kept all existing laws, including the 1812 Constitution, in force until a new constitution for Mexico could be written. O'Donojú became part of the provisional governing junta until his death on October 8. Both the Spanish Cortes and Ferdinand VII rejected the Treaty of Córdoba, and the final break with the mother country came on May 19, 1822, when the Mexican Congress conferred the throne on Itrubide.
Central America gained its independence along with New Spain. On September 15, 1821, an Act of Independence was signed in Guatemala City which declared Central America (Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica) independent from Spain. The regional elites supported the terms of the Plan of Iguala and orchestrated the union of Central America with the Mexican Empire in 1821. Two years later, following Iturbide 's downfall, the region, with the exception of Chiapas, peacefully seceded from Mexico on July 1, 1823, establishing the Federal Republic of Central America. The new state existed for seventeen years, centrifugal forces pulling the individual provinces apart by 1840.
Unlike in New Spain and Central America, in South America independence was spurred by the pro-independence fighters who had held out for the past half decade. José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar inadvertently led a continent - wide pincer movement from southern and northern South America that liberated most of the Spanish American nations on that continent. After securing the independence of Chile in 1818, San Martín concentrated on building a naval fleet in the Pacific to counter Spanish control of those waters and reach the royalist stronghold of Lima. By mid-1820 San Martín had assembled a fleet of eight warships and sixteen transport ships under the command of Admiral Cochrane. The fleet set sail from Valparaíso to Paracas in southern Peru. On September 7, the army landed at Paracas and successfully took Pisco. After this, San Martín, waiting for a generalized Peruvian revolt, chose to avoid direct military confrontation. San Martín hoped that his presence would initiate an authentic Peruvian revolt against Spanish rule, believing that otherwise any liberation would be ephemeral. In the meantime, San Martín engaged in diplomacy with Viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela, who was under orders from the constitutional government to negotiate on the basis of the 1812 Constitution and to maintain the unity of the Spanish Monarchy. However, these efforts proved fruitless, since independence and unity of the monarchy could not be reconciled, so the army sailed in late October to a better strategic position in Huacho, in northern Peru. During the next few months, successful land and naval campaigns against the royalists secured the new foothold, and it was at Huacho that San Martín learned that Guayaquil (in Ecuador) had declared independence on October 9.
Bolívar, learning about the collapse of the Cádiz expedition, spent the year 1820 preparing a liberating campaign in Venezuela. Bolívar was aided by Spain 's new policy of seeking engagement with the insurgents, which Morillo implemented, renouncing to the command in chief, and returning to Spain. Although Bolívar rejected the Spanish proposal that the patriots rejoin Spain under the Spanish Constitution, the two sides established a six - month truce and the regularization of the rules of engagement under the law of nations on November 25 and 26. The truce did not last six months. It was apparent to all that the royalist cause had been greatly weakened by the lack of reinforcements. Royalist soldiers and whole units began to desert or defect to the patriots in large numbers. On January 28, 1821, the ayuntamiento of Maracaibo declared the province an independent republic that chose to join the new nation - state of Gran Colombia. Miguel de la Torre, who had replaced Morillo as head of the army, took this to be a violation of the truce, and although the republicans argued that Maracaibo had switched sides of its own volition, both sides began to prepare for renewed war. The fate of Venezuela was sealed when Bolívar returned there in April leading an army of 7,000 from New Granada. At the Battle of Carabobo on June 24, the Gran Colombian forces decisively defeated the royalist forces, assuring control of Venezuela save for Puerto Cabello and guaranteeing Venezuelan independence. Bolívar could now concentrate on Gran Colombia 's claims to southern New Granada and Quito.
In Peru, on January 29, 1821, Viceroy Pezuela was deposed in a coup d'état by José de la Serna, but it would be two months before San Martín moved his army closer to Lima by sailing it to Ancón. During the next few months San Martín once again engaged in negotiations, offering the creation of an independent monarchy; but La Serna insisted on the unity of the Spanish monarchy, so the negotiations came to nothing. By July La Serna judged his hold on Lima to be weak, and on July 8 the royal army abandoned the coastal city in order to reinforce positions in the highlands, with Cuzco as new capital of the viceroyalty. On the 12th San Martín entered Lima, where he was declared "Protector of the Country '' on July 28, an office which allowed him to rule the newly independent state.
To ensure that the Presidency of Quito became a part of Gran Colombia and did not remain a collection of small, divided republics, Bolívar sent aid in the form of supplies and an army under Antonio José de Sucre to Guayaquil in February 1821. For a year Sucre was unable to take Quito, and by November both sides, exhausted, signed a ninety - day armistice. The following year, at the Battle of Pichincha on May 24, 1822, Sucre 's Venezuelan forces finally conquered Quito; Gran Colombia 's hold on the territory was secure. The following year, after a Peruvian patriot army was destroyed in the Battle of Ica, San Martín met with Simón Bolívar in Guayaquil on July 26 and 27. Thereafter San Martín decided to retire from the scene. For the next two years, two armies of Rioplatense (Argentinian), Chilean, Colombian and Peruvian patriots were destroyed trying to penetrate the royalist bastion in the Andean regions of Peru and Upper Peru. A year later a Peruvian congress resolved to make Bolívar head of the patriot forces in the country. An internecine conflict between La Serna and General Pedro Antonio Olañeta, which was an extension of the Liberal Triennium, proved to be the royalists ' undoing. La Serna lost control of half of his best army by the beginning of 1824, giving the patriots an opportunity.
Under the command of Bolívar and Sucre, the experienced veterans of the combined army, mainly Colombians, destroyed a royalist army under La Serna 's command in the Battle of Ayacucho on December 9, 1824. La Serna 's army was numerically superior but consisted of mostly new recruits. The only significant royalist area remaining on the continent was the highland country of Upper Peru. Following the Battle of Ayacucho, the royalist troops of Upper Peru under the command of Olañeta surrendered after he died in Tumusla on April 2, 1825. Bolívar tended to favor maintaining the unity of Upper Peru with Peru, but the Upper Peruvian leaders -- many former royalists, like Casimiro Olañeta, nephew of General Olañeta -- gathered in a congress under Sucre 's auspices supported the country 's independence. Bolívar left the decision to Sucre, who went along with the congress. Sucre proclaimed Upper Peru 's independence in the city which now bears his name on August 6, bringing the main wars of independence to an end.
As it became clear that there was to be no reversal of Spanish American independence, several of the new states began to receive international recognition. Early, in 1822, the United States recognized Chile, the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, Peru, Gran Colombia, and Mexico. Britain waited until 1825, after the Battle of Ayacucho, to recognize Mexico, Gran Colombia, and Río de la Plata. Both nations recognized more Spanish American states in the next few years.
The Spanish coastal fortifications in Veracruz, Callao and Chiloé were the footholds that resisted until 1825 and 1826 respectively. In the following decade, royalist guerrillas continued to operate in several countries and Spain launched a few attempts to retake parts of the Spanish American mainland. In 1827 Colonel José Arizabalo started an irregular war with Venezuelan guerrillas, and Brigadier Isidro Barradas led the last attempt with regular troops to reconquer Mexico in 1829. The Pincheira brothers moved to Patagonia and remained there as royalist outlaws until defeated in 1832. But efforts like these did not reverse the new political situation.
The increasing irrelevance of the Holy Alliance after 1825 and the fall of the Bourbon dynasty in France in 1830 during the July Revolution eliminated the principal support of Ferdinand VII in Europe, but it was not until the king 's death in 1833 that Spain finally abandoned all plans of military reconquest, and in 1836 its government went so far as to renounce sovereignty over all of continental America. During the course of the 19th century, Spain would recognize each of the new states. Only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule, until the Spanish -- American War in 1898.
The nearly decade and a half of wars greatly weakened the Spanish American economies and political institutions, which hindered the region 's potential economic development for most of the nineteenth century and resulted in the enduring instability the region experienced. Independence destroyed the de facto trade bloc that was the Spanish Empire - Manila galleons and Spanish treasure fleets in particular. After independence, trade among the new Spanish American nations was less than it had been in the colonial period. Once the ties were broken, the small populations of most of the new nations provided little incentive to entice Spanish American producers to recreate the old trade patterns. In addition, the protection against European competition, which the Spanish monopoly had provided to the manufacturing sectors of the economy, ended. Due to expediency, protective tariffs for these sectors, in particular textile production, were permanently dropped and foreign imports beat out local production. This greatly affected Native communities, which in many parts of Spanish America, specialized in supplying finished products to the urban markets, albeit using pre-industrial techniques. The wars also greatly affected the principal economic sector of the region, mining. Silver production in Bolivia halved after independence and it dropped by three quarters in Mexico.
To compensate for the lack of capital, foreign investment -- in particular from Great Britain -- was courted, but it was not sizable enough to initiate an economic recovery. Finally the new nations entered the world economy after the end of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, when the economies of Europe and the United States were recovering and aggressively seeking new markets to sell their products after more than two decades of disruption. Ultimately Spanish America could only connect to the world markets as an exporter of raw materials and a consumer of finished products.
In addition to improving the economy, the lower social classes also had to be integrated into the new body politic, although they often got few rewards from independence. The political debate seeking answers to these questions was marked by a clash -- at times on the battlefield -- between liberalism and conservatism. Conservatives sought to maintain the traditional social structures in order to ensure stability; liberals sought to create a more dynamic society and economy by ending ethnically - based social distinctions and freeing property from economic restrictions. In its quest to transform society, liberals often adopted policies that were not welcome by Native communities, who had benefited from unique protections afforded to them by traditional Spanish law.
Independence, however, did initiate the abolition of slavery in Spanish America, as it was seen as part of the independence struggle, since many slaves had gained their manumission by joining the patriot armies. In areas where slavery was not a major source of labor (Mexico, Central America, Chile), emancipation occurred almost immediately after independence was achieved. In areas where slavery was a main labor source (Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Argentina), emancipation was carried out in steps over the next three decades, usually first with the creation of free - womb laws and programs for compensated emancipation. By the early 1850s, slavery had been abolished in the independent nations of Spanish America.
Women were not simply spectators throughout the Independence Wars of Latin America. Many women took sides on political issues and joined independence movements in order to participate on many different levels. Women could not help but act as caring relatives either as mother, sister, wives or daughters of the men who were fighting. Women created political organizations and organized meetings and groups to donate food and supplies to the soldiers.
Some women supported the wars as spies, informants and combatants. Manuela Sáenz was a long term lover of Simón Bolívar and acted as his spy and confidante and was secretary of his archive. She saved his life on two occasions, nursed wounded soldiers and has even been believed some historians to have fought in a few battles. Sáenz followed Bolívar and his army through the independence wars and became to be known in Latin America as the "mother of feminism and women 's emancipation and equal rights. '' Bolívar himself was a supporter of women 's rights and suffrage in Latin America. It was Bolívar who allowed for Sáenz to become the great pioneer of women 's freedom. He wanted to set the women of Latin America free from the oppression and inferiority of what the Spanish regime had established. Bolívar even made Sáenz a Colonel of the Colombian Army due to her heroics which caused controversy because there were no women in the army at the time. Another woman who gained prominence in the fight for independence was Juana Azurduy de Padilla, a mixed - race woman who fought for independence in the Río de la Plata region. Argentine President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner posthumously promoted her to the rank of general.
According to gender stereotypes, women were not meant to be soldiers; only men were supposed to engage in fighting and conflict. There were still plenty of women present on the battlefields to help rescue and nurse soldiers. Some women fought alongside their husbands and sons on the battlefield. The majority of women assumed supportive and non-competitive roles such as fundraising and caring for the sick. Revolution for women meant something different than for men. Women saw revolution as a way to earn equal rights, such as voting, and to overcome the suppression of subordination of women to men. Women were usually identified as victims during the independence wars since the women of Latin America were forced to sacrifice for the cause. The ideals of womanhood meant that women must sacrifice what the situation required such as a mother sacrificing her son or a virgin knowing she might be sacrificing motherhood or marriage due to the loss of many young men. This view meant that women were meant to contribute to independence in a supportive role while leaving the combat and politics in the hands of the men.
Independence also did not result in stable political regimes, save in a few countries. First, the new nations did not have well - defined identities, but rather the process of creating identities was only beginning. This would be carried out through newspapers and the creation of national symbols, including new names for the countries ("Mexico '', "Colombia '', "Ecuador '', "Bolivia '', "Argentina ''), that broke with the past. In addition, the borders were not firmly established, and the struggle between federalism and centralism, which began in independence, continued throughout the rest of the century. Two large states that emerged from the wars -- Gran Colombia and the Federal Republic of Central America -- collapsed after a decade or two, and Argentina would not consolidate politically until the 1860s.
The wars destroyed the old civilian bureaucracy that had governed the region for centuries, as institutions such as the audiencias were eliminated and many Peninsular officials fled to Spain. The Catholic Church, which had been an important social and political institution during the colonial period, initially came out weakened by the end of the conflicts. As with government officials, many Peninsular bishops abandoned their dioceses and their posts were not filled for decades until new prelates could be created and relations between the new nations and the Vatican were regularized. Then as the Church recovered, its economic and political power was attacked by liberals.
Despite the fact that the period of the wars of independence itself was marked by a rapid expansion of representative government, for several of the new nations the nineteenth century was marked by militarism because of the lack of well - defined political and national institutions. The armies and officers that came into existence during the process of independence wanted to ensure that they got their rewards once the struggle was over. Many of these armies did not fully disband once the wars were over and they proved to be one of the stabler institutions in the first decades of national existence. These armies and their leaders effectively influenced the course of political development. Out of this new tradition came the caudillos, strongmen who amassed formal and informal economic, military and political power in themselves.
National Wars, Battles and Revolts
Mexico
Central America
Liberators and Other Independence Leaders
Royalist leaders
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the appellate court's primary function is to review the trial court's decision for | Appellate court - wikipedia
An appellate court, commonly called an appeals court, court of appeals (American English), appeal court (British English), court of second instance or second instance court, is any court of law that is empowered to hear an appeal of a trial court or other lower tribunal. In most jurisdictions, the court system is divided into at least three levels: the trial court, which initially hears cases and reviews evidence and testimony to determine the facts of the case; at least one intermediate appellate court; and a supreme court (or court of last resort) which primarily reviews the decisions of the intermediate courts. A jurisdiction 's supreme court is that jurisdiction 's highest appellate court. Appellate courts nationwide can operate under varying rules.
The authority of appellate courts to review the decisions of lower courts varies widely from one jurisdiction to another. In some areas, the appellate court has limited powers of review. Generally, an appellate court 's judgment provides the final directive of the appeals courts as to the matter appealed, setting out with specificity the court 's determination that the action appealed from should be affirmed, reversed, remanded or modified.
The Court of Appeal of New Zealand, located in Wellington, is New Zealand 's principal intermediate appellate court. In practice, most appeals are resolved at this intermediate appellate level, rather than in the Supreme Court.
The Court of Appeal of Sri Lanka, located in Colombo, is the second senior court in the Sri Lankan legal system.
In the United States, both state and federal appellate courts are usually restricted to examining whether the lower court made the correct legal determinations, rather than hearing direct evidence and determining what the facts of the case were. Furthermore, U.S. appellate courts are usually restricted to hearing appeals based on matters that were originally brought up before the trial court. Hence, such an appellate court will not consider an appellant 's argument if it is based on a theory that is raised for the first time in the appeal.
In most U.S. states, and in U.S. federal courts, parties before the court are allowed one appeal as of right. This means that a party who is unsatisfied with the outcome of a trial may bring an appeal to contest that outcome. However, appeals may be costly, and the appellate court must find an error on the part of the court below that justifies upsetting the verdict. Therefore, only a small proportion of trial court decisions result in appeals. Some appellate courts, particularly supreme courts, have the power of discretionary review, meaning that they can decide whether they will hear an appeal brought in a particular case.
Many U.S. jurisdictions title their appellate court an court of appeal or court of appeals. Historically, others have titled their appellate court a court of errors (or court of errors and appeals), on the premise that it was intended to correct errors made by lower courts. Examples of such courts include the New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals (which existed from 1844 to 1947), the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors (which has been renamed the Connecticut Supreme Court), the Kentucky Court of Errors (renamed the Kentucky Supreme Court), and the Mississippi High Court of Errors and Appeals (since renamed the Supreme Court of Mississippi). In some jurisdictions, a court able to hear appeals is known as an appellate division.
The phrase "court of appeals '' most often refers to intermediate appellate courts. However, the Maryland and New York systems are different. The Maryland Court of Appeals and the New York Court of Appeals are the highest appellate courts in those states. The New York Supreme Court is a trial court of general jurisdiction.
Depending on the system, certain courts may serve as both trial courts and appellate courts, hearing appeals of decisions made by courts with more limited jurisdiction. Some jurisdictions have specialized appellate courts, such as the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, which only hears appeals raised in criminal cases, and the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which has general jurisdiction but derives most of its caseload from patent cases, on one hand, and appeals from the Court of Federal Claims on the other.
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in the land ordinance of 1785 the income from the sale | Land Ordinance of 1785 - wikipedia
The Land Ordinance of 1785 was adopted by the United States Congress of the Confederation on May 20, 1785. It set up a standardized system whereby settlers could purchase title to farmland in the undeveloped west. Congress at the time did not have the power to raise revenue by direct taxation, so land sales provided an important revenue stream. The Ordinance set up a survey system that eventually covered over three - fourths of the area of the continental United States.
The earlier Ordinance of 1784 was a resolution written by Thomas Jefferson (delegate from Virginia) calling for Congress to take action. The land west of the Appalachian Mountains, north of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi River was to be divided into ten separate states. However, the 1784 resolution did not define the mechanism by which the land would become states, or how the territories would be governed or settled before they became states. The Ordinance of 1785 put the 1784 resolution in operation by providing a mechanism for selling and settling the land, while the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 addressed political needs.
The 1785 ordinance laid the foundations of land policy until passage of the Homestead Act in 1862. The Land Ordinance established the basis for the Public Land Survey System. The initial surveying was performed by Thomas Hutchins. After he died in 1789, responsibility for surveying was transferred to the Surveyor General. Land was to be systematically surveyed into square townships, six miles (9.656 km) on a side. Each of these townships were sub-divided into thirty - six sections of one square mile (2.59 km2) or 640 acres. These sections could then be further subdivided for re-sale by settlers and land speculators.
The ordinance was also significant for establishing a mechanism for funding public education. Section 16 in each township was reserved for the maintenance of public schools. Many schools today are still located in section sixteen of their respective townships, although a great many of the school sections were sold to raise money for public education. In later States, section 36 of each township was also designated as a "school section ''.
The Point of Beginning for the 1785 survey was where Ohio (as the easternmost part of the Northwest Territory), Pennsylvania and Virginia (now West Virginia) met, on the north shore of the Ohio River near East Liverpool, Ohio. There is a historical marker just north of the site, at the state line where Ohio State Route 39 becomes Pennsylvania Route 68.
The Confederation Congress appointed a committee consisting of the following men:
On May 7, 1784, the committee reported "An ordinance for ascertaining the mode of locating and disposing of lands in the western territories, and for other purposes therein mentioned. '' The ordinance required the land be divided into "hundreds of ten geographical miles square, each mile containing 6086 and 4 - 10ths of a foot '' and "sub-divided into lots of one mile square each, or 850 and 4 - 10ths of an acre '', numbered starting in the northwest corner, proceeding from west to east, and east to west, consecutively. After debate and amendment, the ordinance was reported to Congress April 26, 1785. It required surveyors "to divide the said territory into townships seven miles square, by lines running due north and south, and others crossing these at right angles. -- The plats of the townships, respectively, shall be marked into sections of one mile square, or 640 acres. '' This is the first recorded use of the terms "township '' and "section. ''
On May 3, 1785, William Grayson of Virginia made a motion seconded by James Monroe to change "seven miles square '' to "six miles square. '' The ordinance was passed on May 20, 1785. The sections were to be numbered starting at 1 in the southeast and running south to north in each tier to 36 in the northwest. The surveys were to be performed under the direction of the Geographer of the United States, (Thomas Hutchins). The Seven Ranges, the privately surveyed Symmes Purchase, and, with some modification, the privately surveyed Ohio Company of Associates, all of the Ohio Lands were the surveys completed with this section numbering.
The Act of May 18, 1796, provided for the appointment of a surveyor - general to replace the office of Geographer of the United States, and that "sections shall be numbered, respectively, beginning with number one in the northeast section, and proceeding west and east alternately, through the township, with progressive numbers till the thirty - sixth be completed. '' All subsequent surveys were completed with this boustrophedonical section numbering system, except the United States Military District of the Ohio Lands which had five mile (8 km) square townships as provided by the Act of June 1, 1796, and amended by the Act of March 1, 1800.
Howe and others give Thomas Hutchins credit for conceiving the rectangular system of lots of one square mile in 1764 while a captain in the Sixtieth, or, Royal American, Regiment, and engineer to the expedition under Col. Henry Bouquet to the forks of the Muskingum, in what is now Coshocton County, Ohio. It formed part of his plan for military colonies north of the Ohio, as a protection against Indians. The law of 1785 embraced most of the new system. Treat, on the other hand, notes that tiers of townships were familiar in New England, and insisted on by the New England legislators.
The Land Ordinance of 1785, adopted May 20, 1785 by the Continental Congress, set the stage for an organized and community - based westward expansion in the United States in the years after the American Revolution. The Land Ordinance of 1785, coming on the heels of the Ordinance of 1784, was the effort of a five - person committee led by Thomas Jefferson. The ordinance established a systematic and ubiquitous process for surveying, planning and selling townships in the western frontier. (There is no reference to "Education '' in this section - other than the title. It should be removed, or updated and properly cited.)
Each western township contained thirty - six square miles of land, planned as a square measuring six miles on each side, which was further subdivided into thirty six lots, each lot containing one square mile of land. The mathematical precision of the planning was the concerted effort of surveyors. Each township contained dedicated space for public education and other government uses, as five of the thirty six lots were reserved for government or public purposes. The thirty six lots of each township were numbered accordingly on each township 's survey. The centermost land of each township corresponded to lot numbers 15, 16, 21 and 22 on the township survey, with lot number 16 dedicated specifically to public education. As the Land Ordinance of 1785 stated: "There shall be reserved the lot No. 16, of every township, for the maintenance of public schools within the said township. ''
Knepper notes: "Sections number 8, 11, 26, and 29 in every township were reserved for future sale by the federal government when, it was hoped, they would bring higher prices because of developed land around them. Congress also reserved one third part of all gold, silver, lead, and copper mines to its own use, a bit of wishful thinking as regards Ohio lands. '' The ordinance also said "That three townships adjacent to Lake Erie be reserved, to be hereafter disposed of by Congress, for the use of the officers, men, and others, refugees from Canada, and the refugees from Nova Scotia, who are or may be entitled to grants of land under resolutions of Congress now existing. "This was not possible, as the area next to Lake Erie was property of Connecticut, so the Canadians had to wait until the establishment of the Refugee Tract in 1798.
Many historians recognize the influences of the colonial experience in the land ordinances of the 1780s. The committees that formulated these ordinances were inspired by the individual colonial experiences of the states that they represented. The committees attempted to implement the best practices of such states to solve the task at hand. The surveyed townships of the Land Ordinance of 1785, writes historian Jonathan Hughes, "represented an amalgam of the colonial experience and ideals. '' Two geographically and ideologically distinct colonial land systems were competing at such time in history -- the New England system and the Southern system. While the primary influence on the Land Ordinance of 1785 was the New England land system of the colonial era, marked by its emphasis on community development and systematic planning, the exceedingly individualistic Southern land system also played a role.
Even though Jefferson 's committee had a Southern majority, it recommended the New England survey system. The highly planned and surveyed western townships established in the Land Ordinance of 1785, were heavily influenced by the New England settlements of the colonial era, particularly the land grant provisions of the Ordinances which dedicated land towards public education and other government uses. In colonial times, New England settlements contained dedicated public space for schools and churches, which often held a central role in the community. For instance, the 1751 royal charter for Marlboro Vermont provides: "one Shear (share) for the First Settled Minister one Shear for the benefit of the School forever. '' By time of the Land Ordinance of 1785 was enacted, the New England states had used land grants for over a century to support public education and build new schools. The clause in the Land Ordinance of 1785 which dedicated "Lot Number 16 '' of each western township for public education reflected this regional New England experience.
In addition, the use of surveyors to precisely chart out the new townships in the westward expansion was directly influenced by the New England land system, which similarly relied on surveyors and local committees to clearly delineate property boundaries. Defined property boundary lines and an established land title system, provided colonials with a sense of security in their land ownership, by minimizing the likelihood of ownership or boundary disputes. This was an important consideration in the Land Ordinance of 1785. One of the primary purposes of the Ordinance was to raise funds for the increasingly insolvent government. Providing land speculators security in their purchases encouraged additional demand for the western lands. In addition, the organized and communal nature of the western settlements, allowed the government to reserve a number of well - defined plots of land for future government development. Since the rest of the township would have been developed by the time the government decided to develop such reserved lands, there was an already built - in assurance of land value appreciation for the reserved lands. This had the effect of increasing the value of government assets without much further investment by the government.
The New England land system, while the primary influence on the great land ordinances of the 1780s, was not the only land system influence. The Southern land system, marked by individualism and personal initiative, also helped shape the ordinance. While the New England land system was premised on community - based development, the Southern land system was premised on individual frontiersman appropriating undeveloped land to call their own. The Southern pioneer claimed property and the local surveyor would demarcate it for him. The system did not protect people from competing claims or set up an orderly chain of title. The process was called ' indiscriminate location ''. This system encouraged individuals to amass large plantations instead of settling into dense communal development. This system was supported by the use of slave labor. Perhaps the committee 's resistance against indiscriminate location and support for limited and disciplined land settlement was an implicit attempt to create a structural barrier to developing a plantation economy that was dependent on slave labor. The committee could have been attempting to effectively eradicate slavery in the West after Jefferson failed to outlaw it in the Land Ordinance of 1784.
While the Land Ordinance of 1785 created a New England style land system, the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 determined how the townships would be administered. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787, like the Land Ordinance of 1785, was inspired by the New England colonial settlements, and manifested this influence by further encouraging the worship of religion and the spread of education. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 stated, "Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged. '' However, the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also contained Southern characteristics of municipal governance. The Southern influence can be felt in the Western townships in that once the federal land was dedicated to the particular township, the township was relatively free of the influence of the federal government, and the local municipality was left to govern itself. This manifested itself in public education as well. Once the land was dedicated, the actual development of the public schools was the responsibility of the local township or the particular state. Although the great Ordinances of the 1780s set the framework for a national system of schools by dedicating land across the West, the devolved development and administration by the state and local government led to unique results.
Retaining central land in each township ensured that these lands would create value for the federal government. Instead of disbursing funds to the new states to create public education systems dedicating a central lot in each township provided the new townships with the means to develop educational institutions without any transfer of funds. This was a practical and necessary way to achieve the committee 's goal in a pre-Constitution America. Aside from raising funds for a financially struggling government, the westward expansion outlined in the Land Ordinances of the 1780s also provided a framework for spreading democratic ideals. Jefferson proposed an article in the Ordinance of 1784 that would have outlawed slavery in the new states after the year 1800. However he could not amass enough votes to pass the anti-slavery article. Later Jefferson did succeed, however, in ensuring public funding of education by dedicating land to education in the Land Ordinance of 1785. Public education was an ideal already developed in the New England colonial settlements. New Englanders provided for public education in their land grants due to a belief that public education could be used to further unite the young nation and spread democratic ideals.
The systematic and highly organized westward settlements, with their local governments and central square dedicated towards public education were a concerted effort to inspire civic duty and participation in the democratic process. Usher relates this initiative to "the Supreme Court in Cooper v. Roberts (1855), ' plant in the heart of every community the same sentiments of grateful reverence for the wisdom, forecast, and magnanimous statesmanship of those who framed the institutions of these new States. '' The westward expansion therefore was not only a tool for raising much needed funds, but also a tool in a grand socializing experiment to inoculate the settlers to democratic ideals. The hope was that the unique planning of each township with a public school centrally located, coupled with the obligation of each township 's local citizens to take part in the civic process of governing the township, teaching and building the schools, and maintaining order, would instill the democratic ideals crucial to the nation 's success.
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who is hope's dad in coronation street | Fiz Brown - wikipedia
Fiona "Fiz '' Stape (also Brown) is a fictional character from the British ITV soap opera, Coronation Street. Portrayed by Jennie McAlpine, the character first appeared on screen on 20 April 2001. Initially appearing for five episodes, McAlpine 's contract was soon extended and Fiz became a regular character. In May 2014, it was announced that McAlpine was expecting her first child and Fiz temporarily departed on 14 November 2014. She returned to filming on 21 April 2015 and returned on - screen on 19 June 2015.
Fiz initially appeared as a troubled teenager briefly fostered by Roy (David Neilson) and Hayley Cropper (Julie Hesmondhalgh) at the age of 15. She later started working at the Underworld factory. Fiz was involved in a murder storyline in which her husband John Stape (Graeme Hawley), committed three murders and had Fiz help him bury the bodies. She had to implicate other people in order to cover for John. She gave birth to her daughter Hope prematurely, in the live 50th anniversary episode with McAlpine becoming the first actress to act out a birth live on a soap opera.
Fiz 's first appearance was as a troubled sixteen - year - old fostered by Roy (David Neilson) and Hayley Cropper (Julie Hesmondhalgh). Her boisterous attitude clashes with the pair and Roy gets angry with her when she starts a small fire in the flat while cooking chips. Fiz claims Roy hit her; the claim is quickly dismissed and Fiz is sent to another foster family. Fiz reappears a few months later, having dropped out of school, and gets a job as a machinist at Mike Baldwin 's (Johnny Briggs) factory. She is initially dismissive of Roy and Hayley, but when Hayley is held on remand for kidnapping Wayne Hayes (Gary Damer), a boy the Croppers were trying to save from his abusive stepfather, she changes her mind, recognising the Croppers are the only parental figures who truly cared for her, and takes it upon herself to look after Roy in Hayley 's absence.
Fiz made her interest in Tyrone Dobbs (Alan Halsall) clear, kissing him. When his fiancé, Maria Sutherland (Samia Ghadie), found out, she broke up with him, and Tyrone and Fiz became a couple. When Terry Duckworth (Nigel Pivaro), the son of Tyrone 's surrogate parents Jack (Bill Tarmey) and Vera (Elizabeth Dawn), is arrested on a false assault charge after coming out of hiding to take Jack to hospital, Fiz sells the story to the newspapers. The Duckworths are initially angry but it results in a witness coming forward to clear Terry. Fiz convinces Mike to use some designs she has done at the factory but she has accidentally plagiarised other designers and Mike sacks her. She stages a topless protest on the roof of the factory which gets her her job back but sees Tyrone break up with her.
Fiz is nearly arrested on a trip to Blackpool with Tyrone, Kirk Sutherland (Andrew Whyment) and Jason Grimshaw (Ryan Thomas), since unknown to the others Kirk has broken into the caravan they are using. When Maria leaves town, Fiz moves into her old room in the flat above the salon, sharing with Toyah Battersby (Georgia Taylor), who soon becomes a close friend. She sleeps with Kirk but believes he would not be interested in a relationship; Toyah manages to convince the pair to become a couple. Maria returns and is unhappy to find herself not only sharing with Fiz but with Kirk in regular attendance. Fiz is caught in the middle when Maria becomes pregnant by Toyah 's boyfriend John Arnley (Paul Warriner) and supports her when she has an abortion. Toyah leaves town not long afterwards, after saying a fond farewell to Fiz. Fiz subsequently finds herself called on to play agony aunt to a succession of unlucky in love flatmates: Maria, Candice Stowe (Nikki Sanderson) and Claire Casey (Julia Haworth).
Fiz becomes friends with Kirk 's housemate Les Battersby (Bruce Jones) and is one of the few people to believe he is innocent of assaulting corrupt policeman Mick Hopwood (Ian Gain). Les introduces Fiz and Kirk to his new girlfriend, who turns out to be Fiz 's mother Cilla (Wendi Peters). Fiz learns Cilla has left her younger brother Chesney (Sam Aston) home alone and Les brings him to live on the street. When Fiz and Kirk break up, Tyrone declares his interest again. Fiz and Tyrone sleep together but are interrupted by Tyrone serenading her with "The Real Slim Shady ''. Both Kirk and Tyrone propose: Tyrone hires a horse to do so on horseback, while Kirk steals an expensive ring from a jeweller 's. When Fiz finds out, she enlists Tyrone to return the ring secretly and Kirk is let off with a caution. Despite not getting engaged, Fiz reunites with Kirk.
Kirk 's parents emigrate and sign their kennel business over to him. He and Fiz move into the adjacent house but Fiz is not happy looking after dogs and soon moves out. Kirk instead employs Molly Compton (Vicky Binns), a girl Fiz bullied at school to cope with being bullied herself. Molly considers taking Kirk off Fiz as payback but ends up dating Tyrone instead. When first Cilla and then Les leave the area, Fiz moves into No. 5 with Kirk and Chesney. Eventually Fiz is reacquainted with her first boyfriend, John Stape (Graeme Hawley), who is now working at Weatherfield High School. Fiz leaves Kirk, declining his proposal of marriage, and starts dating John, moving back into the salon flat withhim.
When John begins an affair with student, Rosie Webster (Helen Flanagan), Fiz thinks he is having an affair with Rosie 's mother, Sally (Sally Dynevor), whom he has been teaching. However, the truth is revealed on Christmas Day 2007, when John inadvertently mixes up Fiz and Rosie 's presents. When Fiz returns, she is shocked to learn what has happened but bravely decides to move on with her life and applies to be Chesney 's guardian. Chesney and his beloved Great Dane, Schmeichel are allowed to return home after Fiz moves into No. 5. Initially, she clashes with Kirk 's girlfriend, Julie Carp (Katy Cavanagh). While she is happy that Kirk has moved on, she is unhappy with Julie 's attempts to be Chesney 's carer, feeling that it is her job. After a few months, they become friends.
Fiz receives numerous unknown phone calls. She discovers that it is ex-boyfriend, John, seeking a reconciliation, but declines his requests. He takes a job with StreetCars so he can be close to her, and buys Chesney a bike for his birthday. Fiz and John become friends again and she soon agrees to give him another chance. However, Fiz ends things when she realises that he wants them to move into his grandmother 's house in the countryside. Fiz becomes worried when he constantly claims that he has to go to his grandmother 's house to ' feed the cat ' and eventually discovers that he is holding Rosie hostage there, supposedly for ruining his relationship with Fiz. Fiz releases Rosie, and John is arrested for kidnap and false imprisonment. John continues to send Fiz cards and letters while he is on remand, and is eventually sentenced to 2 years in prison. Soon after John 's kidnapping of Rosie is revealed, Fiz receives some bad news about Chesney. He and Kirk are visiting Cilla in South Africa (their adventures are shown in Coronation Street: Out of Africa) and Cilla tells Fiz that Chesney has been in an accident. When Fiz arrives, she is very upset to see Chesney in a wheelchair. She is relieved, yet angry, when they tell her that it is a scam to win a Sunshine Families competition with a £ 500,000 prize. Fiz later returns to Weatherfield.
Fiz decides that she still loves John and wants to marry him. She proposes to him by writing a message so that she is allowed into the prison, after talking about him being on suicide watch. Fiz is allowed to see John briefly and as he is led away, Fiz asks him if he will marry her. John instantly agrees. John later sends Fiz his grandmother 's engagement ring and a visiting order. She sees him and he places the engagement ring on her finger. Fiz and John marry on 28 September 2009. The wedding is held in the prison chapel but Fiz can not go through with the ceremony without Chesney 's support, revealing that all of their friends and neighbours are against the marriage. John does his best to persuade Fiz to go ahead regardless but she refuses, walking out and collapsing in tears outside the prison. Just as it seems that Fiz 's big day is doomed, Chesney arrives with Roy and Hayley. He apologises to Fiz and he is there when Fiz and John marry.
Fiz is shocked to hear of the letters that John has written to the Street residents, informing them that he will soon be released and asks for their backing to live there with Fiz. The street is split down the middle: for instance, the Croppers agree, but Eddie Windass (Steve Huison) (despite never having met John and baked his and Fiz 's wedding cake) is against it. When Sally learns of the letters, she is left fuming and angrily organises a protest meeting in The Rovers for that evening. At the meeting, Sally gives a speech against John, wanting residents to write back and refuse his request, which Dev Alahan (Jimmi Harkishin) completely backs. However, Roy fights John 's corner, with Ken Barlow (William Roache) pointing out that John is entitled to live wherever he wants and Graeme Proctor (Craig Gazey) outright supports him, to the disgust of Blanche Hunt (Maggie Jones). As Norris Cole (Malcolm Hebden) expresses his neutralness, Fiz gives an impassioned speech about how John is sorry and wants to set things right, pointing out how Sally and Rosie have been compensated for John 's actions. Fiz 's speech is applauded by the majority of residents, much to the disgust of Sally and Dev. The residents all write back, with the overwhelming majority agreeing to let him return to Weatherfield. In mid-November, John is released.
Sally, furious that John has moved back to the street, paints the windows of No. 5 black during the night. Fiz, furious, wants to phone the police - particularly after Sally admits what she has done in front of witnesses - but John refuses. He and Fiz spend the day scraping the paint off and accept Graeme 's help in repainting the upstairs of the house to match. Rosie does not seem to care that he is living across the street until, swindled out of her compensation by Luke Strong (Craig Kelly), the acting owner of Underworld whom she had been having a fling with, she tells John that she has decided to return to college and study to be a doctor. She asks him for £ 50,000 to fund this and is stunned when he refuses so she tries blackmailing him, claiming that he had grabbed her and locked her in Roy 's Rolls, where he is now working. Sally and Kevin call the police and John is arrested but released pending further inquiries. That night in the pub, he challenges Rosie about her version of events and, when unable to answer his questions, she reveals that she has lied. Furious, Kevin orders her to apologise the next day and withdraw her statement to the police. Sally also apologises to John and Fiz and asks them not to press charges. John agrees but Fiz is openly angry. The Stapes and the Websters both agree to stay out of each other 's way.
John meets one of his ex-teacher colleagues, Colin Fishwick (David Crellin), in the café, who invites him and Fiz to his leaving party before he emigrates to Canada. Whilst at the party, Colin makes it clear to John that he wants to stop teaching. John thinks up a plan to start teaching again himself, by stealing Colin 's identity as he has a clean CRB. Fiz is initially incredulous when John tells her about his plans but, because she loves John, she soon weakens and agrees to go along with his plan. They both agree to keep the truth from Chesney, who has not been particularly fond of John since his affair with Rosie. Eventually, Fiz sees what risk John is taking and they begin to row. Fiz later leaves to go on holiday, alone. Fiz returns from her holiday and announces that she is 12 weeks pregnant with their first child. The couple make up and John promises to never lie to her again. Fiz goes into labour only six months into her pregnancy following injury in the explosion of Nick Tilsley (Ben Price) and Leanne Battersby 's (Jane Danson) bar, The Joinery, so she is sent to hospital and gives birth to a baby girl, whom she names Hope. Straight after her birth, Hope is transferred into an incubator as she is three months premature. Due to her prematurity, her immune system is failing and is diagnosed with an infection. Fiz is told that Hope will need a transfusion in order to fight the infection. John has a breakdown following his involvement in three deaths, unbeknownst to Fiz. Fiz is left at home alone with baby Hope, who has now been allowed to leave the hospital. Joy Fishwick (Doreen Mantle), Colin 's mother, asked her solicitor to track down her son before her death, and "Colin '' is tracked at Number 5. Horrified, Fiz forces herself to pretend to be Mrs Fishwick. The solicitor informs Fiz of Joy 's death and that she has left her fortune to Colin. John returns home in March 2011 and things seem to look up, but John realises all of the new things that Fiz has bought, which she dishonestly explains are from money she received when the factory girls had a whip - round for her. In April 2011, John decides to stop taking his medication, despite Dr. Matt Carter 's (Oliver Mellor) objection. Joy 's solicitor turns up at No. 5, with Fiz having to pose as Mrs Fishwick again. The solicitor reveals that Joy 's house had been sold and the money is to be transferred into Fiz 's (i.e. Mrs Fishwick 's) bank account. John is furious with Fiz for what she has done, thinking it is all over for him. John suffers another breakdown, locking himself in the bookies, after which he runs away. Peter Barlow (Chris Gascoyne) and Dr. Carter suggest that they call the police, but Fiz, knowing the potential imprisonment of both she and John, decides to wait and see if he returns.
The police arrive at Fiz 's home to notify herself and Chesney that John had been caught on CCTV boarding a ferry at Holyhead. Eventually, Fiz confesses her role in the crime and so the police arrest Fiz for Colin 's murder. At the police station, Fiz is interviewed for the murder. She is taken into custody but is released and then attends Magistrates ' Court. The incident is deemed too serious, so she is sent to Crown Court. Fiz is charged with three murders after John flees the country to Ireland. Fiz is remanded in custody and faces trial at Crown court. Fiz is denied bail and is sent straight to prison to await trial. Fiz struggles with life in prison, and struggles to cope without Hope, who has been left in the care of Roy and Hayley. She is offered a place in the Mother and Baby unit, but refuses as she feels it is no place to bring her baby up. She becomes even more distressed when she is forced to do some cleaning in the mother and baby unit, as seeing other mums with their babies upsets her and reminds her of her daughter. Fiz soon changes her mind and requests a place in the unit, but is forced to wait. Horrified when she finds her cellmate, Ginny Portis (Ashley McGuire), unconscious from a drug overdose, Fiz is shocked to discover that her friend Ruth Walsh (Rebecca Callard) has supplied the drugs. When Fiz plans to reveal Ruth 's drug supply to the governor, Ruth threatens to make her life a misery. Fiz eventually gets a place in the mother and baby unit, but is beaten up by Ruth and other girls when Ruth is removed from the unit for dealing drugs. Ruth and her friends continue to torment Fiz. After Ruth trashes her room, Fiz stands up to her and tells her to keep away from she and Hope. Upon learning the date of Fiz 's trial, it is revealed to the audience that John has returned. Spotting Rosie from his car, who is trying to sell her boyfriend Jason 's flat, he poses as a potential buyer named Mr Chips. He turns up at the flat and ties Rosie up, insisting that it is all her fault that he and Fiz are so miserable and trying to force her to turn up at the court and tell them that it is John who is responsible for the deaths, allowing him to release Fiz but not go to prison himself. His plan fails, however, and he has to drive away at a high speed, and crashes his car.
Fiz 's trial begins and she provides her evidence, before the jury leave to consider their verdicts. Fiz is found not guilty of the murders of Joy and Charlotte Hoyle (Becky Hindley), but the jury find her guilty of Colin 's murder. Fiz later learns that John has returned, but is in a critical condition in hospital after his car accident. Fiz goes to the hospital and tells John that she forgives him for everything he has done. John gives the police his statement and he then dies from his injuries. Fiz then breaks down in tears and whispers to him that he will always be "her John ''. Unfortunately, John was too late. Fiz is sentenced to life imprisonment, with a minimum term of 15 years. Fiz and Chesney are devastated. Fiz asks Chesney to organise John 's funeral. He initially refuses, but after his girlfriend, Katy Armstrong (Georgia May Foote), convinces him to, he agrees. Chesney later receives a phonecall from Fiz saying that she has been granted bail before her review. Fiz later begins a feud with Kirsty Soames (Natalie Gumede) after she nearly slices Fiz 's fingers off at work using a sowing machine. When Kirsty later attacks Fiz in her own home, Fiz realises that Kirsty is beating up her fiancé Tyrone. Fiz helps Tyrone through his dilemma with Kirsty, but ends up developing feelings for him and they begin an affair. When Kirsty beats up Tyrone again, Fiz advises Tyrone to marry Kirsty so he can gain custody of his daughter Ruby. Kirsty accepts Tyrone 's proposal, but discovers Fiz and Tyrone 's affair the day before the wedding. She humiliates the pair at the church, as many of the residents watch as Kirsty reveals Fiz is Tyrone 's mystery lover. During an argument at the top of the stairs, Kirsty attempts to hit Tyrone again, but ends up falling down the stairs. Fiz, Tommy Duckworth (Chris Fountain), Eileen Grimshaw (Sue Cleaver), Sean Tully (Antony Cotton) and Paul Kershaw (Tony Hirst) race round to the house to see what has happened, and Kirsty tells the police that Tyrone has been abusing her for months. Tyrone is arrested, which devastates Fiz. Tyrone 's court hearing arrives, and Kirsty 's mother Alison (Dawn Hope) tries to persuade Kirsty to tell the truth, but she refuses. After Kirsty assaults Julie, Kirsty confesses to the jury that she has been beating Tyrone. Tyrone is freed and Kirsty is sent to prison.
Fiz is later distraught to hear that Hayley has been diagnosed with pancreatic cancer. There is further devastation when Fiz is told that Hayley 's tumour is terminal, and only has six to twelve months to live. Fiz promises Hayley that she will take care of Roy after she has died. Fiz and Tyrone are present at Roy 's birthday party in The Rovers on 20 September 2013, and Fiz asks Hayley and Roy whether they would like to spend more time with Hope and Ruby, which they both accept gladly. Fiz is puzzled when Hayley walks out on Roy and moves in with her and Tyrone. Unknown to Fiz, Hayley has recently told Roy that when her cancer spreads, she intends on ending her own life. While Fiz and Tyrone are at work, Hayley collapses at home and when Fiz returns, she calls for an ambulance. She accompanies Roy to the hospital and is told that Hayley has an infection. Following the incident, Hayley moves back in with Roy.
In January 2014, Fiz is devastated when she learns from Anna Windass (Debbie Rush) that Hayley has died. Fiz is unaware, however, that Hayley committed suicide after drinking a lethal cocktail. She and Tyrone rush over to the café flat, where Fiz finds Hayley 's corpse on the bed with Roy 's arm around her. Chesney later arrives, and he, Fiz, Tyrone, Anna and Carla Connor (Alison King) all try to help Roy through his grief. A few days later, Roy is struggling to come to terms with Hayley 's death, but Fiz learns that Hayley killed herself, and angrily confronts Roy and shouts at him. Anna tries to get through to Fiz that it is what Hayley wanted and that it was not assisted suicide, but Fiz only listens to Carla. On the day of Hayley 's funeral, Fiz, Carla and Anna try and persuade Roy to attend, as he is refusing. He eventually attends, but in the middle of Fiz 's eulogy, Roy stands up and interrupts her speech. He tells the upset residents that Hayley was the love of his life and that he will miss her dearly, which relieves Fiz, Carla and Anna, as they all thought he was going to tell them about Hayley 's suicide. Following the funeral, Roy leaves Fiz and Anna a note explaining that he has gone to visit his mother Sylvia Goodwin (Stephanie Cole) for a while. The pair start to panic, however, when a pipe bursts at the café and realize that Roy has been away for 10 days. They call Sylvia, but her sister Jean answers the phone, and explains that she has n't heard from Roy is six months and that Sylvia is in Tenerife. Fiz calls the police, and they explain Roy 's situation, without revealing Hayley 's suicide. When the police leave, Fiz and Anna have many arguments about his whereabouts, as Tyrone tries to calm the bickering women down. When they get home, Fiz reveals to a stunned Tyrone that she believes that Roy is dead. In mid-February, Roy returns with no explanation of his whereabouts. He later explains that he has been stopping in a hotel by a steam museum. Fiz is later concerned when Roy does n't come out of his flat, and that he keeps making continuous trips to the toy shop. It is revealed that he is building a model railway track, which puzzles Fiz, but fascinates Tyrone and Chesney.
In October 2014, Cilla returns to the street and reveals that she is seriously ill, suffering from osteoporosis. Although Fiz is sympathetic towards her mother, Chesney can not forgive her for the way she treated him as a child, especially when his son, Joseph (Lucca - Owen Warwick), suffers a minor injury, whilst in her care. When Cilla reveals that she has been advised to attend a clinic in Wolverhampton, so that they can help her recover, Fiz decides to go and look after her mother, leaving Hope and Ruby in Tyrone 's care. On Christmas Day, Tyrone, Hope and Ruby go to stay with Fiz and Cilla for a few days and on his return, Tyrone reveals that Hope and Ruby will be staying with Fiz, for a while.
In October 2015, it is revealed Hope is suffering from a type of childhood cancer called neuroblastoma, plunging Fiz and Tyrone into panic. Hope was eventually cured, but Fiz and Tyrone 's insistence to provide a perfect Christmas to her in case it turned out to be her last. This later gave them financial issues.
Fiz initially appeared as a troubled teenager briefly fostered by Roy (David Neilson) and Hayley Cropper (Julie Hesmondhalgh) at the age of 15. She leaves and then returns to Coronation Street, and starts work at the Underworld factory. Her name is presumably due to her distinctive afro - like hair, however she was born as Fiona. Her mother, Cilla (Wendi Peters) and her brother, Chesney (Sam Aston) are introduced when they come to live on the street with Les Battersby (Bruce Jones). Fiz has a bad history with her mother, who has often left her in care and never put her children first.
The character first appears onscreen during the episode airing on 22 April 2001.
The character of Fiz is a good hearted young woman who has made many puzzling decisions and is often unlucky in love. Actress Jennie McAlpine stated that she would prefer the character to stay unlucky in love because she enjoys portraying the rowing and screaming that comes with it rather than seeing her character living happily ever after. Fiz 's personality has taken some rapid transformations over the years. Starting out as a dopey teenage tearaway, she is now responsible for her younger brother, constantly trying to do the right thing by him and sometimes failing. When interviewed about this on the soap opera 's official website, McAlpine stated: "I like Fiz, I think she is a good person. I know she does get it wrong sometimes, but she is just trying, she 's just trying to get it all right, she does n't always but she does try. '' During the same interview she then said: "Oh, Fiz has changed over the years. Luckily she 's changed because I do n't think I 'd be here if she had n't because she started off being a pretty, pretty bad girl actually, causing loads of trouble for Roy and Hayley. ''
In November 2012, The Sun newspaper reported that romance will blossom for the old flames as Fiz continues to support Tyrone Dobbs (Alan Halsall) through his domestic violence ordeal with girlfriend Kirsty Soames (Natalie Gumede). It was reported that Kirsty would deliberately cause injury to Fiz 's hand, according to the Daily Star, Fiz would attempt to fix her machine at the factory when it breaks only to get her hand trapped when Kirsty switches the power back on. Fiz apparently needs emergency medical attention due to the bloody injury and soon starts spreading the word that Kirsty harmed her on purpose. She is quoted as telling Tyrone: "Kirsty said she did n't do it and you might believe her, but in your head I do n't think you do. What 's she going to do next? She injured you and now she 's injured me. Who 's going to be next, Ruby? '' McAlpine spoke about the storyline and told What 's On TV: "Kirsty continues to look after Fiz and stays with her while she is treated at the hospital and even returns home with her. She is quite sinister and when she finally leaves, Fiz is quite shaken by Kirsty 's behaviour. Fiz has now seen how scary Kirsty can be with her own eyes. Fiz is not soft, she has spent time in prison before, but she has now seen what Tyrone has to cope with when Kirsty gets angry. '' She added: "Fiz really cares about Tyrone. Fiz is also very stubborn and has a sense of justice. She will probably want to see this through to the end - she wants the truth to come out. She wants Tyrone to be happy and feels this can never be the case while he is still involved with Kirsty. ''
McAlpine said that her emotional scenes with Hawley (John Stape) were very draining and very hard work. She told The Mirror: "It 's been very draining. Not emotionally, because I never take my work home with me, but genuinely physically exhausting. It 's tiring having to cry continuously and I take a long time to recover from that. My face goes all red and my eyes sting for ages afterwards. I 'm not a good crier! ''. She added: "I 've always been a huge Corrie fan. Being a Northern girl it was always on in my living room. And even today, I love sitting down and catching up with what 's going on. This is my dream job. ''
McAlpine admitted that her wedding plans caused her to receive a mixed reaction from viewers. On This Morning, McAlpine revealed: "It has divided the nation - some people think she 's absolutely mad. But it 's funny, before I proposed and did that big thing with the banner, everyone was saying, ' Oh, I think you should marry him ', and now I 've taken the decision into my own hands I do n't think they like it now. I think people are n't happy about it now. They liked the idea but now they are worried. '' McAlpine added: "He did n't mean to do it for five weeks - he did n't mean to lock her up for that long, I know that. I do believe him. ''
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how many bits does a mac address have | MAC address - wikipedia
A media access control address (MAC address) of a device is a unique identifier assigned to network interfaces for communications at the data link layer of a network segment. MAC addresses are used as a network address for most IEEE 802 network technologies, including Ethernet and Wi - Fi. Logically, MAC addresses are used in the media access control protocol sublayer of the OSI reference model.
MAC addresses are most often assigned by the manufacturer of a network interface controller (NIC) and are stored in its hardware, such as the card 's read - only memory or some other firmware mechanism. If assigned by the manufacturer, a MAC address usually encodes the manufacturer 's registered identification number and may be referred to as the burned - in address (BIA). It may also be known as an Ethernet hardware address (EHA), hardware address or physical address (not to be confused with a memory physical address). This can be contrasted to a programmed address, where the host device issues commands to the NIC to use an arbitrary address.
A network node may have multiple NICs and each NIC must have a unique MAC address. Sophisticated network equipment such as a multilayer switch or router may require one or more permanently assigned MAC addresses.
MAC addresses are formed according to the rules of one of three numbering name spaces managed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): MAC - 48, EUI - 48, and EUI - 64. The IEEE claims trademarks on the names EUI - 48 and EUI - 64, in which EUI is an abbreviation for Extended Unique Identifier.
The original IEEE 802 MAC address comes from the original Xerox Ethernet addressing scheme. This 48 - bit address space contains potentially 2 or 281,474,976,710,656 possible MAC addresses.
The distinction between EUI - 48 and MAC - 48 identifiers is purely nominal: MAC - 48 is used for network hardware; EUI - 48 is used to identify other devices and software. (Thus, by definition, an EUI - 48 is not in fact a "MAC address '', although it is syntactically indistinguishable from one and assigned from the same numbering space.)
The IEEE now considers the label MAC - 48 to be an obsolete term, previously used to refer to a specific type of EUI - 48 identifier used to address hardware interfaces within existing 802 - based networking applications, and thus not to be used in the future. Instead, the proprietary term EUI - 48 should be used for this purpose.
In addition, the EUI - 64 numbering system encompasses both MAC - 48 and EUI - 48 identifiers by a simple translation mechanism. To convert a MAC - 48 into an EUI - 64, copy the OUI, append the two octets FF - FF and then copy the organization - specified extension identifier. To convert an EUI - 48 into an EUI - 64, the same process is used, but the sequence inserted is FF - FE. In both cases, the process can be trivially reversed when necessary. Organizations issuing EUI - 64s are cautioned against issuing identifiers that could be confused with these forms. The IEEE has a target lifetime of 100 years for applications using MAC - 48 space, but encourages adoption of EUI - 64s instead.
IPv6 -- one of the most prominent standards that uses a Modified EUI - 64 -- treats MAC - 48 as EUI - 48 instead (as it is chosen from the same address pool) and toggles the U / L bit (as this makes it easier to type locally assigned IPv6 addresses based on the Modified EUI - 64). This results in extending MAC addresses (such as IEEE 802 MAC address) to Modified EUI - 64 using only FF - FE (and never FF - FF) and with the U / L bit inverted.
An Individual Address Block (IAB) was a 24 - bit OUI managed by the IEEE Registration Authority, followed by 12 IEEE - provided bits (identifying the organization), and 12 bits for the owner to assign to individual devices. An IAB is ideal for organizations requiring fewer than 4097 unique 48 - bit numbers (EUI - 48). IAB 's have been replaced with 12 - bit "MA - S '' address blocks.
Addresses can either be universally administered addresses (UAA) or locally administered addresses (LAA). A universally administered address is uniquely assigned to a device by its manufacturer. The first three octets (in transmission order) identify the organization that issued the identifier and are known as the organizationally unique identifier (OUI). The remainder of the address (three octets for MAC - 48 and EUI - 48 or five for EUI - 64) are assigned by that organization in nearly any manner they please, subject to the constraint of uniqueness. A locally administered address is assigned to a device by a network administrator, overriding the burned - in address.
Universally administered and locally administered addresses are distinguished by setting the second - least - significant bit of the first octet of the address. This bit is also referred to as the U / L bit, short for Universal / Local, which identifies how the address is administered. If the bit is 0, the address is universally administered. If it is 1, the address is locally administered. In the example address 06 - 00 - 00 - 00 - 00 - 00 the first octet is 06 (hex), the binary form of which is 00000110, where the second - least - significant bit is 1. Therefore, it is a locally administered address.. Another example that uses locally administered addresses is the DECnet protocol. The MAC address of the Ethernet interface is changed by the DECnet software to be AA - 00 - 04 - 00 - xx - yy where xx - yy reflects the DECnet network address xx. yy of the host. This eliminates the need for an address resolution protocol since the MAC address for any DECnet host can be simply determined.
If the least significant bit of the first octet of an address is set to 0 (zero), the frame is meant to reach only one receiving NIC. This type of transmission is called unicast. A unicast frame is transmitted to all nodes within the collision domain. In a modern wired setting the collision domain usually is the length of the Ethernet cable between two network cards. In a wireless setting, the collision domain is as far as the radio transmitter can reach. A switch will forward a unicast frame through all of its ports (except for the port that originated the frame), an action known as unicast flood, if the switch has no knowledge of which port leads to that MAC address. Only the node with the matching hardware MAC address will accept the frame; network frames with non-matching MAC - addresses are ignored, unless the device is in promiscuous mode.
If the least significant bit of the first octet is set to 1, the frame will still be sent only once; however, NICs will choose to accept it based on criteria other than the matching of a MAC address: for example, based on a configurable list of accepted multicast MAC addresses. This is called multicast addressing.
The IEEE has built in several special address types to allow more than one network interface card to be addressed at one time:
These are all examples of group addresses, as opposed to individual addresses; the least significant bit of the first octet of a MAC address distinguishes individual addresses from group addresses. That bit is set to 0 in individual addresses and set to 1 in group addresses. Group addresses, like individual addresses, can be universally administered or locally administered.
The following network technologies use the MAC - 48 identifier format:
Every device that connects to an IEEE 802 network (such as Ethernet and WiFi) has a MAC - 48 address. Common networked consumer devices such as PCs, smartphones and tablet computers use MAC - 48 addresses.
EUI - 64 identifiers are used in:
On broadcast networks, such as Ethernet, the MAC address is expected to uniquely identify each node on that segment and allows frames to be marked for specific hosts. It thus forms the basis of most of the link layer (OSI Layer 2) networking upon which upper layer protocols rely to produce complex, functioning networks.
Although intended to be a permanent and globally unique identification, it is possible to change the MAC address on most modern hardware. Changing MAC addresses is necessary in network virtualization. It can also be used in the process of exploiting security vulnerabilities. This is called MAC spoofing.
In IP networks, the MAC address of an interface can be queried given the IP address using the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) for Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) or the Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP) for IPv6. In this way, ARP or NDP is used to relate IP addresses (OSI layer 3) to Ethernet MAC addresses (OSI layer 2).
According to Edward Snowden, the US National Security Agency has a system that tracks the movements of everyone in a city by monitoring the MAC addresses of their electronic devices. As a result of users being trackable by their devices ' MAC addresses, Apple has started using random MAC addresses in their iOS line of devices while scanning for networks. If random MAC addresses are not used, researchers have confirmed that it is possible to link a real identity to a particular wireless MAC address.
Many network interfaces (including wireless ones) support changing their MAC address. The configuration is specific to the operating system. On most Unix - like systems, the ifconfig command may be used to add and remove "link '' (Ethernet MAC family) address aliases. For instance, the "active '' ifconfig directive may then be used on NetBSD to specify which of the attached addresses to activate. Hence, various configuration scripts and utilities allow to randomize the MAC address at boot or network connection time.
Using wireless access points in SSID - hidden mode (see network cloaking), a mobile wireless device may not only disclose its own MAC address when traveling, but even the MAC addresses associated to SSIDs the device has already connected to, if they are configured to send these as part of probe request packets. Alternative modes to prevent this include configuring access points to be either in beacon - broadcasting mode, or probe - response with SSID mode. In these modes, probe requests may be unnecessary, or sent in broadcast mode without disclosing the identity of previously - known networks.
The standard (IEEE 802) format for printing MAC - 48 addresses in human - friendly form is six groups of two hexadecimal digits, separated by hyphens (-) in transmission order (e.g. 01 - 23 - 45 - 67 - 89 - ab). This form is also commonly used for EUI - 64 (e.g. 01 - 23 - 45 - 67 - 89 - ab - cd - ef). Other conventions include six groups of two hexadecimal digits separated by colons (:) (e.g. 01: 23: 45: 67: 89: ab), and three groups of four hexadecimal digits separated by dots (.) (e.g. 0123.4567. 89ab); again in transmission order.
The standard notation, also called canonical format, for MAC addresses is written in transmission bit order with the least significant bit transmitted first, as seen in the output of the ifconfig, iproute2, and ipconfig commands, for example.
However, since IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) and IEEE 802.4 (Token Bus) send the bytes (octets) over the wire, left - to - right, with least significant bit in each byte first, while IEEE 802.5 (Token Ring) and IEEE 802.6 send the bytes over the wire with the most significant bit first, confusion may arise when an address in the latter scenario is represented with bits reversed from the canonical representation. For example, an address in canonical form 12 - 34 - 56 - 78 - 9A - BC would be transmitted over the wire as bits 01001000 00101100 01101010 00011110 01011001 00111101 in the standard transmission order (least significant bit first). But for Token Ring networks, it would be transmitted as bits 00010010 00110100 01010110 01111000 10011010 10111100 in most - significant - bit first order. The latter might be incorrectly displayed as 48 - 2C - 6A - 1E - 59 - 3D. This is referred to as bit - reversed order, non-canonical form, MSB format, IBM format, or Token Ring format, as explained in RFC 2469.
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when was the last time the bulls were in the finals | Chicago Bulls - wikipedia
The Chicago Bulls are an American professional basketball team based in Chicago, Illinois. The Bulls compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the league 's Eastern Conference Central Division. The team was founded on January 16, 1966. The team plays its home games at the United Center, an arena shared with the Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League (NHL).
The Bulls saw their greatest success during the 1990s, when they were responsible for popularizing the NBA worldwide. They are known for having one of the NBA 's greatest dynasties, winning six NBA championships between 1991 and 1998 with two three - peats. All six championship teams were led by Hall of Famers Michael Jordan, Scottie Pippen and coach Phil Jackson. The Bulls are the only NBA franchise to win multiple championships and never lose an NBA Finals series in their history.
The Bulls won 72 games during the 1995 -- 96 NBA season, setting an NBA record that stood until the Golden State Warriors won 73 games during the 2015 -- 16 NBA season. The Bulls were the first team in NBA history to win 70 games or more in a single season, and the only NBA franchise to do so until the 2015 -- 16 Warriors. Many experts and analysts consider the 1996 Bulls to be one of the greatest teams in NBA history.
Michael Jordan and Derrick Rose have both won the NBA Most Valuable Player Award while playing for the Bulls, for a total of six MVP awards.
The Bulls share rivalries with the Detroit Pistons, New York Knicks, and the Miami Heat. The Bulls ' rivalry with the Pistons was highlighted heavily during the late 1980s and early 1990s.
On January 16, 1966 Chicago was granted an NBA franchise to be called the Bulls. The Chicago Bulls became the third NBA franchise in the city, after the Chicago Stags (1946 -- 1950) and the Chicago Packers / Zephyrs (now the Washington Wizards). The Bulls ' founder, Dick Klein, was the Bulls ' only owner to ever play professional basketball (for the Chicago American Gears). He served as the Bulls ' president and general manager in their initial years.
After the 1966 NBA Expansion Draft, the newly founded Chicago Bulls were allowed to acquire players from the previously established teams in the league for the upcoming 1966 -- 67 season. The team started in the 1966 -- 67 NBA season, and posted the best record by an expansion team in NBA history. Coached by Chicagoan and former NBA star Johnny "Red '' Kerr, and led by former NBA assist leader Guy Rodgers, guard Jerry Sloan and forward Bob Boozer, the Bulls qualified for the playoffs, the only NBA team to do so in their inaugural season.
In their first season, the Bulls played their home games at the International Amphitheatre, before moving to Chicago Stadium.
Fan interest was diminishing after four seasons, with one game in the 1968 season having an official attendance of 891 and some games being played in Kansas City. In 1969, Klein dropped out of the general manager job and hired Pat Williams, who as the Philadelphia 76ers ' business manager created promotions that helped the team become third in attendance the previous season. Williams revamped the team roster, acquiring Chet Walker from his old team in exchange for Jim Washington and drafting Norm Van Lier -- who was traded to the Cincinnati Royals and only joined the Bulls in 1971 -- while also investing in promotion, with actions such as creating mascot Benny the Bull. The Bulls under Williams and head coach Dick Motta qualified for four straight playoffs and had attendances grow to over 10,000. In 1972, the Bulls set a franchise win - loss record at 57 wins and 25 losses. During the 1970s, the Bulls relied on Jerry Sloan, forwards Bob Love and Chet Walker, point guard Norm Van Lier, and centers Clifford Ray and Tom Boerwinkle. The team made the conference finals in 1975 but lost to the eventual champions, the Golden State Warriors, 4 games to 3.
After four 50 - win seasons, Williams returned to Philadelphia, and Motta decided to take on the role of GM as well. The Bulls ended up declining, winning only 24 games in the 1975 -- 1976 season. Motta was fired and replaced by Ed Badger.
Klein sold the Bulls to the Wirtz Family, longtime owners of the Chicago Blackhawks. Indifferent to NBA basketball, the new ownership group infamously implemented a shoestring budget, putting little time and investment into improving the team.
Artis Gilmore, acquired in the ABA dispersal draft in 1976, led a Bulls squad which included guard Reggie Theus, forward David Greenwood and forward Orlando Woolridge.
In 1979, the Bulls lost a coin flip for the right to select first in the NBA draft (Rod Thorn, the Bulls ' General Manager, called "heads ''). Had the Bulls won the toss, they would have selected Magic Johnson; instead, they selected David Greenwood with the second pick. The Los Angeles Lakers selected Johnson with the pick acquired from the New Orleans Jazz, who traded the selection for Gail Goodrich.
After Gilmore was traded to the San Antonio Spurs for center Dave Corzine, the Bulls employed a high - powered offense centered around Theus, and which soon included guards Quintin Dailey and Ennis Whatley. However, with continued dismal results, the Bulls decided to change direction, trading Theus to the Kansas City Kings during the 1983 -- 84 season. Attendance began to dwindle, with the Wirtz Family looking to sell to ownership groups interested in moving the team out of Chicago, before selling to local ownership.
In the summer of 1984, the Bulls had the third pick of the 1984 NBA draft, after Houston and Portland. The Rockets selected Hakeem Olajuwon, the Blazers picked Sam Bowie and the Bulls chose shooting guard Michael Jordan. The team, with new management in owner Jerry Reinsdorf and general manager Jerry Krause, decided to rebuild around Jordan. Jordan set franchise records during his rookie campaign for scoring (third in the league) and steals (fourth), and led the Bulls back to the playoffs, where they lost in four games to the Milwaukee Bucks. For his efforts, he was rewarded with a selection to the All - NBA Second Team and the NBA Rookie of the Year Award.
In the following off - season, the team acquired point guard John Paxson and on draft day traded with the Cavaliers for the rights to power forward Charles Oakley. Along with Jordan and center Dave Corzine, they provided much of the Bulls ' offense for the next two years. After suffering a broken foot early in the 1985 -- 86 season, Jordan finished second on the team to Woolridge in scoring. Jordan returned for the playoffs, and led the eighth - place Bulls against the 67 -- 15 Boston Celtics, led by Larry Bird. At the time, the Bulls had the fifth worst record of any team to qualify for the playoffs in NBA history. Though the Bulls were swept, Jordan recorded a playoff single - game record 63 points in Game 2 (which still stands to this day), prompting Bird to call him ' God disguised as Michael Jordan. '
In the 1986 -- 87 NBA season, Jordan continued his assault on the record books, leading the league in scoring with 37.1 points per game and becoming the first Bull named to the All - NBA First Team. The Bulls finished 40 -- 42, which was good enough to qualify them for the playoffs. However, they were again swept by the Celtics in the playoffs. In the 1987 draft, to address their lack of depth, Krause selected center Olden Polynice eighth overall and power forward Horace Grant 10th overall, then sent Polynice to Seattle in a draft - day trade for the fifth selection, small forward Scottie Pippen. With Paxson and Jordan in the backcourt, Brad Sellers and Oakley at the forward spots, Corzine anchoring center, and rookies Pippen and Grant coming off the bench, the Bulls won 50 games and advanced to the Eastern Conference semifinals, where they were beaten by the eventual Eastern Conference Champions Detroit Pistons in five games. For his efforts, Jordan was named NBA Most Valuable Player, an award he would win four more times over his career. The 1987 -- 88 season would also mark the start of the Pistons - Bulls rivalry which was formed from 1988 to 1991.
The 1988 -- 89 season marked a second straight year of major off - season moves. Power forward Charles Oakley, who had led the league in total rebounds in both 1987 and 1988, was traded on the eve of the 1988 NBA draft to the New York Knicks along with a first round draft pick used by the Knicks to select Rod Strickland for center Bill Cartwright and a first round pick, which the Bulls used to obtain center Will Perdue. In addition, the Bulls acquired three - point shooter Craig Hodges from Phoenix. The new starting lineup of Paxson, Jordan, Pippen, Grant, and Cartwright took some time to mesh, winning fewer games than the previous season, but made it all the way to the Eastern Conference Finals, where they were defeated in six games by the NBA champion Pistons.
In 1989 -- 90, Jordan led the league in scoring for the fourth straight season, and was joined on the all - star squad for the first time by Pippen. There was also a major change during the off - season, where head coach Doug Collins was replaced by assistant coach Phil Jackson. The Bulls also picked up rookie center Stacey King and rookie point guard B.J. Armstrong in the 1989 draft. With these additional players and the previous year 's starting five, the Bulls again made it to the Conference Finals, and pushed the Pistons to seven games before being eliminated for the third straight year, the Pistons going on to repeat as NBA champions.
In the 1990 -- 91 season, the Bulls recorded a then - franchise record 61 wins, and romped through the playoffs, where they swept the Knicks in the first round, defeated the Philadelphia 76ers in the semifinals, then eliminated defending champion Pistons in the Conference Finals and won the NBA Finals in five games over the Magic Johnson - led Los Angeles Lakers.
The Bulls won their second straight title in 1992 after racking up another franchise record for wins with 67. They defeated the Miami Heat in four games in the first round, the Knicks in seven hard - fought games in the second round, then the Cleveland Cavaliers in six games in the Eastern Conference to the Finals for the second year in a row where they defeated the Clyde Drexler - led Portland Trail Blazers in six games.
In 1993, the Bulls won their third consecutive championship by defeating the Atlanta Hawks, Cleveland Cavaliers and New York Knicks in the first three rounds and then defeating regular season MVP Charles Barkley and the Phoenix Suns, with John Paxson 's three - pointer with 3.9 seconds left giving them a 99 -- 98 victory in Game 6 in Phoenix, Arizona.
On October 6, 1993, Michael Jordan shocked the basketball community by announcing his retirement, three months after his father 's murder. The Bulls were then led by Scottie Pippen, who established himself as one of the top players in the league by winning the 1994 All - Star MVP. He received help from Horace Grant and B.J. Armstrong, who were named to their first all - star games. The three were assisted by Cartwright, Perdue, shooting guard Pete Myers, and Croatian rookie forward Toni Kukoč. Despite the Bulls winning 55 games during the 1993 -- 94 season, they were beaten in seven games by the Knicks in the second round of the playoffs, after a controversial foul call by referee Hue Hollins in game 5 of that series. The Knicks eventually reached the finals that year, but lost to the Houston Rockets. The Bulls opened the 1994 -- 95 season by leaving their home of 27 years, Chicago Stadium, and moving into their current home, the United Center.
In 1994, the Bulls lost Grant, Cartwright and Scott Williams to free agency, and John Paxson to retirement, but picked up shooting guard Ron Harper, the seeming heir apparent to Jordan in assistant coach Tex Winter 's triple - post offense, and small - forward Jud Buechler. The Bulls started Armstrong and Harper in the backcourt, Pippen and Kukoc at the forward spots, and Perdue at center. They also had sharpshooter Steve Kerr, whom they acquired via free agency before the 1993 -- 94 season, Myers, and centers Luc Longley (acquired via trade in 1994 from the Minnesota Timberwolves) and Bill Wennington. However, they were struggling during the season, on March 18, 1995, they received the news that Michael Jordan was coming out of retirement. He scored 55 points against the Knicks in only his fifth game back, and led the Bulls to the fifth seed in the playoffs, where they defeated the Charlotte Hornets. However, Jordan and the Bulls were unable to overcome the eventual Eastern Conference champion Orlando Magic, which included Horace Grant, Anfernee Hardaway, and Shaquille O'Neal. When Jordan returned to the Bulls, he initially wore No. 45 (which was his number while playing for the Birmingham Barons, a minor - league affiliate of the Chicago White Sox). He chose the No. 45 because his older brother Larry wore that number in high school. Michael wanted to be half as good as his brother so he chose 23 which is half of 45 (22.5) rounded up. However, Jordan switched back to the familiar 23 before game 2 of the Orlando Magic series.
In the off - season, the Bulls lost Armstrong in the expansion draft, and Krause traded Perdue to the San Antonio Spurs for rebounding specialist Dennis Rodman, who had won the past four rebounding titles, and who had also been a member of the Detroit Pistons ' "Bad Boys '' squad that served as the Bulls ' chief nemesis in the late 1980s.
With a lineup of Harper, Jordan, Pippen, Rodman and Longley, and perhaps the league 's best bench in Steve Kerr, Kukoc, Wennington, Buechler, and guard Randy Brown, the Bulls posted one of the best single - season improvements in league history and the best single - season record at that time, moving from 47 -- 35 to 72 -- 10, becoming the first NBA team to win 70 or more games. Jordan won his eighth scoring title, and Rodman his fifth straight rebounding title, while Kerr finished second in the league in three - point shooting percentage. Jordan garnered the elusive triple crown with the NBA MVP, NBA All - Star Game MVP, and NBA Finals MVP. Krause was named NBA Executive of the Year, Jackson Coach of the Year, and Kukoc the Sixth Man of the Year. Both Pippen and Jordan made the All - NBA First Team, and Jordan, Pippen, and Rodman made the All - Defensive First Team, making the Bulls the only team in NBA history with three players on the All - Defensive First Team.
In addition, the 1995 -- 96 team holds several other records, including the best road record in a standard 41 - road - game season (33 -- 8), the all - time best start by a team (41 -- 3), and the best start at home (37 -- 0). The Bulls also posted the second - best home record in history (39 -- 2), behind only the 1985 -- 86 Celtics 40 -- 1 home mark. The team triumphed over the Miami Heat in the first round, the New York Knicks in the second round, the Orlando Magic in the Eastern Conference Finals and finally Gary Payton, Shawn Kemp and the Seattle SuperSonics for their fourth title. The 1995 -- 96 Chicago Bulls are widely regarded as one of the greatest teams in the history of basketball.
In the 1996 -- 97 season, the Bulls missed out on a second consecutive 70 - win season by losing their final two games to finish 69 -- 13. They repeated their home dominance, going 39 -- 2 at the United Center. The Bulls capped the season by defeating the Bullets, Hawks and Heat in the first three rounds of the playoffs en route to winning their fifth NBA championship over John Stockton, Karl Malone and the Utah Jazz. Jordan earned his second straight and ninth career scoring title, while Rodman earned his sixth straight rebounding title. Jordan and Pippen, along with Robert Parish, who was a member of the Bulls at the time, were also honored as members of the 50 greatest players of all - time with the NBA celebrating its 50th season. Parish, whose single season with the Bulls would be his last year in the league, was nominated for his stellar career with the Boston Celtics.
The 1997 -- 98 season was one of turmoil for the NBA champion Bulls. Many speculated this would be Michael Jordan 's final season with the team. Phil Jackson 's future with the team was also questionable, as his relationship with team general manager Jerry Krause was one of growing tension. Scottie Pippen was looking for a significant contract extension that he thought he deserved, but was not getting from the organization. In spite of the turmoil that surrounded the Bulls, they still had a remarkable season, with a final regular - season record of 62 -- 20. Michael Jordan would be named the league MVP for the fifth and final time, and the Bulls went into the playoffs as the number one seed in the Eastern Conference.
The first round of the playoffs for the Bulls was against the New Jersey Nets, a team led by Keith Van Horn, Kendall Gill and Sam Cassell. The Bulls swept the Nets three to nothing in a best of five series. The conference semi-finals were more challenging with the Charlotte Hornets stealing game two from the Bulls at the United Center, and tying the series 1 -- 1. But the Bulls easily defeated the Hornets in the next three games of the series. The Conference Finals was a challenge for the Bulls as they went up against the Reggie Miller - led Indiana Pacers. Experts were of the opinion that the Pacers had the best chance to defeat the Bulls. The Pacers gave the Bulls no road wins, winning games 3, 4, and 6, sending the series to a deciding game seven at the United Center. The Bulls prevailed and beat the Pacers 88 -- 83, winning their 6th Eastern Conference Championship.
In a much anticipated Finals, The Bulls faced the team they beat the previous year, the Utah Jazz. Led by Karl Malone and John Stockton, the Jazz felt confident that they could defeat the Bulls, winning game one at Utah 's Delta Center. Facing a potential two to nothing deficit, the Bulls won Game 2 at the Delta Center and tied the series. The Bulls returned to the United Center and, by winning the next two games, took a 3 -- 1 series lead. The Jazz won Game 5 by two points, 83 -- 81. Game 6 was a tough battle for both teams, as the Jazz had a lead late in the game. Down by three points to the Jazz, Michael Jordan led the Bulls to one final win. Jordan hit a shot to bring the Bulls within 1, then stole the ball from Karl Malone and hit the game winning shot with 5.2 seconds remaining on the clock. With a score of 87 -- 86, John Stockton put up a three - pointer, but missed, giving the Bulls their sixth championship in eight years. Jordan would be named the Finals MVP for the sixth time in his career. He retired for the second time on January 13, 1999.
The summer of 1998 brought an abrupt end to the championship era. Krause felt that the Bulls were on the verge of being too old and unable to compete. He decided that the team 's only choices were to rebuild or endure a slow decline. His plan was to trade away the aging talent and acquire high draft picks while clearing salary cap space to make a run at several promising free agents in two years ' time. After having been vetoed in a previous attempt by owner Jerry Reinsdorf, Krause traded Scottie Pippen for Roy Rogers (who was released in February 1999) and a conditional second - round draft pick from the Houston Rockets. He also decided not to re-sign Dennis Rodman, and traded Luc Longley and Steve Kerr for other draft picks. He hired a new coach, Tim Floyd, who had run a successful program at Iowa State University. Upon Phil Jackson 's departure, Michael Jordan made his second retirement official. With a new starting lineup of point guard Randy Brown, shooting guard Ron Harper, newcomer Brent Barry at small forward, power forward Toni Kukoč, and center Bill Wennington, the team began the lockout - shortened 1998 -- 99 season. Kukoc led the team in scoring, rebounding, and assists, but the team won only 13 of 50 games. The lowest point of the season came on April 10 in a game against the Miami Heat. In that game, the Bulls scored 49 points to set an NBA record for the fewest points in a game in the shot clock era.
The previous year 's dismal finish came with one highlight: the team won the draft lottery and the rights to power forward Elton Brand. Since the team lost Harper, Wennington and Barry in the offseason, Brand and fellow rookie Ron Artest led the team throughout the year, especially after Kukoc missed most of the season due to injury and was then dealt for a draft pick at the trading deadline. Brand recorded the first 20 -- 10 average for the Bulls since the days of Artis Gilmore. He led all rookies in scoring, rebounds, blocks, field goal percentage and minutes, while Artest led all rookies in steals and finished second on the team in scoring. For his efforts Brand was named 1999 -- 2000 co-Rookie of the Year with Houston 's Steve Francis, and to the all - rookie first team, while Artest was named to the all - rookie second team. However, the team established a franchise low at 17 -- 65, second worst in the league.
After a summer in which the Bulls witnessed most major and minor free agents Tim Duncan, Grant Hill, Tracy McGrady, Eddie Jones and even Tim Thomas choose to stay with their teams (or go elsewhere) rather than sign with them, Krause signed free agent center Brad Miller and shooting guard Ron Mercer, and drafted power forward Marcus Fizer and traded draft pick Chris Mihm to Cleveland for the rights of guard Jamal Crawford. Brand again led the team in scoring and rebounds with another 20 -- 10 season, but the new acquisitions failed to make a major impact, and they finished with the worst record in team history and the league 's worst for the season at 15 -- 67.
Krause shocked Bulls fans on draft day in 2001 when he traded franchise player Brand to the Los Angeles Clippers for the second pick in the draft, Tyson Chandler. He also selected Eddy Curry with the fourth pick. Since both Chandler and Curry came straight out of high school, neither was expected to make much of a contribution for several years, but they were seen as potential franchise players. The team floundered without veteran leadership. At mid-season, the Bulls traded their top three scorers -- Mercer, Artest, and Miller along with Kevin Ollie -- to the Indiana Pacers for veteran guard Jalen Rose, Travis Best and Norman Richardson. There was also a change in coaching, with Floyd being dismissed in favor of assistant coach and former Bulls co-captain Bill Cartwright, following a series of arguments with players and management. The Bulls improved from 15 to 21 wins, although they were still tied for last in the league.
For the 2002 -- 03 season, the Bulls came to play with much optimism. They picked up college phenom Jay Williams with the second pick in the draft. Williams teamed with Jalen Rose, Crawford, Fizer, newcomer Donyell Marshall, Curry, Chandler, and guard Trenton Hassell to form a young and exciting nucleus which improved to 30 -- 52 in Bill Cartwright 's first full season as head coach. Curry led the league in field goal percentage, becoming the first Bull since Jordan to lead the league in a major statistical category.
During the summer of 2003, long - time GM Jerry Krause retired, and former player and color commentator John Paxson was tapped as his successor. Jay Williams, coming off a promising rookie campaign, was seriously injured in a motorcycle accident. His contract was bought out by the Bulls in February 2004 and he has yet to return to the game. Paxson selected point guard Kirk Hinrich with the seventh pick in the draft, and signed veteran free agent and former franchise player Scottie Pippen. With Pippen playing, Cartwright at the sidelines, and Paxson in the front office, the Bulls hoped that some of the championship magic from before would return.
However, the 2003 -- 04 season was a resounding disappointment. Eddy Curry regressed, leading to questions about his conditioning and commitment. Tyson Chandler was plagued by a chronic back injury, missing more than thirty games. Pippen 's ability to influence games was impaired by knee problems, and he openly contemplated retirement. Jamal Crawford remained inconsistent. Bill Cartwright was fired as head coach in December and replaced with former Phoenix coach Scott Skiles. A trade with the Toronto Raptors brought Antonio Davis and Jerome Williams in exchange for Rose and Marshall in what was seen as a major shift in team strategy from winning with athleticism to winning with hard work and defense. After struggling throughout the season, the Bulls finished with 23 wins and 59 losses, the second - worst record in the league. Fizer was not re-signed, and Crawford was re-signed and traded to the Knicks for expiring contracts. Hinrich provided the lone bright spot, becoming a fan favorite for his gritty determination and tenacious defense. He won a place on the All - Rookie first team.
During the 2004 off - season, Paxson traded a 2005 draft pick to the Phoenix Suns in return for an additional pick in the 2004 NBA draft. He used the picks to select Connecticut guard Ben Gordon and Duke small forward Luol Deng in the first round, and Duke point guard Chris Duhon in the second. Paxson also signed free agent small forward Andrés Nocioni, who had recently won an Olympic gold medal as a member of the Argentine national team. After losing the first nine games of the season, the Bulls began to show signs of improvement behind their improved team defense and clutch fourth - quarter play from Gordon. The Bulls, who were 0 -- 9 to start the season, finished the regular season 47 -- 35, with the third - best record in the Eastern Conference and advanced to the NBA playoffs for the first time since Jordan 's departure. In the first round, the 4th - seeded Bulls played the Washington Wizards. Despite an injury to Deng and a heart issue with Curry, the Bulls opened the series with two wins at home, but lost the next four games and the series. After the season, Ben Gordon became the first rookie to win the NBA Sixth Man Award and the first Bull to win the award since 1996 with Toni Kukoč.
During the 2005 off - season, the Bulls re-signed free agent Tyson Chandler. However, Curry showed possible symptoms of a heart disease resulting of a heart murmur during checkups, and Paxson would not clear him to play without extensive DNA testing. Ultimately, Curry refused to participate in the tests, and he was traded along with Antonio Davis to the New York Knicks for Michael Sweetney, Tim Thomas, and what became the second pick of the 2006 NBA draft -- as well as the right to swap picks with New York in the 2007 NBA draft.
Without a significant post presence, the Bulls struggled for most of the 2005 -- 06 season. However, a late - season 12 -- 2 surge allowed them to finish 41 -- 41 and qualify for the 2006 playoffs as the seventh seed. There, the Bulls faced the Miami Heat. After two close losses in Miami, the Bulls broke through with a blowout win in Game 3, and another win in Game 4. However, the Heat took the next two games to win the series and went on to win that year 's championship. The Bulls ' several young players nevertheless earned additional postseason experience, and Nocioni turned in a remarkable series of performances that far exceeded his season averages.
In the 2006 NBA Draft, the Bulls were awarded forward - center LaMarcus Aldridge and immediately traded him to the Portland Trail Blazers for forward Tyrus Thomas and forward Viktor Khryapa. In a second draft - day trade, the Bulls selected Rodney Carney and traded him to the Philadelphia 76ers for guard Thabo Sefolosha. Later that summer, four - time Defensive Player of the Year Ben Wallace signed with the Bulls for a reported four - year, $60 million contract. Following the signing of Wallace, the Bulls traded Tyson Chandler, the last remaining player of the Krause era, to the (then) New Orleans / Oklahoma City Hornets for veteran power forward P.J. Brown and J.R. Smith and salary cap space that was used to sign former Chicago co-captain Adrian Griffin.
In 2006 -- 07, the Bulls overcame a 3 -- 9 season start to finish 49 -- 33, the third - best record in the Eastern Conference. In the first round, the Bulls again faced Miami, the defending NBA champions. The Bulls narrowly won Game 1 at home, then followed it with a blowout victory in Game 2. In Miami, the Bulls rallied from a 12 - point second - half deficit to win Game 3 and then posted another comeback win in Game 4. The Bulls ' four - game sweep of the defending champions stunned many NBA observers. It was Chicago 's first playoff series victory since 1998, Jordan 's last season with the team.
The Bulls then advanced to face the Detroit Pistons, marking the first time the Central Division rivals had met in the playoffs since 1991. The Pistons won the first three games including a big comeback in Game 3. No NBA team had ever come back from a 0 -- 3 deficit to win the series, but the Bulls avoided a sweep by winning Game 4 by 10 points. The Bulls then easily won Game 5 in Detroit, and had a chance to make NBA history. But they lost at home in game 6 by 10, and the Pistons won the series 4 -- 2 on May 17.
During the off season, the Bulls signed forward Joe Smith and guard Adrian Griffin, and drafted center Joakim Noah. However, distractions began when Luol Deng and Ben Gordon turned down contract extensions, never citing reasons. Then rumors surfaced that the Bulls were pursuing stars like Kevin Garnett, Pau Gasol, and most notably, Kobe Bryant. None of these deals happened, and general manager John Paxson denied a deal was ever imminent.
The Bulls started the 2007 -- 08 NBA season by losing 10 of their first 12 games and on December 24, 2007, after a 9 -- 16 start, the Bulls fired head coach Scott Skiles. Jim Boylan was named the interim head coach on December 27, 2007.
On February 21, 2008, Ben Wallace, Joe Smith, Adrian Griffin and the Bulls ' 2009 2nd round draft pick were exchanged for Drew Gooden, Cedric Simmons, Larry Hughes and Shannon Brown in a three - team trade deal involving the Cleveland Cavaliers and the Seattle SuperSonics. Boylan was not retained on April 17 at the conclusion of the 2007 -- 08 season after compiling a 24 -- 32 record with the Bulls. The Bulls ended the 2007 -- 08 campaign with a 33 -- 49 record, a complete reversal of last year 's record.
After Jim Boylan 's interim tenure expired, the Bulls began the process of selecting a new head coach. They were in talks with former Phoenix head coach Mike D'Antoni, but on May 10, 2008, he signed with the New York Knicks. Other possible options included former Dallas head coach Avery Johnson and former Bulls head coach Doug Collins. Collins resigned from the coaching list on June 4, 2008, reporting that he did not want to ruin his friendship with Jerry Reinsdorf.
On June 10, 2008, the Chicago Bulls G.M. John Paxson hired Vinny Del Negro, with no coaching experience, to coach the young Bulls. On July 3, 2008, the Chicago Tribune reported that Del Harris agreed to become an assistant coach for the Chicago Bulls along with former Charlotte Bobcats head coach Bernie Bickerstaff and longtime NBA assistant Bob Ociepka. Along with Bickerstaff and Ociepka, Harris helped establish a veteran presence on the coaching staff and helped rookie head coach Del Negro.
With a slim 1.7 % chance of winning the rights to draft number 1, the Bulls won the 2008 NBA Draft Lottery and selected first overall. With this, the Bulls became the team with the lowest chance of winning to ever win the lottery since it was modified for the 1994 NBA draft, and second lowest ever. On June 26, 2008, the Bulls drafted Chicago native Derrick Rose from the University of Memphis as the number 1 draft pick. At pick number 39 they selected Sonny Weems. The Bulls later traded Weems to the Denver Nuggets for Denver 's 2009 regular second - round draft pick. The Bulls then acquired Ömer Aşık from the Portland Trail Blazers (selected with the 36th pick) for Denver 's 2009 regular second - round draft pick, New York 's 2009 regular second - round draft pick, and the Bulls ' 2010 regular second - round draft pick. The Bulls re-signed Luol Deng to a six - year $71 million contract on July 30, 2008. He was later plagued with an injury keeping him from action for most of the 2008 -- 09 season. Ben Gordon signed a one - year contract on October 2, 2008.
On February 18, 2009, the Bulls made their first of several trades, sending Andrés Nocioni, Drew Gooden, Cedric Simmons, and Michael Ruffin to the Sacramento Kings for Brad Miller and John Salmons. Then on February 19, 2009, the NBA trade deadline, the Bulls traded Larry Hughes to the New York Knicks for Tim Thomas, Jerome James, and Anthony Roberson. Later that day the Bulls made the third trade in a span of less than 24 hours by sending swingman Thabo Sefolosha to the Oklahoma City Thunder for a 2009 first - round pick. The trades brought a late - season push for the Bulls, which finally clinched a playoff berth on April 10, 2009, their fourth in the last five years. They finished the season with a 41 -- 41 record. Their record was good enough to secure a No. 7 seed in the 2009 NBA Playoffs, playing a tough series against the Boston Celtics. In Game 1, Derrick Rose scored 36 points, along with 11 assists, tying Kareem Abdul - Jabbar 's record for most points scored by a rookie in a playoff debut. After breaking the record for most overtimes played in an NBA Playoffs Series, the Boston Celtics managed to overcome the Bulls after 7 games and 7 overtimes played.
The Bulls had two first round picks in the 2009 NBA draft and decided to take Wake Forest stand out forward James Johnson and athletic USC forward Taj Gibson. In the 2009 NBA off - season the Bulls lost their leading scorer, Ben Gordon, when he signed with their divisional rival, the Detroit Pistons.
On February 18, 2010, John Salmons was traded to the Milwaukee Bucks for Joe Alexander and Hakim Warrick. Meanwhile, Tyrus Thomas was traded to the Charlotte Bobcats for Acie Law, Flip Murray and a future protected first round pick. On April 14, 2010, the Bulls clinched the playoffs with the number 8 seed. Unlike the previous year, however, the Bulls ' playoff run was shorter and less dramatic as they were eliminated by the Cleveland Cavaliers in five games. On May 4, 2010, the Bulls officially fired head coach Vinny Del Negro.
In early June 2010, Boston Celtics assistant Tom Thibodeau accepted a three - year contract to fill the Bulls ' head coaching vacancy. He was officially introduced on June 23. On July 7, it was revealed that Carlos Boozer of the Utah Jazz had verbally agreed to an $80 million, five - year contract. Afterwards, the Bulls traded veteran point guard Kirk Hinrich to the Washington Wizards to create more cap space. The Bulls also signed former 76er and Jazz sharpshooter Kyle Korver to a three - year, $15 million contract. The same day that the Bulls signed Kyle Korver, they signed Turkish All - Star Ömer Aşık. After being matched by the Orlando Magic for J.J. Redick, they signed their third free agent from the Jazz in the off - season in shooting guard Ronnie Brewer, traded for former Warrior point guard C.J. Watson, and signed former Bucks power forward Kurt Thomas as well as former Spurs player Keith Bogans and former Celtic Brian Scalabrine.
Rose earned the 2011 NBA MVP Award, thereby becoming the youngest player in NBA history to win it. He became the first Bulls player since Michael Jordan to win the award. As a team, Chicago finished the regular season with a league - best 62 -- 20 record and clinched the first seed in the Eastern Conference for the first time since 1998. The Bulls defeated the Indiana Pacers and the Atlanta Hawks in five and six games, respectively, thereby reaching the Eastern Conference finals for the first time since 1998, and faced the Miami Heat. After winning the first game of the series, they lost the next four games, ending their season.
During the off - season, the Bulls drafted Jimmy Butler 30th overall in the 2011 NBA draft. After the NBA lockout ended, the Bulls lost Kurt Thomas to free agency, and released Keith Bogans. The Bulls signed veteran shooting guard Richard "Rip '' Hamilton to a three - year deal, after he was waived by the Detroit Pistons. The Bulls also gave MVP Derrick Rose a 5 - year contract extension worth $94.8 million.
Derrick Rose was voted as an NBA All - Star starter for the second consecutive year, and was the third leading voted player overall behind Dwight Howard and Kobe Bryant. Luol Deng was also selected as a reserve for the Eastern Conference. This was the first time that the Bulls had two all stars since 1997, when Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen were the duo. Derrick Rose was injured for most of the 2011 -- 12 NBA season; however, the team was still able to finish with a 50 -- 16 record and clinched the first seed in the Eastern Conference for the second straight year and the best overall record in the NBA (tied with the San Antonio Spurs). Rose suffered a new injury when he tore his ACL during the 4th quarter of the first playoff game on April 28, 2012, against the Philadelphia 76ers and missed the rest of the series. Head coach Tom Thibodeau was criticized for keeping Rose in the game even though the Bulls were essentially minutes away from their victory over the 76ers. The Bulls lost the next three games, and also lost Noah to a foot injury after he severely rolled his ankle stepping on Andre Iguodala 's foot in Game 3; he briefly returned for part of the fourth quarter of that game, but missed the following games in the series. After winning Game 5 at home, Bulls were eliminated by the 76ers in Game 6 in Philadelphia, becoming the fifth team in NBA history to be eliminated as a first seed by an eighth seed. In Game 6, Andre Iguodala sank two free throws with 2.2 seconds left to put the 76ers up 79 -- 78 after getting fouled by Ömer Aşık, who had missed two free throws five seconds earlier. At the end of the season, Boozer and Aşık were the only members on the Bulls ' roster to have played in every game, with Korver and Brewer missing one game apiece. In the offseason, the Bulls gave up Lucas to the Toronto Raptors, Brewer to the New York Knicks, Korver to the Atlanta Hawks, Watson to the Brooklyn Nets and Aşık to the Houston Rockets, but brought back Kirk Hinrich. In addition, they added Marco Belinelli, Vladimir Radmanovic, Nazr Mohammed and Nate Robinson to the roster via free agency.
Rose missed the entire 2012 -- 13 season, but despite his absence, the Bulls finished 45 -- 37, second in the Central Division (behind the Indiana Pacers) and 5th in their conference. They defeated the Brooklyn Nets 4 -- 3 (after leading 3 -- 1) in the first round of the playoffs and lost to the Miami Heat 4 -- 1 in the next round.
During the season, the Bulls snapped both Miami 's 27 - game winning streak and the New York Knicks ' 13 - game winning streak, becoming the second team in NBA history to snap two winning streaks of 13 games or more in a season.
Just 10 games into the 2013 -- 14 season, Derrick Rose would tear his medial meniscus on a non-contact play. He declared he would miss the remainder of the season. On January 7, 2014, veteran forward Luol Deng was traded to the Cleveland Cavaliers for center Andrew Bynum and a set of picks. Bynum was immediately waived after the trade went through. The Bulls would finish second in the Central Division with 48 wins, and earned home - court advantage in the first round. However, due to lack of a strong offensive weapon, they failed to win a single home game en route to losing to the Washington Wizards in five games.
In the 2014 NBA draft, the Bulls traded their 16th and 19th picks for Doug McDermott, the former Creighton star and 5th leading scorer in NCAA history, who was selected with the 11th pick, and in the second round, took Cameron Bairstow with the 49th pick. That offseason, they signed Pau Gasol, re-signed Kirk Hinrich and brought over Eurostar Nikola Mirotić, who was acquired via a draft day trade in 2011, but could not come over sooner, due to salary cap constraints.
The second return of Derrick Rose gave the Bulls and their fans optimism for the 2014 -- 15 season. With 2 - time NBA Champion Pau Gasol and a deep bench consisting of Taj Gibson, Nikola Mirotić, Tony Snell, Aaron Brooks, Doug McDermott, Kirk Hinrich, among others, the Bulls were one of the two favorite teams to come out of the Eastern Conference along with the Cleveland Cavaliers. The Bulls started off the season in style with a blowout win of the New York Knicks, and then winning 7 of their first 9 games (losses coming to the Cleveland Cavaliers and Boston Celtics). The emergence of Jimmy Butler as a primary scorer for the Bulls was a major surprise and he surged into the forefront of the "Most Improved Player of the Year '' award race. Butler 's statistical jump was noted by many as one of the greatest in NBA History, going from scoring just 13 points per game in 2013 -- 14 to scoring 20 points per game in 2014 -- 15. Pau Gasol was considered a huge asset for the Bulls and averaged a double - double throughout the season. Both Butler and Gasol ended up making the Eastern Conference All - Star team. The Bulls ' second half of the season was marred by inconsistency and frustration set in with Derrick Rose blasting the team for not being on the same page. Tension between management and Tom Thibodeau continued to be a dark cloud hanging over the organization. The Bulls finished with a 50 -- 32 record and the 3rd seed in the Eastern Conference. They faced the Milwaukee Bucks in the first round, and took advantage of the young and inexperienced Bucks by going up a quick 3 -- 0 in the series. However, inconsistency and not being on the same page yet again plagued the Bulls as the Bucks won the next two games, sending a scare to Chicago. The Bulls bounced back with fury in Game 6 however, beating the Bucks by a playoff record 54 points winning the series 4 -- 2. The next round saw the Bulls facing their arch - rival Cleveland Cavaliers, and their biggest nemesis, LeBron James, who had beaten the Bulls in all three of their previous playoff meetings. The Bulls shocked the Cavs in Game 1 dominating them and never trailing. The Cavs answered back in Game 2 in the same fashion, never trailing the entire game. In a pivotal Game 3 in Chicago, the Bulls and Cavs battled closely all the way through, but the Bulls prevailed on a last - second buzzer beating 3 - pointer by Derrick Rose. In Game 4, the Cavs would answer once again, with LeBron James hitting the buzzer - beating shot to win the game. The Bulls lack of consistency and poor offensive showing doomed them once again as the Cavs won the next 2 games handily and closed out the series 4 -- 2. After the series, speculation erupted about Tom Thibodeau 's job security due to escalating feud between Thibodeau and Bulls front office managers Gar Forman and John Paxson.
On May 28, 2015, the Bulls fired Tom Thibodeau to seek a "change in approach ''. The Bulls named Fred Hoiberg as their head coach on June 2, 2015. The Bulls had only 1 draft pick in the 2015 NBA draft, and selected center Bobby Portis from the University of Arkansas. Bulls forward Mike Dunleavy Jr. was ruled out for at least the first four months of the season after completing back surgery. With Dunleavy out indefinitely, the Bulls promoted Doug McDermott to the starting lineup in his place at small forward. Before the season started, coach Fred Hoiberg made an incredibly controversial move by putting Nikola Mirotić as his starting power forward to pair with center Pau Gasol, meaning Joakim Noah, a long - time Bulls veteran and a fan - favorite was to come off the bench. Hoiberg told the media that the move was suggested by Noah himself but Noah denied having made any suggestions to Hoiberg, which sparked a distrust between the two before the season even began.
The Bulls started the 2015 -- 16 season off well with an impressive season - opening 97 -- 95 victory against archrivals and defending Eastern Conference Champion Cleveland Cavaliers and jumped to an 8 -- 3 record in the first month. The Bulls went 10 -- 9 and through late November and December. The Bulls came back and won six straight games. However soon afterwards, they lost 12 of their next 17 games and Butler missed four weeks after injuring his knee. The Bulls were eliminated from playoff contention after a loss to the Miami Heat on April 7, 2016 although finishing with season with a winning record of 42 -- 40. It was the first time in 8 years that the Bulls had missed the playoffs.
On June 22, 2016, Derrick Rose and Justin Holiday, along with a 2017 second - round draft pick, were traded to the New York Knicks for center Robin Lopez, and point guards Jerian Grant and José Calderón, who was soon traded to the Los Angeles Lakers. On July 7, the Bulls announced the signing of Rose 's replacement, guard Rajon Rondo. On July 15, the Bulls signed Chicago native Dwyane Wade. On October 17, 2016, the Bulls acquired 2014 Rookie of the Year Michael Carter - Williams in exchange for Tony Snell.
On February 23, 2017, Taj Gibson and Doug McDermott, along with a 2018 second - round draft pick, were traded to the Oklahoma City Thunder for point guard Cameron Payne, shooting guard Anthony Morrow, and power forward / center Joffrey Lauvergne. The Bulls clinched the eighth seed in 2017 NBA Playoffs after winning seven of their final ten games and finishing the season with a 41 -- 41 record. The team struck an early 2 -- 0 lead against the top - seeded Boston Celtics in the first round of the playoffs, but ultimately lost the series after losing the next four games.
On June 22, 2017, Jimmy Butler, along with Chicago 's 2017 first - round pick, was traded to the Minnesota Timberwolves for Zach LaVine, Kris Dunn, and Minnesota 's 2017 first - round pick, which the Bulls used to select Lauri Markkanen. Additionally, on June 27, the Bulls did not give a qualifying offer to Michael Carter - Williams, allowing him to enter unrestricted free agency. On June 30, Rajon Rondo and Isaiah Canaan were waived by the Bulls. On September 24, 2017, Dwyane Wade and the Bulls reportedly agreed to a buyout of the remaining year on his contract. Adrian Wojnarowski reported that Wade gave back $8 million of his $23.2 million contract as part of the agreement.
On October 17, 2017, a fight broke out in practice between Bobby Portis and Nikola Mirotić, who suffered a concussion and two broken bones in his face. Portis was suspended eight games for his role in the altercation, and Mirotić missed 23 games to start the regular season. On February 1, 2018, the Bulls traded Mirotić and a second - round draft pick to the New Orleans Pelicans for a first - round draft pick and Ömer Aşık, Tony Allen, and Jameer Nelson. Bulls ended up finishing the season with 27 -- 55 record. On June 21, 2018, Bulls selected Wendell Carter with the seventh overall pick, and with 22nd overall pick via trade with New Orleans Pelicans selected Chandler Hutchison.
The Bulls ' main division rivals have been the Detroit Pistons ever since the Jordan - led Bulls met the "Bad Boy '' Pistons in the 1988 Eastern Conference semifinals. The two teams met in the playoffs four consecutive years, with the Pistons winning each time until 1991. The Eastern Conference Finals in 1991 ended with a four - game sweep of the Pistons, who walked off the floor with time still on the game clock. The rivalry was renewed in the 2007 Eastern Conference Semifinals, in which former Detroit cornerstone Ben Wallace met his former team (the Pistons won in 6 games). The geographic proximity and membership in the Central Division further intensify the rivalry, which has been characterized by intense, physical play ever since the teams met in the late 1980s. Chicago fans have been known to have a disliking for Detroit professional teams, as it was in the same division as Chicago in all four major North American sports until recently when the Red Wings moved to the Atlantic Division of the Eastern Conference for the 2013 -- 14 season.
The Bulls and the Miami Heat rivalry began once the Heat became contenders during the 1990s, a decade dominated by the Bulls. They were eliminated 3 times by Chicago, who went on to win the title each time. The rivalry has come back due to the return of the Bulls to the playoffs in the post-Michael Jordan era and the emergence of Dwyane Wade and Derrick Rose. The revived rivalry has been very physical, involving rough plays and hard fouls between players, most notably the actions of former Heat player James Posey. The Bulls and Heat met in the 2011 Eastern Conference Finals, with the Heat winning in 5 games. On March 27, 2013, Chicago snapped Miami 's 27 - game winning streak. The Bulls and Heat met later that year in the 2013 Eastern Conference Semifinals. Miami won the series 4 -- 1. Since LeBron James 's departure from Miami, the Bulls - Heat rivalry has experienced a tough in comparison to the better part of the century as the Bulls chop the Heat 's playoff hopes in the 2017 regular season.
Another franchise that the Bulls have competed fiercely with is the New York Knicks. The two teams met in the playoffs in four consecutive years (1991 -- 94) and again in 1996, with the teams ' series twice (1992 and 1994) going the full seven games. Their first playoff confrontation, however, came in 1989 when both teams were called "teams on the rise '' under Michael Jordan and Patrick Ewing, respectively (rivalry that started their freshman year in the 1982 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship Game with Jordan hitting the deciding jumper of the final). That first confrontation would belong to Chicago with six games of the Eastern Semifinals. The Bulls won in the first three years (1991 -- 93) before losing in 1994 but got revenge in 1996. As with Detroit, the historic rivalry between the cities has led to animosity between the teams and occasionally their fans.
During the Bulls ' run of dominance, the player introductions became world - famous. Longtime announcer Tommy Edwards was the first to use "Sirius '', "On The Run '' and other songs in game presentation in the NBA. When Edwards moved to Boston for employment with CBS Radio, he was replaced by Ray Clay in 1990, and Clay continued many of the traditional aspects of the Bulls introductions, including the music, The Alan Parsons Project 's "Sirius '', for all six championship runs. The lights are first dimmed during the visiting team introduction, accompanied by "The Imperial March '' from Star Wars composed by John Williams or "On the Run '' by Pink Floyd, or "Tick of the Clock '' by Chromatics. Virtually all lights in the stadium are then shut off for the Bulls introduction, and a spotlight illuminates each player as he is introduced and runs onto the court; the spotlight is also focused on the Bulls logo prior to the introductions. Since the move to the United Center, lasers and fireworks have been added, and with improvements to the arena 's White Way video screen, computer graphics on the stadium monitors have been added. These graphics feature the 3D - animated ' Running of the Bulls ' en route to the United Center, along the way smashing a bus featuring the opposing team 's logo. Coincidentally, Alan Parsons wrote "Sirius '' for his own band and was the sound engineer for "On the Run '' from Pink Floyd 's album The Dark Side of the Moon.
Traditionally, the players have been introduced in the following order: small forward, power forward, center, point guard, shooting guard. During the championship era, Scottie Pippen was usually the first (or second after Horace Grant) Bulls player introduced, and Michael Jordan the last. (Pippen and Jordan are the only players to play on all six Bulls championship teams.) More recently with Derrick Rose 's arrival, the guards have been reversed in order, making the Chicago - bred point guard the last player introduced. Although internal disputes eventually led to the dismissal of Clay, the Bulls in 2006 announced the return of Tommy Edwards as the announcer.
As part of Edwards ' return, the introductions changed as a new introduction was developed by Lily and Lana Wachowski, Ethan Stoller and Jamie Poindexter, all from Chicago. The introduction also included a newly composed remix of the traditional Sirius theme.
The Bulls have an unofficial tradition of wearing black shoes (regardless of being home or away) during the playoffs, which dates all the way back to 1989 when they debuted the tradition. Then - Bulls backup center Brad Sellers suggested to wear black shoes as a way to show unity within the team. For the 1996 playoffs, they became the first team to wear black socks with the black shoes, similar to the University of Michigan and the Fab Five which started the trend in college earlier in the decade. Since, many teams have this look in both the regular season and playoffs. It was noted when the Bulls made their first playoff appearance during the 2004 -- 05 season after a six - year hiatus, they continued the tradition and wore black shoes.
Even though the Bulls generally wear black footwear in the playoffs since 1989, there have been some notable exceptions. In the 1995 playoffs against the Magic, when Michael Jordan debuted his Air Jordan XI shoe, he wore the white colorway during the Bulls ' playoff games in Orlando. He was fined by the Bulls for not complying with their colorway policy. During the 2009 playoffs, the Bulls again broke the tradition when all of their players wore white shoes and socks in Game 3 of the first round against the Boston Celtics. More recently, since the NBA 's relaxation of sneaker color rules, some Bulls players wore either red or white sneakers in defiance of the tradition.
The Bulls and their arena mates, the Chicago Blackhawks, shared an odd tradition dating to the opening of Chicago Stadium. Every fall, Feld Entertainment 's Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus came to Chicago on its nationwide tour. Since it used large indoor venues rather than tents, it took over the United Center for its entire run and the Bulls were forced, along with the Blackhawks, to take an extended road trip that lasted around two weeks. The start of the "circus trip '', as many sportscasters dubbed it, was noted in local newspapers, television and radio sports reports as "the circus trip '', along with national programs like SportsCenter. Blackhawks chairman Rocky Wirtz, who co-owns the United Center with Bulls chairman Jerry Reinsdorf, let the contract lapse after the circus ' 2016 run, and condensed the formerly two - week local run of Feld 's Disney on Ice to a week - long period effective February 2018.
Dick Klein wanted a name that evoked Chicago 's traditional meat packing industry and the Chicago Stadium 's proximity to the Union Stock Yards. Klein considered names like Matadors or Toreadors, but dismissed them, saying, "If you think about it, no team with as many as three syllables in its nickname has ever had much success except for the (Montreal Canadiens). '' After discussing possible names with his family, Klein settled on Bulls when his son Mark said, "Dad, that 's a bunch of bull! ''
The iconic Bulls ' logo is a charging red bull 's face (seen at left). The logo was designed by noted American graphic designer Dean P. Wessel and was adopted in 1966. At one point, the Bulls also had an alternate logo during the early 1970s, featuring the same Bulls logo, but with a cloud that says "Windy City '' below the bull 's nose.
The Bulls currently wear three different uniforms: a white uniform, a red uniform, and a black alternate uniform. The original uniforms were aesthetically close to what the Bulls wear today, featuring the iconic diamond surrounding the Bulls logo on the shorts and block lettering. What distinguished the original uniforms were the black drop shadows, red or white side stripes with black borders, and white lettering on the red uniforms. For the 1969 -- 70 season, the red uniforms were tweaked to include the city name.
For the 1973 -- 74 season, the Bulls drastically changed their look, removing the side stripes and drop shadows while moving the front numbers to the left chest. While the white uniforms saw the "Bulls '' wordmark go from a vertically arched to radially arched arrangement, the red uniforms saw a more significant makeover, featuring black lettering and a script "Chicago '' wordmark. With a few tweaks in the lettering, these uniforms were used until 1985.
This uniform set was later revived as a throwback uniform during the 2003 -- 04 and 2015 -- 16 seasons.
Starting with the 1985 -- 86 season, the Bulls updated their uniform. Among the more notable changes in the look were centered uniform numbers and a vertically arched "Bulls '' wordmark in both the red and white uniforms. Like the previous set, this uniform saw a few tweaks particularly in the treatment of the player 's name.
When Nike became the NBA 's uniform provider in 2017, the Bulls kept much of the same look save for the truncated shoulder striping and the addition of the Chicago four stars on the waistline. With Nike and the NBA eliminating any designations on home and away uniforms, the Bulls also announced that their red "Icon '' uniforms would become their primary home uniforms while the white "Association '' uniforms would become their primary away uniforms.
In the 1995 -- 96 season, the Bulls added a black uniform to their set. The initial look featured red pinstripes and lacked the classic diamond on the shorts. This set was revived as throwback uniforms in the 2007 -- 08 and 2012 -- 13 seasons.
From the 1997 -- 98 to the 2005 -- 06 seasons, the Bulls wore slightly modified black uniforms without pinstripes. This set, with a few slight changes in the template, also marked the return of the city name in front of the uniform during the 1999 -- 2000 season.
The 2006 -- 07 season saw another change in the Bulls ' black alternate uniform, now resembling the red and white uniform with the addition of a red diamond in the shorts. For the 2014 -- 15 season, the uniforms were tweaked a bit to include sleeves and a modernized diamond treatment in black with red and white borders.
Since the 2017 -- 18 season, the Bulls ' black uniforms remained mostly untouched save for the aforementioned switch to the new Nike logo that affected the treatment towards the shoulder piping. Nike also dubbed this uniform as the "Statement '' uniform in reference to its third jerseys. The Bulls began wearing the Statement uniforms after Thanksgiving and is currently used in away games against teams that wear their white or cream uniforms.
During the 2005 -- 06 season, the Bulls honored the defunct Chicago Stags by wearing the team 's red and blue throwback uniforms. The set featured red tops and blue shorts.
From 2006 to 2017, the Bulls wore a green version of their red uniforms during the week of St. Patrick 's Day in March. The only red elements visible were those found on the team logo. For 2015 the Bulls wore sleeved versions of the green uniform that featured white lettering with gold and black trim and the "Chicago '' wordmark replacing "Bulls in front. In 2016 and 2017, they wore the same uniforms minus the sleeves.
Between 2009 and 2017, the Bulls wore a variation of their red uniforms as part of the NBA 's "Noche Latina '' festivities every March. The only notable change in this uniform was the "Los Bulls '' wordmark in front. For 2014, the Bulls briefly retired the look in favor of a black sleeved uniform featuring "Los Bulls '' in white with red trim.
During the NBA 's "Green Week '' celebrations, the Bulls also wore green uniforms, but with a slightly darker shade from their St. Patrick 's Day counterparts. They used their black alternate uniforms as its template. They donned the uniforms in a game against the Philadelphia 76ers on April 9, 2009.
The Bulls also wore special edition Christmas uniforms as part of the NBA 's Christmas Day games. The one - off Christmas uniforms were as follows:
From 2015 to 2017, the Bulls wore a grey "Pride '' sleeved uniform, featuring the team name and other lettering in red with white trim. The shorts featured a more modernized version of the diamond, along with four six - pointed stars on either side.
In the 2017 -- 18 season, the Bulls will wear special "City '' uniforms designed by Nike. The uniforms, designed to pay homage to Chicago 's flag, are in white and feature the classic "Chicago '' script and numbers in red with light blue trim along with four six - pointed stars on each side.
Benny the Bull is the main mascot of the Chicago Bulls. He was first introduced in 1969. Benny is a red bull who wears number 1. Benny is one of the oldest and best known mascots in all of professional sports. The Bulls also had another mascot named Da Bull. Introduced in 1995, he was described on the team website as being the high flying cousin of Benny, known for his dunking skills. The man who portrayed Da Bull was arrested in 2004 for possession and selling marijuana from his car. Da Bull was retired soon after the incident. While Benny has a family - friendly design, Da Bull was designed as a more realistic bull. Unlike Benny, Da Bull was brown. He also had a meaner facial expression and wore number 95.
In 1992, the team began training at the Berto Center, located at 550 Lake Cook Rd., Deerfield, Illinois. However, on June 13, 2012, the team announced that it would move its practice facility to a downtown location closer to the United Center to reduce game day commutes. On September 12, 2014, the Bulls officially opened their new training facility, the Advocate Center.
Roster Transactions Last transaction: 2018 -- 07 -- 08
The Bulls hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.
Bold denotes still active with team.
Italic denotes still active but not with team. Points scored (regular season) (as of the end of the 2017 -- 18 season)
Other statistics (regular season) (as of April 18, 2017)
Notes:
The team 's games are broadcast on Entercom 's WSCR (670) as of February 3, 2018. From October 2015 - January 2018, games were carried on Cumulus Media 's WLS (890) in a deal that was expected to last until the 2020 - 21 season, but was nullified in the middle of the 2017 - 18 season after Cumulus filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy and nullified several large play - by - play and talent contracts.
Chuck Swirsky does play - by - play, with Bill Wennington providing color commentary. Univision Radio 's WRTO (1200) has carried Spanish language game coverage since 2009 - 10, with Omar Ramos as play - by - play announcer and Matt Moreno as color analyst.
The Bulls ' television broadcasts are split among NBC Sports Chicago, which broadcasts most of the games, WGN - TV, and WCIU - TV. The announcers are Neil Funk and Stacey King. Also worth noting is that WGN - TV does not air all of its Chicago Bulls games nationwide: only a select few, usually Saturday games, were nationally televised on WGN America from 1999 -- 2014. The rest are only available within the Chicago area.
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mount st helens is on what type of plate boundary | Mount St. Helens - wikipedia
Mount St. Helens or Louwala - Clough (known as Lawetlat'la to the indigenous Cowlitz people, and Loowit to the Klickitat) is an active stratovolcano located in Skamania County, Washington, in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is 50 miles (80 km) northeast of Portland, Oregon and 96 miles (154 km) south of Seattle, Washington. Mount St. Helens takes its English name from the British diplomat Lord St Helens, a friend of explorer George Vancouver who made a survey of the area in the late 18th century. The volcano is located in the Cascade Range and is part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc, a segment of the Pacific Ring of Fire that includes over 160 active volcanoes. This volcano is well known for its ash explosions and pyroclastic flows.
Mount St. Helens is most notorious for its major 1980 eruption, the deadliest and most economically destructive volcanic event in the history of the United States. Fifty - seven people were killed; 250 homes, 47 bridges, 15 miles (24 km) of railways, and 185 miles (298 km) of highway were destroyed. A massive debris avalanche triggered by an earthquake measuring 5.1 on the Richter scale caused an eruption that reduced the elevation of the mountain 's summit from 9,677 ft (2,950 m) to 8,363 ft (2,549 m), leaving a 1 mile (1.6 km) wide horseshoe - shaped crater. The debris avalanche was up to 0.7 cubic miles (2.9 km) in volume. The Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument was created to preserve the volcano and allow for its aftermath to be scientifically studied.
As with most other volcanoes in the Cascade Range, Mount St. Helens is a large eruptive cone consisting of lava rock interlayered with ash, pumice, and other deposits. The mountain includes layers of basalt and andesite through which several domes of dacite lava have erupted. The largest of the dacite domes formed the previous summit, and off its northern flank sat the smaller Goat Rocks dome. Both were destroyed in the 1980 eruption.
Mount St. Helens is 34 miles (55 km) west of Mount Adams, in the western part of the Cascade Range. These "sister and brother '' volcanic mountains are approximately 50 miles (80 km) from Mount Rainier, the highest of Cascade volcanoes. Mount Hood, the nearest major volcanic peak in Oregon, is 60 miles (100 km) southeast of Mount St. Helens.
Mount St. Helens is geologically young compared with the other major Cascade volcanoes. It formed only within the past 40,000 years, and the pre-1980 summit cone began rising about 2,200 years ago. The volcano is considered the most active in the Cascades within the Holocene epoch (the last 10,000 or so years).
Prior to the 1980 eruption, Mount St. Helens was the fifth - highest peak in Washington. It stood out prominently from surrounding hills because of the symmetry and extensive snow and ice cover of the pre-1980 summit cone, earning it the nickname "Fuji - san of America ''. The peak rose more than 5,000 feet (1,500 m) above its base, where the lower flanks merge with adjacent ridges. The mountain is 6 miles (9.7 km) across at its base, which is at an elevation of 4,400 feet (1,300 m) on the northeastern side and 4,000 feet (1,200 m) elsewhere. At the pre-eruption tree line, the width of the cone was 4 miles (6.4 km).
Streams that originate on the volcano enter three main river systems: the Toutle River on the north and northwest, the Kalama River on the west, and the Lewis River on the south and east. The streams are fed by abundant rain and snow. The average annual rainfall is 140 inches (3,600 mm), and the snow pack on the mountain 's upper slopes can reach 16 feet (4.9 m). The Lewis River is impounded by three dams for hydroelectric power generation. The southern and eastern sides of the volcano drain into an upstream impoundment, the Swift Reservoir, which is directly south of the volcano 's peak.
Although Mount St. Helens is in Skamania County, Washington, access routes to the mountain run through Cowlitz County to the west. State Route 504, locally known as the Spirit Lake Memorial Highway, connects with Interstate 5 at Exit 49, 34 miles (55 km) to the west of the mountain. That north -- south highway skirts the low - lying cities of Castle Rock, Longview and Kelso along the Cowlitz River, and passes through the Vancouver, Washington -- Portland, Oregon metropolitan area less than 50 miles (80 km) to the southwest. The community nearest the volcano is Cougar, Washington, in the Lewis River valley 11 miles (18 km) south - southwest of the peak. Gifford Pinchot National Forest surrounds Mount St. Helens.
During the winter of 1980 -- 1981, a new glacier appeared. Now officially named Crater Glacier, it was formerly known as the Tulutson Glacier. Shadowed by the crater walls and fed by heavy snowfall and repeated snow avalanches, it grew rapidly (14 feet (4.3 m) per year in thickness). By 2004, it covered about 0.36 square miles (0.93 km), and was divided by the dome into a western and eastern lobe. Typically, by late summer, the glacier looks dark from rockfall from the crater walls and ash from eruptions. As of 2006, the ice had an average thickness of 300 feet (100 m) and a maximum of 650 feet (200 m), nearly as deep as the much older and larger Carbon Glacier of Mount Rainier. The ice is all post -- 1980, making the glacier very young geologically. However, the volume of the new glacier is about the same as all the pre -- 1980 glaciers combined.
With the recent volcanic activity starting in 2004, the glacier lobes were pushed aside and upward by the growth of new volcanic domes. The surface of the glacier, once mostly without crevasses, turned into a chaotic jumble of icefalls heavily criss - crossed with crevasses and seracs caused by movement of the crater floor. The new domes have almost separated the Crater Glacier into an eastern and western lobe. Despite the volcanic activity, the termini of the glacier have still advanced, with a slight advance on the western lobe and a more considerable advance on the more shaded eastern lobe. Due to the advance, two lobes of the glacier joined together in late May 2008 and thus the glacier completely surrounds the lava domes. In addition, since 2004, new glaciers have formed on the crater wall above Crater Glacier feeding rock and ice onto its surface below; there are two rock glaciers to the north of the eastern lobe of Crater Glacier. Crater Glacier is the only known advancing glacier in the contiguous United States.
The early eruptive stages of Mount St. Helens are known as the "Ape Canyon Stage '' (around 40,000 -- 35,000 years ago), the "Cougar Stage '' (ca. 20,000 -- 18,000 years ago), and the "Swift Creek Stage '' (roughly 13,000 -- 8,000 years ago). The modern period, since about 2500 BCE, is called the "Spirit Lake Stage ''. Collectively, the pre -- Spirit Lake stages are known as the "ancestral stages ''. The ancestral and modern stages differ primarily in the composition of the erupted lavas; ancestral lavas consisted of a characteristic mixture of dacite and andesite, while modern lava is very diverse (ranging from olivine basalt to andesite and dacite).
St. Helens started its growth in the Pleistocene 37,600 years ago, during the Ape Canyon stage, with dacite and andesite eruptions of hot pumice and ash. 36,000 years ago a large mudflow cascaded down the volcano; mudflows were significant forces in all of St. Helens ' eruptive cycles. The Ape Canyon eruptive period ended around 35,000 years ago and was followed by 17,000 years of relative quiet. Parts of this ancestral cone were fragmented and transported by glaciers 14,000 to 18,000 years ago during the last glacial period of the current ice age.
The second eruptive period, the Cougar Stage, started 20,000 years ago and lasted for 2,000 years. Pyroclastic flows of hot pumice and ash along with dome growth occurred during this period. Another 5,000 years of dormancy followed, only to be upset by the beginning of the Swift Creek eruptive period, typified by pyroclastic flows, dome growth and blanketing of the countryside with tephra. Swift Creek ended 8,000 years ago.
A dormancy of about 4,000 years was broken around 2500 BCE with the start of the Smith Creek eruptive period, when eruptions of large amounts of ash and yellowish - brown pumice covered thousands of square miles. An eruption in 1900 BCE was the largest known eruption from St. Helens during the Holocene epoch, judged by the volume of one of the tephra layers from that period. This eruptive period lasted until about 1600 BCE and left 18 inches (46 cm) deep deposits of material 50 miles (80 km) distant in what is now Mt. Rainier National Park. Trace deposits have been found as far northeast as Banff National Park in Alberta, and as far southeast as eastern Oregon. All told there may have been up to 2.5 cubic miles (10 km) of material ejected in this cycle. Some 400 years of dormancy followed.
St. Helens came alive again around 1200 BCE -- the Pine Creek eruptive period. This lasted until about 800 BCE and was characterized by smaller - volume eruptions. Numerous dense, nearly red hot pyroclastic flows sped down St. Helens ' flanks and came to rest in nearby valleys. A large mudflow partly filled 40 miles (64 km) of the Lewis River valley sometime between 1000 BCE and 500 BCE.
The next eruptive period, the Castle Creek period, began about 400 BCE, and is characterized by a change in composition of St. Helens ' lava, with the addition of olivine and basalt. The pre-1980 summit cone started to form during the Castle Creek period. Significant lava flows in addition to the previously much more common fragmented and pulverized lavas and rocks (tephra) distinguished this period. Large lava flows of andesite and basalt covered parts of the mountain, including one around the year 100 BCE that traveled all the way into the Lewis and Kalama river valleys. Others, such as Cave Basalt (known for its system of lava tubes), flowed up to 9 miles (14 km) from their vents. During the first century, mudflows moved 30 miles (50 km) down the Toutle and Kalama river valleys and may have reached the Columbia River. Another 400 years of dormancy ensued.
The Sugar Bowl eruptive period was short and markedly different from other periods in Mount St. Helens history. It produced the only unequivocal laterally directed blast known from Mount St. Helens before the 1980 eruptions. During Sugar Bowl time, the volcano first erupted quietly to produce a dome, then erupted violently at least twice producing a small volume of tephra, directed - blast deposits, pyroclastic flows, and lahars.
Roughly 700 years of dormancy were broken in about 1480, when large amounts of pale gray dacite pumice and ash started to erupt, beginning the Kalama period. The eruption in 1480 was several times larger than the May 18, 1980, eruption. In 1482, another large eruption rivaling the 1980 eruption in volume is known to have occurred. Ash and pumice piled 6 miles (9.7 km) northeast of the volcano to a thickness of 3 feet (0.9 m); 50 miles (80 km) away, the ash was 2 inches (5 cm) deep. Large pyroclastic flows and mudflows subsequently rushed down St. Helens ' west flanks and into the Kalama River drainage system.
This 150 - year period next saw the eruption of less silica - rich lava in the form of andesitic ash that formed at least eight alternating light - and dark - colored layers. Blocky andesite lava then flowed from St. Helens ' summit crater down the volcano 's southeast flank. Later, pyroclastic flows raced down over the andesite lava and into the Kalama River valley. It ended with the emplacement of a dacite dome several hundred feet (~ 200 m) high at the volcano 's summit, which filled and overtopped an explosion crater already at the summit. Large parts of the dome 's sides broke away and mantled parts of the volcano 's cone with talus. Lateral explosions excavated a notch in the southeast crater wall. St. Helens reached its greatest height and achieved its highly symmetrical form by the time the Kalama eruptive cycle ended, about 1647. The volcano remained quiet for the next 150 years.
The 57 - year eruptive period that started in 1800 was named after the Goat Rocks dome, and is the first time that both oral and written records exist. Like the Kalama period, the Goat Rocks period started with an explosion of dacite tephra, followed by an andesite lava flow, and culminated with the emplacement of a dacite dome. The 1800 eruption probably rivalled the 1980 eruption in size, although it did not result in massive destruction of the cone. The ash drifted northeast over central and eastern Washington, northern Idaho, and western Montana. There were at least a dozen reported small eruptions of ash from 1831 to 1857, including a fairly large one in 1842. The vent was apparently at or near Goat Rocks on the northeast flank. Goat Rocks dome was the site of the bulge in the 1980 eruption, and it was obliterated in the major eruption event on May 18, 1980 that destroyed the entire north face and top 1,300 feet (400 m) of the mountain.
On March 20, 1980, Mount St. Helens experienced a magnitude 4.2 earthquake; and, on March 27, steam venting started. By the end of April, the north side of the mountain had started to bulge. On May 18, a second earthquake, of magnitude 5.1, triggered a massive collapse of the north face of the mountain. It was the largest known debris avalanche in recorded history. The magma in St. Helens burst forth into a large - scale pyroclastic flow that flattened vegetation and buildings over 230 square miles (600 km). More than 1.5 million metric tons of sulfur dioxide was released into the atmosphere. On the Volcanic Explosivity Index scale, the eruption was rated a five, and categorized as a Plinian eruption.
The collapse of the northern flank of St. Helens mixed with ice, snow, and water to create lahars (volcanic mudflows). The lahars flowed many miles down the Toutle and Cowlitz Rivers, destroying bridges and lumber camps. A total of 3,900,000 cubic yards (3,000,000 m) of material was transported 17 miles (27 km) south into the Columbia River by the mudflows.
For more than nine hours, a vigorous plume of ash erupted, eventually reaching 12 to 16 miles (20 to 27 km) above sea level. The plume moved eastward at an average speed of 60 miles per hour (100 km / h) with ash reaching Idaho by noon. Ashes from the eruption were found collecting on top of cars and roofs next morning, as far as the city of Edmonton in Alberta, Canada.
By about 5: 30 p.m. on May 18, the vertical ash column declined in stature, and less severe outbursts continued through the night and for the next several days. The St. Helens May 18 eruption released 24 megatons of thermal energy; it ejected more than 0.67 cubic miles (2.79 km) of material. The removal of the north side of the mountain reduced St. Helens ' height by about 1,300 feet (400 m) and left a crater 1 mile (1.6 km) to 2 miles (3.2 km) wide and 0.5 miles (800 m) deep, with its north end open in a huge breach. The eruption killed 57 people, nearly 7,000 big game animals (deer, elk, and bear), and an estimated 12 million fish from a hatchery. It destroyed or extensively damaged over 200 homes, 185 miles (298 km) of highway and 15 miles (24 km) of railways.
Between 1980 and 1986, activity continued at Mount St. Helens, with a new lava dome forming in the crater. Numerous small explosions and dome - building eruptions occurred. From December 7, 1989, to January 6, 1990, and from November 5, 1990, to February 14, 1991, the mountain erupted with sometimes huge clouds of ash.
Magma reached the surface of the volcano about October 11, 2004, resulting in the building of a new lava dome on the existing dome 's south side. This new dome continued to grow throughout 2005 and into 2006. Several transient features were observed, such as a lava spine nicknamed the "whaleback, '' which comprised long shafts of solidified magma being extruded by the pressure of magma beneath. These features were fragile and broke down soon after they were formed. On July 2, 2005, the tip of the whaleback broke off, causing a rockfall that sent ash and dust several hundred meters into the air.
Mount St. Helens showed significant activity on March 8, 2005, when a 36,000 - foot (11,000 m) plume of steam and ash emerged -- visible from Seattle. This relatively minor eruption was a release of pressure consistent with ongoing dome building. The release was accompanied by a magnitude 2.5 earthquake.
Another feature to emerge from the dome was called the "fin '' or "slab. '' Approximately half the size of a football field, the large, cooled volcanic rock was being forced upward as quickly as 6 ft (2 m) per day. In mid-June 2006, the slab was crumbling in frequent rockfalls, although it was still being extruded. The height of the dome was 7,550 feet (2,300 m), still below the height reached in July 2005 when the whaleback collapsed.
On October 22, 2006, at 3: 13 p.m. PST, a magnitude 3.5 earthquake broke loose Spine 7. The collapse and avalanche of the lava dome sent an ash plume 2,000 feet (600 m) over the western rim of the crater; the ash plume then rapidly dissipated.
On December 19, 2006, a large white plume of condensing steam was observed, leading some media people to assume there had been a small eruption. However, the Cascades Volcano Observatory of the USGS did not mention any significant ash plume. The volcano was in continuous eruption from October 2004, but this eruption consisted in large part of a gradual extrusion of lava forming a dome in the crater.
On January 16, 2008, steam began seeping from a fracture on top of the lava dome. Associated seismic activity was the most noteworthy since 2004. Scientists suspended activities in the crater and the mountain flanks, but the risk of a major eruption was deemed low. By the end of January, the eruption paused; no more lava was being extruded from the lava dome. On July 10, 2008, it was determined that the eruption had ended, after more than six months of no volcanic activity.
American Indian lore contains numerous legends to explain the eruptions of Mount St. Helens and other Cascade volcanoes. The most famous of these is the Bridge of the Gods legend told by the Klickitat people. In their tale, the chief of all the gods and his two sons, Pahto (also called Klickitat) and Wy'east, traveled down the Columbia River from the Far North in search for a suitable area to settle.
They came upon an area that is now called The Dalles and thought they had never seen a land so beautiful. The sons quarreled over the land, so to solve the dispute their father shot two arrows from his mighty bow -- one to the north and the other to the south. Pahto followed the arrow to the north and settled there while Wy'east did the same for the arrow to the south. The chief of the gods then built the Bridge of the Gods, so his family could meet periodically.
When the two sons of the chief of the gods fell in love with a beautiful maiden named Loowit, she could not choose between them. The two young chiefs fought over her, burying villages and forests in the process. The area was devastated and the earth shook so violently that the huge bridge fell into the river, creating the cascades of the Columbia River Gorge.
For punishment, the chief of the gods struck down each of the lovers and transformed them into great mountains where they fell. Wy'east, with his head lifted in pride, became the volcano known today as Mount Hood. Pahto, with his head bent toward his fallen love, was turned into Mount Adams. The fair Loowit became Mount St. Helens, known to the Klickitats as Louwala - Clough, which means "smoking or fire mountain '' in their language (the Sahaptin called the mountain Loowit).
The mountain is also of sacred importance to the Cowlitz and Yakama tribes that also historically lived in the area. They find the area above its tree line to be of exceptional spiritual significance, and the mountain (which they call "Lawetlat'la '', roughly translated as "the smoker '') features prominently in their creation myth, and in some of their songs and rituals. In recognition of this cultural significance, over 12,000 acres (4,900 ha) of the mountain (roughly bounded by the Loowit Trail) have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Other area tribal names for the mountain include "nšh _́ ák _́ '' ("water coming out '') from the Upper Chehalis, and "aka akn '' ("snow mountain ''), a Kiksht term.
Royal Navy Commander George Vancouver and the officers of HMS Discovery made the Europeans ' first recorded sighting of Mount St. Helens on May 19, 1792, while surveying the northern Pacific Ocean coast. Vancouver named the mountain for British diplomat Alleyne Fitzherbert, 1st Baron St Helens on October 20, 1792, as it came into view when the Discovery passed into the mouth of the Columbia River.
Years later, explorers, traders, and missionaries heard reports of an erupting volcano in the area. Geologists and historians determined much later that the eruption took place in 1800, marking the beginning of the 57 - year - long Goat Rocks Eruptive Period (see geology section). Alarmed by the "dry snow, '' the Nespelem tribe of northeastern Washington danced and prayed rather than collecting food and suffered during that winter from starvation.
In late 1805 and early 1806, members of the Lewis and Clark Expedition spotted Mount St. Helens from the Columbia River but did not report either an ongoing eruption or recent evidence of one. They did however report the presence of quicksand and clogged channel conditions at the mouth of the Sandy River near Portland, suggesting an eruption by Mount Hood sometime in the previous decades.
In 1829 Hall J. Kelley led a campaign to rename the Cascade Range as the President 's Range and also to rename each major Cascade mountain after a former President of the United States. In his scheme Mount St. Helens was to be renamed Mount Washington.
The first authenticated eyewitness report of a volcanic eruption was made in March 1835 by Meredith Gairdner, while working for the Hudson 's Bay Company stationed at Fort Vancouver. He sent an account to the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, which published his letter in January 1836. James Dwight Dana of Yale University, while sailing with the United States Exploring Expedition, saw the quiescent peak from off the mouth of the Columbia River in 1841. Another member of the expedition later described "cellular basaltic lavas '' at the mountain 's base.
In late fall or early winter of 1842, nearby settlers and missionaries witnessed the so - called "Great Eruption ''. This small - volume outburst created large ash clouds, and mild explosions followed for 15 years. The eruptions of this period were likely phreatic (steam explosions). Josiah Parrish in Champoeg, Oregon witnessed Mount St. Helens in eruption on November 22, 1842. Ash from this eruption may have reached The Dalles, Oregon, 48 miles (80 km) southeast of the volcano.
In October 1843, future California governor Peter H. Burnett recounted a story of an aboriginal American man who badly burned his foot and leg in lava or hot ash while hunting for deer. The likely apocryphal story went that the injured man sought treatment at Fort Vancouver, but the contemporary fort commissary steward, Napoleon McGilvery, disclaimed knowledge of the incident. British lieutenant Henry J. Warre sketched the eruption in 1845, and two years later Canadian painter Paul Kane created watercolors of the gently smoking mountain. Warre 's work showed erupting material from a vent about a third of the way down from the summit on the mountain 's west or northwest side (possibly at Goat Rocks), and one of Kane 's field sketches shows smoke emanating from about the same location.
On April 17, 1857, the Republican, a Steilacoom, Washington, newspaper, reported that "Mount St. Helens, or some other mount to the southward, is seen... to be in a state of eruption ''. The lack of a significant ash layer associated with this event indicates that it was a small eruption. This was the first reported volcanic activity since 1854.
Before the 1980 eruption, Spirit Lake offered year - round recreational activities. In the summer there was boating, swimming, and camping, while in the winter there was skiing.
Fifty - seven people were killed during the eruption. Had the eruption occurred one day later, when loggers would have been at work, rather than on a Sunday, the death toll could have been much higher.
83 - year - old Harry R. Truman, who had lived near the mountain for 54 years, became famous when he decided not to evacuate before the impending eruption, despite repeated pleas by local authorities. His body was never found after the eruption.
Another victim of the eruption was 30 - year - old volcanologist David A. Johnston, who was stationed on the nearby Coldwater Ridge. Moments before his position was hit by the pyroclastic flow, Johnston radioed his famous last words: "Vancouver! Vancouver! This is it! '' Johnston 's body was never found.
U.S. President Jimmy Carter surveyed the damage and said, "Someone said this area looked like a moonscape. But the moon looks more like a golf course compared to what 's up there. '' A film crew, led by Seattle filmmaker Otto Seiber, was dropped by helicopter on St. Helens on May 23 to document the destruction. Their compasses, however, spun in circles and they quickly became lost. A second eruption occurred on May 25, but the crew survived and was rescued two days later by National Guard helicopter pilots. Their film, The Eruption of Mount St. Helens, later became a popular documentary.
In 1982, President Ronald Reagan and the U.S. Congress established the Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument, a 110,000 acres (45,000 ha) area around the mountain and within the Gifford Pinchot National Forest.
Following the 1980 eruption, the area was left to gradually return to its natural state. In 1987, the U.S. Forest Service reopened the mountain to climbing. It remained open until 2004 when renewed activity caused the closure of the area around the mountain (see Geological history section above for more details).
Most notable was the closure of the Monitor Ridge trail, which previously let up to 100 permitted hikers per day climb to the summit. On July 21, 2006, the mountain was again opened to climbers. In February 2010, a climber died after falling from the rim into the crater.
The mountain is now circled by the Loowit Trail at elevations of 4000 -- 4900 feet (1,200 - 1,500 m). The northern segment of the trail from the South Fork Toutle River on the west to Windy Pass on the east is a restricted zone where camping, biking, pets, fires, and off - trail excursions are all prohibited.
Mount St. Helens is a popular climbing destination for both beginning and experienced mountaineers. The peak is climbed year - round, although it is more often climbed from late spring through early fall. All routes include sections of steep, rugged terrain. A permit system has been in place for climbers since 1987. A climbing permit is required year - round for anyone who will be above 4,800 feet (1,500 m) on the slopes of Mount St. Helens.
The standard hiking / mountaineering route in the warmer months is the Monitor Ridge Route, which starts at the Climbers Bivouac. This is the most popular and crowded route to the summit in the summer and gains about 4,600 feet (1,400 m) in approximately 5 miles (8 km) to reach the crater rim. Although strenuous, it is considered non-technical climb that involves some scrambling. Most climbers complete the round trip in 7 to 12 hours.
The Worm Flows Route is considered the standard winter route on Mount St. Helens, as it is the most direct route to the summit. The route gains about 5,700 feet (1,700 m) in elevation over about 6 miles (10 km) from trailhead to summit but does not demand the technical climbing that some other Cascade peaks like Mount Rainier do. The "Worm Flows '' part of the route name refers to the rocky lava flows that surround the route. This route can be accessed via the Marble Mountain Sno - Park and the Swift Ski Trail.
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who or what serves as the last or highest source for legal disputes in the united states | Supreme Court - Wikipedia
A supreme court is the highest court within the hierarchy of courts in many legal jurisdictions. Other descriptions for such courts include court of last resort, apex court, and highest (or final) court of appeal. Broadly speaking, the decisions of a supreme court are not subject to further review by any other court. Supreme courts typically function primarily as appellate courts, hearing appeals from decisions of lower trial courts, or from intermediate - level appellate courts.
However, not all highest courts are named as such. Civil law states tend not to have a single highest court. Additionally, the highest court in some jurisdictions is not named the "Supreme Court '', for example, the High Court of Australia; this is because decisions by the High Court could formerly be appealed to the Privy Council. On the other hand, in some places the court named the "Supreme Court '' is not in fact the highest court; examples include the New York Supreme Court, the Supreme Courts of several Canadian provinces / territories and the former Supreme Court of Judicature of England and Wales and Supreme Court of Judicature of Northern Ireland, which are all subordinate to higher courts of appeal.
Some countries have multiple "supreme courts '' whose respective jurisdictions have different geographical extents, or which are restricted to particular areas of law. Some countries with a federal system of government may have both a federal supreme court (such as the Supreme Court of the United States), and supreme courts for each member state (such as the Supreme Court of Nevada), with the former having jurisdiction over the latter only to the extent that the federal constitution extends federal law over state law. However, other federations, such as Canada, may have a supreme court of general jurisdiction, able to decide any question of law. Jurisdictions with a civil law system often have a hierarchy of administrative courts separate from the ordinary courts, headed by a supreme administrative court as is the case in the Netherlands. A number of jurisdictions also maintain a separate constitutional court (first developed in the Czechoslovak Constitution of 1920), such as Austria, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Portugal, Russia, Spain and South Africa. Within the former British Empire, the highest court within a colony was often called the "Supreme Court '', even though appeals could be made from that court to the United Kingdom 's Privy Council (based in London). A number of Commonwealth jurisdictions retain this system, but many others have reconstituted their own highest court as a court of last resort, with the right of appeal to the Privy Council being abolished.
In jurisdictions using a common law system, the doctrine of stare decisis applies, whereby the principles applied by the supreme court in its decisions are binding upon all lower courts; this is intended to apply a uniform interpretation and implementation of the law. In civil law jurisdictions the doctrine of stare decisis is not generally considered to apply, so the decisions of the supreme court are not necessarily binding beyond the immediate case before it; however, in practice the decisions of the supreme court usually provide a very strong precedent, or jurisprudence constante, for both itself and all lower courts.
The Supreme Court of Bangladesh is created by the provisions of the Constitution of Bangladesh, 1972. There are two Divisions of the Supreme Court, i.e. (a) Appellate Division and (b) High Court Division. Appellate Division is the highest Court of Appeal and usually does not exercise the powers of a court of first instance. Whereas, the High Court Division is a Court of first instance in writ / judicial review, company and admiralty matters.
The Supreme Court of Canada was established in 1875 but only became the highest court in the country in 1949 when the right of appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council was abolished. This court hears appeals from the courts of appeal from the provinces and territories, and also appeals from the Federal Court of Appeal. The Supreme Court is a "General Court of Appeal. '' It can decide any question of law considered by the lower courts, including constitutional law, federal law, and provincial law. The court 's decisions are final and binding on the federal courts and the courts from all provinces and territories. The title "Supreme '' can be confusing because, for example, the Supreme Court of British Columbia does not have the final say and controversial cases heard there often get appealed in higher courts - it is in fact one of the lower courts in such a process.
In Hong Kong, the Supreme Court of Hong Kong (now known as the High Court of Hong Kong) was the final court of appeal during its colonial times which ended with transfer of sovereignty in 1997. The final adjudication power, as in any other British Colonies, rested with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) in London, United Kingdom. Now the power of final adjudication is vested in the Court of Final Appeal created in 1997. Under the Basic Law, its constitution, the territory remains a common law jurisdiction. Consequently, judges from other common law jurisdictions (including England and Wales) can be recruited and continue to serve in the judiciary according to Article 92 of the Basic Law. On the other hand, the power of interpretation of the Basic Law itself is vested in the Standing Committee of the National People 's Congress (NPCSC) in Beijing (without retroactive effect), and the courts are authorised to interpret the Basic Law when trying cases, in accordance with Article 158 of the Basic Law. This arrangement became controversial in light of the right of abode issue in 1999, raising concerns for judicial independence.
In India, the Supreme Court of India was created on January 28, 1950 after adoption of the Constitution. Article 141 of the Constitution of India states that the law declared by Supreme Court is to be binding on all Courts within the territory of India. It is the highest court in India and has ultimate judicial authority to interpret the Constitution and decide questions of national law (including local bylaws). The Supreme Court is also vested with the power of judicial review to ensure the application of the rule of law.
Note that within the constitutional framework of India, Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) has a special status vis - a-vis the other states of India. Article 370 of the Constitution of India carves out certain exceptions for J&K. However, the Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir) Order 1954 makes Article 141 applicable to the state of J&K and hence law declared by the Supreme Court of India is equally applicable to all courts of J&K including the High Court.
The Supreme Court is the highest court in the Republic of Ireland. It has authority to interpret the constitution, and strike down laws and activities of the state that it finds to be unconstitutional. It is also the highest authority in the interpretation of the law. Constitutionally it must have authority to interpret the constitution but its further appellate jurisdiction from lower courts is defined by law. The Irish Supreme Court consists of its presiding member, the Chief Justice, and seven other judges. Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President in accordance with the binding advice of the Government. The Supreme Court sits in the Four Courts in Dublin.
Israel 's Supreme Court is at the head of the court system in the State of Israel. It is the highest judicial instance. The Supreme Court sits in Jerusalem. The area of its jurisdiction is the entire State. A ruling of the Supreme Court is binding upon every court, other than the Supreme Court itself. The Israeli supreme court is both an appellate court and the high court of justice. As an appellate court, the Supreme Court considers cases on appeal (both criminal and civil) on judgments and other decisions of the District Courts. It also considers appeals on judicial and quasi-judicial decisions of various kinds, such as matters relating to the legality of Knesset elections and disciplinary rulings of the Bar Association. As the High Court of Justice (Hebrew: Beit Mishpat Gavoha Le'Zedek בית משפט גבוה לצדק; also known by its initials as Bagatz בג "ץ), the Supreme Court rules as a court of first instance, primarily in matters regarding the legality of decisions of State authorities: Government decisions, those of local authorities and other bodies and persons performing public functions under the law, and direct challenges to the constitutionality of laws enacted by the Knesset. The court has broad discretionary authority to rule on matters in which it considers it necessary to grant relief in the interests of justice, and which are not within the jurisdiction of another court or tribunal. The High Court of Justice grants relief through orders such as injunction, mandamus and Habeas Corpus, as well as through declaratory judgments. The Supreme Court can also sit at a further hearing on its own judgment. In a matter on which the Supreme Court has ruled - whether as a court of appeals or as the High Court of Justice - with a panel of three or more justices, it may rule at a further hearing with a panel of a larger number of justices. A further hearing may be held if the Supreme Court makes a ruling inconsistent with a previous ruling or if the Court deems that the importance, difficulty or novelty of a ruling of the Court justifies such hearing. The Supreme Court also holds the unique power of being able to order "trial de novo '' (a retrial).
In Nauru, there is no single highest court for all types of cases. The Supreme Court has final jurisdiction on constitutional matters, but any other case may be appealed further to the Appellate Court. In addition, an agreement between Nauru and Australia in 1976 provides for appeals from the Supreme Court of Nauru to the High Court of Australia in both criminal and civil cases, with the notable exception of constitutional cases.
In New Zealand, the right of appeal to the Privy Council was abolished following the passing of the Supreme Court Act (2003). A right of appeal to the Privy Council remains for criminal cases which were decided before the Supreme Court was created, but it is likely that the successful appeal by Mark Lundy to the Privy Council in 2013 will be the last appeal to the Board from New Zealand.
The new Supreme Court of New Zealand was officially established at the beginning of 2004, although it did not come into operation until July. The High Court of New Zealand was until 1980 known as the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court has a purely appellate jurisdiction and hears appeals from the Court of Appeal of New Zealand. In some cases, an appeal may be removed directly to the Supreme Court from the High Court. For certain cases, particularly cases which commenced in the District Court, a lower court (typically the High Court or the Court of Appeal) may be the court of final jurisdiction.
The Supreme Court has been the apex court for Pakistan since the declaration of the republic in 1956 (previously the Privy Council had that function). The Supreme Court has the final say on matters of constitutional law, federal law or on matters of mixed federal and provincial competence. It can hear appeals on matters of provincial competence only if a matter of a constitutional nature is raised.
With respect to Pakistan 's territories (i.e. FATA, Azad Kashmir, Northern Areas and Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT)) the Supreme Court 's jurisdiction is rather limited and varies from territory to territory; it can hear appeals only of a constitutional nature from FATA and Northern Areas, while ICT generally functions the same as provinces. Azad Kashmir has its own courts system and the constitution of Pakistan does not apply to it as such; appeals from Azad Kashmir relate to its relationship with Pakistan.
The provinces have their own courts system, with the High Court as the apex court, except insofar as where an appeal can go to the Supreme Court as mentioned above.
The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the ultimate court for criminal and civil matters in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and for civil matters in Scotland. (The supreme court for criminal matters in Scotland is the High Court of Justiciary.) The Supreme Court was established by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 with effect from 1 October 2009, replacing and assuming the judicial functions of the House of Lords. Devolution issues under the Scotland Act 1998, Government of Wales Act and Northern Ireland Act were also transferred to the new Supreme Court by the Constitutional Reform Act, from the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.
In respect of Community Law the Supreme Court is subject to the decisions of the European Court of Justice. Since there can be no appeal from the Supreme Court, there is an interlocutory procedure by which the Supreme Court may refer to the European Court questions of European law which arise in cases before it, and obtain a definitive ruling before the Supreme Court gives its judgment.
The Supreme Court shares its members and accommodation at the Middlesex Guildhall in London with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council which hears final appeals from certain smaller Commonwealth countries, admiralty cases, and certain appeals from the ecclesiastical courts and statutory private jurisdictions, such as professional and academic bodies.
(The Constitutional Reform Act also renamed the Supreme Court of Judicature of Northern Ireland to the Court of Judicature, and the rarely cited Supreme Court of Judicature for England and Wales as the Senior Courts of England and Wales).
The Supreme Court was set up in 2009; until then the House of Lords was the ultimate court in addition to being a legislative body, and the Lord Chancellor, with legislative and executive functions, was also a senior judge in the House of Lords.
The Supreme Court of the United States, established in 1789, is the highest federal court in the United States, with powers of judicial review first asserted in Calder v. Bull (1798) in Justice Iredell 's dissenting opinion. The power was later given binding authority by Justice Marshall in Marbury v. Madison (1803). There are currently nine seats on the US Supreme Court.
Each U.S. state has its own state supreme court, which is the highest authority interpreting that state 's law and administering that state 's judiciary. Two states, Oklahoma and Texas, each have two separate highest courts that hear criminal and civil appellate matters.
In Texas, the state 's Court of Criminal Appeals hears criminal appeals and has sole authority to grant the writ of habeas corpus to a person who has been convicted of a felony, but the Texas Supreme Court also hears appeals in juvenile delinquency matters in additional to civil cases as conventionally defined. Although juvenile cases fall under the Texas Family Code and are classified as civil proceedings, they are "quasi-criminal '' in nature. In re M.A.F., 966 S.W. 2d 448, 450 (Tex. 1998); see In re L.D.C., 400 S.W. 3d 572, 574 (Tex. Crim. App. 2013).
Although Delaware has a specialized court, the Court of Chancery, which hears cases in equity and many disputes involving corporate governance because many corporations chose to incorporate in Delaware regardless of where in the United States their operations and head office may be located, it is not a supreme court because the Delaware Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction over it.
The official names of state supreme courts vary, as do the titles of its members, which can cause confusion between jurisdictions because one state may use a name for its highest court that another uses for a lower court. In New York, Maryland, and the District of Columbia the highest court is called the Court of Appeals, a name used by many states for their intermediate appellate courts. Further, trial courts of general jurisdiction in New York are called the Supreme Court, and the intermediate appellate court is called the Supreme Court, Appellate Division. In West Virginia, the highest court of the state is the Supreme Court of Appeals. In Maine and Massachusetts the highest court is styled the "Supreme Judicial Court ''; the last is the oldest appellate court of continuous operation in the Western Hemisphere. Even within the same jurisdiction, the titles for judicial officeholders can cause confusion. In Texas the members of the Supreme Court and of the 14 intermediate courts of appeals are Justices, while the members of the Court of Criminal Appeals carry the title Judge, which is also used generically. Judges at the lowest trial - court level are called Justices of the Peace or JPs.
The Roman law and the Corpus Juris Civilis are generally held to be the historical model for civil law. From the late 18th century onwards, civil law jurisdictions began to codify their laws, most of all in civil codes.
The Supreme Court functions as a last resort tribunal. Its rulings can not be appealed. It also decides on cases dealing with the interpretation of the constitution (for example, it can overturn a law passed by Congress if it deems it unconstitutional).
In Austria, the Austrian Constitution of 1920 (based on a draft by Hans Kelsen) introduced judicial review of legislative acts for their constitutionality. This function is performed by the Constitutional Court (Verfassungsgerichtshof), which is also charged with the review of administrative acts on whether they violate constitutionally guaranteed rights. Other than that, administrative acts are reviewed by the Administrative Court (Verwaltungsgerichtshof). The Supreme Court (Oberste Gerichtshof (OGH)), stands at the top of Austria 's system of "ordinary courts '' (ordentliche Gerichte) as the final instance in issues of private law and criminal law.
In Brazil, the Supreme Federal Tribunal (Supremo Tribunal Federal) is the highest court. It is both the constitutional court and the court of last resort in Brazilian law. It only reviews cases that may be unconstitutional or final habeas corpus pleads for criminal cases. It also judges, in original jurisdiction, cases involving members of congress, senators, ministers of state, members of the high courts and the President and Vice-President of the Republic. The Superior Court of Justice (Tribunal Superior de Justiça) reviews State and Federal Circuit courts decisions for civil law and criminal law cases, when dealing with federal law or conflicting rulings. The Superior Labour Tribunal (Tribunal Superior do Trabalho) reviews cases involving labour law. The Superior Electoral Tribunal (Tribunal Superior Eleitoral) is the court of last resort of electoral law, and also oversees general elections. The Superior Military Tribunal (Tribunal Superior Militar) is the highest court in matters of federal military law.
In Croatia, the supreme jurisdiction is given to the Supreme Court, which secures a uniform application of laws. The Constitutional Court exists to verify constitutionality of laws and regulations, as well as decide on individual complaints on decisions on governmental bodies. It also decides on jurisdictional disputes between the legislative, executive and judicial branches.
In Denmark, all ordinary courts have original jurisdiction to hear all types of cases, including cases of a constitutional or administrative nature. As a result, there exists no special constitutional court, and therefore final jurisdiction is vested with the Danish Supreme Court (Højesteret) which was established 14 February 1661 by king Frederik III.
In France, supreme appellate jurisdiction is divided among three judicial bodies:
When there is jurisdictional dispute between judicial and administrative courts: the Court of Arbitration (Tribunal des conflits), which is empanelled half from the Court of Cassation and half from the Council of State and presided over by the Minister of Justice, is called together to settle the dispute or hand down a final decision.
The High Court (Haute Cour) exists only to impeach the President of the French Republic in case of "breach of his duties patently incompatible with his continuing in office ''. Since a constitutional amendment of 2007, the French Constitution states that the High Court is composed of all members of both Houses of Parliament. As of 2012, it has never been convened.
In Germany, there is no de jure single supreme court. Instead, cases are handled by numerous federal courts, depending on their nature.
Final interpretation of the German Constitution, the Grundgesetz, is the task of the Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court), which is the de facto highest German court, as it can declare both federal and state legislation ineffective, and has the power to overrule decisions of all other federal courts, despite not being a regular court of appeals on itself in the German court system. It is also the only court possessing the power and authority to outlaw political parties.
When it comes to civil and criminal cases, the Bundesgerichtshof (Federal Court of Justice) is at the top of the hierarchy of courts. The other branches of the German judicial system each have their own appellate systems, each topped by a high court; these are the Bundessozialgericht (Federal Social Court) for matters of social security, the Bundesarbeitsgericht (Federal Labour Court) for employment and labour, the Bundesfinanzhof (Federal Fiscal Court) for taxation and financial issues, and the Bundesverwaltungsgericht (Federal Administrative Court) for administrative law. The so - called Gemeinsamer Senat der Obersten Gerichtshöfe (Joint Senate of the Supreme Courts) is not a supreme court in itself, but an ad - hoc body that is convened in only when one supreme court intends to diverge from another supreme court 's legal opinion or when a certain case exceeds the authority of one court. As the courts have well - defined areas of responsibility, situations like these are rather rare and so, the Joint Senate gathers very infrequently, and only to consider matters which are mostly definitory.
The Supreme Court of Iceland (Icelandic: Hæstiréttur Íslands, lit. Highest Court of Iceland) was founded under Act No. 22 / 1919 and held its first session on 16 February 1920. The Court holds the highest judicial power in Iceland, where the court system has two levels.
The Supreme Court of India, also known colloquially as the ' apex court ', is the highest judicial body in the Republic of India. Any decision taken by it is final and binding, and can only be modified in some cases (death sentence, etc.) by the President of India. It has several jurisdiction like 1. Original 2. Appellate 3. Advisory
It is also known as court of records, i.e. all judgements are recorded and printed. These are cited in lower courts as case - law in various cases.
Italy follows the French system of different supreme courts.
The Italian court of last resort for most disputes is the Corte Suprema di Cassazione. There is also a separate constitutional court, the Corte costituzionale, which has a duty of judicial review, and which can strike down legislation as being in conflict with the Constitution.
In Japan, the Supreme Court of Japan is called 最高 裁判所 (Saikō - Saibansho; called 最高 裁 Saikō - Sai for short), located in Chiyoda, Tokyo, and is the highest court in Japan. It has ultimate judicial authority within Japan to interpret the Constitution and decide questions of national law (including local by laws). It has the power of judicial review (i.e., it can declare Acts of Diet and Local Assembly, and administrative actions, unconstitutional).
In Luxembourg, challenges on the conformity of the law to the Constitution are brought before the Cour Constitutionnelle (Constitutional Court). -- The most used and common procedure to present these challenges is by way of the "question préjudicielle '' (prejudicial question). The Court of last resort for civil and criminal proceedings is the "Cour de Cassation ''. For administrative proceedings the highest court is the "Cour Administrative '' (Administrative Court).
The supreme court of Macau is the Court of Final Appeal (Portuguese: Tribunal de Última Instância; Chinese: 澳門 終審 法院).
The Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation (Spanish: Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación) is the highest court in Mexico.
In the Netherlands, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands is the highest court. Its decisions, known as "arresten '', are absolutely final. The court is banned from testing legislation against the constitution, pursuant to the principle of the sovereignty of the States - General; the court can, however, test legislation against some treaties. Also, the ordinary courts in the Netherlands, including the Hoge Raad, do not deal with administrative law, which is dealt with in separate administrative courts, the highest of which is the Council of State (Raad van State)
While the Philippines is generally considered a civil law nation, its Supreme Court is heavily modelled after the American Supreme Court. This can be attributed to the fact that the Philippines was colonized by both Spain and the United States, and the system of laws of both nations strongly influenced the development of Philippine laws and jurisprudence. Even as the body of Philippine laws remain mostly codified, the Philippine Civil Code expressly recognizes that decisions of the Supreme Court "form part of the law of the land '', belonging to the same class as statutes. The 1987 Philippine Constitution also explicitly grants to the Supreme Court the power of judicial review over laws and executive actions. The Supreme Court is composed of 1 Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices. The court sits either en banc or in divisions, depending on the nature of the case to be decided.
In the judicial system of mainland China the highest court of appeal is the Supreme People 's Court. This supervises the administration of justice by all subordinate "local '' and "special '' people 's courts, and is the court of last resort for the whole People 's Republic of China except for Macau and Hong Kong
In Portugal, there are several supreme courts, each with a specific jurisdiction:
Until 2003, a fifth supreme court also existed for the military jurisdiction, this being the Supreme Military Court (Supremo Tribunal Militar). Presently, in time of peace, the supreme court for military justice matters is the Supreme Court of Justice, which now includes four military judges.
In the Republic of China (Taiwan), there are three different courts of last resort:
The Council of Grand Justices, consisting of 15 justices and mainly dealing with constitutional issues, is the counterpart of constitutional courts in some countries.
All three courts are directly under the Judicial Yuan, whose president also serves as Chief Justice in the Council of Grand Justices.
Founded by papal bull in 1532, the Court of Session is the supreme civil court of Scotland, and the High Court of Justiciary is the supreme criminal court. However, the absolute highest court (excluding criminal matters) is the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom.
Spanish Supreme Court is the highest court for all cases in Spain (both private and public). Only those cases related to human rights can be appealed at the Constitutional Court (which also decides about acts accordance with Spanish Constitution). In Spain, high courts can not create binding precedents; however, lower rank courts usually observe Supreme Court interpretations. In most private law cases, two Supreme Court judgements supporting a claim are needed to appeal at the Supreme Court. Five sections form the Spanish Supreme court:
In Sweden, the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court respectively function as the highest courts of the land. The Supreme Administrative Court considers cases concerning disputes between individuals and administrative organs, as well as disputes among administrative organs, while the Supreme Court considers all other cases. The judges are appointed by the Government. In most cases, the Supreme Courts will only grant leave to appeal a case (prövningstillstånd) if the case involves setting a precedent in the interpretation of the law. Exceptions are issues where the Supreme Court is the court of first instance. Such cases include an application for a retrial of a criminal case in the light of new evidence, and prosecutions made against an incumbent minister of the Government for severe neglect of duty. If a lower court has to try a case which involves a question where there is no settled interpretation of the law, it can also refer the question to the relevant Supreme Court for an answer.
In Switzerland, the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland is the final court of appeals. Due to Switzerland 's system of direct democracy, it has no authority to review the constitutionality of federal statutes, but the people can strike down a proposed law by referendum. According to settled case law, however, the Court is authorised to review the compliance of all Swiss law with certain categories of international law, especially the European Convention of Human Rights.
In Sri Lanka, the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka was created in 1972 after the adoption of a new Constitution. The Supreme Court is the highest and final superior court of record and is empowered to exercise its powers, subject to the provisions of the Constitution. The court rulings take precedence over all lower Courts. The Sri Lanka judicial system is complex blend of both common - law and civil - law. In some cases such as capital punishment, the decision may be passed on to the President of the Republic for clemency petitions. However, when there is 2 / 3 majority in the parliament in favour of president (as with present), the supreme court and its judges ' powers become nullified as they could be fired from their positions according to the Constitution, if the president wants. Therefore, in such situations, Civil law empowerment vanishes.
In South Africa, a "two apex '' system existed from 1994 to 2013. The Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA) was created in 1994 and replaced the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court of South Africa as the highest court of appeal in non-constitutional matters. The SCA is subordinate to the Constitutional Court, which is the highest court in matters involving the interpretation and application of the Constitution. But in August 2013 the Constitution was amended to make the Constitutional Court the country 's single apex court, superior to the SCA in all matters, both constitutional and non-constitutional.
Historically, citizens appealed directly to the King along his route to places out of the Palace. A Thai King would adjudicate all disputes. During the reign of King Chulalongkorn, an official department for appeals was set up, and, after Thailand adopted a western - styled government, Thai Supreme Court was established in 1891.
At present, the Supreme Court of Thailand retains the important status as the highest court of justice in the country. Operating separately from the Administrative Court and the Constitutional Court, the judgement of the Supreme Court is considered as final.
In the United Arab Emirates, the Federal Supreme Court of the United Arab Emirates was created in 1973 after the adoption of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the highest and final superior court of record and is empowered to exercise its powers, subject to the provisions of the Constitution. The court rulings take precedence over all lower Courts. The Emirati judicial system is complex blend of both Islamic law and civil law. In some cases such as capital punishment, the decision may be passed on to the President of the country (currently Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan).
Law of Indonesia at the national level is based on a combination of civil law from the tradition of Roman - Dutch law and customary law from the tradition of Adat. Law in regional jurisdictions can vary from province to province, including even Sharia law, for example Islamic criminal law in Aceh, though even at the national level, individual justices can cite sharia or other forms of non-Dutch law in their legal opinions.
The Supreme Court of Indonesia is the main judicial arm of the state, functioning as the final court of appeal as well as a means to re-open cases previously closed. The Supreme Court, which consists of a total of 51 justices, also oversees the regional high courts. It was founded at the country 's independence in 1945.
The Constitutional Court of Indonesia, on the other hand, is a part of the judicial branch tasked with review of bills and government actions for constitutionality, as well as regulation of the interactions between various arms of the state. The constitutional amendment to establish the court was passed in 2001, and the court itself was established in 2003. The Constitutional Court consists of nine justices serving nine year terms, and they 're appointed in tandem by the Supreme Court, the President of Indonesia and the People 's Representative Council.
In most nations with constitutions modelled after the Soviet Union, the legislature was given the power of being the court of last resort. In the People 's Republic of China, the final power to interpret the law is vested in the Standing Committee of the National People 's Congress (NPCSC). This power includes the power to interpret the basic laws of Hong Kong and Macau, the constitutional documents of the two special administrative regions which are common law and Portuguese - based legal system jurisdictions respectively. This power is a legislative power and not a judicial one in that an interpretation by the NPCSC does not affect cases which have already been decided.
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who does the voice of amber in sofia the first | Sofia the First - wikipedia
Sofia the First is an American animated television series produced for Disney Channel. Jamie Mitchell is the Director and Executive Producer and Craig Gerber serves as Story Editor and Producer. The show follows the adventures of Sofia, played by Ariel Winter. Sofia becomes a princess when her mother, Miranda, marries King Roland II of Enchancia. The show features songs by John Kavanaugh and Erica Rothschild and a musical score by Kevin Kliesch.
The series pilot episode "Once Upon a Princess '', premiered on November 18, 2012 on Disney Channel, featuring a cameo from Cinderella. The 3 good fairies from Sleeping Beauty also get introduced as teachers. The series itself premiered on January 11, 2013 on Disney Channel during its Disney Junior block. Disney Junior renewed Sofia the First for a second season on March 5, 2013, and then the series was renewed on January 8, 2014. The show 's second double - length episode, The Floating Palace, aired on November 24, 2013, with an appearance from Ariel. The third double - length episode, The Curse of Princess Ivy, aired on November 23, 2014, featuring Rapunzel. On April 14, 2015, the series was renewed for a fourth season by Disney Junior. Gerber clarified in December that it will begin in Spring and have 24 22 - minute episodes plus 2 60 - minute specials.
On January 29, 2015, a spin - off series was announced titled Elena of Avalor. The series premiered on July 22, 2016 on Disney Channel. In addition, a television movie premiered on November 20, 2016 titled Elena and the Secret of Avalor, which featured characters from Sofia the First.
A young girl named Sofia and her mother Miranda lived a peasant life in the kingdom of Enchancia. One day, Sofia 's mother marries King Roland II, which leads to her becoming a princess. As she adjusts to her new role, Sofia works to live amongst the royal family while having different adventures along the way. King Roland presents Sofia with a magical amulet, which, Sofia discovers, gives her the power to talk to animals and summon Disney princesses in the time of need.
In October 2012, Sofia was initially identified as Disney 's first Latina princess when a producer spoke during a press tour. A Disney Junior general manager later clarified that "... Sofia is a fairytale girl who lives in a fairytale world. All our characters come from fantasy lands that may reflect elements of various cultures and ethnicities but none are meant to specifically represent those real world cultures. '' Sofia has a mixed fairy - tale heritage, as a Disney spokeswoman elaborated, "... Sofia 's mother, Queen Miranda, was born in a fictitious land, Galdiz, a place with Latin influences. Miranda met Sofia 's father, Birk Balthazar, who hailed from the kingdom of Freezenberg, and together they moved to Enchancia, the place where Sofia was born. ''
Galdiz is based on Spain and Freezenberg is based on Scandinavia. The National Hispanic Media Coalition president / CEO interpreted Kanter 's half - Spanish (- inspired) description of Sofia as her not qualifying as Latina.
Sofia the First: Once Upon a Princess premiered on Disney Channel on November 18, 2012, garnering 8.17 million viewers (when the Live + 7 ratings were tabulated), which made it the # 1 cable TV telecast of all time for kids 2 - 5 and girls 2 - 5. It also set a record for the # 1 preschool cable TV telecast ever in total viewers and for adults 18 - 49.
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when will subnautica be released on xbox one | Subnautica - Wikipedia
Subnautica is a survival adventure game developed and published by Unknown Worlds Entertainment. It allows the player to freely explore the ocean on an alien planet, known as planet 4546B, collecting resources to survive. Subnautica was first released in early access for Microsoft Windows in December 2014, Mac OS X in June 2015, and for Xbox One in May 2016. The full release out of early access was in January 2018 Exclusive for PC on Steam, with a version for the PlayStation 4 also planned for a later date.
Subnautica is a survival, adventure game set in an open world environment and played from a first - person perspective. The player controls the lone survivor of a crashed space ship, called the Aurora, on the fictional ocean planet 4546B. The ship 's wreckage explodes shortly after starting the game, from which point onward it can be explored. The main objective of the player is to explore the game 's world and survive the dangers of the planet while at the same time following the story of the game. Subnautica allows the player to collect resources, construct tools, bases, and submersibles, and interact with the planet 's wildlife. In the basic difficulty "Survival '', the player will have to maintain nutrition, hydration, and oxygen. The game includes a day and night cycle which affects the gameplay and surroundings. The game includes three other modes: "Freedom mode '', in which hunger and thirst are disabled; "Hardcore mode '', which is the same as Survival, except that if the player dies, the player will no longer be able to respawn; and "Creative Mode '', in which the hunger, thirst, health, and oxygen features are all disabled, all the crafting blueprints are acquired, where no resources are needed to craft and the submersibles do not need energy and can not be damaged. The game is mainly set underwater, with two explorable islands.
HTC Vive Support is not yet fully built into the game. As a result, using SteamVR will not work with the Vive Controllers.
Subnautica takes place in the late 22nd century, when humanity begins to colonize planets in space. A vessel constructed by the trans - gov Alterra known as the "Aurora '' has been sent to the outer reaches of controlled space on its maiden voyage with the main goal of constructing a form of high speed space travel structure known as a Phasegate. The Aurora also had a secondary mission which was to scan the Planet 4546B, which they would pass by on their journey, for signs of a ship that had gone missing around a decade prior, known as the "Degasi ''. The Aurora was chosen for this mission due to its new, advanced scanners. Upon coming close to the planet a strange signature is picked up by the scanner and the Aurora is struck by an energy pulse of unknown origin, and shortly after, crash landing onto the planet. While the player crashing is still part of the plot, the Aurora 's nature has changed several times throughout the game 's development. For a period of time, it was instead a terraforming ship sent to harvest resources from the planet when it got shot down, while in the launch version of the game, the Aurora has been built for the sole purpose of constructing a Phasegate in 4546B 's system.
As time passes, a series of radio messages from other survivors begins to stream in, sending the player to other crashed escape pods containing information about some of the Aurora 's passengers, but no people. A few signals appear to be sent by unknown creatures, which are planning on hunting down the survivors of the crash. Eventually, a passing trade ship called the "Sunbeam '' picks up the Aurora 's distress signal and comes to help. However, upon attempting landing to pick up the player, the Sunbeam is destroyed, along with its entire crew, by the Quarantine Enforcement Platform, a huge weapon system built into the side of a mountain island by an unknown alien race around one thousand years ago. Soon afterwards the Alterra Corporation - the Aurora 's owner - manages to send through schematics of a rocket ship called the "Neptune Escape Rocket '' that will allow the player to escape the planet. However, it will not be possible for the rocket to take off while the Quarantine Enforcement Platform is still active.
As the player discovers later in the game, 4546B was host to an ancient alien race around one thousand years ago. They are referred to only as the "Precursor Race ''. The Precursors were not natives of the planet, they were there searching for a cure to a highly infectious bacterium known as "Kharaa '' that they had become infected with on an unknown planet, and in their time had killed over 143 billion of their kind. After many experiments were conducted on the native fauna species, the Precursors discovered one species known as the Sea Emperor Leviathan - the game 's largest creature and the being that has been telepathically communicating with the player throughout the game, whose stomach enzyme known as "Enzyme 42 '' is capable of causing remission of Kharaa 's symptoms.
A purpose built facility known as the "Primary Containment Facility '' was constructed in a remote location at a depth of 1400 meters where the Sea Emperor, along with the eggs it was found with, were contained. Due to the Sea Emperor 's old age, around 1600 years, the potency of its Enzyme 42 had declined, meaning it was not capable of killing the Kharaa bacteria, only causing temporary remission. After discovering this the Precursors shifted their attention from the adult, to the eggs. Despite their best efforts the Precursors were unable to trigger the eggs to hatch and they were left in a state of indefinite stasis.
Unbeknownst to the Precursors. who for reasons unknown were unable to hear the Sea Emperor 's telepathic voice, the Sea Emperor Leviathan was trying to tell them that the only way to hatch the eggs was to place them in their natural conditions, where enzymes produced by local flora would trigger full maturity and the hatching process to begin. After several attempts they took two of the seven Emperor eggs that had been collected and placed one in a laboratory dedicated to the research of eggs, and dissected the other. The egg dissection was a failure as the embryo was incapable of producing potent Enzmye 42. Desperate, the Precursors stole two eggs from another native species, the "Sea Dragon Leviathan '', a species related to the Sea Emperor Leviathan species that shares many features with it, albeit smaller and far less intelligent. These eggs were taken to research the hatching conditions of the Sea Emperor, as the Emperor 's eggs were too precious to lose more of. The Precursors underestimated the Sea Dragon Leviathan, and it pursued them to another of their bases, the "Disease Research Facility ''. One of the two Dragon eggs had been contained here and the Sea Dragon Leviathan launched an assault on the base, ending with it ramming headfirst into one of the support cables keeping the facility suspended above the ground, a feat that - according to the player 's PDA - would have required a ramming force of three hundred tons, and resulted in the death of the creature due to massive head trauma. The cable was ripped from the cave wall and the facility dropped, causing other cables to detach also and the facility to fall to the cave floor. This facility was the site in which Kharaa 's effects were tested on the local fauna, and its destruction caused Kharaa to break out into the ecosystem. Upon outbreak, several automated quarantine procedures were put into place:
In the story, the player must locate and explore four bases constructed on the planet by the Precursors. These are the Quarantine Enforcement Platform, the Disease Research Facility, the Alien Thermal Plant (a huge thermal power generator that supplies energy to all of the Precursor technology on the planet), and the Primary Containment Facility, where the now 2600 year old Sea Emperor Leviathan still resides with its eggs. The Sea Emperor Leviathan explains to the player that forcing the babies out of their eggs as the Precursors tried to will kill them, that they need a hatching enzyme to wake them from the eggs.
The player then gathers local flora to make the Hatching Enzyme and hatches the eggs. After brief contact with its children, the ancient Sea Emperor 's strength finally fails, one of its arm on which it was supported giving out, leaving it crumpled and breathing heavily. After hatching the Sea Emperor 's eggs the player can leave the Primary Containment Facility 's aquarium through a "Warp Gate '' through which the Sea Emperor 's babies also traveled into the shallow waters.
The player can now disable the Quarantine Enforcement Platform. Once this is accomplished, they can launch the Neptune Escape Rocket to leave the planet. After leaving the atmosphere the rocket enters warp speed, made possible by the addition of Precursor technology to the engine. During this sequence the Sea Emperor Leviathan, a deeply philosophical being, makes telepathic contact one last time, saying "What is a wave without the ocean? A beginning without an end? They are different, but they go together. Now you go among the stars, and I fall among the sand. We are different, but we go together ''. After which the credits will play.
In a scene after the credits the computer confirms you have arrived back in Alterra space, but permission to land will only be granted after you pay your outstanding balance of one trillion credits, for the value of the planet 's natural resources used by the player during the game.
Subnautica was announced by Unknown Worlds Entertainment on December 17, 2013, with Charlie Cleveland as the game director and lead gameplay programmer, and Hugh Jeremy as the producer.
The development team opted to use the Unity engine rather than Spark, the engine used for the company 's previous game, Natural Selection 2. Subnautica producer Hugh Jeremy justified this decision because of the different demands that the game places on the engine, and "because (the team) does not include people working on Spark, it 's not appropriate for Subnautica to use Spark. By using Unity for Subnautica, Spark can continue to develop in certain directions, while Subnautica develops in others. To use Spark for Subnautica would be like trying to fit a square peg in a round hole. ''
The development team opted against the inclusion of lethal weapons in the game. Charlie Cleveland, the game 's director, described Subnautica as "one vote towards a world with less guns, '' and had felt inspired by real life gun violence, including the Sandy Hook shooting, to encourage players to think about "non-violent and more creative solutions to solve our problems. ''
Subnautica was released on Steam Early Access on December 16, 2014, and was in early access development until January 23, 2018. It was released on Xbox One Preview on May 17, 2016.
The complete version of Subnautica was released on January 23, 2018 for Steam.
The game received a positive pre-release reception. Ian Birnbaum of PC Gamer described Subnautica as an "underwater Minecraft '', remarking that "with an experienced developer at the helm and a limitless variety of the oceans to play with, it 's going to take a lot for Subnautica to go badly wrong. As the toolbox gets deeper and the shape of the end - game gets set, Subnautica will be a unique example of the ways survival can be tense, rewarding, and fun. '' Marsh Davies of Rock, Paper, Shotgun praised the rewarding nature of exploring the world of Subnautica, but criticized the "arbitrariness '' and lack of intuition in some of the in - game recipes.
At launch, the game received generally positive reviews. Metacritic calculated an average score of 87 out of 100 based on 27 reviews for the Windows version.
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where does the metra train go in chicago | List of Metra stations - wikipedia
Metra is the commuter rail system serving the Chicago metropolitan area in Illinois and Wisconsin, servicing Cook, DuPage, Kane, Lake, McHenry, and Will Counties in northeastern Illinois and the city of Kenosha in southern Wisconsin. It is one of three of the Regional Transportation Authority 's service boards. With an average weekday ridership of 294,600 in 2015, Metra is the fourth busiest commuter rail system in the United States, only behind New York City metropolitan area systems. The Metra system has a total of 241 active stations spread out on 11 rail lines with 487.5 miles (784.6 km) of tracks. As of August 2017, there are no actively planned extensions of the Metra system, although a new station is under construction in Romeoville, Illinois. Construction is expected to be completed in Fall 2017.
In 1974, the Regional Transit Authority (RTA) was created to provide stability in the commuter rail system, as most private commuter companies in the area were beginning to fail. In 1984, RTA created the Commuter Rail Service Board to help with planning an organized commuter rail system in the Chicago area. The board was renamed Metra in 1985. Through the creation of the Northeast Illinois Regional Commuter Railroad Corporation (NIRC), Metra 's operating subsidiary and contracts with freight companies, Metra was able to open a network of commuter rail lines across the region. The system 's newest line, North Central Service, opened on August 19, 1996.
Seven of the system 's eleven lines are owned or operated by the NIRC. Operation of the BNSF Railway Line and the Union Pacific / North Line, Union Pacific / Northwest Line, and the Union Pacific / West Line are handled through purchase of service agreements (PSAs) between Metra, the BNSF Railway and the Union Pacific Railroad. Under these agreements, the railroad companies provide the service using their own employees and either own or control the rights - of - way in addition to the majority of other facilities necessary, while Metra provides the rolling stock. Additionally, Metra funds the portion of South Shore Line within Illinois because it shares tracks with the Metra Electric District. Metra also operates the Hegewisch station, although no Metra trains serve the station.
The development of Chicago 's commuter rail network resulted in a spoke - hub distribution paradigm and Metra 's services radiate out from the Chicago Loop from four terminals: Ogilvie Transportation Center, Union Station, LaSalle Street Station, and Millennium Station. However, all are within a 1.2 miles (1.9 km) radius of each other and easily accessible from one another, either by walking, cycling, driving, or the use of public transport.
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when was the last time the egg bowl was on thanksgiving | Thanksgivukkah - wikipedia
Thanksgivukkah is a holiday name portmanteau neologism given to the convergence of the American holiday of Thanksgiving and the first day (and second night) of the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah on Thursday, November 28, 2013. It was the result of a rare coincidence between the lunisolar Hebrew calendar (whose dates reflect both the moon phase and the time of the solar year, and which can have between 353 and 385 days per year) and the Gregorian calendar. Because the calendars are not calculated the same way, Hanukkah appears at a different time each year on the Gregorian calendar.
The term "Thanksgivukkah '' was trademarked by Dana Gitell, a Boston - area resident who, along with her sister - in - law, Deborah Gitell, created a Facebook page and a Twitter account devoted to the phenomenon and bought the URL. Boston Magazine reported that the idea was popular all over the U.S.
There has been some disagreement about the name: the Manischewitz company, the country 's top producer of kosher food, has spelled the dual - holiday with one fewer "k '' towards the end, as "Thanksgivukah ''; and Israeli newspaper Haaretz posed the question: "Why ' Thanksgivukkah '? Why not ' Chanksgiving? ' ''. Haaretz points to a clip from The O.C., the source of the portmanteau "Chrismukkah '', as the basis of the "Thanksgivukkah '' portmanteau.
Thanksgiving Day fell during Hanukkah at least twice between 1863 (when Thanksgiving was proclaimed a U.S. federal holiday by President Abraham Lincoln) and 2013: in 1888 Thanksgiving was the first day of Hanukkah, and in 1899 it was the fourth day. The 1888 coincidence of Thanksgiving and Hanukkah attracted some media attention at the time, with the New York Herald reporting on joint Thanksgiving -- Hanukkah services held in "various synagogues '' and a sermon given by Rabbi Frederick de Sola Mendes.
Thanksgiving occurred later in 1888 and 1899 than is possible under current U.S. law: as a result of changes between 1939 and 1941, Thanksgiving is always held on the fourth Thursday in November. The last time the fourth Thursday of November fell within Hanukkah before 2013 was in 1861, before Thanksgiving existed. As a result of this confusion, some media reports have mistakenly claimed that Thanksgivukkah had never occurred prior to 2013.
Because the Gregorian and Jewish calendars have slightly different average year lengths, over time they drift out of sync with each other. As a result of this, the first day of Hanukkah will not precede or coincide with Thanksgiving Day again in the foreseeable future. (One physicist has calculated that, if the Jewish calendar is not revised, Thursday, November 28 will not fall during Hanukkah again until the year 79811, once it has drifted all the way around the cycle of the Gregorian calendar and back to November. Many media sources have reported this "tongue - in - cheek '' calculation as a serious estimate of the date of the next Thanksgivukkah.) However, since the Jewish day does not begin at midnight, but on the sunset before it, there will be two more years in which Hanukkah and Thanksgiving partially overlap, with the first night of Hanukkah beginning in the evening of Thanksgiving. These will be the evenings of Thursday, November 27, 2070 and Thursday, November 28, 2165. (The most recent such year was 1918.)
Mayor Thomas Menino of Boston said he would proclaim November 28, 2013, "Thanksgivukkah, '' saying through a spokeswoman: "This is a big deal, a once - in - a-lifetime event. '' Massachusetts State Representative Louis Kafka and local rabbi David Paskin planned to host a gathering close to Thanksgivukkah, that will include a turkey - shaped menorah to give to fellow representatives to put in the Massachusetts State House. U.S. President Barack Obama gave a speech likening the struggles of the Maccabees to those of the Pilgrims.
Macy 's included a giant dreidel in its Thanksgiving Day Parade in New York City. The Dirty Sock Funtime Band wrote a song, "Hannukah, O Hannukah (Introducing the Menurkey!) '', and included it in a show in New York City. A rabbi in Mineola, Long Island, granted a pardon to a kosher turkey in honor of Thanksgivukkah.
A Los Angeles - based festival co-produced by Deborah Gitell and singer / songwriter Craig Taubman was held on November 29, 2013, at the Pico Union building, featuring the Moshav Band and hip hop rapper Kosha Dillz. The festival was funded by a campaign on crowdfunding platform Jewcer. The Beth Tfiloh Congregation in Pikesville, Maryland, set off fireworks to celebrate Thanksgivukkah.
President Obama recognized Thanksgivukkah at the official White House Hanukkah reception on December 5, singling out Menurkey - creator Asher Weintraub as well as Dana and Deborah Gitell for coining the phrase "Thanksgivukkah ''.
Outside the United States, in London, England, the Saatchi Shul hosted a Thanksgivukka Friday night dinner. In Tel Aviv, Israel, Nefesh B'Nefesh co-hosted a Thanksgivukka Friday night dinner and clothing drive.
There have been parodies of it, by satirist Stephen Colbert and by satire news program Dish Nation. Comedian Yisrael Campbell starred in a fake movie trailer for a horror movie titled Happy Thanksgivukkah, where a gentile family 's thanksgiving dinner is invaded by a large Jewish family celebrating Hannukah.
There has been opposition to the holiday on the ground that the syncretism trivializes both festivals. An Anti-Thanksgivukkah anthem was featured in Heeb Magazine and subsequently in The Jewish Daily Forward.
Numerous suggestions were publicly made for combinations of traditional dishes of both holidays. Buzzfeed posted "How to Celebrate Thanksgivukkah, the Best Holiday of All Time, '' with recipes for Manischewitz - brined turkey with challah apple stuffing and latkes with cranberry applesauce. Others focused on sweet potato latkes, latke - crusted turkey cutlets, stuffing a turkey with challah bread, pecan pie rugelach, turkey doughnuts, pumpkin kugel, sufganiyot filled or topped with a sweet cranberry or apple compote or canned pumpkin, and sweet potato, prune and carrot tzimmes.
Lower Manhattan restaurant Kutsher 's Tribeca announced that it would serve a three - course Thanksgivukkah dinner, including sweet potato latkes topped with melted marshmallows. The Manischewitz company launched a multimillion - dollar multimedia campaign in support of the holiday.
Chicago chef and 2013 Kosherfest honoree Laura Frankel, Executive Chef at Spertus Institute for Jewish Learning and Leadership, curated a menu of Thanksgivukkah dishes that included culinary hyrbids like pumpkin - spice latkes and turkey schnitzel with thyme and orange zest.
Thanksgivukkah was characterized by products promoted on and sold online. Funds of over $48,000 to produce a turkey - shaped menorah, dubbed a "menurkey, '' were raised by nine - year - old Asher Weintraub in Manhattan, New York, via a Kickstarter campaign. A crafter in Seattle, Washington, created another Thanksgiving - inspired menorah after she saw a camel menorah and decided she needed a "Turkorah ''. Some suggested that the holiday shopping season would be impacted by the convergence, and that retailers might have earlier holiday promotions. A Thanksgivukkah pop - up store opened in Atlanta, and the Manischewitz company produced a line of products for this day.
While the imagery and products surrounding the day were light - hearted, advocates contended it had a broader significance resonant with American democracy. "There are amazing similarities between the Pilgrims ' quest for religious freedom and what the Maccabees were fighting for, '' one advocate told the New York Daily News, referring to the Hanukkah story of Judah Maccabee, who led the Hebrews ' fight for freedom from and military victory over the Greeks in the 2nd century BC. "This a great opportunity for Jewish Americans to celebrate this country and for everyone to acknowledge the greatness of our shared religious freedoms. '' In 1888, the New York Herald wrote that "The two festivals merged well together, '' describing Hanukkah as "a thanksgiving festival for deliverance from... tyranny ''. A "Thanksgivukkah Manifesto '' has been penned, claiming that it is the ideal holiday for increasingly secular American Jews.
Additionally, some have claimed that both Hanukkah and Thanksgiving have roots in the Jewish harvest festival of Sukkot.
Chrismukkah is a portmanteau neologism referring to the merging of the holidays of Christianity 's Christmas and Judaism 's Hanukkah. The term was popularized by the TV drama The O.C. Chrismukkah is also celebrated as an ironic, alternative holiday. Similar neologisms such as Chrismahanukwanzakah and HanuKwanzMas blend Christmas, Hanukkah, and Kwanzaa. In "A Kosher Christmas: ' Tis the Season to Be Jewish '' (Rutgers University Press, 2012), author Rabbi Joshua Eli Plaut discusses the phenomenon of hybrid Jewish holidays such as Chrismukkah during the December holiday season in the US, and the Americanization of Hanukkah and the holiday season for Jews.
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what happened to martin in aurora teagarden movies | Aurora Teagarden - wikipedia
Aurora Teagarden is a fictional character created by author Charlaine Harris, in a series of eleven crime novels written from 1990 to 2017.
In the first book of the series, twenty - eight - year - old Aurora (Roe) Teagarden is a professional librarian and belongs to the Real Murders club, a group of 12 enthusiasts who gather monthly to study famous baffling or unsolved crimes in the town of Lawrenceton, Georgia.
On June 4, 2014, author Charlaine Harris announced on her Facebook page that the Aurora Teagarden books would be adapted into a series of two - hour films, starring Candace Cameron Bure and would air on the Hallmark Movies and Mysteries Channel.
The films in the series have been shot largely in Vancouver, British Columbia.
The films are broadcast in the USA on Hallmark Movies & Mysteries. Channel 5 took over the broadcast rights for the series in the UK.
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how can a country correct balance of payment deficit | Balance of payments - wikipedia
The balance of payments, also known as balance of international payments and abbreviated B.O.P., of a country is the record of all economic transactions between the residents of the country and the rest of the world in a particular period (over a quarter of a year or more commonly over a year). These transactions are made by individuals, firms and government bodies. Thus the balance of payments includes all external visible and non-visible transactions of a country. It is an important issue to be studied, especially in international financial management field, for a few reasons. First, the balance of payments provides detailed information concerning the demand and supply of a country 's currency. For example, if Mauritius imports more than it exports, then this means that the supply of rupees is likely to exceed the demand in the foreign exchanging market, ceteris paribus. One can thus infer that the Mauritius rupee would be under pressure to depreciate against other currencies. On the other hand, if Mauritius exports more than it imports, then the rupee would be likely to appreciate. Second, a country 's balance - of - payment data may signal its potential as a business partner for the rest of the world. If a country is grappling with a major balance - of - payment difficulty, it may not be able to expand imports from the outside world. Instead, the country may be tempted to impose measures to restrict imports and discourage capital outflows in order to improve the balance - of - payment situation. On the other hand, a country experiencing a significant balance - of payment surplus would be more likely to expand imports, offering marketing opportunities for foreign enterprises, and less likely to impose foreign exchange restrictions. Third, balance - of - payments data can be used to evaluate the performance of the country in international economic competition. Suppose a country is experiencing trade deficits year after year. This trade data may then signal that the country 's domestic industries lack international competitiveness. To interpret balance - of - payments data properly, it is necessary to understand how the balance of payments account is constructed. These transactions include payments for the country 's exports and imports of goods, services, financial capital, and financial transfers. It is prepared in a single currency, typically the domestic currency for the country concerned. Sources of funds for a nation, such as exports or the receipts of loans and investments, are recorded as positive or surplus items. Uses of funds, such as for imports or to invest in foreign countries, are recorded as negative or deficit items.
When all components of the BoP accounts are included they must sum to zero with no overall surplus or deficit. For example, if a country is importing more than it exports, its trade balance will be in deficit, but the shortfall will have to be counterbalanced in other ways -- such as by funds earned from its foreign investments, by running down currency reserves or by receiving loans from other countries.
While the overall BoP accounts will always balance when all types of payments are included, imbalances are possible on individual elements of the BoP, such as the current account, the capital account excluding the central bank 's reserve account, or the sum of the two. Imbalances in the latter sum can result in surplus countries accumulating wealth, while deficit nations become increasingly indebted. The term balance of payments often refers to this sum: a country 's balance of payments is said to be in surplus (equivalently, the balance of payments is positive) by a specific amount if sources of funds (such as export goods sold and bonds sold) exceed uses of funds (such as paying for imported goods and paying for foreign bonds purchased) by that amount. There is said to be a balance of payments deficit (the balance of payments is said to be negative) if the former are less than the latter. A BoP surplus (or deficit) is accompanied by an accumulation (or decumulation) of foreign exchange reserves by the central bank.
Under a fixed exchange rate system, the central bank accommodates those flows by buying up any net inflow of funds into the country or by providing foreign currency funds to the foreign exchange market to match any international outflow of funds, thus preventing the funds flows from affecting the exchange rate between the country 's currency and other currencies. Then the net change per year in the central bank 's foreign exchange reserves is sometimes called the balance of payments surplus or deficit. Alternatives to a fixed exchange rate system include a managed float where some changes of exchange rates are allowed, or at the other extreme a purely floating exchange rate (also known as a purely flexible exchange rate). With a pure float the central bank does not intervene at all to protect or devalue its currency, allowing the rate to be set by the market, and the central bank 's foreign exchange reserves do not change, and the balance of payments is always zero.
The current account shows the net amount a country is earning if it is in surplus, or spending if it is in deficit. It is the sum of the balance of trade (net earnings on exports minus payments for imports), factor income (earnings on foreign investments minus payments made to foreign investors) and cash transfers. It is called the current account as it covers transactions in the "here and now '' -- those that do n't give rise to future claims.
The capital account records the net change in ownership of foreign assets. It includes the reserve account (the foreign exchange market operations of a nation 's central bank), along with loans and investments between the country and the rest of world (but not the future interest payments and dividends that the loans and investments yield; those are earnings and will be recorded in the current account). If a country purchases more foreign assets for cash than the assets it sells for cash to other countries, the capital account is said to be negative or in deficit.
The term "capital account '' is also used in the narrower sense that excludes central bank foreign exchange market operations: Sometimes the reserve account is classified as "below the line '' and so not reported as part of the capital account.
Expressed with the broader meaning for the capital account, the BoP identity states that any current account surplus will be balanced by a capital account deficit of equal size -- or alternatively a current account deficit will be balanced by a corresponding capital account surplus:
The balancing item, which may be positive or negative, is simply an amount that accounts for any statistical errors and assures that the current and capital accounts sum to zero. By the principles of double entry accounting, an entry in the current account gives rise to an entry in the capital account, and in aggregate the two accounts automatically balance. A balance is n't always reflected in reported figures for the current and capital accounts, which might, for example, report a surplus for both accounts, but when this happens it always means something has been missed -- most commonly, the operations of the country 's central bank -- and what has been missed is recorded in the statistical discrepancy term (the balancing item).
An actual balance sheet will typically have numerous sub headings under the principal divisions. For example, entries under Current account might include:
Especially in older balance sheets, a common division was between visible and invisible entries. Visible trade recorded imports and exports of physical goods (entries for trade in physical goods excluding services is now often called the merchandise balance). Invisible trade would record international buying and selling of services, and sometimes would be grouped with transfer and factor income as invisible earnings.
The term "balance of payments surplus '' (or deficit -- a deficit is simply a negative surplus) refers to the sum of the surpluses in the current account and the narrowly defined capital account (excluding changes in central bank reserves). Denoting the balance of payments surplus as BoP surplus, the relevant identity is
Economics writer J. Orlin Grabbe warns the term balance of payments can be a source of misunderstanding due to divergent expectations about what the term denotes. Grabbe says the term is sometimes misused by people who are n't aware of the accepted meaning, not only in general conversation but in financial publications and the economic literature.
A common source of confusion arises from whether or not the reserve account entry, part of the capital account, is included in the BoP accounts. The reserve account records the activity of the nation 's central bank. If it is excluded, the BoP can be in surplus (which implies the central bank is building up foreign exchange reserves) or in deficit (which implies the central bank is running down its reserves or borrowing from abroad).
The term "balance of payments '' is sometimes misused by non-economists to mean just relatively narrow parts of the BoP such as the trade deficit, which means excluding parts of the current account and the entire capital account.
Another cause of confusion is the different naming conventions in use. Before 1973 there was no standard way to break down the BoP sheet, with the separation into invisible and visible payments sometimes being the principal divisions. The IMF have their own standards for BoP accounting which is equivalent to the standard definition but uses different nomenclature, in particular with respect to the meaning given to the term capital account.
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) use a particular set of definitions for the BoP accounts, which is also used by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and the United Nations System of National Accounts (SNA).
The main difference in the IMF 's terminology is that it uses the term "financial account '' to capture transactions that would under alternative definitions be recorded in the capital account. The IMF uses the term capital account to designate a subset of transactions that, according to other usage, previously formed a small part of the overall current account. The IMF separates these transactions out to form an additional top level division of the BoP accounts. Expressed with the IMF definition, the BoP identity can be written:
The IMF uses the term current account with the same meaning as that used by other organizations, although it has its own names for its three leading sub-divisions, which are:
balance of payments are also known as "balance of international trade ''
While the BoP has to balance overall, surpluses or deficits on its individual elements can lead to imbalances between countries. In general there is concern over deficits in the current account. Countries with deficits in their current accounts will build up increasing debt or see increased foreign ownership of their assets. The types of deficits that typically raise concern are
As discussed in the history section below, the Washington Consensus period saw a swing of opinion towards the view that there is no need to worry about imbalances. Opinion swung back in the opposite direction in the wake of financial crisis of 2007 -- 2009. Mainstream opinion expressed by the leading financial press and economists, international bodies like the IMF -- as well as leaders of surplus and deficit countries -- has returned to the view that large current account imbalances do matter. Some economists do, however, remain relatively unconcerned about imbalances and there have been assertions, such as by Michael P. Dooley, David Folkerts - Landau and Peter Garber, that nations need to avoid temptation to switch to protectionism as a means to correct imbalances.
Current account surpluses are facing current account deficits of other countries, the indebtedness of which towards abroad therefore increases. According to Balances Mechanics by Wolfgang Stützel this is described as surplus of expenses over the revenues. Increasing imbalances in foreign trade are critically discussed as a possible cause of the financial crisis since 2007. Many keynesian economists consider the existing differences between the current accounts in the eurozone to be the root cause of the Euro crisis, for instance Heiner Flassbeck, Paul Krugman or Joseph Stiglitz.
There are conflicting views as to the primary cause of BoP imbalances, with much attention on the US which currently has by far the biggest deficit. The conventional view is that current account factors are the primary cause -- these include the exchange rate, the government 's fiscal deficit, business competitiveness, and private behaviour such as the willingness of consumers to go into debt to finance extra consumption. An alternative view, argued at length in a 2005 paper by Ben Bernanke, is that the primary driver is the capital account, where a global savings glut caused by savers in surplus countries, runs ahead of the available investment opportunities, and is pushed into the US resulting in excess consumption and asset price inflation.
In the context of BoP and international monetary systems, the reserve asset is the currency or other store of value that is primarily used by nations for their foreign reserves. BoP imbalances tend to manifest as hoards of the reserve asset being amassed by surplus countries, with deficit countries building debts denominated in the reserve asset or at least depleting their supply. Under a gold standard, the reserve asset for all members of the standard is gold. In the Bretton Woods system, either gold or the U.S. dollar could serve as the reserve asset, though its smooth operation depended on countries apart from the US choosing to keep most of their holdings in dollars.
Following the ending of Bretton Woods, there has been no de jure reserve asset, but the US dollar has remained by far the principal de facto reserve. Global reserves rose sharply in the first decade of the 21st century, partly as a result of the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, where several nations ran out of foreign currency needed for essential imports and thus had to accept deals on unfavourable terms. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) estimates that between 2000 and mid-2009, official reserves rose from $1,900 bn to $6,800 bn. Global reserves had peaked at about $7,500 bn in mid-2008, then declined by about $430 bn as countries without their own reserve currency used them to shield themselves from the worst effects of the financial crisis. From Feb 2009 global reserves began increasing again to reach close to $9,200 bn by the end of 2010.
As of 2009, approximately 65 % of the world 's $6,800 bn total is held in U.S. dollars and approximately 25 % in euros. The UK pound, Japanese yen, IMF special drawing rights (SDRs), and precious metals also play a role. In 2009, Zhou Xiaochuan, governor of the People 's Bank of China, proposed a gradual move towards increased use of SDRs, and also for the national currencies backing SDRs to be expanded to include the currencies of all major economies. Dr Zhou 's proposal has been described as one of the most significant ideas expressed in 2009.
While the current central role of the dollar does give the US some advantages, such as lower cost of borrowings, it also contributes to the pressure causing the U.S. to run a current account deficit, due to the Triffin dilemma. In a November 2009 article published in Foreign Affairs magazine, economist C. Fred Bergsten argued that Dr Zhou 's suggestion or a similar change to the international monetary system would be in the United States ' best interests as well as the rest of the world 's. Since 2009 there has been a notable increase in the number of new bilateral agreements which enable international trades to be transacted using a currency that is n't a traditional reserve asset, such as the renminbi, as the Settlement currency.
A BoP crisis, also called a currency crisis, occurs when a nation is unable to pay for essential imports or service its debt repayments. Typically, this is accompanied by a rapid decline in the value of the affected nation 's currency. Crises are generally preceded by large capital inflows, which are associated at first with rapid economic growth. However a point is reached where overseas investors become concerned about the level of debt their inbound capital is generating, and decide to pull out their funds. The resulting outbound capital flows are associated with a rapid drop in the value of the affected nation 's currency. This causes issues for firms of the affected nation who have received the inbound investments and loans, as the revenue of those firms is typically mostly derived domestically but their debts are often denominated in a reserve currency. Once the nation 's government has exhausted its foreign reserves trying to support the value of the domestic currency, its policy options are very limited. It can raise its interest rates to try to prevent further declines in the value of its currency, but while this can help those with debts denominated in foreign currencies, it generally further depresses the local economy.
One of the three fundamental functions of an international monetary system is to provide mechanisms to correct imbalances.
Broadly speaking, there are three possible methods to correct BoP imbalances, though in practice a mixture including some degree of at least the first two methods tends to be used. These methods are adjustments of exchange rates; adjustment of a nations internal prices along with its levels of demand; and rules based adjustment. Improving productivity and hence competitiveness can also help, as can increasing the desirability of exports through other means, though it is generally assumed a nation is always trying to develop and sell its products to the best of its abilities.
An upwards shift in the value of a nation 's currency relative to others will make a nation 's exports less competitive and make imports cheaper and so will tend to correct a current account surplus. It also tends to make investment flows into the capital account less attractive so will help with a surplus there too. Conversely a downward shift in the value of a nation 's currency makes it more expensive for its citizens to buy imports and increases the competitiveness of their exports, thus helping to correct a deficit (though the solution often does n't have a positive impact immediately due to the Marshall -- Lerner condition).
Exchange rates can be adjusted by government in a rules based or managed currency regime, and when left to float freely in the market they also tend to change in the direction that will restore balance. When a country is selling more than it imports, the demand for its currency will tend to increase as other countries ultimately need the selling country 's currency to make payments for the exports. The extra demand tends to cause a rise of the currency 's price relative to others. When a country is importing more than it exports, the supply of its own currency on the international market tends to increase as it tries to exchange it for foreign currency to pay for its imports, and this extra supply tends to cause the price to fall. BoP effects are not the only market influence on exchange rates however, they are also influenced by differences in national interest rates and by speculation.
When exchange rates are fixed by a rigid gold standard, or when imbalances exist between members of a currency union such as the Eurozone, the standard approach to correct imbalances is by making changes to the domestic economy. To a large degree, the change is optional for the surplus country, but compulsory for the deficit country. In the case of a gold standard, the mechanism is largely automatic. When a country has a favourable trade balance, as a consequence of selling more than it buys it will experience a net inflow of gold. The natural effect of this will be to increase the money supply, which leads to inflation and an increase in prices, which then tends to make its goods less competitive and so will decrease its trade surplus. However the nation has the option of taking the gold out of economy (sterilising the inflationary effect) thus building up a hoard of gold and retaining its favourable balance of payments. On the other hand, if a country has an adverse BoP it will experience a net loss of gold, which will automatically have a deflationary effect, unless it chooses to leave the gold standard. Prices will be reduced, making its exports more competitive, and thus correcting the imbalance. While the gold standard is generally considered to have been successful up until 1914, correction by deflation to the degree required by the large imbalances that arose after WWI proved painful, with deflationary policies contributing to prolonged unemployment but not re-establishing balance. Apart from the US most former members had left the gold standard by the mid-1930s.
A possible method for surplus countries such as Germany to contribute to re-balancing efforts when exchange rate adjustment is not suitable, is to increase its level of internal demand (i.e. its spending on goods). While a current account surplus is commonly understood as the excess of earnings over spending, an alternative expression is that it is the excess of savings over investment. That is:
where CA = current account, NS = national savings (private plus government sector), NI = national investment.
If a nation is earning more than it spends the net effect will be to build up savings, except to the extent that those savings are being used for investment. If consumers can be encouraged to spend more instead of saving; or if the government runs a fiscal deficit to offset private savings; or if the corporate sector divert more of their profits to investment, then any current account surplus will tend to be reduced. However, in 2009 Germany amended its constitution to prohibit running a deficit greater than 0.35 % of its GDP and calls to reduce its surplus by increasing demand have not been welcome by officials, adding to fears that the 2010s will not be an easy decade for the eurozone. In their April 2010 world economic outlook report, the IMF presented a study showing how with the right choice of policy options governments can shift away from a sustained current account surplus with no negative effect on growth and with a positive impact on unemployment.
Nations can agree to fix their exchange rates against each other, and then correct any imbalances that arise by rules based and negotiated exchange rate changes and other methods. The Bretton Woods system of fixed but adjustable exchange rates was an example of a rules based system. John Maynard Keynes, one of the architects of the Bretton Woods system had wanted additional rules to encourage surplus countries to share the burden of rebalancing, as he argued that they were in a stronger position to do so and as he regarded their surpluses as negative externalities imposed on the global economy. Keynes suggested that traditional balancing mechanisms should be supplemented by the threat of confiscation of a portion of excess revenue if the surplus country did not choose to spend it on additional imports. However his ideas were not accepted by the Americans at the time. In 2008 and 2009, American economist Paul Davidson had been promoting his revamped form of Keynes 's plan as a possible solution to global imbalances which in his opinion would expand growth all round without the downside risk of other rebalancing methods.
Historically, accurate balance of payments figures were not generally available. However, this did not prevent a number of switches in opinion on questions relating to whether or not a nations government should use policy to encourage a favourable balance.
Up until the early 19th century, international trade was generally very small in comparison with national output, and was often heavily regulated. In the Middle Ages, European trade was typically regulated at municipal level in the interests of security for local industry and for established merchants. From about the 16th century, mercantilism became the dominant economic theory influencing European rulers, which saw local regulation replaced by national rules aiming to harness the countries ' economic output. Measures to promote a trade surplus such as tariffs were generally favoured. Power was associated with wealth, and with low levels of growth, nations were best able to accumulate funds either by running trade surpluses or by forcefully confiscating the wealth of others. Rulers sometimes strove to have their countries outsell competitors and so build up a "war chest '' of gold.
This era saw low levels of economic growth; average global per capita income is not considered to have significantly risen in the whole 800 years leading up to 1820, and is estimated to have increased on average by less than 0.1 % per year between 1700 and 1820. With very low levels of financial integration between nations and with international trade generally making up a low proportion of individual nations ' GDP, BOP crises were very rare.
From the late 18th century, mercantilism was challenged by the ideas of Adam Smith and other economic thinkers favouring free trade. After victory in the Napoleonic wars Great Britain began promoting free trade, unilaterally reducing her trade tariffs. Hoarding of gold was no longer encouraged, and in fact Britain exported more capital as a percentage of her national income than any other creditor nation has since. Great Britain 's capital exports further helped to correct global imbalances as they tended to be counter cyclical, rising when Britain 's economy went into recession, thus compensating other states for income lost from export of goods.
According to historian Carroll Quigley, Great Britain could afford to act benevolently in the 19th century due to the advantages of her geographical location, its naval power and economic ascendancy as the first nation to enjoy an industrial revolution. A view advanced by economists such as Barry Eichengreen is that the first age of Globalization began with the laying of transatlantic cables in the 1860s, which facilitated a rapid increase in the already growing trade between Britain and America.
Though Current Account controls were still widely used (in fact all industrial nations apart from Great Britain and the Netherlands actually increased their tariffs and quotas in the decades leading up to 1914, though this was motivated more by a desire to protect "infant industries '' than to encourage a trade surplus), capital controls were largely absent, and people were generally free to cross international borders without requiring passports.
A gold standard enjoyed wide international participation especially from 1870, further contributing to close economic integration between nations. The period saw substantial global growth, in particular for the volume of international trade which grew tenfold between 1820 and 1870 and then by about 4 % annually from 1870 to 1914. BoP crises began to occur, though less frequently than was to be the case for the remainder of the 20th century. From 1880 to 1914, there were approximately 8 BoP crises and 8 twin crises -- a twin crises being a BoP crises that coincides with a banking crises.
The favorable economic conditions that had prevailed up until 1914 were shattered by the first world war, and efforts to re-establish them in the 1920s were not successful. Several countries rejoined the gold standard around 1925. But surplus countries did n't "play by the rules '', sterilising gold inflows to a much greater degree than had been the case in the pre-war period. Deficit nations such as Great Britain found it harder to adjust by deflation as workers were more enfranchised and unions in particular were able to resist downwards pressure on wages. During the Great Depression most countries abandoned the gold standard, but imbalances remained an issue and international trade declined sharply. There was a return to mercantilist type "beggar thy neighbour '' policies, with countries competitively devaluing their exchange rates, thus effectively competing to export unemployment. There were approximately 16 BoP crises and 15 twin crises (and a comparatively very high level of banking crises.)
Following World War II, the Bretton Woods institutions (the International Monetary Fund and World Bank) were set up to support an international monetary system designed to encourage free trade while also offering states options to correct imbalances without having to deflate their economies. Fixed but flexible exchange rates were established, with the system anchored by the dollar which alone remained convertible into gold. The Bretton Woods system ushered in a period of high global growth, known as the Golden Age of Capitalism, however it came under pressure due to the inability or unwillingness of governments to maintain effective capital controls and due to instabilities related to the central role of the dollar.
Imbalances caused gold to flow out of the US and a loss of confidence in the United States ability to supply gold for all future claims by dollar holders resulted in escalating demands to convert dollars, ultimately causing the US to end the convertibility of the dollar into gold, thus ending the Bretton Woods system. The 1945 -- 71 era saw approximately 24 BoP crises and no twin crises for advanced economies, with emerging economies seeing 16 BoP crises and just one twin crises.
The Bretton Woods system came to an end between 1971 and 1973. There were attempts to repair the system of fixed exchanged rates over the next few years, but these were soon abandoned, as were determined efforts for the U.S. to avoid BoP imbalances. Part of the reason was displacement of the previous dominant economic paradigm -- Keynesianism -- by the Washington Consensus, with economists and economics writers such as Murray Rothbard and Milton Friedman arguing that there was no great need to be concerned about BoP issues.
In the immediate aftermath of the Bretton Woods collapse, countries generally tried to retain some control over their exchange rate by independently managing it, or by intervening in the foreign exchange market as part of a regional bloc, such as the Snake which formed in 1971. The Snake was a group of European countries who tried to retain stable rates at least with each other; the group eventually evolved into the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) by 1979. From the mid-1970s however, and especially in the 1980s and early 1990s, many other countries followed the US in liberalising controls on both their capital and current accounts, in adopting a somewhat relaxed attitude to their balance of payments and in allowing the value of their currency to float relatively freely with exchange rates determined mostly by the market.
Developing countries who chose to allow the market to determine their exchange rates would often develop sizeable current account deficits, financed by capital account inflows such as loans and investments, though this often ended in crises when investors lost confidence. The frequency of crises was especially high for developing economies in this era -- from 1973 to 1997 emerging economies suffered 57 BoP crises and 21 twin crises. Typically but not always the panic among foreign creditors and investors that preceded the crises in this period was usually triggered by concerns over excess borrowing by the private sector, rather than by a government deficit. For advanced economies, there were 30 BoP crises and 6 banking crises.
A turning point was the 1997 Asian BoP Crisis, where unsympathetic responses by western powers caused policy makers in emerging economies to re-assess the wisdom of relying on the free market; by 1999 the developing world as a whole stopped running current account deficits while the U.S. current account deficit began to rise sharply. This new form of imbalance began to develop in part due to the increasing practice of emerging economies, principally China, in pegging their currency against the dollar, rather than allowing the value to freely float. The resulting state of affairs has been referred to as Bretton Woods II. According to Alaistair Chan, "At the heart of the imbalance is China 's desire to keep the value of the yuan stable against the dollar. Usually, a rising trade surplus leads to a rising value of the currency. A rising currency would make exports more expensive, imports less so, and push the trade surplus towards balance. China circumvents the process by intervening in exchange markets and keeping the value of the yuan depressed. '' According to economics writer Martin Wolf, in the eight years leading up to 2007, "three - quarters of the foreign currency reserves accumulated since the beginning of time have been piled up ''. In contrast to the changed approach within the emerging economies, US policy makers and economists remained relatively unconcerned about BOP imbalances. In the early to mid-1990s, many free market economists and policy makers such as U.S. Treasury secretary Paul O'Neill and Fed Chairman Alan Greenspan went on record suggesting the growing US deficit was not a major concern. While several emerging economies had intervening to boost their reserves and assist their exporters from the late 1980s, they only began running a net current account surplus after 1999. This was mirrored in the faster growth for the US current account deficit from the same year, with surpluses, deficits and the associated buildup of reserves by the surplus countries reaching record levels by the early 2000s and growing year by year. Some economists such as Kenneth Rogoff and Maurice Obstfeld began warning that the record imbalances would soon need to be addressed from as early as 2001, joined by Nouriel Roubini in 2004, but it was not until about 2007 that their concerns began to be accepted by the majority of economists.
Speaking after the 2009 G - 20 London summit, Gordon Brown announced "the Washington Consensus is over ''. There is now broad agreement that large imbalances between different countries do matter; for example mainstream U.S. economist C. Fred Bergsten has argued the U.S. deficit and the associated large inbound capital flows into the U.S. was one of the causes of the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2010. Since the crisis, government intervention in BOP areas such as the imposition of capital controls or foreign exchange market intervention has become more common and in general attracts less disapproval from economists, international institutions like the IMF and other governments.
In 2007, when the crises began, the global total of yearly BoP imbalances was $1680 billion. On the credit side, the biggest current account surplus was China with approx. $362 billion, followed by Japan at $213 billion and Germany at £ 185 billion, with oil producing countries such as Saudi Arabia also having large surpluses. On the debit side, the US had the biggest current account deficit at over $1100 billion, with the UK, Spain and Australia together accounting for close to a further $300 billion.
While there have been warnings of future cuts in public spending, deficit countries on the whole did not make these in 2009, in fact the opposite happened with increased public spending contributing to recovery as part of global efforts to increase demand. The emphases has instead been on the surplus countries, with the IMF, EU and nations such as the U.S., Brazil and Russia asking them to assist with the adjustments to correct the imbalances.
Economists such as Gregor Irwin and Philip R. Lane have suggested that increased use of pooled reserves could help emerging economies not to require such large reserves and thus have less need for current account surpluses. Writing for the FT in Jan 2009, Gillian Tett says she expects to see policy makers becoming increasingly concerned about exchange rates over the coming year. In June 2009, Olivier Blanchard the chief economist of the IMF wrote that rebalancing the world economy by reducing both sizeable surpluses and deficits will be a requirement for sustained recovery.
In 2008 and 2009, there was some reduction in imbalances, but early indications towards the end of 2009 were that major imbalances such as the U.S. current account deficit are set to begin increasing again.
Japan had allowed her currency to appreciate through 2009, but has only limited scope to contribute to the rebalancing efforts thanks in part to her aging population. The euro used by Germany is allowed to float fairly freely in value, however further appreciation would be problematic for other members of the currency union such as Spain, Greece and Ireland who run large deficits. Therefore, Germany has instead been asked to contribute by further promoting internal demand, but this has n't been welcomed by German officials.
China has been requested to allow the renminbi to appreciate but until 2010 had refused, the position expressed by her premier Wen Jiabao being that by keeping the value of the renmimbi stable against the dollar China has been helping the global recovery, and that calls to let her currency rise in value have been motivated by a desire to hold back China 's development. After China reported favourable results for her December 2009 exports however, the Financial Times reported that analysts are optimistic that China will allow some appreciation of her currency around mid-2010.
In April 2010 a Chinese official signalled the government is considering allowing the renminbi to appreciate, but by May analysts were widely reporting the appreciation would likely be delayed due to the falling value of the Euro following the 2010 European sovereign debt crisis. China announced the end of the renminbi 's peg to the dollar in June 2010; the move was widely welcomed by markets and helped defuse tension over imbalances prior to the 2010 G - 20 Toronto summit. However the renminbi remains managed and the new flexibility means it can move down as well as up in value; two months after the peg ended the renminbi had only appreciated against the dollar by about 0.8 %.
By January 2011, the renminbi had appreciated against the dollar by 3.7 %, which means it 's on track to appreciate in nominal terms by 6 % per year. As this reflects a real appreciation of 10 % when China 's higher inflation is accounted for, the U.S. Treasury once again declined to label China a currency manipulator in their February 2011 report to Congress. However Treasury officials did advise the rate of appreciation was still too slow for the best interests of the global economy.
In February 2011, Moody 's analyst Alaistair Chan has predicted that despite a strong case for an upward revaluation, an increased rate of appreciation against the dollar is unlikely in the short term. And as of February 2012, China 's currency had been continuing to appreciate for a year and a half, while drawing remarkably little notice.
While some leading surplus countries including China have been taking steps to boost domestic demand, these have not yet been sufficient to rebalance out of their current account surpluses. By June 2010, the U.S. monthly current account deficit had risen back to $50 billion, a level not seen since mid-2008. With the US currently suffering from high unemployment and concerned about taking on additional debt, fears are rising that the US may resort to protectionist measures.
By September 2010, international tensions relating to imbalances had further increased. Brazil 's finance minister Guido Mantega declared that an "international currency war '' has broken out, with countries competitively trying to devalue their currency so as to boost exports. Brazil has been one of the few major economies lacking a reserve currency to abstain from significant currency intervention, with the real rising by 25 % against the dollar since January 2009. Some economists such as Barry Eichengreen have argued that competitive devaluation may be a good thing as the net result will effectively be equivalent to expansionary global monetary policy. Others such as Martin Wolf saw risks of tensions further escalating and advocated that coordinated action for addressing imbalances should be agreed on at the November G20 summit.
Commentators largely agreed that little substantive progress was made on imbalances at the November 2010 G20. An IMF report released after the summit warned that without additional progress there is a risk of imbalances approximately doubling to reach pre-crises levels by 2014.
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what channel is fox business network in detroit | Fox Business Network - wikipedia
Fox Business Network (FBN), also known as Fox Business, is an American cable and satellite business news television channel that is owned by the Fox Entertainment Group division of 21st Century Fox. The network discusses business and financial news. Day - to - day operations are run by Kevin Magee, executive vice president of Fox News; Neil Cavuto manages content and business news coverage. As of February 2015, Fox Business Network is available to approximately 74,224,000 pay television households (63.8 % of households with television) in the United States.
News Corporation chairman Rupert Murdoch confirmed the launch at his keynote address at the 2007 McGraw - Hill Media Summit on February 8, 2007. Murdoch had publicly stated that if News Corporation 's purchase of The Wall Street Journal went through and if it were legally possible, he would have rechristened the channel with a name that has "Journal '' in it. However, on July 11, 2007, News Corporation announced that the new channel would be called Fox Business Network (FBN). This name Fox Business Network was chosen over Fox Business Channel due to the pre-existing (though seldom used) legal abbreviation of "FBC '' for the then - News Corporation - owned broadcast network Fox Broadcasting Company.
The channel launched on October 15, 2007. The network is placed on channel 43 in the New York City market, which is home to the NYSE and NASDAQ stock exchanges. It is paired with sister network Fox News Channel, which moved to channel 44 (CNBC is carried on channel 15 on Time Warner Cable 's New York City area systems). FBN received carriage on Cablevision channel 106, only available via subscription to its IO Digital Cable package. According to an article in Multichannel News, NBC Universal paid up to "several million dollars '' in order to ensure that CNBC and Fox Business would be separated on the dial, and in order to retain CNBC 's "premium '' channel slot. However, it is important to note that FBN is carried on Time Warner Cable only on its analog service in New York City; in other markets, the channel 's carriage is limited to digital cable. Verizon 's FiOS TV also carries the network on its premier lineup (SD channel 117 and HD channel 617). Dish Network began carrying FBN on channel 206 on February 2, 2009. FBN also received carriage on DirecTV channel 359.
On May 12, 2008, Fox Business Network revamped its daytime lineup, which included the debut of two new programs, Countdown to the Closing Bell and Fox Business Bulls & Bears. On April 20, 2009, Money for Breakfast, The Opening Bell on Fox Business (both hosted by Alexis Glick), The Noon Show with Tom Sullivan and Cheryl Casone, Countdown to the Closing Bell, Fox Business Bulls & Bears, and Cavuto all moved to the network 's new Studio G set. All six of those shows shared the same set in Studio G, which was unveiled on Money for Breakfast the same day.
On September 17, 2012, FBN switched to a letterboxed format on its standard definition feed; simultaneously, all programs began being shown on its HD feed in a full 16: 9 picture format, resulting in the removal of the right - side content wing. The network also debuted new graphics on the same day.
On February 24, 2014, Opening Bell with Maria Bartiromo debuted on FBN in the 9 a.m. ET timeslot, replacing the final 20 minutes of Imus in the Morning (which itself was truncated from 200 minutes to 180 minutes) and moved Varney & Company (which also expanded to the full 2 hours) down to the 11 a.m. ET time slot.
On May 29, 2015, Imus in the Morning ended after a 5 - 1 / 2 year run, as Don Imus retired from television, thus resulting in major changes to FBN 's daytime programming lineup on June 1, 2015. Best of Imus in the Morning, which aired from 5 - 6 a.m. ET, was replaced with a new early - morning business program, FBN AM. Maria Bartiromo, whose Opening Bell program was also cancelled on May 29, debuted her own new morning program, Mornings with Maria, in the time slot previously occupied by the aforementioned Imus in the Morning (6 - 9 a.m. ET). Varney & Company was moved up to the 9: 00 a.m. ET time slot and also, was expanded to 3 hours from 9: 00 a.m. to noon ET. FBN AM and Mornings with Maria were among the four new programs that debuted on June 1, with Cavuto: Coast to Coast and Intelligence Report with Trish Regan being the others.
On November 10, 2015, Fox Business Network, along with The Wall Street Journal hosted its first Republican presidential primary debate, setting a ratings record for the network with 13.5 million viewers. The debate also delivered 1.4 million concurrent streams, making it the most livestreaming primary debate in history and beating out the 2015 Super Bowl by 100,000 streams. Fox Business Network hosted its second Republican primary debate on January 14, 2016 in Charleston, South Carolina with Neil Cavuto and Maria Bartiromo serving as moderators. Both of these primetime debates also included earlier debates featuring presidential candidates who were not ranked as highly in the national polls as well as those based in Iowa or New Hampshire. In 2017, Fox Business Network aired three college football games originally to air on Fox that were moved to the channel due to weather delays. This became the first sports program to air on Fox Business Network with the games produced by Fox Sports (United States).
The high definition simulcast of Fox Business Network is broadcast in the 720p resolution format. Programming shown on this feed was originally produced in high - definition, but was cropped to a 4: 3 image and pushed to the left side of the screen, with the extra room used for additional content, such as statistics and charts, and a wider ticker with more room; the information sidebar was named "The Fox HD Wing '' (competitor channel CNBC HD used the enhanced HD format until October 13, 2014, when it was discontinued altogether).
The sidebar graphic was dropped as a result of the network 's switch to a 16: 9 letterbox format on September 17, 2012, ending the enhanced HD format altogether. The enhanced ticker and headlines, which were previously seen in the old sidebar graphic, were moved to the lower - third of the screen. Both the SD and HD feeds now use the same exact 16: 9 letterbox format, just like its other 21st Century Fox - owned sister networks.
Before the network premiered, few specific facts were made public as to the type of programming approach Fox Business would be taking. However, some details emerged as to how it would differentiate itself from its main competitor, CNBC.
At a media summit hosted by BusinessWeek magazine, Rupert Murdoch was quoted as saying CNBC was too "negative towards business ''. They promised to make Fox Business more "business friendly ''. In addition, it was expected that Fox Business would not be "poaching '' a lot of CNBC 's on - air talent in the immediate future, as most key on - air personalities had been locked into a long - term contract. However, that still left open the possibility of the network taking some of CNBC 's other staff, including editors, producers and other reporters. News Corporation, the former parent company of Fox Business and Fox News Channel (until all of Fox 's film and most of its television properties were spun off into 21st Century Fox in June 2013), made a successful bid for Dow Jones, owner of the Wall Street Journal. However, CNBC stated on air that it had a contract with Dow Jones until 2012. One potential issue down the road is the fact that CNBC operates several news bureaus under the same roof as the Wall Street Journal.
David Asman, Maria Bartiromo, Cheryl Casone, Dagen McDowell, and Stuart Varney are anchors for Fox Business Network; they also appear on Fox News Channel. In addition, Brenda Buttner was also on the roster on FBN until her passing in 2017.
Other anchors include Peter Barnes, Tom Sullivan, Jenna Lee, Nicole Petallides and Cody Willard. Reporters include Jeff Flock (a CNN "original ''), Shibani Joshi (from News 12 Westchester), and Connell McShane (from Bloomberg Television). The network also added former Hewlett - Packard CEO Carly Fiorina as a contributor to the network.
Dave Ramsey had a one - hour prime time show, similar in format to his syndicated radio show, until June 2010. Tom Sullivan broadcast his Tom Sullivan Show on the radio, with plans to syndicate the show nationwide with the assistance of Fox News Radio. Adam Shapiro (formerly with Cleveland 's WEWS - TV and New York City 's WNBC) was added to the Fox Business Network to report from the Washington, D.C. bureau. On October 18, 2007, former CNBC anchor Liz Claman joined the Fox Business Network as co-anchor of the 2 - 3 p.m. portion of the dayside business news block with David Asman. Her first assignment for FBN was an interview with Warren Buffett.
In April 2008, Brian Sullivan (no relation to Tom) joined the Fox Business Network, coming over from Bloomberg Television. Sullivan, who reunited with his Bloomberg colleague Connell McShane, anchored the 10 a.m. - 12 p.m. portion of the business news block with Dagen McDowell.
In September 2009, Don Imus and FBN reached an agreement to carry his show, Imus in the Morning, on Fox Business. The show began airing on October 5, 2009. Fox had previously been in negotiations with Imus to bring his show to the network. In November 2007 (when Imus was just returning to radio, and Fox Business was just starting), negotiations fell through and Imus instead signed with rural - oriented cable network RFD - TV.
On December 23, 2009, Alexis Glick left FBN. Announcing that that day 's episode of The Opening Bell would be her last, she said "I know this is not the norm, but I do n't believe in abrupt departures. '' The only reason given by Glick for her departure was that she was leaving to "embark on a new venture, '' but a number of sources have noted that Don Imus ' new morning show had a significant effect upon Glick 's screen time since he signed with the network.
Maria Bartiromo, formerly of CNBC, joined the Fox Business Network as anchor in February 2014. She is reunited with Liz Claman, Melissa Francis and Charles Gasparino, all 3 of whom worked with Bartiromo during her 20 - year tenure at CNBC. Trish Regan (another CNBC alum), who was previously at Bloomberg, joined FBN in March 2015.
Most recently, former UK Independence Party head Nigel Farage was announced as a commentator on January 20, 2017, the day of Donald Trump 's presidential inauguration. Farage will provide political analysis for both Fox Business and Fox News.
These reporters are based in New York unless otherwise stated.
On January 4, 2008, the New York Times, and several other media outlets that day, reported that FBN had registered an average of 6,300 viewers, far below Nielsen 's 35,000 - viewer threshold. The number was so low that neither Nielsen nor FBN were allowed to confirm the number. The Times and other media outlets noted the network is less than four months old and only in one - third as many households as is CNBC.
In July 2008, Nielsen estimated that FBN averaged 8,000 viewers per daytime hour and 20,000 per prime time hour, compared to 284,000 and 191,000 (respectively) for CNBC. Because FBN 's viewership remained low, Nielsen had difficulty estimating viewership, and the estimates are not statistically significant. At the time, FBN was available in approximately 40 million homes to CNBC 's over 90 million.
In the fall 2008, FBN was losing to CNBC in the ratings by over 10 to 1.
By June 2009, showed FBN with an average of 21,000 viewers between 5 a.m. and 9 p.m., still under the Nielsen threshold, and less than 10 % of CNBC 's 232,000 for the same time span. At this point, FBN was available in about 49 million U.S. homes.
Reports of ratings from the first episode of Imus in the Morning reported an average of 177,000 viewers (and a peak of 202,000 in the 7: 00 a.m. hour) in the time slot, mostly over the age of 65; this was a more than tenfold increase compared to the network 's previous morning show, Money for Breakfast. The program even beat CNBC 's Squawk Box in the time slot.
As of June 2012, Lou Dobbs Tonight was earning an average of 154,000 viewers on Fox Business Network, ahead of its direct competition (Kudlow & Company) on CNBC.
The Fox Business Network ended 2015 as the fastest growing channel on television in the United States. The first quarter of 2016 had FBN experience its strongest ratings in its history with day programming up 111 percent in total viewers and 130 percent in the key age 25 to 54 demographic, compared to a year before.
As of August 2017, Fox Business had surpassed CNBC 's ratings for nine consecutive months, and Lou Dobbs Tonight was the most - watched program in business news. CNBC announced in 2015 that it would no longer rely on Nielsen ratings to measure its daytime audience, turning to rival Cogent Reports instead.
Fox Business has been criticized like CNBC for the number of infomercials it airs during the overnight hours and particularly on weekends. During events regarding the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08, however, FBN had forgone infomercials and aired overnight coverage from Australian sister network Sky News Business Channel and Sky News from the United Kingdom to provide coverage of the overseas reaction to the events.
The channel is (as of January 2014) NOT broadcast to Australia overnight via the Sky News Business Channel. Other countries possible in the future include United Kingdom, although the channel 's reports are aired on 21st Century Fox 's Sky News in the UK, Canada and Italy, although negotiations are still on - going with cable and satellite providers. As of July 2011, the channel is carried on Sky Italia, its first European carriage deal. Fox Business HD was first broadcast in Israel by cable provider HOT in 2015, and it is also carried by Cellcom TV and Partner TV.
On April 20, 2009, the Canadian Radio - television and Telecommunications Commission approved Fox Business Network for distribution in Canada; however, it has yet to receive carriage on any cable and satellite providers within that country.
Fox Business has put together an industrial index made up of "the largest U.S. companies that make the products you know and use every day. '' This index includes:
Anheuser - Busch and Merrill Lynch were included in the original index, but each was acquired by other companies in 2008. They were replaced by Wells Fargo and HP. This index is not available to purchase in the form of an index fund or ETF. The fund received criticism from some financial bloggers for putting together an index with so many competing brands (such as FedEx and UPS; McDonald 's and Yum! Brands; WalMart, Target and Costco; Apple, Dell and Microsoft; and Coca - Cola and PepsiCo).
International competitors include:
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organisation and function of panchayati raj system in madhya pradesh | Panchayati Raj (India) - Wikipedia
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-- -- -- -- -- -- -- Executive:
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- Legislature:
Judiciary:
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- Political parties
National coalitions:
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- State governments
Legislatures:
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- Local governments: Rural bodies:
Urban bodies:
In India, the Panchayati Raj generally refers to the system of local self - government in India introduced by a constitutional amendment in 1992, although it is based upon the traditional panchayat system of South Asia. This Panchayati Raj system was formalized in 1992, following a study conducted by a number of Indian committees on various ways of implementing more decentralized administration. The modern Panchayati Raj and its Gram Panchayats are not to be confused with the extra-constitutional Khap Panchayats (or Caste Panchayats) found in northern India.
In India, the Panchayati Raj now functions as a system of governance in which gram panchayats are the basic units of local administration. The system has three levels: Gram Panchayat (village level), Mandal Parishad or Block Samiti or Panchayat Samiti (block level), and Zila Parishad (district level). It was formalized in 1992 by the 73rd amendment to the Indian Constitution. Currently, the Panchayati Raj system exists in all states except Nagaland, Meghalaya, and Mizoram, and in all Union Territories except Delhi.
The Panchayats receive funds from three sources:
Mahatma Gandhi advocated Panchayati Raj as the foundation of India 's political system, as a decentralized form of government in which each village would be responsible for its own affairs. The term for such a vision was Gram Swaraj ("village self - governance ''). Instead, India developed a highly centralized form of government. However, this has been moderated by the delegation of several administrative functions to the local level, empowering elected gram panchayats. There are significant differences between the traditional Panchayati Raj system, that was envisioned by Gandhi, and the system formalized in India in 1992.
The Panchayat Raj system was first adopted by the state of Rajasthan in Nagaur district on 2 Oct 1959. During the 1950s and 60s, other state governments adopted this system as laws were passed to establish panchayats in various states. The second state was Andhra Pradesh, while Maharashtra was the ninth state. It also founded backing in the Indian Constitution, with the 73rd amendment in 1992 to accommodate the idea.
In the history of Panchayati Raj, in India, on 24 April 1993, the Constitutional (73rd amendment) Act 1992 came into force to provide constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj institutions. This amendment was extended to Panchayats in the tribal areas of eight states, namely: Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and Rajasthan beginning on 24 December 1996. This amendment contains provision for devolution of powers and responsibilities to the panchayats, both for the preparation of economic development plans and social justice, as well as for implementation in relation to 29 subjects listed in the eleventh schedule of the constitution, and the ability to levy and collect appropriate taxes, duties, tolls and fees.. The Act aims to provide a three - tier systems of Panchayati Raj for all states having a population of over 2 million, to hold Panchayat elections regularly every five years, to provide seats reserved for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and women; to appoint a State Finance Commission to make recommendations regarding the financial powers of the Panchayats and to constitute a District Planning Committee, to prepare a development plan draft for the district.
The Balwant Rai Mehta Committee, headed by MP Balwantrai Mehta, was a committee appointed by the Government of India in January 1957 to examine the work of the Community Development Programme (1952) and the National Extension Service (1953), to suggest measures to improve their work. The committee 's recommendation of the committee by NDC in January 1958, and this set the stage for the launching of Panchayati Raj Institutions throughout the country. The committee recommended the establishment of the scheme of ' democratic decentralization ', which finally came to be known as Panchayati Raj.
This led to the establishment of a three - tier Panchayati Raj system: Gram Panchayat at the village level, Panchayat Samiti at the block level, and Zila Parishad at the district level.
A Panchayat Samiti (block panchayat) is a local government body at the tehsil level. This body works for the villages of the tehsil that together are called a "development block ''. The Panchayat Samiti is the link between the Gram Panchayat and the district administration. Just as the tehsil goes by other names in various parts of India, notably mandal and taluka, there are a number of variations in nomenclature for the block panchayat. For example, it is known as Mandal Praja Parishad in Andhra Pradesh, Taluka Panchayat in Gujarat and Karnataka, and Panchayat Samiti in Maharashtra. In general, the block panchayat has the same form as the gram panchayat but at a higher level.
Membership in the block panchayat is mostly ex-official; it is composed of: all of the Sarpanchas (gram panchayat chairmen) in the Panchayat Samiti area, the MPs and MLAs of the area, the sub-district officer (SDO) of the subdivision, co-opt members (representatives of the SC / ST and women), associate members (a farmer from the area, a representative of the cooperative societies and one from marketing services), and some elected members.
The Panchayat Samiti is elected for a term of five years and is headed by a chairman and a deputy chairman.
The common departments in the Samiti are as follows:
There is an officer for every department. A government - appointed Block Development Officer (BDO) is the executive officer to the Samiti and the chief of its administration, and is responsible for his work to the CEO of ZP.
The governing of the advance system at the district level in Panchayat Raj is also popularly known as Zila Parishad. The chief of administration is an officer of the IAS cadre. and chief officer of the Panchayat raj for the district level
The membership varies from 40 to 60 and usually comprises:
Sarpanch as its elected head. The members of the gram panchayat are elected for a period of five years by the members of Gram Sabha.
On August 27, 2009, the Union Cabinet of the Government of India approved 50 % reservation for women in Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI). The Indian states Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Kerala, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, West Bengal and Uttarakhand have implemented 50 % reservation for women in PRIs. The majority of candidates in these Panchayats are women. Currently 100 % of elected members in Kodassery Panchayat in Kerala are women.
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the cat in the hat full movie cast | The Cat in the Hat (film) - Wikipedia
Dr. Seuss ' The Cat in the Hat is a 2003 American comedy film directed by Bo Welch. It is based on the 1957 Dr. Seuss book of the same name. The film stars Mike Myers in the title role of the Cat in the Hat, and Dakota Fanning as Sally. Sally 's brother (who is unnamed in the book and the 1971 TV special), Conrad, is portrayed by Spencer Breslin. The film is the second feature - length Dr. Seuss adaptation after the 2000 holiday film How the Grinch Stole Christmas.
The idea was originally conceived in 2001, with Tim Allen initially cast as the Cat, but he dropped his role due to work on The Santa Clause 2, and the role was later given to Myers. Filming took place in California for three months. While the basic plot parallels that of the book, the film filled out its 82 minutes by adding new subplots and characters significantly different from the original story, similar to the feature film adaptation of How the Grinch Stole Christmas.
Released on November 21, 2003 in the United States, the film grossed $134 million worldwide. After the film 's release, Seuss ' widow, Audrey Geisel, decided not to allow any further live - action adaptations of Seuss ' works to be produced, and as a result, a planned sequel based on The Cat in the Hat Comes Back was cancelled.
Conrad and Sally Walden live in the city of Anville with their mother, Joan Walden. Joan works for neat - freak Hank Humberfloob, and is hosting an office party at her house. One day, she is called back to the office, leaving the kids with Mrs. Kwan, a tired babysitter, and forbidding them to enter the living room, which is being kept pristine for the upcoming party. Joan is also dating their next - door neighbor, Larry Quinn, much to Conrad 's dismay. Larry is constantly on the lookout for any mischief Conrad may be up to, as he wants nothing more than to send him away to military school, as Conrad has earned the reputation of "hot - headed trouble - maker '', while his sister is characterized as "perfect and well - behaved ''.
Once their mother leaves, Sally and Conrad meet a humanoid, oversized talking cat in a hat in their house. The cat then chases them throughout the house and reveals he wants them to learn to have fun, but the children 's pet fish does n't want the cat around when Joan is away. The Cat balances some stuff, ruins Joan 's best dress, jumps on the living room 's couch, and bakes cupcakes that explode. In the process, he even releases two trouble - making things, Thing 1 and Thing 2, from a crate that he explains is actually a portal to another world. The Cat tells Conrad that he only has one rule: never open the crate, then allows the Things to have fun, but they then release their true colors by making a mess out of the house. Despite the Cat 's warning, Conrad picks the lock anyway. When the crate 's lock attaches itself to the collar of the family dog, Nevins. Cat and the kids must go find him and the lock. They drive a super-powered car in search of Nevins and use Cat 's magic hat, but face an obstacle when he loses it at one point. Conrad realises that the Things always do the opposite to what they 're told. and that this can be used to their advantage and has them stall Joan so can they can get home before her.
Meanwhile, Larry is revealed to be a fat, unemployed man with false teeth and is in financial ruin, having been showing off the impression that he 's a successful businessman in the hopes of marrying to Joan and sponging off of her. Larry sees Nevins running across the street and soon becomes wise to all of this and tracks down Joan to tell her, but Things 1 and 2 have stalled her on the road, posing as police officers. Larry is fed up about this, so he goes back to the house, telling Joan to meet him there.
By the time the kids and the Cat return to the house with the lock, "the mother of all messes '' emits from the unlocked crate and enters the house. They navigate their way through the oversized house and find the crate sucking up things that disappears forever once gone through, after Sally is nearly sucked up but holding onto Conrad, Sally has to put her trust into Conrad that he will catch her when he lets go of her hand and puts the lock back on the crate. The plan works: The house returns to its normal proportions but then immediately falls apart. The Cat then tells the kids that he planned the whole day, including making not opening the crate his one rule, as he knew Conrad could not resist and also admits he never really lost his magic hat. The kids angrily tell the Cat to leave the house. Conrad prepares to face the consequences when Joan comes home, but Sally admits that she will share the blame. The Cat, having overheard this, happily returns to clean up the mess with a great cleaning contraption much to Conrad and Sally 's surprise and delight. Afterwards The Cat says good - bye to Conrad and Sally as they plead him not to go but he departs as Joan is arriving. Larry arrives when all is restored, thinking he has busted the kids, but when Joan sees the clean house (and a messy Larry), she does not believe Larry and rejects him. After the successful party, Joan spends time with her children and the Cat finishes narrating and he and his things go on a vacation.
DreamWorks acquired rights to the original book in 1997. However, production did not originally start until after the 2000 Christmas / comedy film How the Grinch Stole Christmas, based on another Dr. Seuss book of the same name, became a commercial success. Brian Grazer, who was the producer of The Grinch, stated, "Because we grew up with these books, and because they have such universal themes and the illustrations ignite such fantasy in your mind as a child -- the aggregation of all those feelings -- it leaves an indelible, positive memory. And so when I realized I had a chance to convert first The Grinch and then, The Cat in the Hat, into movies, I was willing to do anything to bring them to the screen. '' Grazer contacted Bo Welch over the phone with the offer to direct the film, and he accepted. When production began, songs written by Randy Newman were dropped because they were deemed inferior. Newman 's cousin, David Newman, composed the score for the film. Although Welch and a publicist for Myers denied it, several people said Myers had considerable input into the film 's direction, telling some of the cast (co-stars Baldwin and Preston) how to perform their scenes.
Tim Allen was originally planned to play the role of the Cat. The script would be originally based on a story conceived by Allen, who admitted that as a child he was afraid of Seuss ' "mischievous feline '' babysitter. Allen stated, "My dream is to give it the edge that scared me. '' However, producers did not commission a screenplay until late February 2001, when Alec Berg, Jeff Schaffer, and Dave Mandel (who were also writers on Seinfeld) were hired to write the script (replacing the original draft of the film that was written a few years before), so the film would not be ready to shoot before the deadline. Allen was also committed to shooting Disney 's The Santa Clause 2, which was also delayed because Allen wanted a script rewrite. Due to a scheduling conflict with The Santa Clause 2, he dropped out his role. In March 2002, the role of the Cat was given to Mike Myers, even though he had an argument with Grazer about starring in a cancelled Saturday Night Live skit named Dieter. Myers stated in an interview that he was a long - time fan of the original Dr. Seuss book, and that it was the first book he ever read.
Makeup for the character was designed by Steve Johnson. The Cat costume was made of angora and human hair and was fitted with a cooling system. To keep Myers cool during the outdoor shoots, a portable air conditioner was available that connected a hose to the suit between shots. The tail and ears were battery operated. The Fish was considered somewhat of a unique character for Rhythm & Hues (responsible for some of the effects and animation in such films as Cats & Dogs, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King, and Scooby - Doo), in that the character had no shoulders, hips or legs, so all of the physical performance had to emit from the eyes, head and fin motion. Sean Hayes, who provided the voice for the Fish, found the role significantly different from his usual on - camera jobs; he did not know how the final animation would look, and all of his work took place alone in a sound booth.
Prior to filming, giant props for the film were stolen from the set. Local police found the props vandalized in a mall car park in Pomona, California. The props were covered with graffiti. No arrests had been made, and filming was to start the next week. Principal photography took place mostly in California from October 2002 until January 2003. The neighborhood and the town centre was filmed in a rural valley near Simi Valley, where 24 houses (each 26 - feet square and 52 - feet tall) were constructed. The downtown area outdoor shots were filmed along a Pomona street where a number of antique and gift shops are located. The community decided not to redecorate after filming ended, so the surreal paint scheme and some of the signage could still be seen as it appears in the film. Because of so much smog in the area, the sky had to be digitally replaced with the cartoon - like sky and colours of the background had to be digitally fixed.
The soundtrack was released on November 18, 2003. It includes David Newman 's score, plus a song by Smash Mouth ("Getting Better '') and ("Hang On '') that makes it the third film in a row playing a song in an film starring Mike Myers, after Shrek (2001) and Austin Powers in Goldmember (2002). The soundtrack also includes a couple of songs performed by Mike Myers (the role of the Cat). Newman 's score won a BMI Film Music Award.
All music composed by David Newman, except as noted.
The Cat in the Hat was released for VHS and DVD on March 16, 2004. It features 16 deleted scenes, 20 outtake scenes, almost a dozen featurettes, and a "Dance with the Cat '' tutorial to teach kids a Cat in the Hat dance. On February 7, 2012, the film was released on Blu - ray.
The Cat in the Hat opened theatrically on November 21, 2003 and earned $38,329,160 in its opening weekend, ranking first in the North American box office. The film ended its theatrical run on March 18, 2004, having grossed $101,149,285 domestically and $32,811,256 overseas for a worldwide total of $133,960,541.
Review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 10 % approval rating based on reviews from 158 critics. The website 's consensus reads: "Filled with double entendres and potty humor, this Cat falls flat. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 19 / 100 based on 37 reviews, indicating "overwhelming dislike ''. It also received an average grade of D+ from critics in the interpretation of Yahoo 's film website.
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film one star, stating, "Cat, another over-blown Hollywood raid on Dr. Seuss, has a draw on Mike Myers, who inexplicably plays the Cat by mimicking Bert Lahr in The Wizard of Oz. '' Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 2 out of 4 stars. Although he praised the production design, he considered the film to be "all effects and stunts and CGI and prosthetics, with no room for lightness and joy ''. Ebert and co-host Richard Roeper gave the film "Two Thumbs Down ''. Roeper said of Myers ' performance that "Maybe a part of him was realizing as the movie was being made that a live - action version of The Cat in the Hat just was n't a great idea. '' Ebert had the same problem with the film that he had with How the Grinch Stole Christmas, in that "If there is one thing I 've learned from these two movies is that we do n't want to see Jim Carrey as a Grinch, and we do n't want to see Mike Myers as a cat. These are talented comedians, let 's see them do their stuff, do n't bury them under a ton of technology. ''
Concerns were also raised over the PG rating of the film with some critics, stating that it should have instead been rated PG - 13 in relation to its high amount of adult content.
Leonard Maltin in his Movie Guide gave it one and a half stars out of four saying that the "Brightly colored adaptation of the beloved rhyming book for young children is a betrayal of everything Dr. Seuss ever stood for, injecting potty humor and adult (wink - wink) jokes into a mixture of heavy - handed slapstick and silliness. '' Maltin also claimed that the film 's official title which included Dr Seuss ' The Cat in the Hat was "an official insult. '' However, Jeffrey Lyons from NBC - TV, enjoyed the film and considered it "enormously funny ''.
Baldwin addressed complaints the film received because of its dissimilarity to the source material. He expressed a belief that a film is "an idea about something '' and that because Dr. Seuss ' work is so unique, making a feature - length film out of one of his stories would entail taking liberties and making broad interpretations.
The film also received three nominations at the Hollywood Makeup & Hairstylists Guild Awards.
On the day of the film 's release, Mike Myers stated in an interview that he expected a sequel, since there was a sequel to the book. A sequel based on The Cat in the Hat Comes Back was in development, a little more than a month before the film 's release. In February 2004, Dr. Seuss ' widow, Audrey Geisel, said she would never allow any further live action adaptations of her husband 's works, and the sequel was eventually cancelled.
On March 15, 2012, a computer animated (CGI) reboot of the film was announced by Universal Pictures and Illumination Entertainment, following the success of The Lorax.
Platform
The Cat in the Hat is a 2003 platformer video game released by Vivendi Universal Games and developed by Magenta Software and Digital Eclipse. It is based on the film of the same name. The game was released for PlayStation 2, Xbox, and Game Boy Advance on November 5, 2003, and PC on November 9, 2003, shortly before the film 's theatrical release. A version for the Nintendo GameCube was planned to be release, but was later cancelled.
The plot of the game is different from the film; instead of Conrad unlocking the Cat 's Crate, Larry unlocks it and steals the Lock. Playing as the Cat, the player must go through thirteen levels through the transformed house and chase down Larry, who is collecting the magic released from the Crate for himself, and defeat him to get the Lock (called the "Crablock '' in - game) back and re-lock the Crate before the children 's mother returns home.
The plot of the game is different from the film; instead of Conrad unlocking the Cat 's Crate, Larry unlocks it and steals the Lock. Playing as the Cat, the player must go through thirteen levels through the transformed house and chase down Larry, who is collecting the magic released from the Crate for himself, and defeat him to get the Lock (called the "Crablock '' in - game) back and re-lock the Crate before the children 's mother returns home.
The game received mixed reviews (except for the PC version, which received negative reviews).
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who plays jamie's second wife in outlander | List of Outlander characters - wikipedia
The following is a list of characters from Diana Gabaldon 's Outlander series, beginning with the 1991 novel Outlander. The story focuses on 20th century nurse Claire Randall, who time travels to 18th century Scotland and finds adventure and romance with the dashing Jamie Fraser. A mix of several genres, the series features elements of historical fiction, romance, adventure, mystery and science fiction / fantasy. In August 2014, the US - based cable channel Starz debuted a TV series adaptation based on the novels.
The following is a list of cast and characters who appeared on the television series.
These are characters whose actors were credited in the opening sequence of the television series:
These are named characters who appeared in at least two episodes of the television series:
These are named characters who appeared in one episode of the television series:
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how important is spain as a tourism destination in the world | Tourism in Spain - wikipedia
Tourism in Spain is the 3rd major contributor to the national economic life just after the industry and the business / banking sector, contributing about 10 - 11 % of Spain 's GDP. Ever since the 1960s and 1970s, the country has been a popular destination for summer holidays, especially with large numbers of tourists from the UK, France, Germany, Italy, the Benelux and the United States, among others. Accordingly, Spain 's foreign tourist industry has grown into the second - biggest in the world.
In 2016 Spain was the third most visited country in the world, recording 75.3 million tourists which marked the fourth consecutive year of record - beating numbers.
Spain ranks first among 136 countries in the biannual Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index published by the World Economic Forum in 2017, matching the top position already achieved in 2015.
The World Tourism Organization has its headquarters in Madrid.
According to The Economist 2005 year list, Spain has the world 's 10th highest quality of life.
Most visitors arriving to Spain on short term basis were from the following countries:
Spain 's national airline is Iberia, but the country can be flown into on many international passenger airlines and charter airlines.
Tourists also arrive in Spain by road, rail and over the water. Spanish freeways interconnecting the touristic cities are also linked up with the French freeway network across the Pyrenees. The main train operator is RENFE, including AVE (Spanish high speed train) or Talgo intercity services. Spain 's high - speed rail link is the largest in Europe and second largest in the world after China. There is also a number of high - end tourism oriented hotel - train services, such as Transcantábrico.
This type of tourism was the first to be developed in Spain, and today, generates the most income for the Spanish economy. The mild climate during the whole year and the extensive sandy beaches of the Mediterranean and Atlantic Ocean as well as of its two archipelagoes (the Balearic Islands and the Canary Islands respectively) have been attracting tourists from Northern Europe for decades. The leading source markets of Spanish beach tourism are the UK (around 24 % of the total arrivals in Spain in recent years), Germany and France (around 15 - 16 % each), followed by Scandinavia and Italy (around 7 % each) and the Netherlands (around 5 %).
The most popular Spanish mainland coasts are on its Mediterranean side, and include, from north to south clockwise:
Spain 's two archipelagoes, the Balearic Islands off the mainland coast in the Mediterranean and the volcanic Canary Islands in the Atlantic, are also both very popular destinations with Spaniards and Europeans.
In addition to the summer tourism, other modalities like cultural and monumental tourism congresses, sport or fun tourism have been developed in these areas, including such famous cities as Barcelona and Valencia, the biggest harbours of the Spanish Mediterranean coast.
Many coastal or island places also have great ecological and natural importance. Theme Parks like PortAventura, Terra Mítica or diverse water - fun parks are also popular.
In 2014 Spain broke its own record of blue flag beaches, achieving 681 flags and becoming the leader in the Northern hemisphere. Spain is also the leader in blue flags for marinas.
As a crossroads of several civilizations, Spain offers a number of historical cities and towns. Major destinations include Spain 's two largest cities: Madrid and Barcelona, which stand as two of the leading city destinations in Europe. Both offer a matchless number of attractions and their importance in commerce, education, entertainment, media, fashion, science, sports and arts contribute to their status as two of the world 's major global cities. Thirteen Spanish cities have been declared World Heritage Cities by the UNESCO: Alcalá de Henares, Ávila, Cáceres, Córdoba, Cuenca, Ibiza, Mérida, Salamanca, San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Santiago de Compostela, Segovia, Tarragona and Toledo. As of October 2016, Spain has 45 total sites inscribed on the list, third only to Italy (51) and China (50). Of these 45 sites, 40 are cultural, 3 are natural, and 2 are mixed (meeting both cultural and natural criteria), as determined by the organization 's selection criteria. Other first - class destinations are Seville, Granada, Santander, Oviedo, Gijón, Bilbao and San Sebastián. All of them with historical landmarks and a lively cultural agenda.
Besides hosting some of the most renowned business schools in the world such as IE Business School, ESADE or IESE Business School, Spain is a popular destination for students from abroad. In particular, during the 2010 - 11 academic year Spain was the European country receiving the most Erasmus programme students.
Spain is an important place for Catholicism. In fact, some of the holiest places for the Catholic Church are in Spain: city of Santiago de Compostela in Galicia (North - West Spain), the third holiest place after the Vatican City in Rome and Jerusalem. It is also the terminus of the Way of Saint James. Santo Toribio de Liébana, Cantabria (also in North Spain) is the fourth, followed by Caravaca de la Cruz at the South - East, Region of Murcia (fifth holiest place). These places attract pilgrims and tourists from all over the world. Religion also has found its artistic expression through the popular Holy Week processions, which become important in almost every town.
Most festivals turn around patron saints, legends, local customs and folklore. Among the most singular ones stand out the Seville Fair (Feria de Abril in Spanish), the Romería de El Rocío in Almonte, Huelva, the world - famous Running of the Bulls in Pamplona, the Fallas in Valencia, the Tomatina in Buñol, Valencia and the Fiestas del Pilar in Zaragoza.
The Carnival is also popular all over Spain, but especially in the Canary Islands (Carnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife) and Cadiz. There are renowned movie festivals all over the country, the most recognizable being the famous San Sebastián International Film Festival, the Málaga Spanish Film Festival, the Seminci (Valladolid International Film Festival), the Mostra de Valencia and the Sitges Film Festival, the world 's foremost international festival specializing in fantasy and horror movies. Music festivals includes the Sónar, the FIB, the Festimad, the Primavera Sound, the Bilbao BBK Live, the Monegros Desert Festival and the SOS 4.8 Festival.
Several cities have hosted international events: the 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition, the 1929 Barcelona International Exposition, the 1992 Summer Olympics, all in Barcelona, the Universal fair of 1992 in Seville, the 2007 America 's Cup in Valencia, and the Expo 2008 in Zaragoza. In addition, some Spanish cities have been or will be European Capital of Culture: Madrid in 1992; Santiago de Compostela in 2000, Salamanca in 2002, and San Sebastián in 2016.
There are many villas in Spain in the different regions that provide comfortable living standards and other rental services to the tourists. Many people who need a villa may find it very easily. The regions like Costa Brava, Ibiza etc.
The nightlife in Spain is very attractive to both tourists and locals. Spain is known to have some of the best nightlife in the world. Big cities such as Madrid and Barcelona are favorites amongst the large and popular discothèques. For instance, Madrid is known as the number one party city for clubs such as Pacha and Kapital (seven floors), and Barcelona is famous for Opium and Sutton famous clubs. The discothèques in Spain are open until odd hours such as 7am. The Baleraric Islands, such as Ibiza and Mallorca, are known to be major party destinations, as well as favored summer resort and in Andalusia, Malaga, specially the area of the Costa del Sol.
Ibiza is a relatively small island and its cities have become world - famous for their associations with tourism, nightlife, and the electronic music the island has originated. It is well known for its summer club scene which attracts very large numbers of tourists, but the island 's government and the Spanish Tourist Office have controversially been working to promote more family - oriented tourism. Noted clubs include Space, Privilege, Amnesia, Ushuaïa, Pacha, DC10, Eden, and Es Paradis. Ibiza is also home to the legendary "port '' in Ibiza Town, a popular stop for many tourists and now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Majorca or Mallorca (Catalan: Mallorca (məˈʎɔɾkə, məˈʎɔɾcə); Spanish: Mallorca (maˈʎorka)) is an island located in the Mediterranean Sea. It is the largest island in the Balearic Islands archipelago, in Spain.
The capital of the island, Palma, is also the capital of the autonomous community of the Balearic Islands. The Cabrera Archipelago is administratively grouped with Majorca (in the municipality of Palma). The anthem of Majorca is La Balanguera.
Like the other Balearic Islands of Menorca, Ibiza, and Formentera, the island is an extremely popular holiday destination, particularly for tourists from Germany, Ireland, Poland, the Scandinavian countries, and the United Kingdom. The name derives from Latin insula maior, "larger island ''; later Maiorica, "the larger one '' in comparison to Menorca, "the smaller one ''.
Spain is a generally mountainous country, with well - known ski resorts located in several parts of the country, including the Pyrenees, the Sistema Central, the Sistema Ibérico and Sierra Nevada. For the most part, the main crest forms a massive divider between France and Spain, with the tiny country of Andorra sandwiched in between. The Crown of Aragon and the Kingdom of Navarre have historically extended on both sides of the mountain range, with small northern portions now in France and much larger southern parts now in Spain.
Sierra Nevada in Spain is a popular tourist destination, as its high peaks make skiing possible in one of Europe 's most southerly ski resorts, in an area along the Mediterranean Sea predominantly known for its warm temperatures and abundant sunshine. At its foothills is found the city of Granada and, a little further, Almería and Málaga.
Parts of the range have been included in the Sierra Nevada National Park. The range has also been declared a biosphere reserve. The Sierra Nevada Observatory is located on the northern slopes at an elevation of 2,800 metres (9,200 ft). The Sierra Nevada was formed during the Alpine Orogeny, a mountain - building event that also formed the European Alps to the east and the Atlas Mountains of northern Africa across the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Sierra as observed today formed during the Paleogene and Neogene Periods (66 to 1.8 million years ago) from the collision of the African and Eurasian continental plates.
Spain is the second largest country in the European Union. Its latitude puts part of the country in direct contact with the typical southern end of the Atlantic polar jet. Hence, Spain 's geographical position allows for Atlantic fronts typically affecting its western and northern part whereas a Mediterranean influenced climate is generally prevalent in its eastern and southern parts, with transition climates linking both main bioclimatic regions. Additionally the presence of several mountain ranges ultimately shape the diverse landscape of Spain. Another remarkable feature of the country is its vast coast, as a result of being in a Peninsula; moreover, there is the coast of the two Spanish archipelagos: the Balearic Islands and the Canary Islands.
To date, Spain has a total of 15 National Parks, of which 10 are on the mainland, 1 in the Balearic Islands and 4 in the Canary Islands. Spain 's most visited National Park is the Teide National Park in the Canary Islands, with 3,142,148 visitors in 2007 and crowned with the third largest Volcano in the world from its base, the Teide, with 3,718 meters above the sea level (also the highest point in Spain). The Teide also has the distinction of being the most visited national park in Europe and second in the world.
On top of that, by 2016 Spain is home to 48 biosphere reserves, covering 5.5 million hectares, almost 11 % of the country, making Spain the world leader of such protected areas
Madrid is considered one of the top European destinations concerning art museums. Best known is the Golden Triangle of Art, located along the Paseo del Prado and comprising three museums. The most famous one is the Prado Museum, known for such highlights as Diego Velázquez 's Las Meninas and Francisco de Goya 's La maja vestida and La maja desnuda. The other two museums are the Thyssen Bornemisza Museum, established from a mixed private collection, and the Reina Sofia Museum, where Pablo Picasso 's Guernica hangs, returning to Spain from New York after more than two decades.
The Museo del Prado is a museum and art gallery that features one of the world 's finest collections of European art, from the 12th century to the early 19th century, based on the former Spanish Royal Collection. The collection currently comprises around 7,600 paintings, 1,000 sculptures, 4,800 prints and 8,200 drawings, in addition to a large number of works of art and historic documents. El Prado is one of the most visited museums in the world, and it is considered to be among the greatest museums of art. It has the best collection of artworks by Goya, Velázquez, El Greco, Rubens, Titian, Hieronymus Bosch, José de Ribera and Patinir; and works by Rogier van der Weyden, Raphael Sanzio, Tintoretto, Veronese, Caravaggio, Van Dyck, Albrecht Dürer, Claude Lorrain, Murillo and Zurbarán, among others.
The Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía (MNCARS) is the Spain 's national museum of 20th - century art. The museum is mainly dedicated to Spanish art. Highlights of the museum include excellent collections of Spain 's greatest 20th - century masters, Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dalí, Joan Miró, Juan Gris and Julio González. Certainly the most famous masterpiece in the museum is Picasso 's painting Guernica. The Reina Sofía also hosts a free - access library specializing in art, with a collection of over 100,000 books, over 3,500 sound recordings and almost 1,000 videos.
The Thyssen - Bornemisza Museum is an art museum that fills the historical gaps in its counterparts ' collections: in the Prado 's case this includes Italian primitives and works from the English, Dutch and German schools, while in the case of the Reina Sofia the Thyssen - Bornemisza collection, once the second largest private collection in the world after the British Royal Collection, includes Impressionists, Expressionists, and European and American paintings from the second half of the 20th century, with over 1,600 paintings.
The Royal Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando currently functions as a museum and gallery that houses a fine art collection of paintings from the 15th to 20th centuries: Giovanni Bellini, Correggio, Rubens, Zurbarán, Murillo, Goya, Juan Gris, Pablo Serrano. The academy is also the headquarters of the Madrid Academy of Art. Francisco Goya was once one of the academy 's directors, and, its alumni include Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dalí, Antonio López García, Juan Luna, and Fernando Botero.
The Royal Palace of Madrid is the official residence of Felipe VI of Spain, but he uses it only for official acts. It is a baroque palace full of artworks is one of the largest European Royal Palaces, which is characterized by its luxurious rooms and its rich collections of armors and weapons, pharmaceutical, silverware, watches, paintings, tapestries and the most comprehensive collection of Stradivarius in the world
The National Archaeological Museum of Spain collection includes, among others, Pre-historic, Celtic, Iberian, Greek and Roman antiquities and medieval (Visigothic, Muslim and Christian) objects. Highlights include a replica of the Altamira cave (the first cave in which prehistoric cave paintings were discovered), Lady of Elche (an enigmatic polychrome stone bust), Lady of Baza (a famous example of Iberian sculpture), Biche of Balazote (an Iberian sculpture) and Treasure of Guarrazar (a treasure that represents the best surviving group of Early Medieval Christian votive offerings and the high point of Visigothic goldsmith 's work).
The Museum of the Americas (Spanish: Museo de América) is a National museum that holds artistic, archaeological and ethnographic collections from the whole American continent, ranging from the Paleolithic period to the present day. The permanent exhibit is divided into five major thematical areas: an awareness of America, the reality of America, society, religion and communication.
The National Museum of Natural Sciences is the National Museum of Natural History of Spain. The research departments of the museum are: Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, Evolutionary Ecology, Paleobiology, Vulcanology and Geology.
The Naval Museum is managed by the Ministry of Defence. The Museum 's mission is to acquire, preserve, investigate, report and display for study, education and contemplation, parts, sets and collections of historical, artistic, scientific and technical related to naval activity in order to disseminate the story sea of Spain; to help illustrate, highlight and preserve their traditions and promote national maritime awareness.
The Monastery of Las Descalzas Reales resides in the former palace of King Charles I of Spain and Isabel of Portugal. Their daughter, Joan of Austria, founded this convent of nuns of the Poor Clare order in 1559. Throughout the remainder of the 16th century and into the 17th century, the convent attracted young widowed or spinster noblewomen. Each woman brought with her a dowry. The riches quickly piled up, and the convent became one of the richest convents in all of Europe. It has many works of Renaissance and Baroque art, including a recumbent Christ by Gaspar Becerra, a staircase whose paintings were painted by unknown author (perhaps Velázquez) and they are considered of the masterpieces of Spanish illusionist painting, and Brussels tapestries inspired by paintings of Rubens.
The Museum of Lázaro Galdiano houses an encyclopedic collection specializing in decorative arts.
Apart from paintings and sculptures it displays 10th - century Byzantine enamel; Arab and Byzantine ivory chests; Hellenistic, Roman, medieval, renaissance, baroque and romantic jewelry; Pisanello and Pompeo Leoni medals; Spanish and Italian ceramics; Italian and Arab clothes and a collection of weapons including the sword of Pope Innocent VIII.
The Museo Nacional de Artes Decorativas (National Museum of Decorative Arts) is one of the oldest museums in the city. It illustrates the evolution of the called "minor arts '' (furniture, ceramics and glass, textile, etc.). Its 60 rooms expones 15,000 objects, of the approximate 40,000 which it has.
The Museo Nacional del Romanticismo (National Museum of Romanticism) contains a large collection of artefacts and art, focusing on daily life and customs of the 19th century, with special attention to the aesthetics about Romanticism.
The Museo Cerralbo houses a private collection of ancient works of art, artifacts and other antiquities collected by Enrique de Aguilera y Gamboa, XVII Cerralbo Marquis.
The Museo Nacional de Antropología (National Museum of Anthropology) provides an overview of the different cultures in the world, with objects and human remains from around the world, highlighting a Guanche mummy of the island of Tenerife.
The Museo Sorolla is located in the building in which the Valencian Impressionist painter had his home and workshop. The collection includes, in addition to numerous works of Joaquín Sorolla, a large number of objects that possessed the artist, including sculptures by Auguste Rodin.
CaixaForum Madrid is a post-modern art gallery in the centre of Madrid. It is sponsored by the Catalan - Balearic bank la Caixa and located next to the Salón del Prado. Although the CaixaForum is a modern building, it also exhibits retrospectives of artists from earlier time periods and has evolved into one of the most visited museums in Madrid. It was constructed by the Swiss architects Herzog & de Meuron from 2001 to 2007, which combined an old unused industrial building and hollowed it out at the base and inside and placed on top further floors which are encased with rusted steel. Next to it is an art installation of green plants growing on the wall of the neighbouring house by French botanist Patrick Blanc. The red of the top floors with the green of the wall next to it form a contrast. The green is in reflection of the neighbouring Royal Botanical Gardens.
Other art galleries and museums in Madrid include:
This is a list of museums in Barcelona (Catalonia) and in its surrounding metropolitan area.
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tidal forests of ganga-brahmaputra delta mainly consists of | Ganges delta - wikipedia
The Ganges - Brahmaputra Delta (also known as the Brahmaputra Delta, the Sunderbans Delta, or the Bengal Delta) is a river delta in the Bengal region of the South Asia, consisting of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal. It is the world 's largest delta, and empties into the Bay of Bengal. It is also one of the most fertile regions in the world, thus earning the nickname The Green Delta. The delta stretches from the Hooghly River on the west to the Meghna River on the east. It is approximately 354 km (220 mi) across at the Bay of Bengal. Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) and Haldia in India and Mongla and Chittagong in Bangladesh are the principal seaports of the delta.
A number of large rivers flow through the Brahmaputra Delta, including the Padma (main distributary of the Ganges) and the Jamuna (main distributary of the Brahmaputra), which merge and then join the Meghna before entering the sea.
The Ganges Delta has the shape of a triangle, and is considered to be an "arcuate '' delta (arc - shaped). It covers more than 105,000 km (41,000 sq mi), and although the delta lies mostly in Bangladesh and India, rivers from Bhutan, Tibet, India, and Nepal drain into it from the north. Approximately two - thirds of the delta is in Bangladesh. Most of the delta is composed of alluvial soils made up by small sediment particles that finally settle down as river currents slow down in the estuary. Rivers carry these fine particles with them, even from their sources at glaciers as fluvio - glacial. Red and red - yellow laterite soils are found as one heads farther east. The soil has large amounts of minerals and nutrients, which is good for agriculture.
It is composed of a labyrinth of channels, swamps, lakes, and flood plain sediments (chars). The Gorai - Madhumati River, one of the distributaries of the Ganges, divides the Ganges Delta into two parts: the geologically young, active, eastern delta, and the older, less active, western delta.
Between 125 and 143 million people live on the delta, despite risks from floods caused by monsoons, heavy runoff from the melting snows of the Himalayas, and North Indian Ocean tropical cyclones. A large part of the nation of Bangladesh lies in the Ganges Delta, and many of the country 's people depend on the delta for survival.
It is believed that upwards of 300 million people are supported by the Ganges Delta, and approximately 400 million people live in the Ganges River Basin, making it the most populous river basin in the world. Most of the Ganges Delta has a population density of more than 200 people per km (520 people per square mile), making it one of the most densely populated regions in the world.
Three terrestrial ecoregions cover the delta. The Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests ecoregion covers most of the delta region, although the forests have mostly been cleared for agriculture and only small enclaves remain. Thick stands of tall grass, known as canebrakes, grow in wetter areas. The Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests ecoregion lies closer to the Bay of Bengal; this ecoregion is flooded with slightly brackish water during the dry season, and fresh water during the monsoon season. These forests, too, have been almost completely converted to intensive agriculture, with only 130 square kilometres (50 sq mi) of the ecoregion 's 14,600 square kilometres (5,600 sq mi) protected. Where the delta meets the Bay of Bengal, Sundarbans mangroves form the world 's largest mangrove ecoregion, covering an area of 20,400 square kilometres (7,900 sq mi) in a chain of 54 islands. They derive their name from the predominant mangrove species, Heritiera fomes, which are known locally as sundri or sundari.
Animals in the delta include the Indian python (Python molurus), clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) and crocodiles, which live in the Sundarbans. Approximately 1,020 endangered Bengal tigers (Panthera tigris tigris) are believed to inhabit the Sundarbans. The Ganges -- Brahmaputra basin has tropical deciduous forests that yield valuable timber: sal, teak, and peepal trees are found in these areas. The delta region has mangrove trees.
It is estimated that 30,000 chital (Axis axis) are in the Sundarbans part of the delta. Birds found in the delta include kingfishers, eagles, woodpeckers, the shalik (Acridotheres tristis), the swamp francolin (Francolinus gularis), and the doel (Copsychus saularis). Two species of dolphin can be found in the delta: the Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) and the Ganges river dolphin (Platanista gangetica gangetica). The Irrawaddy dolphin is an oceanic dolphin which enters the delta from the Bay of Bengal. The Ganges river dolphin is a true river dolphin, but is extremely rare and considered endangered.
Trees found in the delta include sundari, garjan (Rhizophora spp.), bamboo, mangrove palm (Nypa fruticans), and mangrove date palm (Phoenix paludosa). Many endangered species live here.
The Ganges Delta lies at the junction of three tectonic plates: the Indian Plate, the Eurasian Plate, and the Burma Plate. The edge of the Eocene paleoshelf runs approximately from Kolkata to the edge of the Shillong Plateau. The edge of the paleoshelf marks the transition from the thick continental crust in the northwest to the thin continental or oceanic crust in the southeast. The enormous sediment supply from the Himalayan collision has extended the delta about 400 kilometres (250 mi) seaward since the Eocene. The sediment thickness southeast of the edge of the paleoshelf beneath the Ganges Delta can exceed 16 km (10 miles).
Approximately two - thirds of the Bangladesh people work in agriculture, and grow crops on the fertile floodplains of the delta. The major crops that are grown in the Ganges Delta are jute, tea, and rice. Fishing is also an important activity in the delta region, with fish being a major source of food for many of the people in the area.
In recent years, scientists have been helping the poor people of the delta to improve fish farming methods. By turning unused ponds into viable fish farms, and improving methods of raising fish in existing ponds, many people can now earn a living raising and selling fish. Using new systems, fish production in existing ponds has increased 800 %. Shrimp are farmed in containers or cages that are submerged in open water. Most are exported.
As there is a maze of many river branches, the area is difficult to pass. Most islands are only connected with the mainland by simple wooden ferryboats. Bridges are rare. Some islands are not yet connected to the electric grid, so island residents tend to use solar cells for a bit of electric supply.
The Ganges Delta lies mostly in the tropical wet climate zone, and receives between 1,500 to 2,000 mm (59 to 79 in) of rainfall each year in the western part, and 2,000 to 3,000 mm (79 to 118 in) in the eastern part.. Hot, dry summers and cool, dry winters make the climate suitable for agriculture.
In November 1970, the deadliest tropical cyclone of the twentieth century hit the Ganges Delta region. The 1970 Bhola cyclone killed 500,000 people (official death toll), with another 100,000 missing. The Guinness Book of World Records estimated the total loss of human life from the Bhola cyclone at 1,000,000.
Another cyclone hit the delta in 1991, killing about 139,000 people.
People have to be careful on the river delta as severe flooding also occurs. In 1998, the Ganges flooded the delta, killing about 1,000 people and leaving more than 30 million people homeless. The Bangladesh government asked for $900 million to help feed the people of the region, as the entire rice crop was lost.
One of the greatest challenges people living on the Ganges Delta may face in coming years is the threat of rising sea levels caused by climate change. An increase in sea level of 0.5 metres (1 ft 8 in) could result in six million people losing their homes in Bangladesh.
Important gas reserves have been discovered in the delta, such as in the Titas and Bakhrabad gas fields. Several major oil companies have invested in exploration of the Ganges Delta region.
Coordinates: 22 ° 42 ′ N 89 ° 40 ′ E / 22.700 ° N 89.667 ° E / 22.700; 89.667
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cited the industrialism of detroit as a major influence | Music of Detroit - wikipedia
Detroit, Michigan is a major center in the United States for the creation and performance of music, and is the birthplace of the musical subgenres known as "The Motown Sound '' and Techno.
The Metro Detroit area has a rich musical history spanning the past century, beginning with the revival of the world - renowned Detroit Symphony Orchestra in 1918. The major genres represented in Detroit music include Classical, Blues, Jazz, Gospel, R&B, Rock and roll, Pop, Punk, Soul, Electronica and Hip - hop. The Greater Detroit area has been the birthplace and / or primary venue for numerous Platinum - selling artists, whose total album sales, according to one estimate, had surpassed 40 million units by the year 2000. The success of Detroit - based Hip - hop artists quadrupled that figure in the first decade of the 2000s.
The Detroit area 's diverse population includes residents of European, Middle Eastern, Latino, Asian and African descent, with each group adding its rich musical traditions. The African - American population in particular contributed greatly to the musical legacy of Detroit in almost all genres. During the 1930s and 1940s, the near - east side neighborhoods known as Black Bottom and Paradise Valley became a major entertainment district, drawing nationally known blues singers, big bands, and jazz artists - such as Duke Ellington, Billy Eckstine, Pearl Bailey, Ella Fitzgerald, and Count Basie.
During the 1940s, many of the same jazz acts also performed nearby at Orchestra Hall, which had been renamed the Paradise Theatre in honor of the Paradise Valley district. Eventually urban renewal projects during the late 1950s and early 1960s demolished Black Bottom and replaced it with a freeway and the neighborhood centered on Lafayette Park, (designed by Mies van der Rohe and others). As Black Bottom was disappearing, the nascent Motown label was beginning to build an eventual empire on West Grand Boulevard. From the 1960s on, the nightclubs and music venues in Detroit could be found dispersed throughout the city and catering to all genres; from jazz at Baker 's Keyboard Lounge on the northern border of the city, to rock and roll at the Grande Ballroom on the west side.
The genesis of Blues music in Detroit occurred as a result of the first wave of the Great Migration of African - Americans from the Deep South. In the 1920s, Detroit was home to a number of pianists who performed in the clubs of Black Bottom and played in the Boogie - woogie style of blues, such as Speckled Red (Rufus Perryman), Charlie Spand, William Ezell, and most prominently, Big Maceo Merriweather. As Detroit had no established recording scene at the time, all of these players eventually migrated to Chicago to record for various labels. Spand reminisced about his time in Detroit while playing on the 1929 Blind Blake single "Hastings Street ''.
During the 1920s, Detroit was also host to most of the famous singers of the Classic female blues, including "The Queen of the Blues '' Mamie Smith, "The Mother of the Blues '' Ma Rainey, "The Empress of the Blues '' Bessie Smith, "The Uncrowned Queen of the Blues '' Ida Cox, "The Queen of the Moaners '' Clara Smith, "The Famous Moanin ' Mama '' Sara Martin, and Ethel Waters. Most of these performers visited Detroit on tour as part of the Theatre Owners Booking Association (TOBA) circuit, playing primarily at the Koppin Theatre on the southern edge of Paradise Valley.
The Koppin was the premier venue for Detroit 's black musical community throughout the 1920s. It ceased operation in 1931, a casualty of the Great Depression. The decade of the 1930s saw a dearth of blues music in Detroit, which did not see a resurgence until the second wave of the Great Migration hit during the 1940s, bringing artists such as John Lee Hooker to Detroit to work in the factories of the Arsenal of Democracy.
These artists brought with them a style of blues music rooted in the Mississippi Delta region. Though not strictly a Delta blues musician, Hooker was born in the epicenter of the tradition, in Clarksdale, Mississippi, and migrated to Detroit in 1943. He scored an early hit with his first single Boogie Chillen, and began a long career that made him the most prominent and successful of the Detroit blues players of the post-war period, as well as the most - recorded, with over 500 tracks to his credit. Teaming up with Hooker in the late 1940s was the guitarist and harmonica player Eddie "Guitar '' Burns, who played on several Hooker tracks and performed regularly on the Detroit blues scene. Another sideman of Hooker was Eddie Kirkland, who played second guitar for him in Detroit and on tour from 1949 to 1962, and later went on to a long solo career.
Other notable musicians on the 1950s blues scene were the singers Alberta Adams and singer / guitarists Doctor Ross, Baby Boy Warren, Johnnie Bassett, Sylvester Cotton, Andrew Dunham, Calvin Frazier, Mr. Bo (Louis Collins), John Brim and Louisiana Red; percussionist Washboard Willie; harmonica players Big John Wrencher, Sonny Boy Williamson II, Little Sonny (Willis), and Grace Brim (who also sang and played drums); and pianists Joe Weaver and Boogie Woogie Red. Also of note were singer Johnnie Mae Matthews and singer / guitarist Bobo Jenkins, both of whom started their own labels, Northern Records and Big Star Records, respectively.
It was the emergence of local record labels in Detroit in the 1940s and 1950s which helped the blues scene to flourish, compared to the 1920s, when blues artists generally emigrated to Chicago to record their music. Some small labels, including Staff, Holiday, Modern, and Prize Records, only existed for a brief time, while other labels experienced greater success. The most prominent of the Detroit - based labels from this era was Fortune Records, and its subsidiary labels Hi - Q, Strate 8 and Blue Star, which ran from 1948 to 1970. Fortune released hundreds of recordings in many genres, including tracks by Hooker, Kirkland, Jenkins, Dr. Ross and Maceo Merriweather.
Another important Detroit label from the period was Sensation Records, started by John Kaplan and Bernard Besman. In 1948, Besman recorded Hooker 's seminal "Boogie Chillen '' and ran the artistic side of the label until its demise in 1952. Local entrepreneur Joe Von Battle was another key figure on the blues scene; in the back of his record shop on Hastings Street he recorded a number of blues acts that appeared on his JVB and Von record labels.
The entertainment districts of Hastings Street and Paradise Valley were razed in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the victims of urban renewal programs. This loss of music venues, along with the rise of Motown in Detroit and the popularity of Rock and roll, led to the eventual demise of the Detroit blues scene in the late 1960s. Many Detroit - based musicians pursued their careers on tour elsewhere in the world, leaving only a few noteworthy artists to carry on the tradition. Among them were The Butler Twins, Clarence (guitar and vocals) and Curtis (harmonica), who emigrated to Detroit from Alabama in 1961, joining a long list of blues forebears who came to work in the automotive industry. Another transplant was the former Classic female blues singer Sippie Wallace, who had moved to Detroit in 1929, but did not resume her blues singing career until 1966.
In the wake of the 1967 Detroit riot the local blues scene nearly died out, being salvaged only through the help of Mississippi Delta native Uncle Jessie White, pianist and harmonica player, who hosted weekend - long blues jams at his house for the next four years. In 1973 the Ann Arbor Blues and Jazz Festival put on a "Music of Detroit '' showcase, featuring a number of the older generation of blues artists, such as John Lee Hooker, Dr. Ross, Baby Boy Warren, Mr. Bo, Johnnie Mae Matthews, Eddie Burns, Bobo Jenkins, and Boogie Woogie Red. Shortly thereafter, the Chicago bluesman Willie D. Warren moved to Detroit and spent the rest of his life performing on the blues scene in and around the city. Another transplant from Chicago in the 1970s was Johnny "Yard Dog '' Jones, who played in Detroit for the next four decades. Jones became part of a strong tradition of Detroit harp players, including Harmonica Shah, who also came on the scene in the 1970s.
In the late 1980s, one of the most prominent Detroit blues players was Jim McCarty. After successful stints with the Buddy Miles Express and the rock bands Cactus and The Rockets, McCarty joined the Detroit Blues Band, with whom he cut two records in the 1990s, after which he formed his own blues band, Mystery Train. Another artist to appear in the late 1980s was the blues singer and Detroit native Thornetta Davis, who cut her first solo album in 1996. Davis has won numerous local awards as a blues artist and vocalist, and continues to perform locally and nationally.
The late 1990s saw the emergence of The White Stripes, led by guitarist and Detroit native Jack White. Although ostensibly a Garage rock band, a significant amount of their material consisted of blues cover songs, and the band is considered a proponent of the Punk blues genre.
Detroit has produced some of the most famous gospel singers in past decades. In the 1940s, Oliver Green formed The Detroiters, who became one of the most popular Gospel groups of their era. In the 1950s, Laura Lee and a young Della Reese began their long and distinguished careers coming out of the Meditations Singers, indisputably the premier Detroit - based, female gospel group of that era. Theirs was the first Motor City act to introduce instrumental backing to traditional a cappella vocals. Della joined the ranks of the gospel elite in Detroit, while Mattie Moss Clark is believed to be the first to introduce three part harmony into gospel choral music.
In the 1960s, the Reverend CL Franklin found success with his recorded sermons on Chess Record 's gospel label and with an album of spirituals recorded at his New Bethel Baptist Church included the debut of his young daughter, Grammy Award winner Aretha Franklin.
In the 1980s, the Winans dynasty produced Grammy winners Cece and BeBe Winans. Other notable gospel acts include J Moss, Bill Moss, Jr., The Clark Sisters, Rance Allen Group, Vanessa Bell Armstrong, Thomas Whitfield, Byron Cage and Fred Hammond.
As the Jazz Age began, Detroit quickly emerged as an important musical center. Among the musicians who relocated to Detroit were drummer William McKinney, who formed the seminal big band McKinney 's Cotton Pickers with the great arranger, bandleader and composer, Don Redman. Detroit 's musical prominence continued through the 1950s. Musicians from Detroit who achieved international recognition include Elvin Jones, Hank Jones, Thad Jones, Howard McGhee, Tommy Flanagan, Lucky Thompson, Louis Hayes, Barry Harris, Paul Chambers, Yusef Lateef, Marcus Belgrave, Milt Jackson, Kenny Burrell, Ron Carter, Curtis Fuller, Julius Watkins, Hugh Lawson, Frank Foster, J.R. Monterose, Doug Watkins, Sir Roland Hanna, Donald Byrd, Kenn Cox, George "Sax '' Benson, Sonny Stitt, Alice Coltrane, Dorothy Ashby, Roy Brooks, Phil Ranelin, Faruq Z. Bey, Pepper Adams, Tani Tabbal, Charles McPherson, Frank Gant, Billy Mitchell, Kirk Lightsey, Lonnie Hillyer, James Carter, Geri Allen, Rick Margitza, Kenny Garrett, Betty Carter, Sippie Wallace, Robert Hurst, Rodney Whitaker, Karriem Riggins, Major Holley and Carlos McKinney.
Other significant players who spent part of their career in Detroit include Benny Carter, Joe Henderson, Wardell Gray, Grant Green and Don Moye. As this list reflects, Detroit musicians were major contributors to the hard - bop and post-bop styles, especially in the rhythm sections that drove the classic groups of Miles Davis and John Coltrane, and contributions to the bands of Charles Mingus, Horace Silver and The Jazz Messengers.
Venues in Detroit today include The Hot Club of Detroit, founded 2003 at Wayne State University, Cliff Bell 's, Baker 's Keyboard Lounge and The Dirty Dog Jazz Cafe.
Detroit has been the home to several well - known pop artists, including Margaret Whiting, Sonny Bono and Suzi Quatro, who may be best known for her role as Leather Tuscadero on the hit 1970s TV show Happy Days. One of the most famous is Madonna. Although Madonna was born and spent her early summers in Bay City, she was raised outside of Detroit, in Rochester (about 35 miles from Detroit itself) and went to the University of Michigan on a dance scholarship. Several of Madonna 's early hits were co-written by ex-boyfriend and fellow Detroit Native Stephen Bray.
Also during the 1980s, Detroit pop rockers Was (Not Was) breakthrough album What Up, Dog? spawned two Top 20 hits with the songs "Spy in the House of Love '' and "Walk the Dinosaur. ''
1990s pop star Aaliyah (1979 - 2001) was raised in Detroit and graduated from the Detroit School of Arts. Aaliyah was also the niece of former Detroit politician Barry Hankerson and soul singer Gladys Knight. She had several hit songs including the No. 1 hit "Try Again '' in 2000.
Aaliyah was not the only Detroit School of Arts graduate to go on to musical success; since her graduation, Teairra Marí has enjoyed a successful career, including her hit single "Make Her Feel Good '' in 2005.
One of the highlights of Detroit 's musical history was the success of Motown Records during the 1960s and early 1970s. The label was founded in the late 1950s was founded by auto plant worker Berry Gordy, and was originally known as Tamla Records. As Motown, it became home to some of the most popular recording acts in the world, including Marvin Gaye, The Temptations, Stevie Wonder, Diana Ross & The Supremes, Smokey Robinson & The Miracles, The Four Tops, Martha Reeves & the Vandellas, Edwin Starr, Little Willie John, The Contours and The Spinners.
Even before Motown, Detroit had an active R&B and soul community. In 1955, the influential soul singer Little Willie John made his debut, and in 1956, the Detroit - based R&B label Fortune Records enjoyed success with Nolan Strong & The Diablos and their hit songs "The Wind '', "Mind Over Matter '', and "The Way You Dog Me Around ''. Smokey Robinson noted in his biography that Strong 's high tenor was his biggest vocal influence. Strong is remembered on the 2010 album Daddy Rockin Strong: A Tribute to Nolan Strong & The Diablos - a tribute compilation that features current rock and roll bands covering Diablos songs. The album was compiled and released by The Wind Records and Norton Records.
Also In 1956, notable blues and R&B singer Zeffrey "Andre '' Williams recorded a string of singles for Fortune, including the song "Bacon Fat. '' In 1961, Nathaniel Mayer & Fabulous Twilights hit the charts with "Village of Love, '' which became one of Fortune 's top selling singles. Mayer recorded a string of popular 45s for Fortune, even once performing on Dick Clark 's American Bandstand.
In 1959, The Falcons (featuring Wilson Pickett and Eddie Floyd) had a hit with "You 're So Fine ''. Also that year, Jackie Wilson had his first hit with "Reet Petite '', which was co-written by a young Berry Gordy Jr... The Volumes had hit single in 1962 for Chex Records with the single "I Love You ''. That same year singer / songwriter Barbara Lewis had a hit with the single "Hello Stranger. '', while Gino Washington had cross-racial appeal and achieved Midwest hits in 1963 and 1964 with "Out of This World '' and "Gino Is a Coward ''.
Several other Detroit artists became nationally known without the help of Motown. Perhaps the best known of such artists was Aretha Franklin. Other non-Motown acts included The Capitols with their 1966 hit "Cool Jerk '' and Darrell Banks with "Open the Door to Your Heart ''. The following year, J.J Barnes had his biggest hit with "Baby Please Come Back Home ''.
In 1967, longtime back room barbershop doo wop group The Parliaments, featuring George Clinton, scored a hit with "I Wanna Testify '' for Revilot Records, and marked the beginning of funk in mainstream R&B. In 1968, Clinton changed the name of The Parliaments in 1968 to Funkadelic following a legal dispute with Revilot, but in 1970 reclaimed the rights and renamed the group as simply "Parliament ''. Eventually the group became known as simply P - Funk which is short for Parliament - Funkadelic.
In 1967, Berry Gordy purchased what is now known as Motown Mansion in Detroit 's Boston - Edison Historic District. Motown Records relocated to the West coast 1972, yet Detroit remained an important center of R&B with acts such as Freda Payne, The Floaters, Enchantment, Ray Parker Jr.; both solo and with his group Raydio, One Way, Oliver Cheatham, Cherrelle, The Jones Girls, Anita Baker, and BeBe & CeCe Winans.
In 1969 The Flaming Ember had several hits for Hot Wax Records, a Detroit - based record label created in 1968 by the Holland / Dozier / Holland song writing team after they left Motown Records. The following year Chairmen of the Board had the first hit for Invictus with "Give Me Just a Little More Time. ''
During the disco craze of the late 1970s, Detroit artists had several dance hits. In 1975, Stevie Wonder 's drummer Hamilton Bohannon had a hit with "Foot Stompin ' Music '', while Donald Byrd & The Blackbyrds infused jazz with dance friendly elements that produced the song "Change (Makes You Wanna Hustle) ''. In 1977 Brainstorm & C.J. & Company each had soul driven dance hits.
In 1978, George Clinton 's bass player Bootsy Collins had a top charting hit with Bootzilla. George Clinton and his band Parliament - Funkadelic is often cited as being a direct influence on the future Detroit Techno scene that emerged in the early 1980s.
Detroit has a long and rich history associated with rock and roll. In 1954 Hank Ballard & the Midnighters crossed over from the R&B charts to the pop charts with "Work With Me, Annie ''. The song nearly broke into the elite top 20 despite being barred from airplay on many stations due to its suggestive lyrics. In 1955, Detroit - native Bill Haley ushered in the rock and roll era with the release of "Rock Around The Clock ''.
In the late 1950s rockabilly guitarist Jack Scott had a string of top 40 hits. First, in 1957 with "Leroy '', then in 1958 with the hits "My True Love '' and "With Your Love '' and then twice again in 1959 with the hits "Goodbye Baby '' and "The Way I Walk. '' Scott was one of the first musicians to marry country music 's melodic song craft to the dangerous, raw power of rock and roll.
In 1959 Hank Ballard & The Midnighters had a minor hit with their b - side song "The Twist ''. A cover by Philadelphia native Chubby Checker followed in 1960. His single became a smash hit, reaching No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 and started a national dance craze. Also in 1960, Jack Scott had his final top 10 hits with "What In The World 's Come Over You '' and "Burning Bridges ''.
The following year, rocker Del Shannon had his own No. 1 hit in March 1961 with the song "Runaway ''. This was followed by the top 10 hits "Hats Off to Larry '' in June 1961 and "Little Town Flirt '' in 1962. In 1964, Detroit 's one - hit wonders The Reflections had their own Top 10 hit single with "(Just Like) Romeo and Juliet ''.
By 1964, teen clubs around Metro Detroit such as the Fifth Dimension in Ann Arbor and the Hideout off of 8 Mile Road and Harper Road, were a hotbed for young and promising garage rock bands such as The Underdogs, The Fugitives, Unrelated Segments, Terry Knight and the Pack (which featured Don Brewer), ASTIGAFA (which featured a young Marshall Crenshaw), The Lords (featuring a young Ted Nugent), The Pleasure Seekers (which featured a young Suzi Quatro), Four of Us and the Mushrooms (which both featured Glenn Frey), Sky (which featured a young Doug Fieger), and blue eyed soul rockers the Rationals.
In 1965 Mitch Ryder & the Detroit Wheels had a national top 10 hit with "Jenny Take A Ride! '' and then again the following year in 1966 with "Devil With A Blue Dress On '' / "Good Golly, Miss Molly ''. Also in 1966, Flint 's Question Mark & the Mysterians had a No. 1 hit with "96 Tears ''. Finally, in 1967, Detroit blues - rock outfit the Woolies had a regional smash hit with the Bo Diddley song "Who Do You Love? ''.
In the late 1960s, two well - known high - energy rock bands emerged from Detroit - the MC5 and Iggy and the Stooges. These two bands laid the groundwork for the future punk and hard rock movements in the late 1970s. Other notable bands from this time frame included Alice Cooper, The Amboy Dukes (featuring Ted Nugent), The Bob Seger System, Frijid Pink, SRC, The Up, The Frost (featuring Dick Wagner), Popcorn Blizzard (featuring Meat Loaf), Cactus and the soulful sounds of Rare Earth and The Flaming Ember. Much of the music scene during this time was centered around the legendary Grande Ballroom and its owner Russ Gibb.
In 1969 a magazine based in and around Detroit known as CREEM: "America 's Only Rock ' n ' Roll Magazine, '' was started by Barry Kramer and founding editor Tony Reay. CREEM is known as the first publication to coin the words "punk rock '' and "heavy metal '' and featured such famous editors such as Rob Tyner, Jaan Uhelszki, Patti Smith, Cameron Crowe, and Lester Bangs, who is often cited as "America 's Greatest Rock Critic, ''.
Detroit in the 1960s also contributed to the national folk scene with southeastern Michigan native Phil Ochs, who gained fame as a Greenwich Village folk artist; Detroit was also home for a few years to the then unknown Joni Mitchell. Fortune Records also released numerous "Hillbilly '' Americana folk records in this period.
During the 1970s, several local Metro Detroit acts achieved national or international fame, including Bob Seger, Ted Nugent, Alice Cooper, Grand Funk Railroad, Glenn Frey of The Eagles. Other local groups, like Brownsville Station and Commander Cody and His Lost Planet Airmen, enjoyed brief national exposure. Non-Detroit rock bands paid tribute to the city through such songs as "Detroit Rock City '' by Kiss, "Detroit Breakdown '' by The J. Geils Band and "Panic in Detroit '' by David Bowie.
In the early 1970s, several new Detroit bands were formed out of earlier bands that had broken up. These acts included rock acts such as Sonic 's Rendezvous Band (featuring Fred "Sonic '' Smith of the MC5, Scott Morgan of The Rationals, Scott Asheton of The Stooges), the band simply called Detroit, which featured Mitch Ryder on vocals and Johnny "Bee '' Badanjek on drums, The New MC5 featuring Rob Tyner on vocals, Two groups from this period remained relatively obscure while they were together, achieving greater fame only decades later: Destroy All Monsters and Death. Destroy All Monsters featured artists Niagara, Mike Kelley, Carey Loren, and Jim Shaw as well as Stooges guitarist Ron Asheton in its later incarnation. Formed in 1971, Death is now recognized as the first all African American punk band. Rodriguez began his career in the early 1970s, and while an unknown in Detroit, gained a following in South Africa and Australia. Also during this time, Detroit area native Deniz Tek was creating the punk band Radio Birdman in Australia in the mold of classic Detroit rock bands of the MC5 and The Stooges.
During the 1980s & 1990s, metro Detroit rock bands that had minor to major attention and / or critical acclaim include The Gories, The White Stripes, The Dirtbombs, The Von Bondies, The Rockets, The Hentchmen, Electric Six, Sponge, Big Chief, Discipline, Goober and the Peas, Broken Toys, Robert Bradley 's Blackwater Surprise, Adrenalin, His Name Is Alive, Majesty Crush, Brendan Benson, Demolition Doll Rods, Kid Rock, The Sights, and ska - punk band The Suicide Machines.
The 1980s also saw Marshall Crenshaw from the Detroit suburb of Berkley, attain fame with his releases on Warner Bros. and an appearance as Buddy Holly in the film La Bamba. His 1981 recording, "Someday, Someway '', made the Top 40 in both Billboard and Cash Box in 1982.
The Detroit suburbs were the location of one of the first important hardcore punk scenes that swept underground America in the early 1980s. By the end of 1981 the new style sometimes known as "Midwest Hardcore '' had exploded across North America and Detroit was one of several important regional centers fostering its spread. Two of the earliest Suburban Detroit hardcore punk bands were the Grosse Pointe Woods, Michigan band The Holes and Grosse Pointe Park band Degenerates.
The Detroit scene was not an isolated phenomenon but also the focus for a number of sister scenes throughout Michigan and northern Ohio. The major hardcore bands of this early regional scene included Lansing, Michigan 's The Meatmen, Springfield Michigans Latin Dogs Kalamazoo, Michigan 's Violent Apathy, Spite, and The Crucifucks, Toledo, Ohio 's Necros, and Detroit 's Negative Approach.
During this period, the Detroit hardcore scene become most important over the years for Touch and Go Records, which was started in Lansing, Michigan in 1979 by Tesco Vee and Dave Stinson as a popular local fanzine and eventually became a hardcore record label in 1981. Touch and Go subsequently moved to Chicago.
Many small clubs popped up hosting hardcore bands. The Golden Gate, The Falcon Lounge, the Freezer Theater, Kurt Kohls ' Asylum, and The Hungry Brain (named after the club in the movie "The Nutty Professor ''). A crucial venue for hardcore fans in Detroit was known as Clutch Cargo 's, named after a limited - animation TV series. It featured such bands as Black Flag, Fear, X, and the Dead Kennedys, who played the venue while on tour, while the Necros, Negative Approach, L - Seven (not to be confused with L7) and other local and nearby regional bands also appeared. A present club sharing the same name exists today, but in Pontiac, Michigan and with a different booking policy. The venue was formerly located in a large, former athletic club in Detroit. As Clutch Cargo 's often had shows for 18 + fans, many younger hardcore fans either never attended the site due to age, or even knew of it due to their tardy introduction to the subgenre.
The Hungry Brain, situated in a former second - hand store in Delray, Detroit, had been forced to relocate several times and by 1985 found a permanent home at a run down old hall on Michigan Avenue deep in the city of Detroit called Graystone Hall. Bands that started at the Hungry Brain, like political hardcore stalwarts Forced Anger, often opened for many West Coast touring punk bands, including 7 Seconds, T.S.O.L and Minor Threat, at the Graystone. The band published the fanzine, "Placebo Effect '', which produced several compilation tapes featuring upstart punk bands from all over Michigan. Many Graystone gigs were captured by Back Porch Video, a video project of Dearborn public schools run by Russ Gibb (DJ of "Paul is Dead '' rumor fame and previously known as the impresario of the Grande Ballroom) and aired on local public - access television cable TV.
The band Cold As Life developed a loyal following right up to their demise in 2001, even surviving the murder of their frontman Rawn Beauty. Other important bands of that time period were the Almighty Lumberjacks of Death (A.L.D.), fronted by the charismatic and deep voiced Jimmy Doom.
Detroit has been cited as the birthplace of techno music. Prominent Detroit Techno artists include Juan Atkins, Derrick May, Kevin Saunderson, Carl Craig, and Jeff Mills. The template for a new style of dance music (that by the mid to late 1980s was being referred to as techno) was primarily developed by four individuals, Juan Atkins, Kevin Saunderson, Derrick May ("The Belleville Three ''), and Eddie Fowlkes, all of whom attended high school together at Belleville High School, near Detroit, Michigan. By the close of the 1980s the four had operated under various guises: Atkins as Model 500, Flintstones, and Magic Juan; Fowlkes simply as Eddie "Flashin '' Fowlkes; Saunderson as Reese, Keynotes, and Kaos; with May using the aliases Mayday, R - Tyme, and Rhythim Is Rhythim. There were also a number of joint ventures, the most commercially successful of which was the Atkins and Saunderson (with James Pennington) collaboration on the first Inner City single Big Fun. Prior to achieving notoriety the budding musicians, mix tape traders, and aspiring DJ 's found inspiration in Midnight Funk Association, an eclectic, 5 - hour, late - night radio program hosted on various Detroit radio stations including WCHB, WGPR, and WJLB - FM from 1977 through the mid-1980s by DJ Charles "The Electrifying Mojo '' Johnson. Mojo 's show featured heavy doses of electronic sounds from the likes of Giorgio Moroder, Kraftwerk and Tangerine Dream alongside the funk of Parliament and the new wave sounds of the B - 52s.
Of the four individuals responsible for establishing techno as a genre in its own right, it is Juan Atkins who is recognized as the originator; indeed in 1995 American music technology publication Keyboard Magazine honored Atkins as one of "12 Who Count '' in the history of keyboard music (this is remarkable considering Detroit techno was still relatively unknown in the United States at that time despite its notoriety in Europe). In the early 1980s Atkins began recording with musical partner Richard "3070 '' Davis (and later with a third member Jon - 5) as Cybotron. This trio released a number of electro inspired tunes, the best known of which is "Clear ''. Eventually, Atkins started producing his own music under the pseudonym Model 500, and in 1985 he established the record label Metroplex. In the same year he released a seminal work entitled "No UFO 's '' which, in terms of its aesthetic values, is credited by many as the first Detroit techno production. Another earlier track that is often cited is A Number of Names ' Sharevari.
Electro - disco tracks share with techno a dependence on machine - generated beats and dancefloor popularity. However, the comparisons remain contentious; as do the efforts to regress further into the past to find antecedents. The logical extension of this rationale entails a further regression: to the sequenced electronic music of Raymond Scott (The Rhythm Modulator, The Bass - Line Generator, and IBM Probe, being remarkable examples of techno - like music).
According to Insane Clown Posse member Violent J, Detroit 's hip hop scene is not signified by rap battles and waiting to be discovered by a major label, but by independently building up successful business empires, as local rapper Esham did with Reel Life Productions, and Insane Clown Posse did with Psychopathic Records. In the mid-late 1980s came others like D The Great, Detroit 's Most Wanted, Suavey Spy, Mike Fresh, Ace Lee, Eveready Crew, Esham, J to The D, and Silveree. Esham, Insane Clown Posse and Kid Rock were the first Detroit rappers to gain major notice, though like Eminem, their early careers were primarily suburban - based. Eminem, the hip hop artist with the highest cumulative sales, was discovered by Dr. Dre. Dr. Dre also promoted D12 and Obie Trice. Most recent successful acts include producer J Dilla and rappers Royce Da 5'9 ", Trick - Trick, Big Herk, Nick Speed, Slum Village, Dej Loaf, Big Sean, Doughboyz Cashout, Black Milk, Chuck Inglish of The Cool Kids, Danny Brown, Bei Maejor, and Tee Grizzley.
The city is home to the Detroit Symphony Orchestra and the Detroit Opera House. Major theaters include the Fox Theatre, Masonic Temple Theatre, Fisher Theatre, The Fillmore Detroit, Music Hall Center for the Performing Arts, St. Andrews Hall, The Shelter, The Majestic Theatre, Detroit Repertory Theatre and the Detroit Film Theatre at the Detroit Institute of Arts. Along with Wayne State University 's Hillberry, Bonstelle, and Studio Theatres.
The metropolitan Detroit area boasts two of the top live music venues in the U.S. DTE Energy Music Theater (formerly Pine Knob) was the most attended summer venue in the U.S. in 2005 for the fifteenth consecutive year, while The Palace of Auburn Hills ranked twelfth, according to music industry source Pollstar.
Suburban Detroit is also home to a handful of live music venues, including Clutch Cargo 's (Pontiac), The Magic Bag (Ferndale), The Crofoot (Pontiac), The Historic Eagle Theater (Pontiac), The Blind Pig (Ann Arbor) The Ritz (Roseville MI 1980 - 1995, Warren MI 2006 -- present), Smalls (Hamtramck), High Octane -- formerly Static Age (Romeo), Royal Oak Music Theatre (Royal Oak), NTP Backstage (Waterford).
As of 2007, fifteen groups or solo artists, four non performers, and two sidemen who are connected with the Detroit area have been inducted into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame including Detroit - native Bill Haley, Aretha Franklin, Marvin Gaye, Smokey Robinson, Jackie Wilson, the Supremes, the Temptations, Stevie Wonder, Hank Ballard, the Four Tops, Gladys Knight & The Pips, John Lee Hooker, Alice Cooper, Wilson Pickett, Martha & The Vandellas, Little Willie John, Parliament - Funkadelic, James Jamerson, Holland - Dozier - Holland, Bob Seger, Glenn Frey, The Stooges, Berry Gordy and Patti Smith.
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who was the singer in the movie poseidon | Poseidon (film) - wikipedia
Poseidon is a 2006 American disaster film directed and co-produced by Wolfgang Petersen. It is the third film adaptation of Paul Gallico 's novel The Poseidon Adventure, and a loose remake of the 1972 film of the same name. It stars Kurt Russell, Josh Lucas, Richard Dreyfuss, Emmy Rossum, Jacinda Barrett, Mike Vogel, Jimmy Bennett, and Andre Braugher. It was produced and distributed by Warner Bros. in association with Virtual Studios. The film had a simultaneous release in the IMAX format. It was released on May 12, 2006, and nominated at the 79th Academy Awards for Best Visual Effects. Poseidon grossed $181 million at the worldwide box office on a budget of $160 million, resulting in losses of around $69 million for the studio.
The RMS Poseidon, a luxury ocean liner, is making a transatlantic crossing. Former New York City Mayor and FDNY firefighter Robert Ramsey (Kurt Russell) is traveling with his daughter Jennifer (Emmy Rossum) and her boyfriend Christian (Mike Vogel) to New York, soon to be engaged. Also on board is former Navy submariner - turned - professional gambler Dylan Johns (Josh Lucas), architect Richard Nelson (Richard Dreyfuss), Maggie James (Jacinda Barrett) and her son Conor (Jimmy Bennett), stowaway Elena (Mía Maestro), and waiter Marco Valentin (Freddy Rodriguez).
As the passengers are enjoying a New Year 's Eve party, officers on the bridge see a huge rogue wave bearing down on the ship. To survive the wave, they try to steer the ship to take the wave bow - first, but it does not turn fast enough. The wave swamps and capsizes the ship, killing the bridge officers along with many passengers and crew. In the ballroom, a badly injured Captain Bradford (Andre Braugher) attempts to restore order and assures the surviving passengers that help is on the way, and tries to persuade them to stay put. Unconvinced, Dylan leads Conor, Maggie, Robert, Richard, and Valentin towards the bow, where he believes they will have the best chance of escaping from the capsized liner.
As they head up, they have to cross an elevator shaft, into which Valentin falls before being crushed by the falling elevator. They reunite with Jennifer, Christian, Elena, and gambler Lucky Larry (Kevin Dillon), who had all been in the nightclub section of the ship, and who are the only survivors out of all of the occupants in the nightclub. The group crosses a makeshift bridge across the lobby, where Lucky Larry gets crushed by the engine. The pressure from the water finally cracks the ballroom windows, drowning and killing its occupants, including Captain Bradford. With the water rising rapidly, the group is forced to escape through an air duct and some ballast tanks, although Elena hits her head underwater and drowns.
With the ship slowly sinking, the survivors soon find themselves in a crew lounge where they find the bow section is flooded, until an explosion of the engine room lifts it out of the water. The group enters the bow thruster room and are horrified to find the thrusters still running. With their path blocked by the propellers, and knowing that the control room is submerged in water, Robert swims away to turn off the engine. He finds the ' shut off ' switch to be broken, but presses the reverse button instead, before drowning.
With the propellers now spinning in the other direction, Dylan throws a nitrogen tank into it, causing an explosion that destroys the engine, and leaving an opening for them to escape through. The group jumps out the thruster and swim to a nearby inflatable raft, and as they are getting into the raft, the ship starts to sink. As they are paddling away, the waves push the raft further and further away from the sinking liner. Across the water, the survivors look on as the stricken ship sinks stern - first into the Atlantic. After firing a flare, two helicopters and several ships arrive to rescue the six survivors, having tracked the location of the Poseidon 's GPS beacon.
As with the 1972 The Poseidon Adventure film, which based many of its sets on rooms aboard the RMS Queen Mary, the film 's set designers drew inspiration for some of the spaces aboard the fictional "Poseidon '' from rooms aboard the Queen Mary 2, most notably in Poseidon 's ballroom, which is modeled on the main dining room of Queen Mary 2.
On the soundstage at Warner Bros. studios in Burbank, California, separate sets for each main room were built, one right - side - up and the other upside down. The upside - down ballroom set was built on top of a large water tank in the soundstage so that it could be filled with water and drained in a matter of hours. The interior and exterior shots of the ship rolling were constructed using computer - generated imagery.
The primary visual effects were completed by Industrial Light & Magic and Moving Picture Company. ILM used the most advanced version of mental ray to photo - realistically light and render the shots, and were responsible for all of the ship 's exterior shots. The most complicated work featured the opening shot of the ship, where the camera tours the ship 's exterior. The shot lasts for two and a half minutes, and features one of the most complex digital models ever created at ILM. For water simulations, proprietary software was used, known as PhysBAM, which was created in collaboration with Stanford University. Harold "Howie '' Weed was computer graphics modeler for the film.
Digital interior sets and water effects were handled by MPC, while liquid and gaseous effects were simulated using Scanline VFX proprietary software Flowline. Other shots were handled by CIS Hollywood, with water effects simulated using RealFlow.
The soundtrack was released on May 9, 2006, and includes music composed by Klaus Badelt, as well as songs performed by Fergie, who played the character Gloria in the film, and by Federico Aubele.
Be Without You (Moto Blanco Vocal Mix) (8: 44) by Mary J. Blige is played in the film but was not included on the soundtrack.
The film had a budget of $160 million and received generally negative to mixed reviews from critics, with a "Rotten '' rating of 33 % on Rotten Tomatoes with its consensus reading "This remake of The Poseidon Adventure delivers dazzling special effects. Unfortunately, it does n't seem that any of the budget was left over to devote to the script. '', and an average score of 4.9 / 10 and 50 out of 100 on Metacritic, which indicates "mixed or average reviews ''. The film was also nominated for the Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Remake or Ripoff, losing to Little Man. However, the film was commended for its realistic use of CGI in the capsizing scenes and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects, losing to Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man 's Chest.
The film grossed a disappointing $22,155,410 during its opening weekend, for an average of $6,232 from 3,555 theaters, failing to knock Mission: Impossible III from the top of the box office. Poseidon went on to generate $60,674,817 in the United States, and $121,000,000 in foreign markets, for a combined total gross of $181,674,817.
The film holds a Guinness World Record for having the most detailed CG model in a film. The exterior shots included 181,579 individual objects, including 382 cabins, 876 portholes, 73 towels, and 681 deck chairs, all of which were created by digital effects company Industrial Light & Magic.
Poseidon was released to DVD on August 22, 2006, in both single - disc and double - disc editions. The single - disc edition contains a behind - the - scenes featurette and the theatrical trailer. The double - disc edition expands on these two features, and also includes the documentaries Poseidon: Upside Down: A Unique Set Design Chronicle; A Shipmate 's Diary, which covers a film school intern 's experience on the set; and a History Channel documentary which explores rogue waves. Domestic DVD sales for Poseidon were $27,196,438.
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who helped resolve the dispute between virginia and maryland | Maryland v. West Virginia - wikipedia
Maryland v. West Virginia, 217 U.S. 1 (1910), is a 9 - to - 0 ruling by the United States Supreme Court which held that the boundary between the American states of Maryland and West Virginia is the south bank of the North Branch Potomac River. The decision also affirmed criteria for adjudicating boundary disputes between states, which said that decisions should be based on the specific facts of the case, applying the principles of law and equity in such a way that least disturbs private rights and title to land.
On June 20, 1632, Charles I, King of England, made a land grant in North America to Cecilius Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore which became the Province of Maryland (later the state of Maryland). This grant set the boundary of Maryland at the low - water mark of the southern bank of the Potomac River. On September 27, 1688, King James II made a land grant in North America to Thomas Colepeper, 2nd Baron Colepeper which became the Colony of Virginia (later the commonwealth of Virginia). This grant designated "the Potomac River '' as the boundary of Virginia. The conflicting grants led to a long - running border dispute between Maryland and Virginia. The two states settled navigational and riparian water rights in a compact in 1785, but the boundary dispute continued.
Maryland entered into a separate dispute with Virginia regarding the placement of its true southern boundary in the west. The land grant given to Lord Baltimore stated that the Potomac River to its headwaters was to be the southern boundary of Maryland. From that point, a north - south meridian set the state 's western border. At that time no one realized that the Potomac River split into a North Branch and South Branch just east of Green Spring in what is now Hampshire County, West Virginia. The South Branch extended westward for many more miles than the North Branch. The question arose as to which branch constituted the main branch of the Potomac River. For many years, the North Branch was considered the main bed of the river, and Maryland 's southern boundary was set there. In 1746, Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron sent a party of surveyors to find the headwaters of the Potomac River. On October 23, 1746, they located what they believed to be the headwaters at what is now Fairfax Stone Historical Monument State Park. They carved the letters "Ffx '' and Lord Fairfax 's coronet into a large pyramidal rock and placed it at the center of these headwaters. In 1748, the Fairfax Stone and the meridian north of it were approved by the Virginia House of Burgesses and the King in Council as the boundary between Virginia and Maryland. The Maryland Assembly passed legislation in April 1787 to formally establish this north - south meridian. Francis Deakins was appointed surveyor, and in 1788 established what became known as the "Deakins line. '' The Deakins line became the de facto border of Maryland. Unfortunately, the Deakins line was not straight, and it was not a true meridian but rather drifted to the east (intersecting the border with Pennsylvania about three - quarters of a mile east of where it should have done).
Maryland and Virginia passed legislation in the early 1850s asking the federal government 's help in establishing the true border in the area. In 1859, the United States Secretary of War John B. Floyd ordered Lieutenant Nathaniel Michler of the United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers to establish a true meridian boundary. Virginia refused to accept this line as the true boundary, arguing that the Deakins line had long been accepted as the border between the two states.
In the interim, both states had been busy creating counties in the area and selling this land to private citizens. The state of Virginia created Monongalia County in 1776 out of what was then the unincorporated territory of the District of West August. In 1780, two parts of then - Augusta County were also added to Monongalia County. In 1818, the Virginia state legislature created Preston County out of a portion of Monongalia County. The state of Maryland in 1789 created Allegany County from a portion of Washington County, and then split Garrett County off from Allegany County in 1872. Each state claimed the narrow triangular strip of land between them, leaving landowners in the area angry and confused.
During the American Civil War, Virginia attempted to secede from the United States in 1861 over the issue of slavery. Voters in 41 northwestern counties of Virginia (including Preston County) voted to secede from Virginia the same year, and in 1863 the new state of West Virginia was admitted into the union with the United States. Virginia challenged both actions in the U.S. Supreme Court after the war ended, but the Court ruled in West Virginia 's favor in Virginia v. West Virginia, 78 U.S. 39 (1870). The new state of West Virginia also claimed the old Deakins line as its true boundary with Maryland.
On October 12, 1891, the state of Maryland filed suit against the state of West Virginia to settle a dispute regarding the nature of the true boundary between Garrett County, Maryland, and Preston County, West Virginia. By now, the South Branch had been determined to be the main source of the Potomac River, and Maryland began to claim the South Branch as its true southern boundary. In 1897, the state of Maryland appointed a team of surveyors to locate the headwaters of the South Branch of the Potomac River. A marker named the "Potomac Stone '' was placed there, and a new survey line north to the Pennsylvania border established, which Maryland claimed as its new border.
Associate Justice William R. Day wrote the decision for the unanimous Court.
Justice Day wrote extensively about the background of the boundary dispute, which was detailed, lengthy, complex, and fact - specific. Justice Day dismissed Maryland 's claim to the South Branch and the meridian running north of the Potomac Stone, as the state of Maryland had not pressed the issue in its briefs and arguments before the Court.
As to whether the Deakins line or Michler line was the correct meridan, Justice Day conceded that the Michler line more truly reflected the intent of the land grant to Lord Baltimore. But Day also noted that maps in that era were inaccurate at best, and little surveying of the land had been done. The location of the Fairfax Stone, however, was known and clearly had been referred to as a boundary marker by both states. Indeed, the constitution of Maryland even referred to it as such.
Day concluded that custom and law both accorded the Deakins line the status of official boundary, even if the state of Maryland routinely contested that line as such. "... the evidence contained in this record leaves no room to doubt that after the running of the Deakins line the people of that region knew and referred to it as the line between the state of Virginia and the state of Maryland. '' Day cited numerous examples in which both states and the people of both states treated the Deakins line as the boundary between the two states. Such evidence determined the true boundary under principles of equity, Day said. He referred to Virginia v. Tennessee, 148 U.S. 503 (1893), and quoted the holding in that case: "'... a boundary line... which has been run out, located, and marked upon the earth, and afterwards recognized and acquiesced in by the parties for a long course of years, is conclusive, even if it be ascertained that it varies somewhat from the courses given in the original grant... ' '' Day traced the lineage of this decision rule back through Penn vs. Baltimore (1750), State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations v. Commonwealth of Massachusetts, 37 U.S. 657 (1838), State of Rhode Island v. State of Massachusetts, 45 U.S. 591 (1846), State of Indiana v. State of Kentucky, 136 U.S. 479 (1890), and State of Louisiana v. State of Mississippi, 202 U.S. 1 (1906).
Day acknowledged Maryland 's attempts over the past 150 years to dispute the boundary. But he concluded that Maryland 's legislative statements were unpersuasive in the face of a de facto boundary treated as such by landowners. "True it is, that, after the running of the Deakins line, certain steps were taken, intended to provide a more effectual legal settlement and delimitation of the boundary. But none of these steps were effectual, or such as to disturb the continued possession of the people claiming rights up to the boundary line. '' Citing State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations v. Commonwealth of Massachusetts again, Day noted that "a right in its nature prescriptive has arisen, practically undisturbed for many years, not to be overthrown without doing violence to principles of established right and justice equally binding upon states and individuals. ''
As for West Virginia 's cross-claim that its boundary was the high - water mark on the far shore of the Potomac River, Day found Morris v. United States, 174 U.S. 196 (1899), conclusive and dismissed the claim. He held that Maryland 's border ran to the low - water mark on the southern bank of the river.
The majority held that a commission of surveyors should be appointed to permanently mark the Deakins line from the Fairfax Stone to the Pennsylvania border.
The Supreme Court appointed a team of surveyors to survey the new boundary, and establish it by placing granite slabs every half - mile. In Maryland v. West Virginia, 225 U.S. 1, decided May 2, 1912, the Supreme Court accepted the report of the commissioners, overruled in a per curiam decision the exceptions filed by the state of Maryland, and ordered the boundary set.
The case clearly established that West Virginia 's riparian water rights to the Potomac River are the same as Virginia 's, as established in Morris v. United States. However, in New Jersey v. New York, 523 U.S. 767 (1998), the U.S. Supreme Court held that a state can acquiesce in the regulation of its water rights by another state and still maintain its sovereign authority over those rights only so long as it protests the regulation. In Virginia v. Maryland, 540 U.S. 56 (2003), the Court dealt with a situation in which the state of Virginia sought to exercise its riparian rights over the Potomac River. Maryland statute and regulation did not permit this exercise of rights, and Virginia sued. The U.S. Supreme Court held that Virginia had maintained its sovereignty over its riparian rights by continuously protesting Maryland 's assertion of jurisdiction. This has led some legal observers to conclude that West Virginia, too, must begin protesting Maryland 's assertion of regulatory jurisdiction in order for West Virginia to maintain sovereignty over its riparian rights.
The Supreme Court in Maryland v. West Virginia also applied a legal principle known as "prescription '' to the boundary dispute. The concept of prescription is based on the idea that a state or individual 's uninterrupted possession to land creates a claim on that land. The assumption of the courts has been that a state or person will seek to possess that which is his, and that silence and / or neglect to regain possession indicates the original owner 's intent to relinquish the land. Maryland v. West Virginia is considered a classic case where the doctrine of prescription is applied. Although some legal scholars have attempted to provide criteria which would trigger prescription (e.g., 50 years of uninterrupted possession), in Maryland v. West Virginia the Supreme Court held that such decisions must be intensively fact - specific.
Maryland v. West Virginia is also a classic case of the high court applying the legal rule of de minimis non curat lex. This Latin phrase translates into English as "the law does not concern itself with trifles. '' The de minimis rule was commonly used by the U.S. Supreme Court in the 19th century in areas such as contract, admiralty, and property law. The de minimis rule was used in Maryland v. West Virginia as well, and this is considered one of the most important uses of the rule in the early 20th century.
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how old was taylor lautner in twilight movie | Taylor Lautner - wikipedia
Taylor Lautner (/ ˈlaʊtnər /; born February 11, 1992) is an American actor, voice actor, and model. He is known for playing Jacob Black in The Twilight Saga film series based on the novels of the same name by Stephenie Meyer.
Lautner began his acting career playing bit roles in comedy series such as The Bernie Mac Show (2003) and My Wife and Kids (2004), before having voice roles in television series like What 's New, Scooby - Doo? (2005) and Danny Phantom (2005). In 2005, he appeared in the film Cheaper by the Dozen 2 and starred in The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl in 3 - D. He also starred in the 2011 action film Abduction.
Since 2013, Lautner has starred in the BBC sitcom Cuckoo as the son of the titular main character. In 2016, he joined the main cast of FOX black comedy series Scream Queens as Dr. Cassidy Cascade, joining in the second series.
The late 2000s saw Lautner become a teen idol and sex symbol, after extensively changing his physique to keep the role of Jacob Black in further Twilight installments, and generating media attention for his looks. In 2010, he was ranked second on Glamour 's "The 50 Sexiest Men of 2010 '' list, and fourth on People 's "Most Amazing Bodies '' list. Also in the same year, Lautner was named the highest - paid teenage actor in Hollywood.
Lautner was born on February 11, 1992 in Grand Rapids, Michigan, the son of Deborah and Daniel Lautner. His mother works for a software development company, while his father was a Midwest Airlines pilot. He has one younger sister named Makena. Raised as a Roman Catholic, Lautner has Austrian, Dutch, English, French, German, Irish, and Swiss ancestry, and has stated that he has "distant '' Native American ancestry (specifically Ottawa and Potawatomi) through his mother. He grew up in Hudsonville, Michigan, a town near Grand Rapids. He has stated that he was bullied in school because he was an actor. He commented, "I just had to tell myself ' I ca n't let this get to me. This is what I love to do. And I 'm going to continue doing it. ' ''
He took his first karate class at the age of six. A year later, he attended the national karate tournament in Louisville, Kentucky, where he met Michael Chaturantabut, the founder of Xtreme Martial Arts. Chaturantabut invited Lautner to a camp he held at University of California, Los Angeles. Lautner trained with Chaturantabut for several years, earning his black belt by the age of eight, and winning several junior world championships. He appeared in an ISKA karate event televised on ESPN in 2003 that was later lampooned on the sports - comedy show Cheap Seats that first aired in 2006.
In junior high, Lautner -- who was involved in karate, baseball and hip - hop dance -- won the award for "Best Smile '' and played in the school 's Turkey Bowl American Football game. He went to public school in Valencia, California at Valencia High School until his sophomore year. Chaturantabut, who once portrayed the Blue Ranger in Power Rangers Lightspeed Rescue, suggested to Lautner that he take up acting. For a few years, the Lautners flew from Michigan to Los Angeles for auditions when his talent agency called, and returned to Grand Rapids for school sometimes the same day. Lautner balanced karate and acting with being on the football and baseball teams at his school, and taking up jazz and hip - hop dance. After that became tiring, Lautner and his family decided to move to California for a month, to try it out, before moving to Santa Clarita, California, permanently in 2002.
In his first months after moving to Los Angeles, Lautner appeared in small television roles, small film roles, and ads and commercials. In 2001, Lautner first appeared in the made - for - television film, Shadow Fury. He then got a voice - over job in a commercial for Rugrats Go Wild. He then appeared in small television roles on The Bernie Mac Show, My Wife and Kids, and Summerland. Lautner then earned voice - over roles in animated series such as Danny Phantom, Duck Dodgers, and What 's New, Scooby - Doo?. The same year, he earned his first breakout role, starring in the film, The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl in 3 - D. Lautner spent three months on location in Austin, Texas, to film the movie, which was received with negative reviews from critics, and was a minor international success. However, Lautner was nominated at the 2006 Young Artist Awards for Best Performance in a Feature Film by a Leading Actor. For the film, Lautner choreographed all of his fight scenes after director Robert Rodríguez learned of his extensive martial arts training. Months later, he played Eliot Murtaugh in Cheaper by the Dozen 2, which was panned by critics, being named one of the "Worst Films of the 2000s '' by Rotten Tomatoes. After returning from Canada filming the latter movie, Lautner said he realized his newfound fame, from Sharkboy and Lavagirl. In 2006 he appeared in the show Love Inc. and the TV special He 's a Bully, Charlie Brown. Two years later, Lautner appeared in a lead role in the short - lived NBC drama, My Own Worst Enemy, portraying Christian Slater 's son, Jack Spivey. Rolling Stone coined his early roles as either "the popular kid, jock, or bully. ''
In 2007, filmmakers began a search for actors to portray Jacob Black, a Native American friend of lead character Bella Swan in Twilight, the first film in The Twilight Saga film series. In January 2008, an open casting call was held in Portland, Oregon. Lautner had not heard of the Twilight series before, but was urged by his agent to audition. At his audition, he read lines with Kristen Stewart, who had already been cast as Bella, and they acted out scenes from The Twilight Saga: New Moon and The Twilight Saga: Eclipse. The film was a commercial success, earning $69 million its opening weekend, and has grossed $392 million worldwide. It received mixed reviews from critics, having a "Rotten '' rating with a weighted average of 5.5 / 10. In describing the critical consensus, it stated: "Having lost much of its bite transitioning to the big screen, Twilight will please its devoted fans, but do little for the uninitiated. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 reviews from film critics, it has an average score of 56 from the 37 reviews. At the 2009 MTV Movie Awards, Lautner was nominated for Male Breakthrough Performance, which was won by co-star Robert Pattinson.
Initially, director Chris Weitz wanted to recast the role of Jacob Black for Twilight 's sequel, The Twilight Saga: New Moon, due to the major physical changes that occur in Black between the two novels, and have an actor that would accurately portray "the new, larger Jacob Black. '' Black 's role in the novel also increases significantly, with him falling in love with Bella and becoming a werewolf, putting the actor in a starring role. Representatives for Weitz had stated that they were make a full effort to recast the "high - profile gig, '' and MTV News confirmed that Weitz was looking at Michael Copon to take on the role; however, Summit Entertainment said a decision had not been made. In an attempt to keep the role, Lautner weight - trained extensively and gained approximately 30 pounds of muscle. In January 2009, Weitz and Summit Entertainment announced that Lautner would continue to play the role of Jacob in the sequel. In an interview, fellow cast member Kristen Stewart talked about Lautner 's transformation saying, "He 's an entirely different person physically. '' Stewart later said, "He gets a lot of attention because he 's buff, but I think as soon as the movie comes out, people are going to realize that 's not why he got the job. '' Co-star Robert Pattinson said after seeing Lautner 's body, "I saw him and thought ' Jesus, I 'm going to get fired. '' In an interview with The Wrap, Weitz said Lautner deserved a lot of credit for the movie 's box office, stating, "If you look at the movie, it should have been the weakest in the franchise, because Robert Pattinson does n't play as big a role. '' Weitz said Lautner had to "pick up that slack, and if his character had n't been emotionally, not just physically, appealing, the movie would n't have been as big a hit. '' The commercial performance of the film outpaced the first film, setting several box office records including the biggest midnight opening in the United States and Canada and the biggest single - day opening. The opening weekend of New Moon is the third highest opening weekend in domestic history with $142,839,137. The Twilight Saga: New Moon also has the sixth highest worldwide opening weekend with $274.9 million total. Critical reception was less favorable, with the movie getting a 4.6 / 10 average from Rotten Tomatoes, and a 44 on Metacritic. Lautner won Favorite Breakout Movie Actor at the 35th People 's Choice Awards.
Although it began after the release of the first film, upon release of New Moon, Lautner and his co-stars Stewart and Pattinson transitioned to teen idol status, with Lautner particularly admired by teens for his new physical characteristics, becoming a sex symbol. The trio appeared on many covers and televised appearances together. In between the second and third films in the Twilight series, Lautner was a part of the ensemble cast in the movie Valentine 's Day as Willy Harrington, acting alongside his rumored girlfriend at the time, American country pop singer Taylor Swift. The duo was nominated at the 2010 MTV Movie Awards for Best Kiss. Although it received generally negative reviews, the film grossed $213 million and had the second biggest opening in the United States for a romantic comedy film. Lautner presented at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards and the 82nd Academy Awards. Lautner hosted Saturday Night Live on December 12, 2009, making him one of the youngest celebrity hosts in the show 's history.
Lautner returned for the third Twilight film, The Twilight Saga: Eclipse, in 2010. Receiving mixed reviews from critics, the film surpassed its predecessor to become the highest - grossing film of the franchise and the highest - grossing romantic fantasy, werewolf and vampire movie of all time at the American and Canadian box office. It ranks as the 36th highest - grossing film of all - time in the U.S. and Canada. The popularity of Lautner and his cast members continued to summit, especially via the "Team Edward vs. Team Jacob '' campaign that promoted the film. Lautner 's fanbase also began to expand to older audiences. Lautner won Best Fantasy Actor at the 2010 Scream Awards, and he is nominated for Favorite Movie Actor for his role in Eclipse at the 37th People 's Choice Awards. In November 2010 The Hollywood Reporter named Lautner as one of the young male actors who are "pushing -- or being pushed '' into taking over Hollywood as the new "A-List ''.
Lautner was initially supposed to be in two films, Northern Lights and a movie based on Max Steel, but pulled out of both films due to scheduling conflicts and better offers. Other planned projects were the lead in a movie about Stretch Armstrong and a hostage thriller, Cancun. Lautner filmed a Bourne Identity-esque spy film with Lily Collins, entitled Abduction. It was released in September 2011 to universally negative reviews from critics and Lautner 's performance was heavily criticised. He appeared in the remaining parts of the Twilight series, The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn films, which were released over a two - year period from 2011 -- 2012.
In 2010, Lautner was considered to be the highest - paid teen actor in Hollywood. In February 2014, it was confirmed that Lautner would be joining the BBC Three comedy series Cuckoo, replacing Andy Samberg. Lautner has continued in this role, co-starring in the BBC comedy for three series. On June 23, 2016 it was announced that Lautner had been cast in the Ryan Murphy comedy horror series Scream Queens.
Publications such as GQ, Rolling Stone, and People have referred to Lautner as a sex symbol, with the latter publication calling the actor a future epitome of pop culture. He has been called the new young adult star that can "both woo the girls with his intensity and impress the boys with his rugged agility. '' According to Mickey Rapkin of GQ, the use of Lautner 's physique in films has been compared to Megan Fox in her work. After his massive physical change following Twilight, Lautner became a tabloid teen idol with his co-stars Robert Pattinson and Kristen Stewart. Lautner, determined to stay in the series, worked out every day and gained over 30 pounds (14 kg) of muscle in order to bulk up for the role of Jacob Black in the remaining films in The Twilight Saga. Michelle Lanz of MSN Wonderwall said that Lautner 's change may have saved his career. Several critics credit Lautner 's physical characteristics for much of the success of the Twilight series, with critic Sharon Waxman stating, "as a tabloid teen idol, he certainly deserves some credit for New Moon 's $700 million worldwide gross. '' Lautner 's abs in particular have been subject to media attention, with The Wrap stating that companies bidding for the actor in movies in 2011 would "shell out for the young actor 's much - on - display though mostly untried abs. '' Mickey Rapkin of GQ said, "the film 's marketing issues were solved when Lautner 's "abdominal muscles became New Moon 's main talking point, not to mention his calling card. '' He was named number one on Access Hollywood 's "Top 5 Hollywood Abs '' list.
Before the actor turned 18, his sexualized image was often critiqued, and subject to controversy. In December 2009, Lautner appeared on the cover of Rolling Stone in a wet T - shirt. Jennifer Cady of E! Online said to wait a few months when Lautner would "be of age, which will make this whole operation you got going on completely legal. '' In his interview with the magazine, after declining to talk about whether he was dating Taylor Swift, the magazine pressed Lautner on rumors of him being gay, which he brushed off. Brent Hartinger, a columnist for AfterElton, blasted the magazine, calling the questioning "unimaginably irresponsible, '' commenting that Lautner was just "a 17 - year old kid '' and that while the rumors were baseless and speculation from certain blogs and fans, it was disappointing that a "legitimate media outlet '' would print gossip. Hartinger said the magazine reached a "new low '' and did not have common decency, noting that the line between child and adult "is there for a good reason ''.
Lautner has stated that he does not want to be just known for his looks, as some have attributed his popularity to that and not his actual acting skill. In an interview, the actor revealed that he was originally supposed to have a baring scene in the movie Valentine 's Day. He stated, "The script said we were walking into school and Willy takes off his shirt. I said, ' Whoa, whoa, whoa. Time out. He 's gon na take off his shirt in the middle of school? No, no, no. The reason I took off my shirt for New Moon is because it 's written in the book that way. And there 's reasons behind it. '' Lautner later said he would not bare his chest for any role that did not call for it. In June 2010, Lautner covered GQ magazine. The actor was lampooned in conservative writer Laura Ingraham 's satirical The Obama Diaries, commenting to have Lautner as a mascot for the White House Easter Egg Roll, to fit their health - conscious theme, and have Lautner don a furry bunny head and appear shirtless. In 2010, Lautner was ranked number two on Glamour 's "50 Sexiest Men of 2010 '' list. Men 's Health ranked him at third on their list of "Top 10 Summer Bodies. '' Additionally in 2010, he was ranked fourth on People 's "Most Amazing Bodies '' list.
Lautner has an intricate workout plan, which was covered by Men 's Health, and has a specific diet after developing his body for The Twilight Saga: New Moon. In addition, he still practices and trains in martial arts regularly. He has stated that he is drug - and alcohol - free.
Lautner resides with his parents and younger sister in Valencia, California, which he says he prefers because of the paparazzi. Lautner has said that he has never thought of moving out on his own, stating, "The thing I love is that my home life has n't changed. I still help out with the garbage. I still help out with the lawn. '' He owns a BMW 5 series, with dark - tinted windows intended to provide anonymity.
The boost given to his career by the success of the Twilight films made him too busy to attend school, so he took the California High School Proficiency Exam to graduate from high school in 2008. He has stated on Late Show with David Letterman that if he does not have work, he would like to go back to school. In 2010, he stated that "I finished high school and enrolled in my local community college ''.
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who boarded the white car on a train leading to the separate but equal doctrine | Separate but equal - wikipedia
Separate but equal was a legal doctrine in United States constitutional law according to which racial segregation did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, adopted during the Reconstruction Era, which guaranteed "equal protection '' under the law to all citizens. Under the doctrine, as long as the facilities provided to each race were equal, state and local governments could require that services, facilities, public accommodations, housing, medical care, education, employment, and transportation be segregated by race, which was already the case throughout the former Confederacy. The phrase was derived from a Louisiana law of 1890, although the law actually used the phrase "equal but separate ''.
The doctrine was confirmed in the Plessy v. Ferguson Supreme Court decision of 1896, which allowed state - sponsored segregation. Though segregation laws existed before that case, the decision emboldened segregation states during the Jim Crow era, which had commenced in 1876 and supplanted the Black Codes, which restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African - Americans during the Reconstruction Era.
In practice the separate facilities provided to African Americans were rarely equal; usually they were not even close to equal, or they did not exist at all. For example, according to the 1934 -- 36 report of the Florida Superintendent of Public Instruction, the value of "white school property '' in the state was $70,543,000, while the value of African - American school property was $4,900,000. The report says that "in a few south Florida counties and in most north Florida counties many Negro schools are housed in churches, shacks, and lodges, and have no toilets, water supply, desks, blackboards, etc. (See Station One School.) Counties use these schools as a means to get State funds and yet these counties invest little or nothing in them. '' High school education for African Americans was provided in only 28 of Florida 's 67 counties.
The doctrine of separate but equal was overturned by a series of Supreme Court decisions, starting with Brown v. Board of Education of 1954. However, the overturning of segregation laws in the United States was a long process that lasted through much of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, involving federal legislation (especially the Civil Rights Act of 1964), and many court cases.
The American Civil War (1861 -- 1865) brought slavery in the United States to an end, with the Emancipation Proclamation during the war, and the Thirteenth Amendment shortly after. Following the war, the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution guaranteed equal protection under the law to all citizens, and Congress established the Freedmen 's Bureau to assist the integration of former slaves into Southern society. After the end of Reconstruction with the Compromise of 1877, and the withdrawal of federal troops from all Southern states, former slave - holding states enacted various laws to undermine the equal treatment of African Americans, although the Fourteenth Amendment as well as federal Civil Rights laws enacted during reconstruction were meant to guarantee it. However, Southern states contended that the requirement of equality could be met in a way that kept the races separate. Furthermore, the state and federal courts tended to reject the pleas by African Americans that their Fourteenth Amendment rights were violated, arguing that the Fourteenth Amendment applied only to federal, not state, citizenship. This rejection is evident in the Slaughter - House Cases and Civil Rights Cases.
After the end of Reconstruction, the federal government adopted a general policy of leaving racial segregation up to the individual states. One example of this policy was the second Morrill Act (Morrill Act of 1890). Before the end of the war, the Morrill Land - Grant Colleges Act (Morrill Act of 1862) had provided federal funding for higher education by each state with the details left to the state legislatures. The 1890 Act implicitly accepted the legal concept of "separate but equal '' for the 17 states that had institutionalized segregation.
Provided, That no money shall be paid out under this act to any State or Territory for the support and maintenance of a college where a distinction of race or color is made in the admission of students, but the establishment and maintenance of such colleges separately for white and colored students shall be held to be a compliance with the provisions of this act if the funds received in such State or Territory be equitably divided as hereinafter set forth.
Prior to the Second Morrill Act, 17 states excluded blacks from access to the land grant colleges without providing similar educational opportunities. In response to the Second Morrill Act, 17 states established separate land grant colleges for blacks which are now referred to as public historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs). In fact, some states adopted laws prohibiting schools from educating blacks and whites together, even if a school was willing to do so. (The Constitutionality of such laws was upheld in Berea College v. Kentucky, 211 U.S. 45 (1908).) Under the ' separate but equal doctrine ', blacks were entitled to receive the same public services and accommodations such as schools, bathrooms, and water fountains, but states were allowed to maintain different facilities for the two groups. The legitimacy of such laws under the 14th Amendment was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in the 1896 case of Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537. The Plessy doctrine was extended to the public schools in Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education, 175 U.S. 528 (1899).
Although the Constitutional doctrine required equality, the facilities and social services offered to African - Americans were almost always of lower quality than those offered to white Americans; for example, many African American schools received less public funding per student than nearby white schools. In Texas, the state established a state - funded law school for white students without any law school for black students.
In 1892, Homer Plessy, who was of mixed ancestry and appeared to be white, boarded an all - white railroad car between New Orleans and Covington, Louisiana. The conductor of the train collected passenger tickets at their seats. When Plessy told the conductor he was 7 / 8ths white and 1 / 8th black, he was advised he needed to move to a coloreds - only car. Plessy said he resented sitting in a coloreds - only car and was arrested immediately.
One month after his arrest, Plessy appeared in court before Judge John Howard Ferguson. Plessy 's lawyer, Albion Tourgee, claimed Plessy 's 13th and 14th amendment rights were violated. The 13th amendment abolished slavery, and the 14th amendment granted equal protection to all under the law.
The Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson established the phrase "separate but equal ''. The ruling required "railway companies carrying passengers in their coaches in that State to provide equal, but separate, accommodations for the white and colored races ''. Accommodations provided on each railroad car were required to be the same as those provided on the others. Separate railroad cars could be provided. The railroad could refuse service to passengers who refused to comply, and the Supreme Court ruled this did not infringe upon the 13th and 14th amendments.
The "separate but equal '' doctrine applied to railroad cars and to schools, voting rights, and drinking fountains. Segregated schools were created for students, as long as they followed "separate but equal ''. The majority of all black schools received old textbooks, used equipment, and poorly prepared or trained teachers. A study conducted by the American Psychological Association found that black students were emotionally impaired when segregated at a young age. State voting right restrictions, such as literacy tests and poll taxes, created an environment that made it almost impossible for blacks to vote. This era also saw separate drinking fountains in public areas.
The "Separate but Equal '' doctrine was eventually overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court in the case of Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, although the implementation of the changes this implied was long, contentious, and sometimes violent. (See Massive resistance and Southern Manifesto.) Modern legal doctrine interprets the 14th amendment to prohibit explicit segregation on the basis of race.
The repeal of such restrictive laws, generally known as Jim Crow laws, was a key focus of the Civil Rights Movement prior to 1954. In Sweatt v. Painter, the Supreme Court addressed a legal challenge to the doctrine by a student seeking admission to a state - supported law school in Texas. Because Texas did not have a law school for blacks, the lower court delayed the case until Texas could create one. However, the Supreme Court ordered that the student be admitted to the white law school on the grounds that the separate school failed to qualify as being "equal '', both because of quantitative differences in facilities and intangible factors, such as its isolation from most of the future lawyers with whom its graduates would interact. The court held that, when considering graduate education, intangibles must be considered as part of "substantive equality ''. The same day, the Supreme Court in McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents ruled that Oklahoma segregation laws which required a graduate student working on a Doctor of Education degree to sit in the hallway outside the classroom door did not qualify as "separate but equal ''. These cases ended "separate but equal '' in graduate and professional education.
In Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), attorneys for the NAACP referred to the phrase "equal but separate '' used in Plessy v. Ferguson as a custom de jure racial segregation enacted into law. The NAACP, led by the soon - to - be first black Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall, was successful in challenging the constitutional viability of the separate but equal doctrine, and the court voted to overturn sixty years of law that had developed under Plessy. The Supreme Court outlawed segregated public education facilities for blacks and whites at the state level. The companion case of Bolling v. Sharpe, 347 U.S. 497 outlawed such practices at the Federal level in the District of Columbia. The court held:
We conclude that, in the field of public education, the doctrine of "separate but equal '' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. Therefore, we hold that the plaintiffs and others similarly situated for whom the actions have been brought are, by reason of the segregation complained of, deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment.
Although Brown overturned the doctrine of separate but equal with respect to institutions of public education, it would be almost ten more years before the Civil Rights Act of 1964 would prohibit private discrimination in facilities, such as transportation and hotels, that were considered public accommodations. Additionally, in 1967 under Loving v. Virginia, the United States Supreme Court declared Virginia 's anti-miscegenation statute, the "Racial Integrity Act of 1924 '', unconstitutional, and invalidated all anti-miscegenation laws in the United States. Although federal legislation prohibits racial discrimination in college admissions, the historically black colleges and universities continue to teach student bodies that are 75 % to 90 % African American. This however does not necessarily indicate racial discrimination within college admissions in those schools when factors such as student preference are taken into account. In 1975, Jake Ayers Sr. filed a lawsuit against Mississippi, stating that they gave more financial support to the predominantly white public colleges. The state settled the lawsuit in 2002, directing $503 million to three historically black colleges over 17 years.
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psychologist who focuses on the role of the conscious and unconscious mind | Unconscious mind - wikipedia
The unconscious mind (or the unconscious) consists of the processes in the mind which occur automatically and are not available to introspection, and include thought processes, memories, interests, and motivations.
Even though these processes exist well under the surface of conscious awareness they are theorized to exert an impact on behavior. The term was coined by the 18th - century German Romantic philosopher Friedrich Schelling and later introduced into English by the poet and essayist Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
Empirical evidence suggests that unconscious phenomena include repressed feelings, automatic skills, subliminal perceptions, thoughts, habits, and automatic reactions, and possibly also complexes, hidden phobias and desires.
The concept was popularized by the Austrian neurologist and psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. In psychoanalytic theory, unconscious processes are understood to be directly represented in dreams, as well as in slips of the tongue and jokes.
Thus the unconscious mind can be seen as the source of dreams and automatic thoughts (those that appear without any apparent cause), the repository of forgotten memories (that may still be accessible to consciousness at some later time), and the locus of implicit knowledge (the things that we have learned so well that we do them without thinking).
It has been argued that consciousness is influenced by other parts of the mind. These include unconsciousness as a personal habit, being unaware, and intuition. Phenomena related to semi-consciousness include awakening, implicit memory, subliminal messages, trances, hypnagogia, and hypnosis. While sleep, sleepwalking, dreaming, delirium, and comas may signal the presence of unconscious processes, these processes are seen as symptoms rather than the unconscious mind itself.
Some critics have doubted the existence of the unconscious.
The term "unconscious '' (German: Unbewusste) was coined by the 18th - century German Romantic philosopher Friedrich Schelling (in his System of Transcendental Idealism, ch. 6, § 3) and later introduced into English by the poet and essayist Samuel Taylor Coleridge (in his Biographia Literaria). Some rare earlier instances of the term "unconsciousness '' (Unbewußtseyn) can be found in the work of the 18th - century German physician and philosopher Ernst Platner.
Influences on thinking that originate from outside of an individual 's consciousness were reflected in the ancient ideas of temptation, divine inspiration, and the predominant role of the gods in affecting motives and actions. The idea of internalised unconscious processes in the mind was also instigated in antiquity and has been explored across a wide variety of cultures. Unconscious aspects of mentality were referred to between 2500 and 600 BC in the Hindu texts known as the Vedas, found today in Ayurvedic medicine.
Paracelsus is credited as the first to make mention of an unconscious aspect of cognition in his work Von den Krankheiten (translates as "About illnesses '', 1567), and his clinical methodology created a cogent system that is regarded by some as the beginning of modern scientific psychology. William Shakespeare explored the role of the unconscious in many of his plays, without naming it as such. In addition, Western philosophers such as Arthur Schopenhauer, Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Leibniz, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Eduard von Hartmann, Søren Kierkegaard, and Friedrich Nietzsche used the word unconscious.
In 1880, Edmond Colsenet supports at the Sorbonne, a philosophy thesis on the unconscious. Elie Rabier and Alfred Fouillee perform syntheses of the unconscious "at a time when Freud was not interested in the concept ''.
Psychologist Jacques Van Rillaer points out that, "the unconscious was not discovered by Freud. In 1890, when psychoanalysis was still unheard of, William James, in his monumental treatise on psychology (The Principles of Psychology), examined the way Schopenhauer, von Hartmann, Janet, Binet and others had used the term ' unconscious ' and ' subconscious ' ''. Historian of psychology Mark Altschule observes that, "It is difficult -- or perhaps impossible -- to find a nineteenth - century psychologist or psychiatrist who did not recognize unconscious cerebration as not only real but of the highest importance. ''
Van Rilliaer could have also mentioned that Eduard von Hartmann published a book dedicated to this topic, Philosophy of the Unconscious, in 1869 -- long before anybody else.
Furthermore, 19th century German psychologists, Gustav Fechner and Wilhelm Wundt, had begun to use the term in their experimental psychology, in the context of manifold, jumbled sense data that the mind organizes at an unconscious level before revealing it as a cogent totality in conscious form. ''
Sigmund Freud and his followers developed an account of the unconscious mind. It plays an important role in psychoanalysis.
Freud divided the mind into the conscious mind (or the ego) and the unconscious mind. The latter was then further divided into the id (or instincts and drive) and the superego (or conscience). In this theory, the unconscious refers to the mental processes of which individuals make themselves unaware. Freud proposed a vertical and hierarchical architecture of human consciousness: the conscious mind, the preconscious, and the unconscious mind -- each lying beneath the other. He believed that significant psychic events take place "below the surface '' in the unconscious mind, like hidden messages from the unconscious. He interpreted such events as having both symbolic and actual significance.
In psychoanalytic terms, the unconscious does not include all that is not conscious, but rather what is actively repressed from conscious thought or what a person is averse to knowing consciously. Freud viewed the unconscious as a repository for socially unacceptable ideas, wishes or desires, traumatic memories, and painful emotions put out of mind by the mechanism of psychological repression. However, the contents did not necessarily have to be solely negative. In the psychoanalytic view, the unconscious is a force that can only be recognized by its effects -- it expresses itself in the symptom. In a sense, this view places the conscious self as an adversary to its unconscious, warring to keep the unconscious hidden. Unconscious thoughts are not directly accessible to ordinary introspection, but are supposed to be capable of being "tapped '' and "interpreted '' by special methods and techniques such as meditation, free association (a method largely introduced by Freud), dream analysis, and verbal slips (commonly known as a Freudian slip), examined and conducted during psychoanalysis. Seeing as these unconscious thoughts are normally cryptic, psychoanalysts are considered experts in interpreting their messages.
Freud based his concept of the unconscious on a variety of observations. For example, he considered "slips of the tongue '' to be related to the unconscious in that they often appeared to show a person 's true feelings on a subject. For example, "I decided to take a summer curse ''. This example shows a slip of the word "course '' where the speaker accidentally used the word curse which would show that they have negative feelings about having to do this. Freud noticed that also his patient 's dreams expressed important feelings they were unaware of. After these observations, he came to the conclusion that psychological disturbances are largely caused by personal conflicts existing at the unconscious level. His psychoanalytic theory acts to explain personality, motivation and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior.
Freud later used his notion of the unconscious in order to explain certain kinds of neurotic behavior. The theory of the unconscious was substantially transformed by later psychiatrists, among them Carl Jung and Jacques Lacan.
In his 1932 / 1933 conferences, Freud "proposes to abandon the notion of the unconscious that ambiguous judge ''.
Carl Gustav Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist, developed the concept further. He agreed with Freud that the unconscious is a determinant of personality, but he proposed that the unconscious be divided into two layers: the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious. The personal unconscious is a reservoir of material that was once conscious but has been forgotten or suppressed, much like Freud 's notion. The collective unconscious, however, is the deepest level of the psyche, containing the accumulation of inherited psychic structures and archetypal experiences. Archetypes are not memories but images with universal meanings that are apparent in the culture 's use of symbols. The collective unconscious is therefore said to be inherited and contain material of an entire species rather than of an individual. Every person shares the collective unconscious with the entire human species, as Jung puts it: (the) "whole spiritual heritage of mankind 's evolution, born anew in the brain structure of every individual ''.
In addition to the structure of the unconscious, Jung differed from Freud in that he did not believe that sexuality was at the base of all unconscious thoughts.
The notion that the unconscious mind exists at all has been disputed.
Franz Brentano rejected the concept of the unconscious in his 1874 book Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint, although his rejection followed largely from his definitions of consciousness and unconsciousness.
Jean - Paul Sartre offers a critique of Freud 's theory of the unconscious in Being and Nothingness, based on the claim that consciousness is essentially self - conscious. Sartre also argues that Freud 's theory of repression is internally flawed. Philosopher Thomas Baldwin argues that Sartre 's argument is based on a misunderstanding of Freud.
Erich Fromm contends that, "The term ' the unconscious ' is actually a mystification (even though one might use it for reasons of convenience, as I am guilty of doing in these pages). There is no such thing as the unconscious; there are only experiences of which we are aware, and others of which we are not aware, that is, of which we are unconscious. If I hate a man because I am afraid of him, and if I am aware of my hate but not of my fear, we may say that my hate is conscious and that my fear is unconscious; still my fear does not lie in that mysterious place: ' the ' unconscious. ''
John Searle has offered a critique of the Freudian unconscious. He argues that the Freudian cases of shallow, consciously held mental states would be best characterized as ' repressed consciousness, ' while the idea of more deeply unconscious mental states is more problematic. He contends that the very notion of a collection of "thoughts '' that exist in a privileged region of the mind such that they are in principle never accessible to conscious awareness, is incoherent. This is not to imply that there are not "nonconscious '' processes that form the basis of much of conscious life. Rather, Searle simply claims that to posit the existence of something that is like a "thought '' in every way except for the fact that no one can ever be aware of it (can never, indeed, "think '' it) is an incoherent concept. To speak of "something '' as a "thought '' either implies that it is being thought by a thinker or that it could be thought by a thinker. Processes that are not causally related to the phenomenon called thinking are more appropriately called the nonconscious processes of the brain.
Other critics of the Freudian unconscious include David Stannard, Richard Webster, Ethan Watters, Richard Ofshe, and Eric Thomas Weber.
David Holmes examined sixty years of research about the Freudian concept of "repression '', and concluded that there is no positive evidence for this concept. Given the lack of evidence for many Freudian hypotheses, some scientific researchers proposed the existence of unconscious mechanisms that are very different from the Freudian ones. They speak of a "cognitive unconscious '' (John Kihlstrom), an "adaptive unconscious '' (Timothy Wilson), or a "dumb unconscious '' (Loftus & Klinger), which executes automatic processes but lacks the complex mechanisms of repression and symbolic return of the repressed.
In modern cognitive psychology, many researchers have sought to strip the notion of the unconscious from its Freudian heritage, and alternative terms such as "implicit '' or "automatic '' have come into currency. These traditions emphasize the degree to which cognitive processing happens outside the scope of cognitive awareness, and show that things we are unaware of can nonetheless influence other cognitive processes as well as behavior. Active research traditions related to the unconscious include implicit memory (see priming, implicit attitudes), and nonconscious acquisition of knowledge (see Lewicki, see also the section on cognitive perspective, below).
In terms of the unconscious, the purpose of dreams, as stated by Freud, is to fulfill repressed wishes through the process of dreaming, since they can not be fulfilled in real life. For example, if someone was to rob a store and feel guilty about it, they might dream about a scenario in which their actions were justified and renders them blameless. Freud asserted that the wish - fulfilling aspect of the dream may be disguised due to the difficulty in distinguishing between manifest content and latent content. The manifest content consists of the plot of a dream at the surface level. The latent content refers to the hidden or disguised meaning of the events in the plot. The latent content of the dream is what supports the idea of wish fulfillment. It represents the intimate information in the dreamer 's current issues and childhood conflict.
In response to Freud 's theory on dreams, other psychologists have come up with theories to counter his argument. Theorist Rosalind Cartwright proposed that dreams provide people with the opportunity to act out and work through everyday problems and emotional issues in a non-real setting with no consequences. According to her cognitive problem solving view, a large amount of continuity exists between our waking thought and the thoughts that exist in dreams. Proponents of this view believe that dreams allow participation in creative thinking and alternate ways to handle situations when dealing with personal issues because dreams are not restrained by logic or realism.
In addition to this, Allan Hobson and colleagues came up with the activation - synthesis hypothesis which proposes that dreams are simply the side effects of the neural activity in the brain that produces beta brain waves during REM sleep that are associated with wakefulness. According to this hypothesis, neurons fire periodically during sleep in the lower brain levels and thus send random signals to the cortex. The cortex then synthesizes a dream in reaction to these signals in order to try to make sense of why the brain is sending them. However, the hypothesis does not state that dreams are meaningless, it just downplays the role that emotional factors play in determining dreams.
While, historically, the psychoanalytic research tradition was the first to focus on the phenomenon of unconscious mental activity, there is an extensive body of conclusive research and knowledge in contemporary cognitive psychology devoted to the mental activity that is not mediated by conscious awareness.
Most of that (cognitive) research on unconscious processes has been done in the mainstream, academic tradition of the information processing paradigm. As opposed to the psychoanalytic tradition, driven by the relatively speculative (in the sense of being hard to empirically verify) theoretical concepts such as the Oedipus complex or Electra complex, the cognitive tradition of research on unconscious processes is based on relatively few theoretical assumptions and is very empirically oriented (i.e., it is mostly data driven). Cognitive research has revealed that automatically, and clearly outside of conscious awareness, individuals register and acquire more information than what they can experience through their conscious thoughts. (See Augusto, 2010, for a recent comprehensive survey.)
For example, an extensive line of research conducted by Hasher and Zacks has demonstrated that individuals register information about the frequency of events automatically (i.e., outside of conscious awareness and without engaging conscious information processing resources). Moreover, perceivers do this unintentionally, truly "automatically, '' regardless of the instructions they receive, and regardless of the information processing goals they have. Interestingly, the ability to unconsciously and relatively accurately tally the frequency of events appears to have little or no relation to the individual 's age, education, intelligence, or personality, thus it may represent one of the fundamental building blocks of human orientation in the environment and possibly the acquisition of procedural knowledge and experience, in general.
Ellenberger, in his classic 1970 history of dynamic psychology. He remarks on Schopenhauer 's psychological doctrines several times, crediting him for example with recognizing parapraxes, and urges that Schopenhauer "was definitely among the ancestors of modern dynamic psychiatry. '' (1970, p. 205). He also cites with approval Foerster 's interesting claim that "no one should deal with psychoanalysis before having thoroughly studied Schopenhauer. '' (1970, p. 542). In general, he views Schopenhauer as the first and most important of the many nineteenth - century philosophers of the unconscious, and concludes that "there can not be the slightest doubt that Freud 's thought echoes theirs. '' (1970, p. 542).
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which of the following is not an example of workplace bullying | Workplace bullying - wikipedia
Workplace bullying is a persistent pattern of mistreatment from others in the workplace that causes either physical or emotional harm. It can include such tactics as verbal, nonverbal, psychological, physical abuse and humiliation. This type of workplace aggression is particularly difficult because, unlike the typical school bully, workplace bullies often operate within the established rules and policies of their organization and their society. In the majority of cases, bullying in the workplace is reported as having been by someone who has authority over their victim. However, bullies can also be peers, and occasionally subordinates. Research has also investigated the impact of the larger organizational context on bullying as well as the group - level processes that impact on the incidence and maintenance of bullying behaviour. Bullying can be covert or overt. It may be missed by superiors; it may be known by many throughout the organization. Negative effects are not limited to the targeted individuals, and may lead to a decline in employee morale and a change in organizational culture.
The first known documented use of "workplace bullying '' is in 1992 in a book by Andrea Adams called Bullying at Work: How to Confront and Overcome It.
While there is no universally accepted formal definition of workplace bullying, several researchers have endeavoured to define it:
Because it can occur in a variety of contexts and forms, it is also useful to define workplace bullying by the key features that these behaviours possess. Bullying is characterized by:
This distinguishes bullying from isolated behaviours and other forms of job stress and allows the term workplace bullying to be applied in various contexts and to behaviours that meet these characteristics. Many observers agree that bullying is often a repetitive behaviour. However, some experts who have dealt with a great many people who report abuse also categorize some once - only events as bullying, for example with cases where there appear to be severe sequelae. Expanding the common understanding of bullying to include single, severe episodes also parallels the legal definitions of sexual harassment in the US.
According to Pamela Lutgin - Sandvik, the lack of unifying language to name the phenomenon of workplace bullying is a problem because without a unifying term or phrase, individuals have difficulty naming their experiences of abuse, and therefore have trouble pursuing justice against the bully. Unlike sexual harassment, which named a specific problem and is now recognized in law of many countries (including U.S.), workplace bullying is still being established as a relevant social problem and is in need of a specific vernacular.
Euphemisms intended to trivialize bullying and its impact on bullied people include: incivility, disrespect, difficult people, personality conflict, negative conduct, and ill treatment. Bullied people are labelled as insubordinate when they resist the bullying treatment.
There is no exact definition for bullying behaviours in workplace, which is why different terms and definitions are common. For example, mobbing is a commonly used term in France and Germany, where it refers to a "mob '' of bullies, rather than a single bully; this phenomenon is not often seen in other countries. In the United States, aggression and emotional abuse are frequently used terms, whereas harassment is the term preferred in Finland. Workplace bullying is primarily used in Australia, UK, and Northern Europe.
Bosses are the most common bullies. In fact, approximately 72 % of bullies outrank their victims. Statistics from the 2007 WBI - Zogby survey show that 13 % of U.S. employees report being bullied currently, 24 % say they have been bullied in the past and an additional 12 % say they have witnessed workplace bullying. Nearly half of all American workers (49 %) report that they have been affected by workplace bullying, either being a target themselves or having witnessed abusive behaviour against a co-worker.
Although socio - economic factors may play a role in the abuse, researchers from the Project for Wellness and Work - Life suggest that "workplace bullying, by definition, is not explicitly connected to demographic markers such as sex and ethnicity ''. Because one in ten employees experiences workplace bullying, the prevalence of this issue is cause for great concern, even as initial data about this issue are reviewed.
According to the 2010 National Health Interview Survey Occupational Health Supplement (NHIS - OHS), the national prevalence rate for workers reporting having been threatened, bullied, or harassed by anyone on the job was 8 %.
In 2008, Dr. Judy Fisher - Blando wrote a doctoral research dissertation on Aggressive behaviour: Workplace Bullying and Its Effect on Job Satisfaction and Productivity. The scientific study determined that almost 75 % of employees surveyed had been affected by workplace bullying, whether as a target or a witness. Further research showed the types of bullying behaviour, and organizational support.
In terms of gender, the Workplace Bullying Institute (2007) states that women appear to be at greater risk of becoming a bullying target, as 57 % of those who reported being targeted for abuse were women. Men are more likely to participate in aggressive bullying behaviour (60 %), however when the bully is a woman her target is more likely to be a woman as well (71 %).
In the research of Samnani and Singh (2012), it concludes the findings from previous 20 years ' literature and claims that in terms of the gender factor, inconsistent findings could not support the differences across gender.
In a study done by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, the NHIS - OHS confirms the previous finding, as higher prevalence rates for being threatened, bullied, or harassed were identified for women (9 %) compared with men (7 %).
Race also may play a role in the experience of workplace bullying. According to the Workplace Bullying Institute (2007), the comparison of reported combined bullying (current + ever bullied) prevalence percentages reveals the pattern from most to least:
The reported rates of witnessing bullying were:
The percentages of those reporting that they have neither experienced nor witnessed mistreatment were
Research psychologist Tony Buon published one of the first reviews of bullying in China in the prestigious Journal PKU Business Review in 2005.
Higher prevalence rates for experiencing a hostile work environment were identified for divorced or separated workers compared to married workers, widowed workers, and never married workers.
Higher prevalence rates for experiencing a hostile work environment were identified for workers with some college education or workers with high school diploma or GED, compared to workers with less than a high school education.
Lower prevalence rates for experiencing a hostile work environment were identified for workers aged 65 and older compared to workers in other age groups.
With respect to age, conflicting findings have been reported. A study by Einarsen and Skogstad (1996) indicates older employees tend to be more likely to be bullied than younger ones.
Among industry groups, workers with higher prevalence rates of a hostile work environment, compared to all adults employed at some time in a 12 - month period leading up to a survey in 2010 (8 %), were in public administration (16 %) and retail trade industries (10 %). Lower prevalence rates of a hostile work environment were reported among those working in construction (5 %); finance and insurance (5 %); manufacturing (5 %); and professional, scientific, and technical services industries (6 %).
For occupational groups, workers in protective service reported a higher prevalence rate (25 %) of hostile work environments compared to the prevalence rate for all adults employed at some time in the past 12 months. Workers in community and social service occupations also experienced a relatively high rate (16 %). Lower prevalence rates were observed among architecture and engineering (4 %), computer and mathematical (4 %), business and financial operations (5 %), and construction and extraction (5 %) occupations.
Researchers Caitlin Buon and Tony Buon have suggested that attempts to profile ' the bully ' have been damaging They state that the "bully '' profile is that ' the bully ' is always aware of what they are doing, deliberately sets out to harm their ' victims ', targets a particular individual or type of person and has some kind of underlying personality flaw, insecurity or disorder. But this is unproven and lacks evidence. The researchers suggest referring to workplace bullying as generic harassment along with other forms of non-specific harassment and this would enable employees to use less emotionally charged language and start a dialogue about their experiences rather than being repelled by the spectre of being labelled as a pathological predator or having to define their experiences as the victims of such a person. Tony Buon and Caitlin Buon also suggest that the perception and profile of the workplace bully is not facilitating interventions with the problem. They suggest that to make significant progress and achieve behaviour change over the long term then, organisations and individuals need to embrace the notion that everyone must all potentially house ' the bully ' within them and their organisations. It exists in workplace cultures, belief systems, interactions and emotional competencies and can not be transformed if externalization and demonization continue the problem by profiling ' the bully ' rather than talking about behaviours and interpersonal interactions.
From the research by H. Hoel and C.L. Cooper, it is clear that most of the perpetrators are supervisors, the second one is peers, subordinates and customers follow, which was found from Hoel 's research. So three main relationships among the participants in workplace bullying can be indicated as:
Bullying behaviour shows as an abuse of power between supervisors and subordinates in the workplace. Supervisors release their own pressure to bully subordinates with their higher power due to workplace bullying. It is always related to management style of the supervisors. An authoritative management style is accompanied by bullying behaviours which can make subordinates fear, so that supervisors can bolster their authority over others. On the other hand, some researchers agree that bullying behaviours can be a positive force for performance in the workplace. Workplace bullying can contribute to organizational power and control. if an organization wants to improve this situation in the workplace, strategies and policies must be put in place to improve it. Lacking policy about bullying, like low - monitoring or no punishment will result in tolerating bullying in an organization. Bullying behaviours in the workplace also exist among colleagues. They can be either the ' target ' or perpetrator. If workplace bullying happens among the co-workers, witnesses will take sides, either with the target or the perpetrator. Perpetrators always win, because witnesses do not want to be the next target. This does encourage perpetrators to continue this behaviour. In addition, the sense of the injustice experienced by a target might lead that person to become another perpetrator who bullies other colleagues who have less power than they.
Maarit Varitia, a workplace bullying researcher found that 20 % of interviewees, who experienced workplace bullying thought the reason why they became a target is they are different from others. Bullying can increase more bullying in workplace.
The third relationship in the workplace is between employees and customers. Although it happens less frequently, it plays a significant role in the efficiency of the organization. If an employee has an unhealthy emotion at work, it will affect the quality of the service seriously. Lots of examples can be listed from our daily life, like customers are ignored by shop assistants, patients are shouted by nurses in the hospital and so on. On the other hand, customers might despise the employees, especially those working in blue - collar jobs, such as gas station assistants.
The Fourth relationship in the workplace is between the organization or its institution or its system and the employees. In the article of Andreas Liefooghe (2012), it notes that a lot of employees describe their organization as "bully. '' It is not environmental factors facilitating the bullying but it is the bullying itself. Tremendous power imbalance between the company and its employees enables the company to "legitimately exercise '' their power, in the way of monitoring and controlling the employees, as a bully. The terms of the bullying "traditionally '' imply to interpersonal relationship. Talking about bullying in interpersonal levels is legitimate, but talking about the exploitation, justice and subjugation as bullying by the organization would be "relatively ridiculous '' or not taken as serious. Bullying is sometimes more than a purely interpersonal issue.
Bullying is seen to be prevalent in organizations where employees and managers feel that they have the support, or at least the implicit blessing of senior managers to carry on their abusive and bullying behaviour. Furthermore, new managers will quickly come to view this form of behavior as acceptable and normal if they see others get away with it and are even rewarded for it.
When bullying happens at the highest levels, the effects may be far reaching. People may be bullied irrespective of their organizational status or rank, including senior managers, which indicates the possibility of a negative domino effect, where bullying may cascade downwards, as the targeted supervisors might offload their own aggression onto their subordinates. In such situations, a bullying scenario in the boardroom may actually threaten the productivity of the entire organisation.
According to research investigating the acceptability of the bullying behaviour across different cultures (Power et al., 2013), it clearly shows that culture could also serve as an influencing factor. The difference on the cultural dimension across different cultures could affect the perception on the acceptable behaviour. National - level factors, such as culture, may also represent a predictor of workplace bullying (Harvey et al., 2009; Hoel et al., 1999; Lutgen - Sandvik et al., 2007).
Humane orientation is negatively associated with the acceptability of bullying for WRB (Work related bullying). Performance orientation is positively associated with the acceptance of bullying. Future orientation is negatively associated with the acceptability of bullying. A culture of femininity suggests that individuals who live and work in this kind of culture tend to value interpersonal relationships to a greater degree.
Three broad dimensions have been mentioned in relation to workplace bullying: power distance; masculinity versus femininity; and individualism versus collectivism (Lutgen - Sandvik et al., 2007).
In Confucian Asia, which has a higher performance orientation than Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa, bullying may be seen as an acceptable price to pay for performance. The value Latin America holds for personal connections with employees and the higher humane orientation of Sub-Saharan Africa may help to explain their distaste for bullying. A culture of individualism in the US implies competition, which may increase the likelihood of workplace bullying situations.
Ashforth discussed potentially destructive sides of leadership and identified what he referred to as petty tyrants, i.e. Leaders who exercise a tyrannical style of management, resulting in a climate of fear in the workplace. Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. When employees get the sense that bullies "get away with it '', a climate of fear may be the result. Several studies have confirmed a relationship between bullying, on the one hand, and an autocratic leadership and an authoritarian way of settling conflicts or dealing with disagreements, on the other. An authoritarian style of leadership may create a climate of fear, where there is little or no room for dialogue and where complaining may be considered futile.
In a study of public - sector union members, approximately one in five workers reported having considered leaving the workplace as a result of witnessing bullying taking place. Rayner explained these figures by pointing to the presence of a climate of fear in which employees considered reporting to be unsafe, where bullies had "got away with it '' previously despite management knowing of the presence of bullying.
The workplace bully is often expert at knowing how to work the system. They can spout all the current management buzzwords about supportive management but basically use it as a cover. By keeping their abusive behaviour hidden, any charges made by individuals about his or her bullying will always come down to your word against his. They may have a kiss up kick down personality, wherein they are always highly cooperative, respectful, and caring when talking to upper management but the opposite when it comes to their relationship with those whom they supervise. Bullies tend to ingratiate themselves to their bosses while intimidating subordinates. They may be socially popular with others in management, including those who will determine their fate. Often, a workplace bully will have mastered kiss up kick down tactics that hide their abusive side from superiors who review their performance.
As a consequence of this kiss up kick down strategy:
The most typical reactions to workplace bullying are to do with the survival instinct - "fight or flight '' - and these are probably a victim 's healthier responses to bullying. Flight is a legitimate and valid response to bullying. It is very common, especially in organizations in which upper management can not or will not deal with the bullying. In hard economic times, however, flight may not be an option, and fighting may be the only choice.
Fighting the bullying can require near heroic action, especially if the bullying targets just one or two individuals. It can also be a difficult challenge. There are some times when confrontation is called for. First, there is always a chance that the bully boss is labouring under the impression that this is the way to get things done and does not recognize the havoc being wreaked on subordinates.
With some variations, the following typology of workplace bullying behaviours has been adopted by a number of academic researchers. The typology uses five different categories.
Research by the Workplace Bullying Institute, suggests that the following are the 25 most common workplace bullying tactics:
According to Bassman, common abusive workplace behaviours are:
According to Hoel and Cooper, common abusive workplace behaviours are:
Abusive cyberbullying in the workplace can have serious socioeconomic and psychological consequences on the victim. Workplace cyberbullying can lead to sick leave due to depression which in turn can lead to loss of profits for the organisation.
Several aspects of academia, such as the generally decentralized nature of academic institutions and the particular recruitment and career procedures, lend themselves to the practice of bullying and discourage its reporting and mitigation.
Bullying has been identified as prominent in blue collar jobs including on the oil rigs and in mechanic shops and machine shops. It is thought that intimidation and fear of retribution cause decreased incident reports. This is also an industry dominated by males, where disclosure of incidents are seen as effeminate, which, in the socioeconomic and cultural milieu of such industries, would likely lead to a vicious circle. This is often used in combination with manipulation and coercion of facts to gain favour among higher ranking administrators.
A culture of bullying is common in information technology (IT), leading to high sickness rates, low morale, poor productivity and high staff turnover. Deadline - driven project work and stressed - out managers take their toll on IT workers.
Bullying in the medical profession is common, particularly of student or trainee doctors. It is thought that this is at least in part an outcome of conservative traditional hierarchical structures and teaching methods in the medical profession which may result in a bullying cycle.
Bullying has been identified as being particularly prevalent in the nursing profession although the reasons are not clear. It is thought that relational aggression (psychological aspects of bullying such as gossiping and intimidation) are relevant. Relational aggression has been studied amongst girls but not so much amongst adult women.
School teachers are commonly the subject of bullying but they are also sometimes the originators of bullying within a school environment.
Bullying in the legal profession is believed to be more common than in some other professions. It is believed that its adversarial, hierarchical tradition contributes towards this. Women, trainees and solicitors who have been qualified for five years or less are more impacted, as are ethnic minority lawyers and lesbian, gay and bisexual lawyers.
Bullying exists to varying degrees in the military of some countries, often involving various forms of hazing or abuse by higher members of the military hierarchy.
Bullying can be common in volunteering settings, for example one study found bullying to be the most significant factor of complaints amongst volunteers. Volunteers often do not have access to protections available to paid employees, so while laws may indicate that bullying is a violation of rights, volunteers may have no means to address it.
Tim Field suggested that workplace bullying takes these forms:
Adult bullying can come in an assortment of forms. There are about five distinctive types of adult bullies. A narcissistic bully is described as a self - centred person whose egotism is frail and possesses the need to put others down. An impulsive bully is someone who acts on bullying based on stress or being upset at the moment. A physical bully uses physical injury and the threat of harm to abuse their victims, while a verbal bully uses demeaning and cynicism to debase their victims. Lastly, a secondary adult bully is portrayed as a person that did not start the initial bullying but participates in afterwards to avoid being bullied themselves ("Adult Bullying '').
Workplace bullying is reported to be far more prevalent than perhaps commonly thought. For some reason, workplace bullying seems to be particularly widespread in healthcare organizations; 80 % of nurses report experiencing workplace bullying. Similar to the school environment for children, the work environment typically places groups of adult peers together in a shared space on a regular basis. In such a situation, social interactions and relationships are of great importance to the function of the organizational structure and in pursuing goals. The emotional consequences of bullying put an organization at risk of losing victimized employees. Bullying also contributes to a negative work environment, is not conducive to necessary cooperation and can lessen productivity at various levels. Bullying in the workplace is associated with negative responses to stress. The ability to manage emotions, especially emotional stress, seems to be a consistently important factor in different types of bullying. The workplace in general can be a stressful environment, so a negative way of coping with stress or an inability to do so can be particularly damning. Workplace bullies may have high social intelligence and low emotional intelligence (EI). In this context, bullies tend to rank high on the social ladder and are adept at influencing others. The combination of high social intelligence and low empathy is conducive to manipulative behaviour, such that Hutchinson (2013) describes workplace bullying to be. In working groups where employees have low EI, workers can be persuaded to engage in unethical behaviour. With the bullies ' persuasion, the work group is socialized in a way that rationalizes the behaviour, and makes the group tolerant or supportive of the bullying. Hutchinson & Hurley (2013) make the case that EI and leadership skills are both necessary to bullying intervention in the workplace, and illustrates the relationship between EI, leadership and reductions in bullying. EI and ethical behaviour among other members of the work team have been shown to have a significant impact on ethical behaviour of nursing teams. Higher EI is linked to improvements in the work environment and is an important moderator between conflict and reactions to conflict in the workplace. The self - awareness and self - management dimensions of EI have both been illustrated to have strong positive correlations with effective leadership and the specific leadership ability to build healthy work environments and work culture.
Abusive supervision overlaps with workplace bullying in the workplace context. Research suggests that 75 % of workplace bullying incidents are perpetrated by hierarchically superior agents. Abusive supervision differs from related constructs such as supervisor bullying and undermining in that it does not describe the intentions or objectives of the supervisor.
A power and control model has been developed for the workplace, divided into the following categories:
Workplace mobbing overlaps with workplace bullying. The concept originated from the study of animal behaviour. It concentrates on bullying by a group.
Workplace bullying overlaps to some degree with workplace incivility but tends to encompass more intense and typically repeated acts of disregard and rudeness. Negative spirals of increasing incivility between organizational members can result in bullying, but isolated acts of incivility are not conceptually bullying despite the apparent similarity in their form and content. In case of bullying, the intent of harm is less ambiguous, an unequal balance of power (both formal and informal) is more salient, and the target of bullying feels threatened, vulnerable and unable to defend himself or herself against negative recurring actions.
In 2005, psychologists Belinda Board and Katarina Fritzon at the University of Surrey, UK, interviewed and gave personality tests to high - level British executives and compared their profiles with those of criminal psychiatric patients at Broadmoor Hospital in the UK. They found that three out of eleven personality disorders were actually more common in executives than in the disturbed criminals. They were:
They described these business people as successful psychopaths and the criminals as unsuccessful psychopaths.
According to leading leadership academic Manfred F.R. Kets de Vries, it seems almost inevitable these days that there will be some personality disorders in a senior management team.
Industrial / organizational psychology research has also examined the types of bullying that exist among business professionals and the prevalence of this form of bullying in the workplace as well as ways to measure bullying empirically.
Narcissism, lack of self - regulation, lack of remorse and lack of conscience have been identified as traits displayed by bullies. These traits are shared with psychopaths, indicating that there is some theoretical cross-over between bullies and psychopaths. Bullying is used by corporate psychopaths as a tactic to humiliate subordinates. Bullying is also used as a tactic to scare, confuse and disorient those who may be a threat to the activities of the corporate psychopath Using meta data analysis on hundreds of UK research papers, Boddy concluded that 36 % of bullying incidents were caused by the presence of corporate psychopaths. According to Boddy there are two types of bullying:
A corporate psychopath uses instrumental bullying to further his goals of promotion and power as the result of causing confusion and divide and rule.
People with high scores on a psychopathy rating scale are more likely to engage in bullying, crime and drug use than other people. Hare and Babiak noted that about 29 per cent of corporate psychopaths are also bullies. Other research has also shown that people with high scores on a psychopathy rating scale were more likely to engage in bullying, again indicating that psychopaths tend to be bullies in the workplace.
A workplace bully or abuser will often have issues with social functioning. These types of people often have psychopathic traits that are difficult to identify in the hiring and promotion process. These individuals often lack anger management skills and have a distorted sense of reality. Consequently, when confronted with the accusation of abuse, the abuser is not aware that any harm was done.
In 2007, researchers Catherine Mattice and Brian Spitzberg at San Diego State University, USA, found that narcissism revealed a positive relationship with bullying. Narcissists were found to prefer indirect bullying tactics (such as withholding information that affects others ' performance, ignoring others, spreading gossip, constantly reminding others of mistakes, ordering others to do work below their competence level, and excessively monitoring others ' work) rather than direct tactics (such as making threats, shouting, persistently criticizing, or making false allegations). The research also revealed that narcissists are highly motivated to bully, and that to some extent, they are left with feelings of satisfaction after a bullying incident occurs.
According to Namie, Machiavellians manipulate and exploit others to advance their perceived personal agendas but he emphasizes that they are not mentally ill. They do not have a personality disorder, schizophrenia and neither are they psychopaths. In his view, Machiavellianism represents the core of workplace bullying.
According to Gary and Ruth Namie, as well as Tracy, et al., workplace bullying can harm the health of the targets of bullying. Organizations are beginning to take note of workplace bullying because of the costs to the organization in terms of the health of their employees.
According to scholars at The Project for Wellness and Work - Life at Arizona State University, "workplace bullying is linked to a host of physical, psychological, organizational, and social costs. '' Stress is the most predominant health effect associated with bullying in the workplace. Research indicates that workplace stress has significant negative effects that are correlated to poor mental health and poor physical health, resulting in an increase in the use of "sick days '' or time off from work (Farrell & Geist - Martin, 2005).
The negative effects of bullying are so severe that posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and even suicide are not uncommon. Tehrani found that 1 in 10 targets experience PTSD, and that 44 % of her respondents experienced PTSD similar to that of battered women and victims of child abuse. Matthiesen and Einarsen found that up to 77 % of targets experience PTSD.
In addition, co-workers who witness workplace bullying can also have negative effects, such as fear, stress, and emotional exhaustion. Those who witness repetitive workplace abuse often choose to leave the place of employment where the abuse took place. Workplace bullying can also hinder the organizational dynamics such as group cohesion, peer communication, and overall performance.
According to the 2012 survey conducted by Workplace Bullying Institute (516 respondents), Anticipation of next negative event is the most common psychological symptom of workplace bullying reported by 80 %. Panic attacks afflict 52 %. Half (49 %) of targets reported being diagnosed with clinical depression. Sleep disruption, loss of concentration, mood swings, and pervasive sadness and insomnia were more common (ranging from 77 % to 50 %). Nearly three - quarters (71 %) of targets sought treatment from a physician. Over half (63 %) saw a mental health professional for their work - related symptoms. Respondents reported other symptoms that can be exacerbated by stress: migraine headaches (48 %), irritable bowel disorder (37 %), chronic fatigue syndrome (33 %) and sexual dysfunction (27 %).
Several studies have attempted to quantify the cost of bullying to an organization.
Research by Dr. Dan Dana has shown organizations suffer a large financial cost by not accurately managing conflict and bullying type behaviours. He has developed a tool to assist with calculating the cost of conflict. In addition, researcher Tamara Parris discusses how employers need to be more attentive in managing various discordant behaviours in the workplace, such as, bullying, as it not only creates a financial cost to the organization, but also erodes the company 's human resources assets.
Often when people have been affected by bullying, they approach a person or body in an administrative position, such as a human resources department, to try and address it. In many cases it is handled by people who are not trained or qualified to address the matter, and this can lead to conflict, reprisals and outcomes that are not considered satisfactory. Some important recommendations from experts about addressing bullying effectively, are to recognise that inappropriate behaviour is taking place, and to create an environment such that it wo n't continue in future. In some countries government guidelines outline standards about how responses to bullying matters should be handled.
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when is season 2 of sisters coming out | Sisters (Australian tv series) - wikipedia
Sisters is an Australian television drama series, created by Jonathan Gavin and Imogen Banks, and produced by Imogen Banks and Nicole O'Donahue, that screened locally on Network Ten in October 2017 and launched as a Netflix Original Series on September 1 2018. A second season is yet to be announced.
Sisters follows the story of Julia Bechly whose life is turned upside down when her father, in vitro fertilisation pioneer Julius Bechly, makes a death - bed confession that during his award - winning career as a fertility specialist he used his own sperm and admits he could potentially be the father of hundreds of children. Julia decides to make the most of the situation and throws a family gathering where she finds out she has hundreds of brothers, but learns she only has two sisters, troubled children 's television star, Roxy Karibas and belligerent lawyer, Edie Flanagan.
Julia Bechly is living life as usual caring for her sick father, Julius, until a news story reports that Julius had used his own sperm during the time he was a fertility specialist, she asks her father if it 's the truth which he confirms. Although panicked, Julia decides to throw a "family gathering '' to meet all her biological siblings, at which she finds out she has many many brothers but only two female siblings, troubled children 's television star, Roxy Karibas and belligerent lawyer, Edie Flanagan.
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who said the answer lies in the soil | Beyond Our Ken - wikipedia
Beyond Our Ken (1958 -- 1964) is a radio comedy programme, the predecessor to Round the Horne (1965 -- 1968). Both programmes starred Kenneth Horne, Kenneth Williams, Hugh Paddick, Betty Marsden and Bill Pertwee, with announcer Douglas Smith. Musical accompaniment was provided by the BBC Revue Orchestra. The name is a pun on Kenneth Horne 's name and the (now mainly Northern English and Scots) word ken, meaning "knowledge or perception ''.
Eric Merriman had previously written material for Kenneth Horne on Henry Hall 's Guest Night and Variety Playhouse and written some stand - up comedy material for Barry Took. In June 1957 the BBC Radio Variety department asked Merriman to come up with an idea for a radio series starring Horne. Merriman devised a format for the show with the working title Do n't Look Now. The original memo on the subject still exists in the BBC archives.
The proposal was for a solo comedy series based on a formula of a fictional week in the life of Kenneth Horne. Other memos from the BBC archive show how the proposed format evolved and the discussion of alternative titles (including Around the Horne).
Beyond Our Ken featured characters similar to those later featured in Round the Horne, for instance Betty Marsden 's Fanny Haddock (which parodied Fanny Cradock). It featured Pertwee 's Frankie Howerd impersonation, Hankie Flowered, and Hugh Paddick 's working - class pop singer Ricky Livid -- the name being a mickey - take on contemporary pop singers ' stage names such as Tommy Steele and Marty Wilde. Another favourite was Kenneth Williams ' country character, Arthur Fallowfield, who was based on Dorset farmer Ralph Wightman, a regular contributor to the BBC radio programme Any Questions? Fallowfield 's lines were full of innuendo and double entendre -- on one occasion Horne introduced him as the man who put the sex in Sussex. Fallowfield 's reply to any question began: "Well, I think the answer lies in the soil! '' On one occasion, Paddick 's character Stanley Birkenshaw, aka "Dentures '', who would re-appear in Round the Horne, gave a noble and rather damp version of Hamlet 's soliloquy: "To be or not to be, that issssssssssh the quesssssssssshtion... ''.
Williams and Paddick also played two camp men - about - town, Rodney and Charles, in many ways (although not as extreme) precursors of Julian and Sandy in Round The Horne.
By 1964, Eric Merriman was very much in demand for television work and decided to end writing Beyond Our Ken. Because of the show 's huge success, the BBC were determined that the comedy series continue. The show 's name had to be changed because Merriman had given Beyond Our Ken its original title. Barry Took returned together with Marty Feldman to write a new series with the same cast, which became Round the Horne and was one of the most popular and influential shows of its day, despite having a shorter run. Without Beyond Our Ken, Round the Horne would not have existed.
In 2004 the BBC began releasing the series on CD in box sets, one per series. Only Series 1 and 2 were released. However, as of 2016, the BBC has re-issued Series 1 and 2, while Series 3 was released on 5 January 2017. These recent releases are available on CD and for download.
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when does the dragon ball super english dub come out | List of Dragon Ball Super episodes - wikipedia
Dragon Ball Super is a Japanese anime television series produced by Toei Animation that began airing on July 5, 2015 on Fuji TV. It is the first Dragon Ball television series featuring a new storyline in 18 years. Storywise, the series retells the events of the last two Dragon Ball Z films, Battle of Gods and Resurrection ' F ', which themselves follow the events of Dragon Ball Z. Afterwards, the series proceeds to tell an original story about the exploration of other universes, the reemergence of Future Trunks, and a new threat to his Earth known as Goku Black and a Supreme Kai from Universe 10 named Zamasu. Later, the Z Fighters participate in a universal tournament held by Zeno - sama to decide the fate of multiple universes. If they lose in the universal tournament, then their entire universe will be erased.
Thirteen pieces of theme music are used: two opening themes and eleven ending themes. For the first 76 episodes, the opening theme is "Chōzetsu ☆ Dynamic! '' (超絶 ☆ ダイナミック!, Chōzetsu Dainamikku, "Excellent Dynamic! '') performed by Kazuya Yoshii of The Yellow Monkey. The lyrics were penned by Yukinojo Mori who has written numerous songs for the Dragon Ball series. Beginning with episode 77, the second opening theme is "Limit - Break x Survivor '' (限界 突破 × サバイバー, Genkai Toppa x Sabaibā) by Kiyoshi Hikawa. Mori wrote the lyrics for the rock number "Genkai Toppa x Survivor '' and Takafumi Iwasaki composed the music. For the first 12 episodes, the ending theme is "Hello Hello Hello '' (ハロー ハロー ハロー, Harō Harō Harō) by Japanese rock band Good Morning America. The second ending theme song for episodes 13 to 25 is "Starring Star '' (スターリング スター, Sutāringu Sutā) by Key Talk. The third ending theme song for episodes 26 to 36 is "Usubeni '' (薄 紅, "Light Pink '') by Lacco Tower. The fourth ending theme song for episodes 37 to 49 is "Forever Dreaming '' (フォーエバー ドリーミング, Fōebā Dorīmingu) by Czecho No Republic. The fifth ending theme song for episodes 50 to 59 is "Yokayoka Dance '' (よかよか ダンス, Yokayoka Dansu, "It 's Fine Dance '') by idol group Batten Showjo Tai. The sixth ending theme for episodes 60 to 72 is "Chao Han Music '' (炒飯 MUSIC, Chāhan Myūjikku) by Arukara. The seventh ending theme from episodes 73 to 83 is "Aku no Tenshi to Seigi no Akuma '' (悪 の 天使 と 正義 の 悪魔, An Evil Angel and the Righteous Devil) by THE COLLECTORS. The eighth ending theme from episodes 84 to 96 is "Boogie Back '' by Miyu Innoue. The ninth ending theme from episodes 97 to 108 is "Haruka '' by Lacco Tower. Beginning with episode 109, the tenth ending theme is "By A 70cm Square Window '' by the rock band RottenGraffty. The eleventh ending theme is "Lagrima '' by OnePixecel.
The anime episodes are being released on Japanese Blu - ray and DVD sets that contain twelve episodes each. The first set was released on December 2, 2015. The second set was released on March 2, 2016. The third set was released on July 2, 2016. The fourth set was released on October 10, 2016.
Dragon Ball Super received an English - language dub that premiered on the Toonami channel in Southeast Asia and India in January 2017. The series has been aired in Israel on Nickelodeon and in Portugal on SIC. Toei Animation Europe announced that Dragon Ball Super would be broadcast in France, Italy, Spain, and English - speaking Africa in Fall 2016. An official English sub of the series would be simulcasted legally on Crunchyroll, Daisuki.net, and Anime Lab beginning October 22, 2016. Funimation announced the company acquired the rights to the series and will be producing an English dub. As well as officially announcing the dub, it was also announced they will be simulcasting the series on their streaming platform, FunimationNow. Funimation 's English dub of Dragon Ball Super started airing on Adult Swim 's Toonami block starting January 7, 2017.
The Supreme Kais are surprised that the universe is still intact following the battle, but they fear the worst is still to come. On Earth, Vegeta, Whis, and the others are still standing by while watching the battle. Whis is surprised by the Super Saiyan God 's power and its ability to keep up with his trainee. In space, Goku struggles to keep up with Beerus ' attack, which ultimately ends up in a massive explosion that blinds everyone on Earth. Shortly after, the light clears out, which reveals everything to be as it was prior to the explosion. Beerus explains that he used his full power to negate the explosion, which saved the universe. Seeing it as a perfect opportunity to boast, Mr. Satan arranges to have himself be falsely credited with saving the planet yet again. Despite being at his limit, Goku remains calm, which annoys the God of Destruction. Beerus thinks Goku might have a strategy that he has been hiding, which Goku promptly denies. Goku says that everything he had been doing was improvised as they fought. The Gods quickly power up and continue fighting, but this time both are at their limit. As soon as they start, Goku loses his Super Saiyan God aura and reverts to the ordinary Super Saiyan form. Upon noticing that, Beerus decides to quit. He thinks it is pointless to fight an ordinary Super Saiyan. However, Goku does not notice and keeps going at it. Whis is able to sense Goku 's mortal energy. Whis assumes that the battle has concluded and that Goku has lost. However, Piccolo begs to differ. Surprised that Goku is still able to hit him even after losing his Super Saiyan God form, Beerus surmises that Goku 's body has adjusted to the Super Saiyan God power. This made him stronger in his ordinary form. With or without the Super Saiyan God form, Goku proclaims that it is still him that Beerus is up against. Beerus and Goku resume their battle of Gods.
To counter Goku 's increase in power, Kefla powers up to Super Saiyan 2, and the two of them face off. Goku still easily dodges Kefla 's attacks, but his own attacks are not enough to take her down. When Goku launches his attacks, it interferes with his concentration and prevents him from using Ultra Instinct to its full potential. Jiren senses the energy from their battle, which prompts him to awaken from his meditation and rejoin Toppo and Dyspo. Vegeta realizes that Ultra Instinct is the level of skill that Whis was training him and Goku to attain. Vegeta decides that he must reach it too. Goku begins running low on stamina. He declares that he will end the fight with his next attack. Kefla panics and unleashes a multitude of deadly energy beams. Her ultimate attack devastates the ring, but Goku easily dodges her blasts while charging a Kamehameha. Goku jumps into the air. Kefla focuses all of her power into a single blast and launches it at him. She takes advantage of his apparent inability to dodge. However, he back flips and uses the charge up energy to slide over her attack and launches his Kamehameha at point - blank range. Goku blasts Kefla out of the ring and eliminates her. Her Potara earrings shatter, and she splits back into Kale and Caulifla. With both of them eliminated, Saonel and Pirina are the only remaining warriors from Team Universe 6.
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sting is my name i am the spider's bane | Sting (Middle - earth) - wikipedia
Sting is a fictional artefact from J.R.R. Tolkien 's fantasy universe of Middle - earth. In the story, it is a magical Elvish knife or dagger presumably forged in Gondolin in the First Age.
In The Hobbit (1937), hobbit Bilbo Baggins finds the blade in a troll - hoard, along with the swords Glamdring and Orcrist. Although it is only a dagger by the standard of Men or Elves, it serves as a sword for the diminutive Bilbo. He uses it to fight off the giant spiders in Mirkwood, and names the blade after the talking spiders refer to it as his "sting ''. Gollum is afraid of Sting, which aids Bilbo in his confrontation with Gollum under the Misty Mountains. Bilbo gives Sting to his nephew Frodo Baggins in The Fellowship of the Ring (1954). When Frodo is betrayed at the pass of Cirith Ungol, Samwise Gamgee takes the blade to prevent it from falling into enemy hands, but later returns it to Frodo. In The Return of the King (1955), Frodo gives Sting and all of his other possessions to Sam before Frodo departs for the Undying Lands.
Sting has the magical ability to detect orcs or goblins nearby, glowing blue in their presence, as it did when the Fellowship encountered orcs in the mines of Moria. Tolkien establishes this as a common property of First Age Elf blades, particularly those forged in Gondolin. Sting is also exceptionally sharp. Bilbo manages to thrust it without effort deep into a wooden beam at Rivendell. Frodo also wounds a troll in Moria, after Boromir notches his own sword with his attempt. Sam uses Sting to cut through the giant spider Shelob 's strong webs with ease, and also wound the spider, driving it away from the paralyzed Frodo.
In real Europe, a bilbo blade (sometimes spelled "bilbow '') was an exceptionally fine blade, named after the city of Bilbao where such blades were made. It is possible that Bilbo 's name and his acquisition of this sharp blade were connected in the author 's mind.
In Peter Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit film adaptations, Sting is depicted as vaguely leaf - shaped, with gentle curving edges. Engraved on the blade and cross-guard are letters in Sindarin that read phonetically, Maegnas aen estar nin dagnir in yngyl im. Translated into English, they read, "Maegnas is my name, I am the spider 's bane. '' According to the Appendix of The Silmarillion, the element maeg in Sindarin means "sharp '' or "piercing ''. The film version of Sting is 23 inches (58.42 cm) long (24 while in scabbard) and 3 inches (7.62 cm) wide at the hilt. Its scabbard is made of brown leather and reinforced with metal. In The Hobbit trilogy, Sting does not bear the inscription.
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who made the beat for shape of you | Shape of You - wikipedia
"Shape of You '' is a song by English singer - songwriter Ed Sheeran. It was released as a digital download on 6 January 2017 as one of the double lead singles from his third studio album ÷ (2017), along with "Castle on the Hill ''.
The dancehall - infused pop song was written by Ed Sheeran together with Steve Mac and Johnny McDaid, with additional writing credits given to Kandi Burruss, Tameka "Tiny '' Cottle, and Kevin "She'kspere '' Briggs as Sheeran had incorporated an interpolation of the TLC 's song "No Scrubs '' into "Shape of You ''. The song was produced by Sheeran and Mac.
"Shape of You '' peaked at number - one on the singles charts of 34 countries, including the US Billboard Hot 100 (later becoming the best performing song of 2017), as well as the UK, Australian and Canadian singles charts. It has stayed at number one for a record - tying 16 consecutive weeks on the Canadian Hot 100, as well as 14 non-consecutive weeks on the UK Singles Chart, and 12 non-consecutive weeks on the Billboard Hot 100. On 21 September 2017 it became the most streamed song on Spotify, with over 1.32 billion streams. It was the best - selling song of 2017 in the UK.
The song won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Solo Performance at the 60th Annual Grammy Awards.
The song was the last song written for Sheeran 's third album ÷. On 6 January 2017, when hosting The Radio 1 Breakfast Show, Sheeran revealed that "Shape of You '' had originally been written with Rihanna in mind. As he had already written all the songs he wanted for the album, the song was therefore not intended to be included in the album. It was conceived as a duet between Rihanna and Rudimental, but the head of the record label convinced him to keep the song for himself. He said:
"(' Shape of You ') is actually a really random one because I went in to write songs for other people with a guy called Steve Mac and Johnny McDaid, and we were writing this song and I was like ' this would really work for Rihanna, ' '' he explained. "And then I started singing lyrics like ' putting Van The Man on the jukebox ' and I was like ' well she 's not really going to sing that, is she? ' And then we sort of decided halfway through that we were just going to make it for me. ''
According to Sheeran, Steve Mac started the song - writing session by playing the opening notes of the song on the keyboard. Sheeran then joined in, adding percussion by tapping on the guitar, layering it onto the track. On the writing of the song, he said that he tried to keep the music "more stripped '' instead of something more elaborate: "I 'm an acoustic artist, first and foremost. And when I play live, I ca n't replicate these things, I have n't got all the other musicians. '' Sheeran said he wanted an R&B feel to the song, therefore he adjusted the original tune, adding an interpolation of "No Scrubs '' onto part of the melody. He also revealed that the original lyrics did not end with the words "the shape of you '' in the chorus, but during the writing of the song, McDaid thought that the lyrics "I 'm in love with your body '' sounded objectifying, and the lyrics was therefore adjusted.
On 4 January 2017, Sheeran uploaded a six - second teaser video of a blue background to social media, with lyrics "the club is n't the best place to find a lover '', which is the first line of "Shape of You ''. To further tease the release, Sheeran and his label used a sponsored Snapchat lens filter with 30 seconds on the song to increase buzz among the general public.
"Shape of You '' is a pop, dancehall and tropical house song with "strummy acoustics. '' In the song, Sheeran sings over a marimba - fueled percussive sway about a budding romance. "The club is n't the best place to find a lover, so the bar is where I go / Me and my friends at the table doing shots drinking fast and then we talk slow '', he sings. "Come over and start up a conversation with just me / And trust me I 'll give it a chance. '' According to NT News, the song "tells the story of loved (or lusted) up Sheeran meeting a girl in a bar where he and his mates are doing shots. '' "Shape of You '' is written in the key of C ♯ minor with a tempo of 96 beats per minute. The song is composed in common time (time), and follows a basic chord progression of C ♯ m -- F ♯ m -- A -- B (i -- iv -- VI -- VII), and Sheeran 's vocals span from G ♯ to G ♯.
The song 's lyrical rhythm drew comparisons to the TLC song "No Scrubs '', particularly in the pre-chorus line, "Boy, let 's not talk too much / Grab on my waist and put that body on me. '' As a result, the composers of "No Scrubs '', Kandi Burruss, Tameka "Tiny '' Cottle, and Kevin "She'kspere '' Briggs, were awarded co-writing credits on "Shape of You ''.
Jon Caramanica from The New York Times said, "' Shape of You ' is trickier, a nimble and effective song that takes the aggressive thinning of ' Caribbean music '. '' Billboard 's Taylor Weatherby wrote about the song saying, "' Shape of You ' does n't quite sound like your typical Sheeran tune. But that almost serves as an indication of what the "Thinking Out Loud '' singer has been up to during his hiatus: creating music that still feels like Sheeran, just with a new twist. '' Jeremy Gordon of Spin gave the song a positive review, stating that the song "is a plausible attempt at convincing us he has had sex... a lot of it. It kind of slaps, though you ca n't really picture Sheeran ever saying ' put that body on me ' to a real human woman. '' News website Metro wrote that it sounds similar to the song "Cheap Thrills '' by Sia.
"Shape of You '' debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart on 13 January, selling 227,000 combined units in its first week. Sheeran also debuted at number 2 with the song "Castle on the Hill '', making him the only artist in UK chart history to debut in the top two positions. "Shape of You '' debuted at number two on the Scottish Singles Chart behind "Castle on the Hill ''. The song was certified Silver in the first week due to selling 200,000 units and Gold in the second week selling 400,000 units. The song remained at number one in its second week, selling 139,000. It has stayed at number one for 13 consecutive weeks on the UK Singles Chart, and a further week at the top after a week 's interruption by Harry Styles ' "Sign of the Times ''. In July 2017, the song reached 184 million in streams, making it the most - streamed song in the UK of all time. It was the nation 's highest selling and most streamed track of 2017 with 787,000 copies sold and 248 million streams throughout the year, to produce a combined sales of 3.2 million. It is the 3rd best - selling single in the United Kingdom regarding combined sales and streaming equivalent as of September 19, 2017.
The song debuted at number one on the Billboard Hot 100, selling 240,000 downloads and gaining 20 million streams in its debut week in the US, becoming Sheeran 's first number one song in the country. Sheeran also became the first artist to debut two songs in the top 10 the same week in the history of the Hot 100, with "Castle on the Hill '' also debuting at number six. "Shape of You '' topped the Hot 100 for 12 non-consecutive weeks. In its fourth week at number one, the song also topped the Mainstream Top 40, becoming Sheeran 's second number - one single on the chart (after 2015 's "Thinking Out Loud ''). On 6 May 2017, it fell to number two on the Hot 100, being displaced by "Humble '' by Kendrick Lamar. On the issue date, 2 September 2017, "Shape of You '' spent its 32nd week in the top ten of Hot 100, tying the record for most week on that chart with LeAnn Rimes ' "How Do I Live '' and "Closer '' by The Chainsmokers featuring Halsey. The following week, "Shape of You '' spent its 33rd consecutive week in the top 10, breaking the 20 - year - old record. On Billboard 's Dance / Mix Show Airplay chart, "Shape of You '' became Sheeran 's first number one on a Dance / EDM chart (his third top ten and sixth overall at Dance / Mix Show Airplay) in the United States. Afterwards, the song topped Dance Club Songs in its 18 March 2017 issue, his first as a solo artist and his second entry on this chart, when he was a featured artist on Rudimental 's "Lay It All on Me '', which peaked at No. 38 in 2016. By August 2017, "Shape of You '' was the best selling song of 2017 in the US with 2.3 million copies sold, the only one to sell over two million. It is also the most streamed song with 799.7 million combined audio and video streams. The song became the number one song of the year on Billboard Hot 100 in 2017, and the second best - selling song in the US after "Despacito '' with over 2.5 million copies sold.
It debuted at number one in France, and was later certified diamond there. According to Pure Charts, in the first half of the year 2017, the song reached 631,000 units (105,000 sales and 526,000 units from streams) and as of September 2017, it exceeds 812,109 units (707,109 from streams). In Australia, the song stayed at No. 1 for 15 weeks, breaking a record set 22 years ago by Coolio 's "Gangsta 's Paradise ''. In doing this, it also broke ABBA 's record of fourteen weeks at number one, which was set on the previous Australian charts before the ARIA charts became Australia 's official charts. "Shape of You '' was also Australia 's highest selling song of 2017 with 630,000 copies sold by the end of the year. The song is the first ever number one single of the Philippine Hot 100 upon the chart 's inception on 12 June 2017. It stayed at the peak position for 4 consecutive weeks before it was dethroned by "Despacito '' by Luis Fonsi and Daddy Yankee featuring Justin Bieber.
Worldwide, the song reached one billion streams on Spotify in June 2017. It became the most streamed song on Spotify in September 2017, reaching 1,318,420,396 streams overtaking Drake 's "One Dance ''.
On 5 January 2017, to accompany the song 's release, a lyric video for "Shape of You '' was released on Sheeran 's YouTube channel with "Castle on the Hill ''. As of February 2018, the official lyric video has amassed over 750 million views on YouTube.
On 30 January 2017, the song 's official music video, starring American dancer and model Jennie Pegouskie and retired professional sumo wrestler Yamamotoyama Ryūta (credited as "Yama ''), was released on Sheeran 's channel. It was shot on location in Seattle, and was directed by Jason Koenig. On 8 May 2017, 97 days after its release, it became one of the fastest music videos to reach 1 billion views on YouTube, and as of February 2018, the music video has amassed over 3.2 billion views on the site. and is the site 's third most - watched video.
The official remix of "Shape of You '' features newly additional verses and guest vocals by English grime artist Stormzy. The remix premiered during Sheeran and Stormzy 's live collaboration at the 2017 Brit Awards at The O2 in London on 22 February 2017. Sheeran announced on Twitter that the remix would be released officially on 24 February 2017. On the same date, various remixes of the song were released on digital music services. Sheeran teased the releases ahead of 2017 Brit Awards ceremony. "I 've got two things dropping on Friday that are pretty interesting '', he revealed in a BBC Radio 1 interview just hours before the big show. "One that gets debuted at the Brits, which I think people will go a bit nuts for. '' He added, "It 's something that I think nobody is expecting. I think it 'll be decent. ''
In the United States, "Shape of You '' has immediately become a favorite among DJs and remixers, prompting several of them to create their own versions. One DJ, Joe "Maz '' Masurka, told Billboard that after he did his own remix on the single that he received a lot of great feedback and response: "I absolutely love the track, so I had to remix it myself so that I could play it in all my live shows. Ed is a genius; best song in the last few years. I 've been playing it literally everywhere I 've been booked since about mid-January: Hyde Bellagio in Las Vegas, E11even and Ora in Miami, Parq in San Diego, Premier Atlantic City... the dance floor loves it. '' A Latin remix featuring reggaeton duo Zion & Lennox was released on 17 March 2017. Sheeran and American rapper Lil Uzi Vert performed a live remix of "Shape Of You '' during the 2017 MTV Video Music Awards, followed by a rendition of Lil Uzi Vert 's song "XO Tour Llif3 ''.
It was one of the few songs used in Youtube 's 2017 Rewind.
The song is also used in an episode in the French version of Skam.
Credits and personnel adapted from ÷ album liner notes.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who played mickey pearce in only fools and horses | Patrick Murray (actor) - Wikipedia
Patrick Murray (born 17 December 1956) is a retired English screen actor notable for his role as Mickey Pearce in the sitcom Only Fools and Horses.
Born in London to an Irish father and Spanish mother, he was educated at St. Frances Cabrini primary school and St. Thomas the Apostle College. Murray has appeared in starring and supporting roles in numerous films and television programmes. He also became well known for his appearances in Television commercials for the Italian home appliance company Zanussi. Murray is a staunch supporter of his local league football club Millwall F.C., often being recognised whilst sitting in the stands. In his later years, he was a controller at a mini-cab office in Catford.
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where did the housewives stay in hong kong | List of the Real Housewives of Beverly Hills episodes - wikipedia
The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills is an American reality television series aired on Bravo that debuted on October 14, 2010. It is the sixth installment in the network 's The Real Housewives franchise. The series focuses on the personal and professional lives of several women residing in Los Angeles, California.
As of May 10, 2016 (2016 - 05 - 10), 132 original episodes of The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills have aired over six seasons.
Carlton receives a tattoo. Yolanda tries to tell Brandi that she needs to control herself. Kim 's dog returns home from dog boot camp. Brandi and Joyce are both giving the chance to walk the runway at Kyle 's fashion show, which raises money for charity.
The ladies continue their trip activities by golfing, shopping, and possibly getting arrested. Brandi has a surprise for her parents. Kim and Yolanda say goodbye to their daughters as they depart for college. Lisa sits down with Carlton to explain why she departed Puerto Rico early.
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the process of coordinating the different parts of an organization is called | Organization - wikipedia
An organization or organisation is an entity comprising multiple people, such as an institution or an association, that has a collective goal and is linked to an external environment.
The word is derived from the Greek word organon, which means "organ ''.
There are a variety of legal types of organizations, including corporations, governments, non-governmental organizations, political organizations, international organizations, armed forces, charities, not - for - profit corporations, partnerships, cooperatives, and educational institutions.
A hybrid organization is a body that operates in both the public sector and the private sector simultaneously, fulfilling public duties and developing commercial market activities.
A voluntary association is an organization consisting of volunteers. Such organizations may be able to operate without legal formalities, depending on jurisdiction, including informal clubs.
Organizations may also operate in secret and / or illegally in the case of secret societies, criminal organizations and resistance movements.
The study of organizations includes a focus on optimizing organizational structure. According to management science, most human organizations fall roughly into four types:
These consist of a group of peers who decide as a group, perhaps by voting. The difference between a jury and a committee is that the members of the committee are usually assigned to perform or lead further actions after the group comes to a decision, whereas members of a jury come to a decision. In common law countries, legal juries render decisions of guilt, liability and quantify damages; juries are also used in athletic contests, book awards and similar activities. Sometimes a selection committee functions like a jury. In the Middle Ages, juries in continental Europe were used to determine the law according to consensus among local notables.
Committees are often the most reliable way to make decisions. Condorcet 's jury theorem proved that if the average member votes better than a roll of dice, then adding more members increases the number of majorities that can come to a correct vote (however correctness is defined). The problem is that if the average member is subsequently worse than a roll of dice, the committee 's decisions grow worse, not better; therefore, staffing is crucial.
Parliamentary procedure, such as Robert 's Rules of Order, helps prevent committees from engaging in lengthy discussions without reaching decisions.
This organization has intense competition. Bad parts of the organization starve. Good ones get more work. Everybody is paid for what they actually do, and runs a tiny business that has to show a profit, or they are fired.
Companies who utilize this organization type reflect a rather one - sided view of what goes on in ecology. It is also the case that a natural ecosystem has a natural border - ecoregions do not in general compete with one another in any way, but are very autonomous.
The pharmaceutical company GlaxoSmithKline talks about functioning as this type of organization in this external article from The Guardian. By: Bastian Batac De Leon.
This organizational type assigns each worker two bosses in two different hierarchies. One hierarchy is "functional '' and assures that each type of expert in the organization is well - trained, and measured by a boss who is super-expert in the same field. The other direction is "executive '' and tries to get projects completed using the experts. Projects might be organized by products, regions, customer types, or some other schema.
As an example, a company might have an individual with overall responsibility for products X and Y, and another individual with overall responsibility for engineering, quality control, etc. Therefore, subordinates responsible for quality control of project X will have two reporting lines.
A hierarchy exemplifies an arrangement with a leader who leads other individual members of the organization. This arrangement is often associated with basis that there are enough imagine a real pyramid, if there are not enough stone blocks to hold up the higher ones, gravity would irrevocably bring down the monumental structure. So one can imagine that if the leader does not have the support of his subordinates, the entire structure will collapse. Hierarchies were satirized in The Peter Principle (1969), a book that introduced hierarchiology and the saying that "in a hierarchy every employee tends to rise to his level of incompetence. ''
In the social sciences, organizations are the object of analysis for a number of disciplines, such as sociology, economics, political science, psychology, management, and organizational communication. The broader analysis of organizations is commonly referred to as organizational structure, organizational studies, organizational behavior, or organization analysis. A number of different perspectives exist, some of which are compatible:
Sociology can be defined as the science of the institutions of modernity; specific institutions serve a function, akin to the individual organs of a coherent body. In the social and political sciences in general, an "organization '' may be more loosely understood as the planned, coordinated and purposeful action of human beings working through collective action to reach a common goal or construct a tangible product. This action is usually framed by formal membership and form (institutional rules). Sociology distinguishes the term organization into planned formal and unplanned informal (i.e. spontaneously formed) organizations. Sociology analyzes organizations in the first line from an institutional perspective. In this sense, organization is an enduring arrangement of elements. These elements and their actions are determined by rules so that a certain task can be fulfilled through a system of coordinated division of labor.
Economic approaches to organizations also take the division of labor as a starting point. The division of labor allows for (economies of) specialization. Increasing specialization necessitates coordination. From an economic point of view, markets and organizations are alternative coordination mechanisms for the execution of transactions.
An organization is defined by the elements that are part of it (who belongs to the organization and who does not?), its communication (which elements communicate and how do they communicate?), its autonomy (which changes are executed autonomously by the organization or its elements?), and its rules of action compared to outside events (what causes an organization to act as a collective actor?).
By coordinated and planned cooperation of the elements, the organization is able to solve tasks that lie beyond the abilities of the single elements. The price paid by the elements is the limitation of the degrees of freedom of the elements. Advantages of organizations are enhancement (more of the same), addition (combination of different features) and extension. Disadvantages can be inertness (through co-ordination) and loss of interaction.
Among the theories that are or have been influential are:
A leader in a formal, hierarchical organization, who is appointed to a managerial position, has the right to command and enforce obedience by virtue of the authority of his position. However, he must possess adequate personal attributes to match his authority, because authority is only potentially available to him. In the absence of sufficient personal competence, a manager may be confronted by an emergent leader who can challenge his role in the organization and reduce it to that of a figurehead. However, only authority of position has the backing of formal sanctions. It follows that whoever wields personal influence and power can legitimize this only by gaining a formal position in the hierarchy, with commensurate authority.
An organization that is established as a means for achieving defined objectives has been referred to as a formal organization. Its design specifies how goals are subdivided and reflected in subdivisions of the organization. Divisions, departments, sections, positions, jobs, and tasks make up this work structure. Thus, the formal organization is expected to behave impersonally in regard to relationships with clients or with its members. According to Weber 's definition, entry and subsequent advancement is by merit or seniority. Each employee receives a salary and enjoys a degree of tenure that safeguards him from the arbitrary influence of superiors or of powerful clients. The higher his position in the hierarchy, the greater his presumed expertise in adjudicating problems that may arise in the course of the work carried out at lower levels of the organization. It is this bureaucratic structure that forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position.
In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit, a leader emerges within the context of the informal organization that underlies the formal structure. The informal organization expresses the personal objectives and goals of the individual membership. Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization. The informal organization represents an extension of the social structures that generally characterize human life -- the spontaneous emergence of groups and organizations as ends in themselves.
In prehistoric times, man was preoccupied with his personal security, maintenance, protection, and survival. Now man spends a major portion of his waking hours working for organizations. His need to identify with a community that provides security, protection, maintenance, and a feeling of belonging continues unchanged from prehistoric times. This need is met by the informal organization and its emergent, or unofficial, leaders.
Leaders emerge from within the structure of the informal organization. Their personal qualities, the demands of the situation, or a combination of these and other factors attract followers who accept their leadership within one or several overlay structures. Instead of the authority of position held by an appointed head or chief, the emergent leader wields influence or power. Influence is the ability of a person to gain cooperation from others by means of persuasion or control over rewards. Power is a stronger form of influence because it reflects a person 's ability to enforce action through the control of a means of punishment.
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carrie underwood don't know my last name | Last Name (song) - wikipedia
"Last Name '' is a song recorded by American country singer Carrie Underwood and written by Underwood, Hillary Lindsey, and Luke Laird. It is the third single from Underwood 's second studio album, Carnival Ride. It was released in the United States on April 7, 2008, by which point the song had already charted. At the 51st Grammy Awards, the song won Underwood her third consecutive Grammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance. It has sold 1,300,000 copies to date.
The song is one of four tracks on the album co-written by Underwood, and the third consecutive one to be released as a single from the album.
The song is a moderate up - tempo describing a woman meeting a man at a club and later eloping with him in Las Vegas after having had too much to drink that night. She wakes up the next morning, "thinkin ' ' bout Elvis somewhere in Vegas '', to discover that she does not even know her last name (i.e., she married the man while she was intoxicated), and worries that her "mama would be so ashamed. '' The music video portrays the song as a prequel to her "Before He Cheats '' song, even going so far as to hire the same actor to play the man in question.
The single was generally met with mixed reviews.
Allmusic picked the song as a "track pick '', calling the song "Miranda Lambert filtered through Shania Twain '', and dubbed it a "one night stand anthem. '' Rolling Stone picked the track as their favorite, saying "the most fun is "Last Name, '' where she gets wasted and runs off to Vegas with a guy she does n't know. '' Blender awarded the song four out of five stars, describing the song as the "most irresponsible (and fun) moment on the new album involves one wild night, one too many shots of Cuervo and one unexpected ring. '' Billboard gave a positive review of the track, praising the lyrics: "It 's a cleverly penned lyric that hilariously celebrates drunken debauchery '' as well as summing it up as "a performance that combines soulful vocals, edgy intensity and sassy attitude into a delicious cocktail. ''
However, it also received some negative reviews: Engine 145 gave the song a ' thumbs down ', describing the song as a "straight - laced performance '' that just "places the focus on the vocal ''. Slant Magazine labelled the single as a "bald - faced attempt at recreating the ' Before He Cheats ' phenomenon ''.
Underwood performed the song live for the first time on television during the 43rd Annual Academy of Country Music Awards on May 18, 2008. She performed the song live at the seventh season finale of American Idol on May 21, 2008. She performed the song at the 51st Annual Grammy Awards on February 8, 2009.
The song is described in the video as what happened before the "Before He Cheats '' video.
The video starts with some segments from "Before He Cheats '' and then goes into a scene three months earlier ("before he cheated '', it says) with her in the club drinking with her friends. The same man from the "Before He Cheats '' spots her and asks her for a dance. From this point on, while the guy is with Underwood, he is flirting with every other woman he sees. After the dance, Underwood leaves with the guy in his car with fuzzy dice in the rear view mirror. They make it out to Las Vegas where they participate in a couple of gambling activities such as roulette and a Wheel of Fortune game where they win a new truck. Later they get married in a chapel with an Elvis impersonator officiating. They run off in his new pickup truck (the one used in "Before He Cheats '') and the video ends with a spark from the chapel sign lights.
The song debuted at number 46 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs chart, nearly a month before the single 's official release. For the week of June 21, 2008 it rose from number five to number one, to become her fifth straight number one on the Billboard chart, her seventh straight number one country single, and her eighth number one Billboard single overall. This marked Underwood as the first solo female artist to have five consecutive number one 's on the country survey in almost twenty years, since Rosanne Cash had a string of six number one titles between 1987 - 89. It is the third country number one from Carnival Ride and reached the top of the chart faster than the first two singles, taking only thirteen weeks. "Last Name '' has sold 1,300,000 downloads as of November 2015.
On the Hot 100 the song has reached number nineteen, making it Underwood 's fifth top twenty Hot 100 hit, and the second from Carnival Ride.
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where did the name dub nation come from | Golden State Warriors - wikipedia
The Golden State Warriors are an American professional basketball team based in the San Francisco Bay Area in Oakland, California. The Warriors compete in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the league 's Western Conference Pacific Division. The Warriors play their home games at the Oracle Arena in Oakland. The Warriors have reached ten NBA Finals, winning six NBA championships in 1947, 1956, 1975, 2015, 2017, and 2018. Golden State 's six NBA championships are tied for third-most in NBA history with the Chicago Bulls, and behind only the Boston Celtics (17) and Los Angeles Lakers (16).
The team was established in 1946 as the Philadelphia Warriors based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, a founding member of the Basketball Association of America (BAA). In 1962, the franchise relocated to the Bay Area and was renamed the San Francisco Warriors. In 1971, the team changed its geographic moniker to Golden State, California 's state nickname. The team is nicknamed the Dubs as a shortening of "W 's ''.
Wilt Chamberlain and Stephen Curry have both been named the NBA 's Most Valuable Player while playing for the Warriors, for a total of three MVP awards. 18 Hall of Famers have played for the Warriors, while four have coached the team. Golden State holds the NBA records for best regular season with 73 -- 9 and most wins in a season (regular season and postseason combined) with 88 in 2015 -- 16, as well as best postseason with 16 -- 1 (. 941 winning percentage) in 2016 -- 17.
The Warriors were founded in 1946 as the Philadelphia Warriors, a charter member of the Basketball Association of America. They were owned by Peter A. Tyrrell, who also owned the Philadelphia Rockets of the American Hockey League. Tyrrell hired Eddie Gottlieb, a longtime basketball promoter in the Philadelphia area, as coach and general manager. The owners named the team after the Philadelphia Warriors, an old basketball team who played in the American Basketball League in 1925.
Led by early scoring sensation Joe Fulks, the team won the championship in the league 's inaugural 1946 -- 47 season by defeating the Chicago Stags, four games to one. The NBA, which was created by a 1949 merger, officially recognizes that as its own first championship. Gottlieb bought the team in 1951.
The Warriors won its next championship in Philadelphia in the 1955 -- 56 season, defeating the Fort Wayne Pistons four games to one. The Warrior stars of this era were future Hall of Famers Paul Arizin, Tom Gola and Neil Johnston.
In 1959, the team signed draft pick Wilt Chamberlain. Known as "Wilt the Stilt '', he led the team in scoring six times, quickly began shattering NBA scoring records and changed the NBA style of play forever. On March 2, 1962, in a Warrior "home '' game played on a neutral court in Hershey, Pennsylvania, Chamberlain scored 100 points against the New York Knicks, a single - game record the NBA ranks among its finest moments.
In 1962, Franklin Mieuli purchased the majority shares of the team and relocated the franchise to the San Francisco Bay Area, renaming them the San Francisco Warriors. The Warriors played most of their home games at the Cow Palace in Daly City (the facility lies just south of the San Francisco city limits) from 1962 to 1964 and the San Francisco Civic Auditorium from 1964 to 1966, though occasionally playing home games in nearby cities such as Oakland and San Jose.
Prior to the 1963 -- 64 NBA season, the Warriors drafted big man Nate Thurmond to go along with Chamberlain. The Warriors won the Western Division crown that season, but lost the 1964 NBA Finals to the Boston Celtics, four games to one. In the 1964 -- 65 season, the Warriors traded Chamberlain to the Philadelphia 76ers for Connie Dierking, Lee Shaffer, Paul Neumann and $150,000 and won only 17 games.
In 1965, they drafted Rick Barry in the first round who went on to become NBA Rookie of the Year that season and then led the Warriors to the NBA Finals in the 1966 -- 67 season, losing (four games to two) to Chamberlain 's new team that had replaced the Warriors in Philadelphia, the 76ers.
Angered by management 's failure to pay him certain incentive bonuses he felt were due him, Barry sat out the 1967 -- 68 season and signed with the Oakland Oaks of the rival American Basketball Association for the following year, but after four seasons in the ABA rejoined the Warriors in 1972. During Barry 's absence, the Warriors were no longer title contenders, and the mantle of leadership fell to Thurmond, Jeff Mullins and Rudy LaRusso. They began scheduling more home games in Oakland with the opening of the Oakland Coliseum Arena in 1966 and the 1970 -- 71 season would be the team 's last as the San Francisco Warriors.
The franchise adopted its brand name Golden State Warriors prior to the 1971 -- 72 season, in order to suggest that the team represented the entire state of California. Almost all home games were played in Oakland that season; six were played in San Diego, but none in San Francisco or Daly City. Oakland Arena became the team 's exclusive home court in 1971.
The Warriors made the playoffs from 1971 to 1977 except in 1974, and won their first NBA championship on the West Coast in 1974 -- 75. In what many consider the biggest upset in NBA history, Golden State not only defeated the heavily favored Washington Bullets but humiliated them in a four - game sweep. That team was coached by former Warrior Al Attles, and led on the court by Rick Barry and Jamaal Wilkes. Barry was named Finals MVP.
At 59 - 23, the Warriors had the league 's best record during the 1975 -- 76 season. They were upset, however, by the 42 -- 40 Phoenix Suns in seven games in the Western Conference Finals.
Due of the loss of key players such as Barry, Wilkes and Thurmond to trades and retirements, the Warriors struggled to put a competitive team on the court from 1978 to 1987 after being one of the NBA 's dominant teams in the 1960s and most of the 1970s. Through the NBA draft, however, they acquired some players such as high - scoring forward Purvis Short (1978), former Purdue center Joe Barry Carroll (1980) and center Robert Parish (1976), who was traded to the Boston Celtics in 1980 along with the draft pick that would become Kevin McHale for the pick used to draft Carroll. In 1983, the Warriors matched the New York Knicks ' offer for free - agent Bernard King, but, unable to pay his high salary, quickly traded him to the Knicks for guard Micheal Ray Richardson, whom they soon shipped to New Jersey in exchange for former Georgetown Hoya point guard Eric "Sleepy '' Floyd, and journeyman forward Mickey Johnson. Floyd once scored 29 points for the Warriors in the fourth quarter of a playoff game against the Lakers, though he was later traded to the Houston Rockets.
The departure of these players for various reasons symbolized the franchise 's futility during this period, as head coach Attles moved up to the front office as general manager in 1980 and the team made several coaching changes. New owners Jim Fitzgerald and Dan Finane finally managed to return the team to respectability by hiring former Cleveland Cavaliers head coach George Karl as head coach in 1986 after selecting St. John 's small forward Chris Mullin in the 1985 NBA draft.
After a subpar stretch in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the team had a brief resurgence under coach Karl, culminating in a 1987 Western Conference Semifinal match against Magic Johnson and the Los Angeles Lakers which is still shown on TV in the NBA 's Greatest Games series. In the game, Warriors ' All - Star point guard Sleepy Floyd 's performance in the second half still stands as the NBA playoff record for points scored in a quarter (29) and in a half (39). His six consecutive field goals in the fourth quarter led to a 51 - point finish for him and a victory for the Warriors.
The "Sleepy Floyd game '' was a catalyst for increased interest in the NBA in the Bay Area which was furthered by new coach Don Nelson, who engineered another successful string of wins in the late 1980s and early 1990s with the high - scoring trio of point guard Tim Hardaway, guard Mitch Richmond and forward Chris Mullin (collectively known as "Run TMC '' after the rap group Run - D.M.C.). But "Run TMC '' stayed together for only two seasons (winning only one playoff series), when coach Nelson, in a move to get a promising young front - court player to complement his run - and - gun system, sent Richmond to the Sacramento Kings for rookie power forward Billy Owens. Nelson had been brought to the Warriors from the Milwaukee Bucks by Jim Fitzgerald, who along with Dan Finnane owned the team between 1986 and 1995. In 1993 -- 94, with first - round draft pick and Rookie of the Year power forward Chris Webber playing alongside off - guard Latrell Sprewell, the Warriors made the playoffs.
At the start of the next season, however, a rift formed between Webber and Sprewell on the one hand and Nelson on the other. All three soon left the team, and the organization went into a tailspin. The 1994 -- 95 season was the first under new team owner Chris Cohan, who had bought out Fitzgerald and Finnane. The Warriors selected power forward prospect Joe Smith as their first overall draft pick in 1995 and hired Rick Adelman as the new head coach. They sent Tim Hardaway and Chris Gatling to the Miami Heat for Kevin Willis and Bimbo Coles midway through the 1995 -- 96 season, and ended up with a 36 -- 46 record, three wins short of making the playoffs. While their home court, the Oakland Coliseum Arena, was being extensively renovated, the 1996 -- 97 Warriors played their home games in the San Jose Arena and struggled to a 30 -- 52 finish. Following the season, Mullin was traded to the Indiana Pacers in exchange for Erick Dampier and Duane Ferrell.
Longtime Seton Hall college coach P.J. Carlesimo, who had been recently fired by the Portland Trail Blazers, replaced Adelman as head coach for the 1997 -- 98 season. Sprewell was suspended for the remainder of the season for losing his temper and choking Carlesimo during a team practice in December, generating the glaring newspaper headline "WARRIORS HIT ROCK BOTTOM '' and the declaration by general manager Garry St. Jean that Sprewell would never play for the Warriors again. He would not play in the NBA again until he was dealt in January 1999 to the New York Knicks for John Starks, Chris Mills and Terry Cummings.
St. Jean had become the new Warriors ' general manager in July 1997; he and his predecessor Dave Twardzik received much of the blame for the Warriors ' struggles early in Cohan 's turbulent tenure as owner in addition to Cohan himself. St. Jean brought in players such as Terry Cummings, John Starks and Mookie Blaylock who were well past their primes. Twardzik drafted several flops, such as Todd Fuller (while Kobe Bryant was still available as well as Steve Nash and Jermaine O'Neal) and Steve Logan (who never played an NBA game). In the following draft, the team selected Adonal Foyle while Tracy McGrady was still available. St. Jean did, however, draft future two - time NBA slam dunk champion off - guard Jason Richardson (from Michigan State), a Warriors ' star scorer through the 2006 -- 07 season.
For a few years, with rising stars Richardson, small forward Antawn Jamison and point guard Gilbert Arenas leading the team, the Warriors seemed like a team on the rise; but the young Warriors did not have enough in the competitive Western Conference to make the playoffs. After the 2002 -- 03 season, St. Jean 's earlier mistakes of committing money to players like Danny Fortson, Adonal Foyle and Erick Dampier were painfully felt by Warriors ' fans when the team was unable to re-sign Arenas despite his desire to stay in the Bay Area. A new rule was implemented in response to second - round draft picks who quickly become superstars. Chris Mullin succeeded St. Jean with the title of Executive Vice President of Basketball Operations in 2004. He hoped to build a winning team around Jason Richardson, Mike Dunleavy Jr and Troy Murphy, and drafted 7 - foot center Andris Biedriņš from Latvia (11th overall). At the 2005 trading deadline, he bolstered to the team with the acquisition of point guard Baron Davis, bringing to the team its first superstar since Mullin himself. The Warriors enjoyed a great start to the 2005 -- 06 season, entering the new year with a plus. 500 winning percentage for the first time since 1994, but managed to win only 13 more games through the end of March due to injuries. Davis often found himself at odds with new head coach Mike Montgomery (used to dealing with college players in his long tenure at Stanford) and failed to remain healthy, playing in just 54 games. On April 5, 2006, the Warriors were officially eliminated from playoff contention in a 114 -- 109 overtime loss to the Hornets, extending their playoff drought to 12 seasons.
Entering the 2006 -- 07 season, the Warriors held the active record (12) for the most consecutive seasons without a playoff appearance (see Active NBA non-playoff appearance streaks). During the 2006 off - season, Golden State announced that it had bought out the remaining two years of coach Montgomery 's contract and hired previous Golden State and former Dallas Mavericks coach Don Nelson to take over for him. During training camp, small forward Matt Barnes established himself in the rotation. On January 17, 2007, the Warriors traded the disappointing Murphy and Dunleavy with promising young power forward Ike Diogu and Keith McLeod to the Indiana Pacers for forward Al Harrington, forward / guard Stephen Jackson, guard Šarūnas Jasikevičius and forward Josh Powell. This trade allowed the Warriors to "run and gun '' their way to the playoffs with a more athletic and talented team. On March 4, 2007, the Warriors suffered a 106 -- 107 loss in Washington, the Wizards handing them their 6th straight loss when former Warrior Arenas hit a technical free throw with less than one second remaining after Nelson had protested a controversial call with the Warriors ahead by a slim margin. The loss dropped them to 26 -- 35.
March 4 marked the turning point for the Warriors. The Warriors closed out the regular season (42 -- 40) at 16 -- 5 in their last 21 games. "We Believe '' became the Warriors ' slogan for the last two months of the season and the playoffs.
Led by a healthy Baron Davis, an ever - improving Jason Richardson and young future star off - guard Monta Ellis as well as center Biedriņš, the Warriors immediately dashed the highly favored top - seed Dallas Mavericks ' expectations of a short and easy series win with a Game 1 victory in Dallas thanks to Davis ' frantic style of play. The Mavericks came back to win Game 2 easily to tie the series at a game apiece, but the Warriors won both Games 3 & 4 with a huge lift from the home crowd at Oracle Arena. A close Game 5 saw the Mavericks eke out a 118 -- 112 victory with a last - minute surge led by superstar forward Dirk Nowitzki to send the series back to California at 3 -- 2. In Game 6, the Warriors engineered a third - quarter 18 -- 0 run to eliminate the Mavericks and become the NBA 's first No. 8 seed to beat a No. 1 seed in a seven - game series (and the first NBA No. 8 seed to beat the top seed since 1999 when the New York Knicks eliminated the Miami Heat). It was an upset in name only, given the fact that the Warriors had swept the Mavericks in the regular season series.
The Warriors went on to play the Utah Jazz in the second round of the 2006 -- 07 playoffs, where they dropped two close games at EnergySolutions Arena to open the series. The series then shifted to the Oracle Arena, where the Warriors won Game 3 in a convincing blowout. Davis scored 32 points and electrified the crowd with a monster dunk on Jazz forward Andrei Kirilenko late in the fourth quarter, but they lost Game 4 at home, their first loss in Oakland in well over a month and the Jazz closed them out in Game 5 in Salt Lake City.
In the 2007 -- 08 season, the Warriors faced early difficulties in their attempt to return to the playoffs. Richardson was traded to the Charlotte Bobcats for rookie Brandan Wright. To make things even worse, Jackson was suspended for seven games over a firearm incident. They opened the season with six straight losses, but Ellis ' rise, Davis ' solid injury - free season (21.6 points, 8 assists, 4.6 rebounds per game), and an overall improvement in team chemistry brought them back to playoff contention; but in the end the Warriors failed to make the playoffs despite a 48 -- 34 record, which is the best record in NBA history for a non-playoff team since the NBA playoffs had expanded to eight teams per conference. The Western Conference was very strong that season; every playoff team won 50 games, leaving the Warriors two games out of the last playoff spot. The Warriors sold out nearly every home game during the season averaging 19,631 per game, the highest in team history.
In the 2008 offseason, Baron Davis opted to return to his home town and sign with the Los Angeles Clippers. With the 14th pick of that year 's draft, the Warriors selected and signed Anthony Randolph out of LSU. To compensate for the loss of Davis, the Warriors signed free agents Corey Maggette and Ronny Turiaf and re-signed Ellis and Andris Biedriņš to long - term contracts.
The Warriors had a disappointing 2008 -- 09 season, finishing 29 -- 53. Ellis was injured in a moped accident, and suspended for 30 games for riding the vehicle against the terms of his contract, depriving the Warriors of their top player. They traded disenchanted forward Al Harrington to the New York Knicks for guard Jamal Crawford, and were undone by injuries and the minimal experience of their young players such as Anthony Morrow and Brandan Wright. Coach Nelson often had to make adjustments to the starting lineups since many of the original starters missed games due to injuries. Despite the team 's losing record, the Warriors were hard to beat when they had a healthy lineup and a strong bench. With leadership and improvement in their young players, they were sometimes able to defeat powerhouse teams such as the Boston Celtics, 99 - 89.
During the 2009 off - season, Warrior ownership declined to renew the contract of general manager Mullin. Larry Riley, Nelson 's longtime assistant coach, was promoted in his place and drafted Stephen Curry as an outstanding 7th lottery pick, but dubiously traded Jamal Crawford to the Atlanta Hawks for Acie Law and Speedy Claxton.
The Warriors had another injury - prone year in 2009 -- 10. as they were consistently unable to field their ideal starting lineup. In November, a malcontented Stephen Jackson and seldom - used Acie Law were traded to the Charlotte Bobcats for Raja Bell (out for the season with an injury) and Vladimir Radmanovic. Four days later, they signed center Chris Hunter. Starting in January 2010, they issued multiple 10 - day contracts, most notably to power forward Anthony Tolliver from the Idaho Stampede. Due to their multiple injuries, they were granted an exception allowing them to sign Reggie Williams from the Sioux Falls Skyforce to a 10 - day contract on March 2, making it their fifth D - League call - up that season, tying an NBA record. They eventually waived the injured Bell to sign Williams for the rest of the year, and finished the season 26 -- 56, fourth in the Pacific Division.
On June 24, the Warriors selected Ekpe Udoh, a power forward from Baylor, as the 6th pick of the 2010 NBA draft. They also introduced a modernized version of their "The City '' logo depicting the new eastern span of the San Francisco - Oakland Bay Bridge, and switched to a simplified color scheme of royal blue and gold. They also introduced new uniforms reminiscent of the 1969 -- 71 "The City '' uniforms. The Warriors made an offseason trade that sent Turiaf, Randolph and Kelenna Azubuike to the New York Knicks in return for star high - scoring power forward David Lee via a sign - and - trade. Lee agreed to a six - year, $80 million deal, on a framework contingent on the decision of superstar forward LeBron James to leave the Cleveland Cavaliers to sign with the Miami Heat that same day. Following Morrow 's departure after he signed the New Jersey Nets ' offer sheet, the Warriors signed Dorell Wright, formerly with the Miami Heat, to a three - year, $11 million deal.
On July 15, owner Chris Cohan sold the Warriors to Peter Guber of Mandalay Entertainment and his partner Joe Lacob for a then - record $450 million. On November 15, the Warriors announced the new 19 - person ownership group composed of Joe Lacob, Peter Guber, Vivek Ranadivé, Erika Glazer, Fred Harman, Bob Piccinini, Larry Bowman, Danny German, Marty Glick, Chad Hurley, Craig R. Johnson, Bruce Karsh, Jeffrey A. Miller, Paul Schaeffer, David Scially, Nick Swinmurn, Harry Tsao, John Walecka and Dennis Wong.
The Warriors continued their signing spree by adding Harvard guard Jeremy Lin to their roster with a one - year partially guaranteed contract containing a second - year team option, the first Taiwanese - American player in NBA history. Louis Amundson was then added for little under $5 million in mid-September. Keith Smart was hired as head coach that same month after Nelson had resigned before the start of training camp.
In February 2011, the Warriors traded Brandan Wright and Dan Gadzuric for Troy Murphy and a 2011 second - round pick. On February 27, Murphy and the Warriors reached a buyout agreement and he was waived.
During a steady season without making any real ground in the playoff race, the Warriors broke franchise records with 21 made 3 's in a win against the Orlando Magic. In April 2011, Dorell Wright made a franchise record of 184 3 's in a season in a home win versus Los Angeles Lakers, surpassing Richardson 's 183 in 2005 -- 06. He then broke another NBA record, as the first player to have scored more points in his seventh season than in all his first six seasons combined in a win against the Portland Trail Blazers. He ended the season with the most three - pointers made in the NBA that season with 194, as well as the most 3s attempted with 516, both of which set new Warrior franchise records.
The Warriors failed to make the playoffs after a 36 - win season in 2010 -- 11, and coach Smart was dismissed on April 27 due to the change in ownership. 17 - year NBA veteran and former ABC and ESPN commentator Mark Jackson replaced him as head coach on June 6. On December 19, they traded Amundson to the Indiana Pacers for small forward Brandon Rush.
The Warriors did not improve in the 2011 -- 12 NBA season under coach Jackson, finishing the lockout - shorted season with a 23 -- 43 record, 13th in the conference. The team suffered several injuries to key players, and due to the lockout, Jackson could not establish his system in training camp. They then entered into another chaotic rebuilding phase.
Team leader Monta Ellis was traded in mid-March 2012, along with Kwame Brown and Ekpe Udoh, to the Milwaukee Bucks for center Andrew Bogut (out injured for the season) and former Warrior small forward Stephen Jackson, who without playing a game for the Warriors was quickly traded to the San Antonio Spurs for Richard Jefferson and a conditional first - round pick on March 15. These moves saw the rise of Stephen Curry and David Lee to team co-captains, and saw off - guard Klay Thompson, the 11th overall pick of the 2011 NBA draft, move into a starting role. On July 11, they acquired point guard Jarrett Jack from the New Orleans Hornets in a three - team trade also including the Philadelphia 76ers, who received Dorell Wright from Golden State. On August 1, they signed forward Carl Landry on the termination of his one - year contract with the Hornets. In the 2012 NBA draft, they selected small forward Harrison Barnes with the 7th overall pick, center Festus Ezeli with the 30th pick, small forward Draymond Green 35th overall, and 7 - foot 1 - inch center Ognjen Kuzmic 52nd overall. In early November, swingman Rush was lost for the year with a torn ACL after falling awkwardly on the court early in the second game of the season, and less than a month later the team announced that Bogut was out indefinitely with a foot injury that was more serious than originally reported. Bogut did not return to regular play until late in the season.
Coming out of this maelstrom of trades and injuries with a team starting two rookies (Barnes and Ezeli), the Warriors had one of their best starts in decades, earning their 20th win before hitting the 30 - game mark for the first time since 1992. The Warriors also achieved a milestone by completing their first ever 6 -- 1 road trip in franchise history, including a 97 -- 95 win over the defending champion Heat in Miami. On April 9, 2013, with a win over the Minnesota Timberwolves, the Warriors clinched the playoffs for the second time in 19 years and the first time since the 2006 -- 07 "We Believe '' Warriors. This time, the local battlecry was "We Belong ''.
The team finished the season with a record of 47 -- 35, earning the sixth seed in the Western Conference, and defeated the Denver Nuggets in the first round of the playoffs by winning four out of six games. They lost in the second round to the San Antonio Spurs, four games to two. This was the first playoff experience for all of the starters of this group except for Andrew Bogut.
Other highlights of the season included Stephen Curry 's 272 three - point baskets to set an NBA single - season record, giving him the nickname "baby - faced assassin '', and the naming of forward David Lee to the 2013 NBA All - Star Game as a reserve, ending the team 's 16 - year drought without an All Star selection, dating back to Latrell Sprewell in the 1997 season. Curry and Klay Thompson, dubbed the "Splash Brothers '' by team employee Brian Witt for their backcourt shooting prowess, combined for 483 three - pointers during the season, easily besting the prior record of 435 set by the Orlando Magic 's Nick Anderson and Dennis Scott in 1995 -- 96.
With their lone selection in the 2013 NBA draft, the Warriors made 22 - year - old Serbian combo - guard Nemanja Nedovic the 30th and final pick of the first round. In early July 2013, Golden State signed former Denver Nuggets swingman and free agent Andre Iguodala to a four - year, $48 million deal. To make room under their salary cap, the Warriors traded Richard Jefferson, Andris Biedriņš and Brandon Rush, along with multiple draft picks, including their 2014 and 2017 first - round picks, to the Utah Jazz. The Warriors lost free - agent guard Jarrett Jack, who departed for the Cleveland Cavaliers, and free agent power forward Carl Landry, who went to the Sacramento Kings. To help fill the void left by Landry, the Warriors signed forward - center Marreese Speights to a three - year, $10 million contract. The team also signed one - year deals with veteran center Jermaine O'Neal ($2 million) and point guard Toney Douglas ($1.6 million). On August 21, the Warriors signed 7 ft 1 in Serbian center Ognjen Kuzmic, who had been playing in Europe since his selection in the 2012 NBA draft, to a guaranteed two - year deal.
The Warriors began the 2013 -- 14 season showing flashes of brilliance and also plenty of lapses. In early December their record was 12 -- 9, as compared to 17 -- 4 the year before. One challenging factor was a tough starting schedule that saw them play 14 of their first 22 games on the road, including 10 games against teams holding playoff spots in the standings. A stream of injuries also held the team back, including injuries to Festus Ezeli (off - season surgery to repair the right knee, out for the season), Toney Douglas (left tibia stress reaction, out nearly a month from mid-November to December), and Jermaine O'Neal (right wrist injury and surgery, out from mid-November to early February). Stephen Curry and Harrison Barnes were also out for at least four games before the all - star break, each with minor injuries. Most prominently of all, Iguodala suffered a hamstring pull in late November that kept him out for over a month, during which time the Warriors ' performance suffered significantly on both the defensive and offensive ends of the court, and the team posted a losing 5 -- 7 record while revealing a lack of depth on their bench. With Iguodala back in the lineup, the Warriors went on a 10 - game winning streak, which included six consecutive wins on a single road trip, tying an NBA record. The winning streak was the longest for the franchise since the 1975 championship year, and just one short of the team record of 11 consecutive wins, set in the 1971 -- 72 season.
To strengthen their underperforming bench, the Warriors made a three - team trade on January 15, sending Douglas to the Miami Heat and picking up guards Jordan Crawford and MarShon Brooks from the Boston Celtics and then, a day before the trade deadline, trading Kent Bazemore and Brooks to the Los Angeles Lakers in exchange for veteran point guard Steve Blake. Thanks in part to the improved effectiveness of their backup squad, boosted by the additions of Blake and Crawford and the play of 35 - year - old Jermaine O'Neal (who returned sooner than expected from wrist surgery), the Warriors were one of the winningest teams in the NBA after the all - star break. Nonetheless, and despite several victories over top contenders, the team displayed a pattern of losing games to inferior teams even at their home arena. On April 11, in a 112 -- 95 stomping of the Los Angeles Lakers at the Staples Center, the Warriors clinched a playoff berth in consecutive seasons for the first time since 1991 and 1992. However, just one day earlier in a loss against the Portland Trail Blazers, Andrew Bogut suffered a cracked rib that would keep him out of the post-season, a big blow to the sixth - seed Warriors ' playoff hopes.
The Warriors ended the season 51 -- 31, winning more than 50 games for only the fourth time in franchise history, finishing 20 games over. 500 for the first time in 22 years, and tying the 1991 -- 92 squad for the franchise 's all - time mark of 24 wins on the road. Even without Bogut, in the first round of the playoffs the Warriors battled the third - seed Los Angeles Clippers to a seventh and deciding game, which the Warriors lost, bringing their 2013 -- 14 season to an end. It was season of many thrilling moments in which the Warriors ' played in 17 regular - season games decided by 2 points or less, 6 games with winning shots in the final 3 seconds, and 7 comeback wins in which the Warriors had been behind by 15 points or more.
In other noteworthy occurrences for the season, Curry was named to the starting lineup for the 2014 NBA All - Star Game. For Curry, the only Warrior named to the team, this was his first all - star appearance in five seasons as an NBA player. Curry hit another notable milestone in posting 4 triple - doubles for the season, tying a franchise record unequaled since Wilt Chamberlain in 1963 -- 64. Curry also averaged career - bests in points and assists; averaging 24.0 points and 8.5 assists in the season. Curry and Klay Thompson continued to set league records in three - point shooting. On February 7, in a 102 -- 87 win over the Chicago Bulls, the backcourt duo became the first teammates to each make a three - pointer in 30 consecutive games. Curry, who finished the season with 261 threes, set an individual record for most three - pointers in a span of two seasons with 533, surpassing the previous mark of 478 set by Seattle Supersonic Ray Allen in 2004 -- 05 and 2005 -- 06. Together, Thompson and Curry combined for 484 threes on the year, besting by one the NBA record they had set the year before.
Even as the team rolled towards the post-season, signs emerged of trouble in the Warriors ' front office. On March 25, the team reassigned assistant coach Brian Scalabrine to the team 's NBA Development League Affiliate in Santa Cruz because of what head coach Mark Jackson called a "difference in philosophies '' and what unnamed league sources cited by Yahoo! Sports called "an increasingly dysfunctional atmosphere '' on the Warriors ' coaching staff. Fewer than two weeks later, assistant coach Darren Erman was fired for secretly recording conversations between coaches, staff and players. During the post season, rumors persisted in the press that Mark Jackson 's job as head coach was in jeopardy, leading the players to make a unanimous declaration of support for Jackson 's return only minutes after the Warriors ' first - round, game seven playoff loss to the Clippers. Nonetheless, three days later, on May 6, the team announced the firing of Mark Jackson as head coach. In his three - season tenure as head coach, Jackson compiled a 121 - 109 (. 526) record, overseeing a terrific turnaround. When Jackson took the helm in 2011, the franchise had made the playoffs only one time over the prior 17 seasons, averaging 30.2 wins per season during that period. Jackson, 49, became just the third head coach in franchise history to lead a team to at least 50 wins in a season, joining Don Nelson and Alvin Attles, who both hit the mark twice with the Warriors. With 121 wins overall, Jackson ranks fourth on the franchise 's all - time wins list, trailing Attles (557), Nelson (422) and Eddie Gottlieb (263). On May 14, 2014, the Golden State Warriors named Steve Kerr the team 's head coach, in a reported $25 million deal over five years. It was a first - time head - coaching position for Kerr, 48, a five - time NBA champion point guard who holds the all - time career record for accuracy in three - point shooting (. 454). Kerr formerly served as president and general manager for the Phoenix Suns basketball team (2007 to 2010), and had most recently been working as an NBA broadcast analyst for Turner Network Television (TNT).
The Warriors completed the regular season with a record of 67 - 15, the best in the league and the most wins in franchise history. The Warriors also finished with a home record of 39 -- 2, the second best in NBA history. They were first in defensive efficiency for the season and second in offensive efficiency, barely missing the mark that the Julius Erving led Sixers achieved by being first in both offensive and defensive efficiency. On May 4, Stephen Curry was named the 2014 -- 15 NBA Most Valuable Player, the first Warrior to do so since Wilt Chamberlain in 1960. In the first round of the playoffs, they swept the New Orleans Pelicans, defeated Memphis Grizzlies in the second round in six games and defeated Houston Rockets in five games of the Western Conference Finals. The Warriors advanced to their first NBA Finals since 1975, where they defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in six games to win their fourth NBA title, and their first in 40 years. Andre Iguodala was named Finals MVP.
Other highlights of the season included Stephen Curry breaking his own record for three - pointers made in a single season with 286. He and Klay Thompson made a combined 525 three - pointers, the most by a duo in NBA history. In the postseason, Curry shattered Reggie Miller 's record of 58 made three - pointers in a single postseason with 98. On January 23, 2015, Klay Thompson broke an NBA record for points in a quarter with 37 in the third. Curry was also the leader in the voting polls for the 2015 NBA All - Star Game, won the 2014 -- 15 NBA Most Valuable Player award and the 2015 ESPYs Best Male Athlete award.
The Warriors began the season by winning their first 24 games, eclipsing the previous best start in NBA history, set by the 1993 -- 94 Houston Rockets and the 1948 -- 49 Washington Capitols at 15 -- 0. The Warriors surpassed the 1969 -- 70 New York Knicks for the best road start in NBA history at 14 -- 0, which is also the joint - third longest road win streak. Their record - setting start ended when they were defeated by the Milwaukee Bucks on December 12, 2015. The Warriors broke a 131 - year - old record of 20 -- 0 set by the 1884 St. Louis Maroons baseball team, to claim the best start to a season in all of the major professional sports in America. Golden State also won 28 consecutive regular - season games dating back to the 2014 -- 15 season, eclipsing the 2012 -- 13 Miami Heat for the second longest winning streak in NBA history. The team set an NBA record 54 - straight regular season home game winning streak, which spanned from January 31, 2015 to March 29, 2016. The previous record of 44 was held by the 1995 -- 96 Chicago Bulls team led by Michael Jordan.
Stephen Curry, Draymond Green and Klay Thompson were all named to the All - Star Game, the first time the Warriors have had three All - Stars since 1976. Green broke the Golden State franchise record of nine triple - doubles in a season. Curry broke numerous three - point records during the season, including his own NBA record for made three - pointers in a season of 286; he finished the season with 402 three pointers. He made a three - pointer in 151 consecutive games, which broke the NBA record of 127 set by Kyle Korver in 2014. On February 27, 2016, Curry also tied the NBA record of twelve three - pointers made in a single game, jointly holding it with Donyell Marshall and Kobe Bryant.
On April 13, 2016, Golden State set the record for most wins in a single season, beating Memphis, and finishing 73 -- 9. On May 10, 2016, Stephen Curry was named the NBA 's Most Valuable Player (MVP) for the second straight season. Curry is the 11th player to win back - to - back MVP honors and became the first player in NBA history to win the MVP award by unanimous vote, winning all 131 first - place votes. The Golden State Warriors went to their second consecutive appearance in the finals with a rematch against the Cleveland Cavaliers. The Warriors went to a 3 -- 1 advantage but the Cavaliers made a comeback to tie the series at 3 wins apiece. In Game 7 the Golden State Warriors lost the championship series on their homecourt, and earned the unfortunate distinction of becoming the first team to give up a 3 -- 1 lead in the NBA finals.
On July 4, 2016, Kevin Durant announced he would leave the Oklahoma City Thunder in order to sign a two - year contract with the Golden State Warriors. On July 7, Durant signed his contract, which gave the Warriors a fourth All - NBA player on their team. The Durant signing made the Warriors the prohibitive favorites to win the NBA championship, according to oddsmakers.
The Warriors posted many notable achievements during the 2016 -- 17 regular season. On November 7, 2016, Stephen Curry set the NBA record for most 3 - pointers in a game with 13, in a 116 -- 106 win over the Pelicans. On December 5, 2016, Klay Thompson scored 60 points in 29 minutes, in a 142 -- 106 victory over the Pacers. In doing so, Thompson became the first player in NBA history to score 60 or more points in fewer than 30 minutes of playing time. Stephen Curry, Kevin Durant, Draymond Green, and Klay Thompson were all named to the 2017 NBA All - Star Game, making the Warriors only the eighth team in NBA history to have four All - Stars. On February 10, 2017, Draymond Green recorded a triple - double with 12 rebounds, 10 assists, and 10 steals, becoming the first player in NBA history to post a triple - double with fewer than 10 points. On March 2, 2017, the Warriors ' streak for most games without back - to - back losses ended at 146 with a 94 -- 87 loss to the Chicago Bulls. The streak eclipsed the previous record of 95 held by the Utah Jazz.
The Warriors earned home - court advantage throughout the 2017 playoffs, thanks to a 2016 -- 17 regular season record of 67 -- 15. They were the first team in NBA playoff history to start 12 -- 0, defeating in order the Trail Blazers, the Jazz, and the Spurs. The 2017 Finals once again pitted the Warriors against the Cavaliers, becoming the first time in NBA history that two teams met in the Finals for three consecutive years. The Warriors won the championship after going 4 -- 1 in the Finals, and their 16 -- 1 playoff record garnered the best winning percentage (. 941) in NBA playoffs history. After the Warriors announced that they were uncertain if they would make the customary visit to the White House by playoff champions, President Donald Trump rescinded his invitation. The team still planned to travel to Washington, D.C. to "celebrate equality, diversity and inclusion. '' Planned activities included meeting with local youth and a visit to the National Museum of African - American History and Culture.
The Warriors went into the 2018 playoffs as the second seed in the Western Conference after earning a 2017 -- 18 regular season record of 58 -- 24. After defeating both the Spurs and the Pelicans 4 - 1, the Warriors came up against the top - seeded Houston Rockets in the Western Conference Finals. Despite reaching a 3 - 2 disadvantage against the Rockets after Game 5, the Warriors were able to stave off elimination and came back to win the series 4 - 3. The 2018 Finals once again pitted the Warriors against the Cavaliers, becoming the first time in NBA history that two teams met in the Finals for four consecutive years. The Warriors won their second - straight NBA championship after going 4 -- 0 in the Finals, marking the first NBA Finals sweep since 2007.
In April 2014, the Warriors began the purchase process for a 12 - acre (4.9 ha) site in Mission Bay, San Francisco, to hold a new 18,000 - seat arena which is expected to be ready for the 2019 -- 20 NBA season, with construction to begin in early 2016. The sale was finalized in October 2015. The location was selected after an original proposal to construct the arena on Piers 30 and 32, just south of the Bay Bridge, met with vocal opposition due to concerns about traffic, environmental impacts and obstruction of views. The new location, which still faces some vocal opposition in San Francisco, apparently eliminates the need for any voter approval, which would have been required with the original site. Some type of waterfront park is planned across from the projected arena, which will be located at an already - existing Muni T - Third stop. The Central Subway, planned to open in 2018, may provide a direct connection between the new site and the downtown Powell Street Muni / BART station. Although the Warriors considered a name change, possibly returning to their former name of San Francisco Warriors, it was ultimately decided that they would remain the Golden State Warriors upon their return to San Francisco. On January 27, 2016, it was announced that the Warriors ' new arena would be called Chase Center as part of an agreement with JPMorgan Chase.
Bob Fitzgerald has done television play - by - play, and former Warrior guard Jim Barnett has done color commentary for the Warriors for more than 15 years, currently on NBC Sports Bay Area, where they telecast more than 70 Warrior games a year. They also host Roundtable Live, a half - hour pre-game show leading up to the broadcast of select Golden State home games. Fitzgerald is in his 20th season as the Warriors ' play - by - play man, while Barnett is in his 32nd season as color man. Greg Papa, Garry St. Jean, and Kelenna Azubuike are also members of the telecast team, specializing in in - game, halftime and post-game analysis, while Kerith Burke serves as the sideline reporter.
Tim Roye has done the radio play - by - play for Warrior games since 1995. He is joined in the booth by former Warriors forward Tom Tolbert for home games only. On August 25, 2016, the Warriors announced they were leaving long time station KNBR and all of their games will be broadcast on KGMZ. After each game, Roye, Fitzgerald and Barnett get together for post-game radio analysis and a next - game preview.
Roster Transactions Last transaction: 2018 -- 07 -- 08
The Warriors hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee, who is not signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.
Notes:
Arizin, Fulks, Gola, Johnston and Phillip played all or most of their tenure with the Warriors in Philadelphia. Rodgers ' tenure was evenly divided between Philadelphia and San Francisco, and Chamberlain 's nearly so. King (Knicks), Lucas (Knicks), Parish (Celtics), Richmond (Kings), Sampson (University of Virginia and Rockets), White (Celtics), and Wilkes (Lakers) were elected mostly for their performances with other teams. Marčiulionis played most of his NBA career with Golden State, but his induction is also for his distinguished international career (Statyba, USSR, and Lithuania). Of those elected to the hall primarily as Warriors, only Thurmond, Barry and Mullin spent significant time with the team since the 1971 move to Oakland and the name change to "Golden State ''.
Most Valuable Player
NBA Finals MVP
NBA Defensive Player of the Year
NBA Rookie of the Year
NBA Most Improved Player of the Year
NBA Executive of the Year
NBA Coach of the Year
NBA Sportsmanship Award
NBA Community Assist Award
All - NBA First Team
All - NBA Second Team
All - NBA Third Team
NBA All - Defensive First Team
NBA All - Defensive Second Team
NBA All - Rookie First Team
NBA All - Rookie Second Team
NBA All - Star selections
NBA All - Star Game head coach
NBA All - Star Game MVP
Slam Dunk Contest
Three - Point Contest
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who is playing black panther in the new movie | Black Panther (film) - wikipedia
Black Panther is a 2018 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name. Produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures, it is the eighteenth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film is directed by Ryan Coogler, who co-wrote the screenplay with Joe Robert Cole, and stars Chadwick Boseman as T'Challa / Black Panther, alongside Michael B. Jordan, Lupita Nyong'o, Danai Gurira, Martin Freeman, Daniel Kaluuya, Letitia Wright, Winston Duke, Angela Bassett, Forest Whitaker, and Andy Serkis. In Black Panther, T'Challa returns home and is crowned king of Wakanda but finds his sovereignty challenged by a new adversary, in a conflict with global consequences.
Wesley Snipes expressed interest in working on a Black Panther film in 1992, but the project did not come to fruition. In September 2005, Marvel Studios announced a Black Panther film as one of ten based on Marvel characters and distributed by Paramount Pictures. Mark Bailey was hired to write a script in January 2011. Black Panther was announced in October 2014, and Boseman made his first appearance as the character in Captain America: Civil War (2016). By 2016, Cole and Coogler had joined; additional cast joined in May, making Black Panther the first Marvel film with a predominantly black cast. Principal photography took place from January to April 2017, at EUE / Screen Gems Studios in the Atlanta metropolitan area, and Busan, South Korea.
Black Panther premiered in Los Angeles on January 29, 2018, and was released theatrically in the United States on February 16, 2018, in 2D, 3D, IMAX and other premium large formats. The film received praise for its screenplay, direction, performances, action, costume design, production merits, and soundtrack. Critics considered it one of the best films set in the MCU and noted its cultural significance. It grossed over $1.3 billion worldwide, and became the second - highest - grossing film of 2018, the third - highest - grossing film ever in the United States, the ninth - highest - grossing film of all time, and the highest - grossing film by a black director.
Centuries ago, five African tribes war over a meteorite containing vibranium. One warrior ingests a "heart - shaped herb '' affected by the metal and gains superhuman abilities, becoming the first "Black Panther ''. He unites all but the Jabari Tribe to form the nation of Wakanda. The Wakandans use the vibranium to develop advanced technology and isolate themselves from the world by posing as a Third World country.
In 1992, King T'Chaka visits his brother N'Jobu, who is working undercover in Oakland, California. T'Chaka accuses N'Jobu of assisting black - market arms dealer Ulysses Klaue with stealing vibranium from Wakanda. N'Jobu's partner reveals he is Zuri, another undercover Wakandan, and confirms T'Chaka's suspicions.
In the present day, following T'Chaka's death, his son T'Challa returns to Wakanda to assume the throne. He and Okoye, the leader of the Dora Milaje regiment, extract Nakia, T'Challa's ex-lover, from an undercover assignment so she can attend his coronation ceremony with his mother Ramonda and younger sister Shuri. At the ceremony, the Jabari Tribe 's leader M'Baku challenges T'Challa for the crown in ritual combat. T'Challa defeats M'Baku and persuades him to yield rather than die.
When Klaue and Erik Stevens steal a Wakandan artifact from a London museum, W'Kabi, T'Challa's friend and Okoye 's lover, urges him to bring Klaue back dead or alive. T'Challa, Okoye, and Nakia travel to Busan, South Korea, where Klaue plans to sell the artifact to CIA agent Everett K. Ross. A firefight erupts and Klaue attempts to flee but is caught by T'Challa, who reluctantly releases him to Ross ' custody. Klaue tells Ross that Wakanda 's international image is a front for a technologically advanced civilization. Erik attacks and extracts Klaue as Ross is gravely injured protecting Nakia. Rather than pursue Klaue, T'Challa takes Ross to Wakanda, where their technology can save him.
While Shuri heals Ross, T'Challa confronts Zuri about N'Jobu. Zuri explains that N'Jobu planned to share Wakanda 's technology with people of African descent around the world to help them conquer their oppressors. As T'Chaka arrested N'Jobu, N'Jobu attacked Zuri, forcing T'Chaka to kill him. T'Chaka ordered Zuri to lie that N'Jobu had disappeared and left behind N'Jobu's American son, Erik, in order to maintain the lie. Erik became a U.S. black ops soldier, adopting the name "Killmonger ''. Meanwhile, Killmonger kills Klaue and takes his body to Wakanda. He is brought before the tribal elders, revealing his identity and claim to the throne. Killmonger challenges T'Challa to ritual combat, in which he kills Zuri, defeats T'Challa and hurls him over a waterfall, where he is presumed dead. Killmonger ingests the heart - shaped herb and orders the rest incinerated, but Nakia extracts one first. Killmonger, supported by W'Kabi and his army, prepares to distribute shipments of Wakandan weapons to operatives around the world.
Nakia, Shuri, Ramonda and Ross flee to the Jabari Tribe for aid. They find a comatose T'Challa, rescued by the Jabari in repayment for sparing M'Baku's life. Healed by Nakia 's herb, T'Challa returns to fight Killmonger, who dons his own Black Panther suit and commands W'Kabi and his army to attack T'Challa. Shuri, Nakia, and the Dora Milaje join T'Challa, while Ross remotely pilots a jet and shoots down the planes carrying the vibranium weapons. M'Baku and the Jabari arrive to reinforce T'Challa. Confronted by Okoye, W'Kabi and his army stand down. Fighting in Wakanda 's vibranium mine, T'Challa disrupts Killmonger 's suit and stabs him. Killmonger refuses to be healed, choosing to die a free man rather than be incarcerated.
T'Challa establishes an outreach center at the building where N'Jobu died to be run by Nakia and Shuri. In a mid-credits scene, T'Challa appears before the United Nations to reveal Wakanda 's true nature to the world. In a post-credits scene, Shuri helps Bucky Barnes with his recuperation.
Additionally, John Kani and Florence Kasumba reprise their respective roles of T'Chaka and Ayo from Captain America: Civil War, with Kani 's son Atandwa portraying a young T'Chaka. Sterling K. Brown plays N'Jobu, T'Chaka's brother and Killmonger 's father, who is a War Dog sent to America. Wakandan elders in the film include Isaach de Bankolé for the River Tribe, Connie Chiume for the Mining Tribe, Dorothy Steel for the Merchant Tribe, and Danny Sapani for the Border Tribe. Sydelle Noel appears as Xoliswa, a member of the Dora Milaje, with other members played by Marija Abney, Janeshia Adams - Ginyard, Maria Hippolyte, Marie Mouroum, Jénel Stevens, Zola Williams, Christine Hollingsworth, and Shaunette Renée Wilson. Nabiyah Be initially announced that she was playing criminal Tilda Johnson, but her character was simply named Linda in the final film due to Gabrielle Dennis being cast as Johnson in the second season of Luke Cage. Comedian Trevor Noah voices Griot, a Wakandan ship A.I. Black Panther co-creator Stan Lee has a cameo in the film as a patron in the South Korean casino, and Sebastian Stan has an uncredited cameo reprising his role as Bucky Barnes in a post-credits scene.
In June 1992, Wesley Snipes announced his intention to make a film about Black Panther. Snipes wanted to highlight the majesty of Africa, which he felt was poorly portrayed in Hollywood films, saying, "I think Black Panther spoke to me because he was noble, and he was the antithesis of the stereotypes presented and portrayed about Africans, African history and the great kingdoms of Africa. '' He had begun work on the film by that August. The next July, Snipes planned to begin The Black Panther after starring in Demolition Man, and the next month he expressed interest in making sequels to the film as well. In January 1994, Snipes entered talks with Columbia Pictures to portray Black Panther, and Black Panther co-creator Stan Lee joined the film by March; it had entered early development by May. Snipes had discussions with several different screenwriters and directors about the project, including Mario Van Peebles and John Singleton. When the film had not progressed by January 1996, Lee explained that he had not been pleased with the scripts for the project. Snipes said that there was confusion among those unfamiliar with the comics, who thought that the film was about the Black Panther Party.
-- Actor Wesley Snipes, who worked on early iterations of Black Panther
In July 1997, Black Panther was listed as part of Marvel Comics ' film slate, and in March 1998, Marvel reportedly hired Joe Quesada and Jimmy Palmiotti, who at the time were editors of the Black Panther comics under the Marvel Knights brand, to work on it. However, Quesada and Palmiotti have denied that this happened. That August, corporate problems at Marvel put the project on hold, while the next August, Snipes was set to produce, and possibly star, in the film. In May 2000, Artisan Entertainment announced a deal with Marvel to co-produce, finance, and distribute a film based on Black Panther. In March 2002, Snipes said he planned to film Blade 3 or Black Panther in 2003, and reiterated his interest five months later. In July 2004, Blade 3 director David S. Goyer said this was unlikely, as Snipes was "already so entrenched as Blade that another Marvel hero might be overkill ''.
In September 2005, Marvel chairman and CEO Avi Arad announced Black Panther as one of the ten Marvel films that would be developed by Marvel Studios and distributed by Paramount Pictures. In June 2006, Snipes said he hoped to have a director for the project soon. In February 2007, Kevin Feige, president of production for Marvel Studios, reiterated that Black Panther was on Marvel 's development slate. By July, John Singleton had been approached to direct the film. In March 2009, Marvel hired writers to help come up with creative ways to launch its lesser - known properties, including Black Panther, with Nate Moore, the head of the writers program, helping to oversee the development of the Black Panther film specifically. In January 2011, Marvel Studios hired documentary filmmaker Mark Bailey to write a script for Black Panther, to be produced by Feige. In October 2013, Feige said "I do n't know when it will be exactly, but we certainly have plans to bring (Black Panther) to life some day '', noting that the Marvel Cinematic Universe had already introduced the metal vibranium, which comes from Black Panther 's home nation Wakanda. There had been discussions of introducing Wakanda to the MCU as early as 2010 's Iron Man 2, but this was put off until Marvel had "a full idea of what exactly that looked like ''.
In October 2014, Feige announced that Black Panther would be released on November 3, 2017, with Chadwick Boseman cast in the title role. Boseman did not audition before he was hired for the role, instead discussing what he wanted to do with the part with Marvel. The actor was set to first portray the character in Captain America: Civil War, before starring in his own film. Feige said that Marvel was considering minority filmmakers for the director and writer, but that they were focused on "looking for the best filmmakers, the best writers, the best directors possible. So I 'm not going to say for sure that we 're going to hire from any one demographic, but we 're meeting a lot of people. '' He added that they had met with former Black Panther comics writer Reginald Hudlin. In January 2015, Boseman said that the film was going through a "brainstorming phase '', and he was looking at the different stories in the comics and how they may be merged for the film. The next month, Marvel pushed back the release date to July 6, 2018. In April 2015, Feige said he would be meeting with directors after the release of Avengers: Age of Ultron at the end of the month, and that further casting was underway.
By May 2015, Marvel had discussions with Ava DuVernay to direct this film or Captain Marvel. In June, Feige confirmed that he had met with DuVernay alongside a number of other directors, and said that he expected a decision to be made by mid - to late 2015. By early July, DuVernay had passed on directing the film, explaining that "Marvel has a certain way of doing things and I think they 're fantastic and a lot of people love what they do. I loved that they reached out to me... (but) we had different ideas about what the story would be... we just did n't see eye to eye. Better for me to realize that now than cite creative differences later. '' Later in the month, DuVernay expanded,
It was a process of trying to figure out, are these people I want to go to bed with? Because it 's really a marriage, and for this it would be three years. It 'd be three years of not doing other things that are important to me. So it was a question of, is this important enough for me to do? At one point, the answer was yes because I thought there was value in putting that kind of imagery into the culture in a worldwide, huge way... a black man as a hero -- that would be pretty revolutionary. These Marvel films go everywhere from Shanghai to Uganda, and nothing that I probably will make will reach that many people, so I found value in that... (but) it 's important to me that (my work) be true to who I was in this moment. And if there 's too much compromise, it really was n't going to be an Ava DuVernay film.
By October 2015, F. Gary Gray and Ryan Coogler had been considered to direct the film, though negotiations with Coogler had cooled, and Gray had chosen to direct Fast & Furious 8 instead. Joe Robert Cole, a member of the Marvel writers program, was in talks to write the screenplay, and Marvel changed the release date once again, moving it to February 16, 2018. By December, discussions with Coogler were reignited after the successful opening of his film Creed. Feige described Black Panther as "a big geopolitical action adventure that focuses on the family and royal struggle of T'Challa in Wakanda, and what it means to be a king '', while calling the film "a very important '' link to Avengers: Infinity War and its sequel. He added that the film would be the first Marvel Studios production to feature a "primarily African - American cast ''.
-- Ryan Coogler, director of Black Panther
In January 2016, Coogler was confirmed as director, and explained that he grew up reading comics, so Black Panther "is just as personal to me as the last couple of films I was able to make. I feel really fortunate to be able to work on something I 'm this passionate about again. '' In agreeing to direct the film after being "wooed '' by Feige for months, Coogler insisted that he bring collaborators from his previous films to work on Black Panther, to differentiate the film from others in the MCU, that are often "shot, composed, and edited by the same in - house people ''. This included Fruitvale Station cinematographer Rachel Morrison, as well as production designer Hannah Beachler and composer Ludwig Göransson, who both worked with Coogler on Fruitvale Station and Creed. Discussing working in with the MCU while still creating "a Ryan Coogler movie '', the director said,
What Marvel 's doing... is making content that exists in a particular universe, where the characters tie in and crossover, and I think that 's a great creative challenge to me -- to make this movie as personal as possible. It 's going to be my most personal movie to date, which is crazy to say, but it 's completely the case. I 'm obsessed with this character and this story right now, and I think it 's going to be very unique and still fit into the overall narrative that they 're establishing. I grew up as a comic book fan, and the same things used to happen in the comic books. You 'd have Wolverine 's books, and they 'd be so much darker and more brutal than the X-Men books, but they 'd still fit in when you open the pages of the X-Men book. It 's new to movies, but it 's not new to storytelling.
In April 2016, Feige said that Coogler was working on the script with Cole, and that filming would begin at the "very beginning of next year ''. Feige noted that Civil War laid "the groundwork '' for T'Challa's morality, and established the "geopolitical landscape '' that he would have to deal with on returning to Wakanda for Black Panther. Civil War also introduced the Wakandan language, based on the Xhosa language. Boseman was taught Xhosa by John Kani, who portrayed T'Challa's father King T'Chaka in that film. Lupita Nyong'o entered negotiations to star as T'Challa's love interest the next month, and Michael B. Jordan also joined, in an undisclosed role, after previously working with Coogler on Fruitvale Station and Creed. Later in the month, Nate Moore, now serving as a producer on the film, stated that filming would occur in Atlanta, Georgia, with Marvel "definitely investigating shooting in Africa '' as well.
At San Diego Comic - Con International 2016, Nyong'o was confirmed for the film, in the role of Nakia, while Jordan 's role was revealed to be Erik Killmonger. Also announced was Danai Gurira as Okoye. Coogler confirmed that filming would begin in January 2017. In September 2016, Winston Duke was cast as M'Baku, a role that Yahya Abdul - Mateen II had also tested for. The following month, Forest Whitaker was cast as Zuri and Daniel Kaluuya as W'Kabi, with Florence Kasumba revealed to be reprising her role as Ayo from Captain America: Civil War. Letitia Wright was also cast in an unspecified role. Angela Bassett was cast as T'Challa's mother, Ramonda, in November, and by January 2017, Sterling K. Brown was cast as N'Jobu. At that time, Marvel received permission from the Oakland, California - based public transit agency AC Transit to use their logo in the film for the opening flashback sequence. The setting was chosen due to Coogler 's Oakland roots. Amandla Stenberg was also considered for a role in the film, before she ultimately declined to appear. Stenberg, who is bi-racial and light skinned, called the decision "really challenging '' as she did not feel comfortable taking a role in the film from a dark - skinned actor saying, "it would have just been off to see me as a bi-racial American with a Nigerian accent (playing a dark - skinned African) just pretending that I 'm the same color as everyone else in the movie. ''
The production team was inspired by Ta - Nehisi Coates ' run on Black Panther, who was writing the comic at the time, including Coates ' poetic dialogue, the art by Brian Stelfreeze, and "some of the questions that it 's asking ''. Other runs of Black Panther in the comics that inspired the film include those by Jack Kirby, Christopher Priest (which Coogler felt most influenced the film), Jonathan Hickman, and Hudlin. Characters for the film were picked from throughout the comics, based on what worked best for the film 's story. Coogler had hoped to include Spider - Man villain Kraven the Hunter early in the process (before being told the character was unavailable to use in the film) because of a scene in Priest 's run that had T'Challa fighting Kraven. Donald Glover and his brother Stephen Glover made some minor contributions to an early draft of the script, which included developing the relationship between T'Challa and his younger sister Shuri. Moore noted that an early script had more scenes outside of Wakanda, saying, after the Korea sequence, "T'Challa, Nakia and Okoye (went) and sort of explored the theme of what it means to be African and African - American in the world a bit more... There were definitely some great story ideas that we had to leave on the table and hopefully we get to revisit someday, '' including a "super cool '' sequence that was storyboarded and ultimately cut to keep the story concise.
Cole called the film an historic opportunity to depict a black superhero "at a time when African - Americans are affirming their identities while dealing with vilification and dehumanization ''. He added that it was important to root the themes of the film in the actual cultures of Africa, and that they would be working with experts on the region of Africa that Wakanda is supposed to be located in. Elaborating on this, Cole noted that all the countries in Africa have "different histories, mythologies, and cultures (so) what we tried to do was hone in on some of the history, some of the cultural influences and then extrapolate out in our technology... we wanted to root it in reality first and then build out from there ''. Coogler compared the rarity of vibranium existing only in Wakanda to the real - life mineral coltan that can almost only be found in Congo. He wanted Wakanda to feel like a country rather than just one city by featuring multiple tribes, each with their own cultures, and created a project bible that listed each Wakandan tribe and their origins, which guided the design process. Special care was taken in all aspects of the design to create a futuristic look that was not alien, as some of Jack Kirby 's comic designs appeared.
Beachler wanted to honor the comics with her designs, and then fill in the gaps with research concentrated on Sub-Saharan Africa, pulling inspiration from Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Congo - Kinshasa, and Ethiopia, as well as the designs of Zaha Hadid. Moore described this approach as a love letter to Africa. Beachler looked at the architecture of existing tribes, and then tried to make them technologically advanced in a natural way rather than if Wakanda had been colonized. She said that this combination of old and new was an important theme throughout the film, as well as circular motifs to signify the transmission of energy. Some of the older areas explored in the film include Warrior Falls, the City of the Dead, and the Hall of Kings, which are juxtaposed with the more modern Afro - punk style of the Golden City, the capital. Rondavels were incorporated into the tops of Wakanda 's skyscrapers, inspired by the look of mountains at Blyde River Canyon in South Africa. Beachler created different sigils and architecture for each of the Wakandan tribes, with the Border Tribe inspired by Lesotho, the Merchant Tribe having a sigil based on Nigerian writing, and the Golden Tribe using a symbol for the sun found throughout Africa. Gorilla City, home to the Jabari Tribe, was originally set in a rain forest, but Coogler suggested that it be found up a mountain in snow. Beachler based the written form of the Wakandan language seen throughout the film on an old Nigerian language. Beachler also worked on the vibranium technology used throughout the country, consulting with mining and metallurgy experts. This included the vibranium mine where the substance is depicted as glowing blue rocks, before it is refined into the stainless steel look previously seen in the MCU. The film also adapts the kimoyo bead technology from the comics, and features sand - based technology. Beachler wanted all of the futuristic elements of the film to be consistent with projections of what real world technology may be like in 25 or 30 years, including the maglev and hovercraft technology used in vehicles. The Wakandan vehicles depicted in the film include a maglev train for carrying vibranium; the king 's Royal Talon Fighter, which looks like a mask from the top and bottom; and the Dragon Flyer, inspired by the Congo peafowl.
The majority of Beachler 's sets were constructed on sound stages in Atlanta, including the Tribal Council, Shuri 's design space, and the Hall of Kings. The Tribal Council set was built with a glass floor through which an old ruin can be seen. The exterior set for Warrior Falls was built on a backlot north of Atlanta, and was inspired by the Oribi Gorge. The set was 36 feet (11 m), made up of a 6 feet (1.8 m) high pool, and then 30 feet (9.1 m) high cliff faces that were designed to be extended to 100 feet (30 m) with visual effects. A framework for the cliffs was hand - sculpted from industrial styrofoam, with a system of tunnels built - in to the design to allow extras to climb up to different areas of the cliffs. The framework was then covered with 25,000 cubic feet (710 m) of foam that was sculptured to match rocks found at Oribi Gorge. Six large pumps were used to fill the pool at the base of the set, and create a waterfall over the ledge at the bottom. The base of the pool was made from padding so stunts could safely be carried out on the set, but designed to look like rocks and to have enough grip that the actors would not fall over in the water. The set took four months to complete, and was used for two weeks of filming.
Costume designer Ruth E. Carter referenced the Maasai, Himba, Dogon, Basotho, Tuareg, Turkana, Xhosa, Zulu, Suri and Dinka people in her designs for Wakanda. She also examined appropriate works by Japanese fashion designer Issey Miyake, French fashion designer Yves Saint Laurent and American fashion designer Donna Karan. Winnie Mandela provided inspiration to the costumes Carter created for Angela Bassett, while the Dora Milaje costumes primarily used red to reflect different African cultures, and included beaded tabards that feature talismans for "protection, good spirit, and good luck, and a sense of ownership, as if the costume could be handed down from mother to daughter ''. Carter specifically wanted to avoid the "girls in the bathing suits '' look, and instead have the Dora Milaje wear full armor that they would practically need for battle. She also had to take the stunt work that the actors had to do into consideration. Anthony Francisco, the Senior Visual Development Illustrator, noted the Dora Milaje costumes were based 80 percent on the Maasai, five percent on samurai, five percent on ninjas, and five percent on the Ifugao people from the Philippines. The arm band and neck rings were a reference to the Southern Ndebele people, which denotes stature. As such, Okoye has gold bands and rings to denote she is a general, compared to the other Dora Milaje wearing silver. The costumes for T'Challa combined his role as king and as the head of the military, including combining a kente cloth cloak with military boots. Carter also used distinct colors and patterns for each of Wakanda 's tribes, such as green with shells for the River Tribe based on the Suri, blue with wood for the Border Tribe, and black with royal purple for the Black Panther and the Royal Palace. The Merchant Tribe was clothed in plums and purples for the merchants in reference to the Tuareg, and ochre for the Mining Tribe, inspired by the Himba. Three out of every five people in Wakanda go barefoot, which also influenced the costuming process. When the Wakandan characters are in other countries, their clothing looks "quite normal '' but is intended to be consistent with their respective Wakandan designs. Carter created 700 costumes for the film, working with "an army '' of illustrators, designers, mold makers, fabric dyers, jewelry makers and more. Hair department head Camille Friend referenced traditional African art, fabrics, hair, and textures, and the current - day natural hair movement in her designs. Friend strived to keep the hair natural, using "braids, locs and twists... extensions, (and) wigs ''. As with Carter, each tribe had their own identifiable hair aesthetic, such as the Jabari Tribe having "very straight, clean lines '' with war - paint detail, inspired by Senegalese warriors.
Principal photography had begun by January 21, 2017, at EUE / Screen Gems Studios in the Atlanta metropolitan area, under the working title Motherland. Filming also took place in the Sweet Auburn neighborhood in Atlanta, which doubled as Oakland; the High Museum of Art, which served as the fictional Museum of Great Britain in London; and Atlanta City Hall, which served as a United Nations building. Shortly after filming started, Kani 's son Atandwa stated that he would appear in the film alongside his father, the latter reprising the role of T'Chaka, while on - set photographs revealed that Martin Freeman would reprise his role as Everett K. Ross. Marvel announced the start of production on January 26, along with confirming the casting of Freeman, Wright, and John Kani, and revealing that Andy Serkis would reprise his role as Ulysses Klaue from Avengers: Age of Ultron. Atandwa portrays a younger version of his father 's character, and also served as a cultural consultant during filming, along with dialect coach Beth McGuire who ensured there was continuity between the various actors who had to use "Wakandan accents ''.
Jordan joined the production later than the rest of the core cast. He felt that this aided his performance, since his character is separate from and in conflict with the other characters. Because of this, Jordan kept to himself while he was on set. It was revealed during a press visit to the film 's set that the Dora Milaje would be widely explored in the film, which does not adapt the ceremonial betrothal aspect from the comics. Moore compared the politics and humor of the film to Captain America: The Winter Soldier, saying that the former would be inherent but not "preachy '', and that the latter would be avoiding the tones of Guardians of the Galaxy and Ant - Man. He added that the film does not depend on the plots of any other MCU films -- and the character Bucky Barnes would not come out of cryogenic sleep during Black Panther after being frozen by Wakandan scientists at the end of Civil War -- but the events of this film do affect the wider MCU moving forward. Since Black Panther and Avengers: Infinity War were filming simultaneously in Atlanta, both production teams worked together closely to ensure a unified presentation of Wakanda in the films, as the country also plays a large role in Infinity War.
Additional filming took place in South Korea, with the city of Busan serving as the setting of a car chase scene, involving 150 cars and over 700 people. Filming in Busan began on March 17, 2017, with shooting occurring at the Jagalchi Fish Market, and filming taking place by Gwangalli Beach on March 21. Other filming locations included Marine City in the Haeundae District and at the Gwangandaegyo Bridge. The production crew also hired hundreds of current and former film students from local universities as staff or assistant staff during the South Korea filming. Filming in the country wrapped on March 27. At CinemaCon 2017, Wright was revealed to be portraying Shuri in the film. Location shooting also took place at the Rwenzori Mountains and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda, while Marzano Films provided aerial footage of South Africa, Zambia, Uganda and South Korea. Filming concluded on April 19, 2017.
Cinematographer Rachel Morrison, who was eager to work on Black Panther because of the bond that she formed with Coogler on Fruitvale Station, filmed in 3.4 K ArriRaw with Arri Alexa XT Plus cameras and Panavision Primo lenses. Morrison stated that she primarily used a two - camera set - up with a third or fourth camera on occasion. Morrison also said that lighting was her biggest challenge, the magnitude of which "was much bigger than I 'd experienced before '', and made extensive use of Arri SkyPanel LED light fixtures, which she could preprogram from an iPad. Morrison explained that she surrounded entire sets with SkyPanels and even "built an entire jungle on a sound stage ''.
At the end of June 2017, Sydelle Noel revealed she had been cast in the film as Xoliswa, a member of the Dora Milaje. In July 2017, Moore said Black Panther would be a cross between The Godfather and the James Bond films as a "big, operatic family drama centered around a world of international espionage. So hopefully we 're getting the best of both worlds. '' Coogler added that the film was influenced by "the films of the ' 70s '' such as the works of Francis Ford Coppola in that decade, as well as crime fiction. Coogler also watched the film A Prophet for inspiration. Feige called the film 's story "rich in culturally relevant ideas. These are conversations we were having two years ago because that is inherently the story within the comics. Now it 's going to seem like the most highly fluid thing we could have done. '' Boseman also indicated there were parallels to "pull from '' in the film in relation to Donald Trump becoming President of the United States after Barack Obama. In January 2018, Coogler hinted at the inclusion of post-credit scenes. Two are included, with the second featuring Sebastian Stan reprising his role as Bucky Barnes.
Visual effects for the film were created by: Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) with help from Virtuos, Stereo D, and Scanline VFX; Double Negative; Luma Pictures; Mammal Studios; Method Studios; Perception; Rise Visual Effects Studios; Torm Studios; Trixter; Cantina Creative; Lola VFX; Capital T; Exceptional Minds; Technicolor VFX; Rodeo FX; Imageloom VFX; Anibrain; Method Pune; Bot VFX; Pixstone Images; Futureworks; Vertigo Visual; FX3X; and Yannix Thailand Co. Previsualization was completed by Digital Domain and The Third Floor, while Perception also created the main title sequence for the film.
ILM was primarily responsible for creating the digital urban environments of Wakanda. VFX supervisor Craig Hammack said, "African culture has symbology, color and richness and a certain amount of earthy material qualities that make things difficult to design as a futuristic city, '' which typically use lots of steel and glass. ILM looked to real life examples that blend modern architecture with natural environments like One Central Park in Sydney and modern African architecture like The Pearl of Africa Hotel in Kampala as influences. ILM also worked on some interior shots, extending Beachler 's set, and the initial rhinoceros. For T'Challa's ancestral plane scenes, ILM worked on the nighttime scene first, having the sky reflect the Northern Lights, and worked hard to keep the sky visible in the daytime scene. ILM also added additional vibranium sand for the burial sequences to aid in the breathing of Boseman when filming, and added the flames when Killmonger burns the heart - shaped herb. Perception, which also did the main on - end title sequence that referenced the vibranium sand effect that ILM and other companies contributed through the film, also helped create Shuri 's laboratory and the interface designs for the displays.
Method Studios created much of the digital natural environments of Wakanda. Method built a 3,600 square kilometers (1,400 sq mi) landscape that is visible in various aerial shots in the film. VFX Supervisor Andy Brown said, "Looking out from the top of Mount Bashenga, you can see the rich diversity of African landscapes -- it looks lush and jungle - like in one direction, and more like the plains and savannah in the other, so we had multiple ecosystems to tackle, but it really drives home the vastness of these shots. '' Method was also responsible for creating Black Panther 's and Killmonger 's digital suits, and many of the film 's digital characters, vehicles, and weapons. They also worked on the final battle sequence, including crowd simulation. Method worked with the stunt coordinators in their motion capture sessions to give each Dora Milaje or Jabari fighter their unique fighting style. Brown noted that "In addition to randomizing the height, weight, and other characteristics of each fighter to add variance to the crowd, we had to incorporate more specific elements such as unique face tattoos for each Dora Milaje fighter and the signature hairstyles of the Jabari warriors. '' Method also worked on the vibranium mine, animating the gadgets in Shuri 's laboratory.
Luma Pictures worked on the Busan car chase sequence, digitally creating the Lexus cars featured in the sequence. Multiple digital versions of the same car were created, so the production could have the actual cars crash and do various stunts with them, with Luma then inserting the digital versions to augment them. Luma also created the sonic forces from Klaue 's cannon, while Scanline VFX worked on digitally removing Serkis ' left arm for the sonic cannon and the London museum heist sequence.
Ludwig Göransson was hired to compose the film 's score by April 2017. Göransson traveled to Senegal and South Africa to record local musicians to form the "base '' of his soundtrack. Kendrick Lamar produced the film 's curated soundtrack, Black Panther: The Album, along with Top Dawg Entertainment founder Anthony Tiffith. Coogler chose Lamar for the project because his "artistic themes align with those we explore in the film ''. Three singles from the album were released throughout January and February 2018: "All the Stars '', "King 's Dead '', and "Pray for Me ''. Black Panther: The Album was released on February 9, 2018, while a soundtrack of Göransson 's score was released on February 16, 2018.
Black Panther had its world premiere at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles on January 29, 2018. The premiere featured a purple carpet that was flanked by women dressed as the Dora Milaje, and was lit by futuristic lamps. Coogler, the cast members, and other guests wore African clothing, to honor the African roots of the film, at the request of Marvel for attendees to wear "royal attire ''. Ahead of the screening at the premiere, Coogler received an extended standing ovation before he announced the cast of the film. Black Panther was released in the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, and Taiwan on February 13, 2018, in South Korea on February 14, 2018, and the United States on February 16, 2018. In the United States, the film opened in 4,020 theaters, with over 3,200 of those in 3D, 404 in IMAX, over 660 in premium large format, and over 200 D - Box locations. In addition, Black Panther was the first MCU film to be converted to ScreenX, a 270 - degree wraparound format, that played in over 101 locations in eight countries. The film opened in most of its markets in its first weekend of release and had a "cross-nation release '' in Africa, a first for a Disney film. It was originally scheduled to be released on November 3, 2017, before moving in February 2015 to July 6, 2018 to accommodate Spider - Man: Homecoming. In October 2015, it moved again to accommodate Ant - Man and the Wasp.
Black Panther premiered in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia on April 18, 2018. The occasion marks the first public film screening since movie theaters were banned in the kingdom in the early 1980 's, after ultraconservative religious standards were introduced in 1979. The ban was lifted in December 2017 by Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman as part of an effort to revamp Saudi society. The film premiered in a newly constructed 620 leather seat cinema, owned by AMC Theatres, in Riyadh 's King Abdullah Financial District that was originally intended to be a symphony hall. Disney 's regional distributor Italia Film revealed that 40 seconds of the film had been removed, which was in line with cuts made to the film across the region. Awwad Alawwad, Saudi Arabia 's Minister of Culture and Information, and Adam Aron, CEO of AMC Entertainment, were in attendance for the premiere along with other diplomats and industry experts; no one from the cast or production team was in attendance. The premiere also had men and women sitting together, a representation of the Saudi government 's recently relaxed enforcement of laws banning co-mingling between unrelated men and women. Black Panther screened for five days before Avengers: Infinity War premiered on April 26 in the kingdom.
Marvel debuted early footage and concept art from the film in April 2017, at a press event for several of the MCU Phase Three films. Kyle Buchanan at Vulture.com praised the cinematography, costume and production design, and focus on dark - skinned actors and characters, saying "Black Panther does n't look like any of the other Marvel movies... If this is what the future of superhero movies looks like, deal me in. '' Feige believed the screened footage was the first time Marvel had shown raw dailies, a decision made because the company wanted to show off the film 's cast (which Feige called "the highest - class cast we 've had on a first movie '') and diversity, even though editing for it had not yet begun.
A teaser poster was released ahead of the first teaser trailer, which premiered during Game 4 of the 2017 NBA Finals. Fans felt the poster was poorly photoshopped, and tweets mentioning it were only 27 percent positive, and 27 percent negative, according to CNBC 's marketing technology firm Amobee. The poster was also compared to a real - life picture of Black Panther Party co-founder Huey P. Newton holding two gun spears. The trailer received a much more positive response, with Peter Sciretta of / Film saying it was "nothing like I was expecting this movie to look like and that 's refreshing ''. io9 's Charles Pulliam - Moore called the teaser "every bit as intense as you were hoping it would be '' and "epic as hell ''. Andrew Husband for Uproxx felt the single teaser "easily outshines Spider - Man: Homecoming 's big - from - the - beginning marketing campaign ''. Forbes 's Scott Mendelson felt that "Black Panther has the chance to be a seminal event in the same way we 're now seeing with Wonder Woman. '' The trailer was viewed 89 million times in 24 hours, and "dominated the conversation on social media for much of the night '' over Game 4, being the top - trending item on Twitter. The Hollywood Reporter noted that the teaser generated 349,000 Twitter mentions in 24 hours, also more than Game 4. The amount of mentions were second to the amount the Star Wars: The Last Jedi teaser received. comScore and its PreAct service noted over 466,000 new social media conversations for the film after the trailer released, the most for the week. For the week ending on June 18, comScore and its PreAct service again noted social media conversations for the film, with over 33,000 new ones, the second-most for the week behind Spider - Man: Homecoming. The service also noted Black Panther produced a total of over 566,000 conversations to date.
Costumes from the film were on display at D23 Expo 2017 and the 2017 San Diego Comic - Con. Also in July, Marvel Studios unveiled a partnership with Lexus, with the 2018 Lexus LC being featured in the film. A graphic novel, Black Panther: Soul of a Machine, was released in December 2017 from writers Fabian Nicieza, Geoffrey Thorne and Chuck Brown, with cover illustrations by Scott "Rahzzah '' Wilson and Szymon Kudranski, in which Black Panther defeats a villain with the help of the Lexus LC 500. Lexus also unveiled the 2018 LC Inspiration Series production car and a concept coupe dubbed the Black Panther Inspired LC. Coogler, Boseman and other members of the cast presented exclusive footage of the film at the 2017 San Diego Comic - Con, which received a standing ovation from the audience. The footage segued into a montage featuring Kendrick Lamar 's song "DNA ''. Coogler called the lyrics "amazing '' and both literally and culturally appropriate for the footage and film. In September 2017, Coogler, Gurira, and Moore participated in a panel at the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation 's Annual Legislative Conference, where exclusive footage from the film was also shown and met with a positive response.
On October 16, 2017, a full trailer was released. Dave Trumbore for Collider felt it was "a killer trailer. It not only shows off a ton of action sequences, outrageous costume design, and comic book goodies for fans out there, it also brings an unmistakable sense of style that 's all Black Panther 's own. '' Graeme McMillan of The Hollywood Reporter said the message of the trailer was clear: "this is n't like the other Marvel movies, this is something else ''. BamSmackPow 's Brendan Day said the trailer "does everything right '', showing "a lot of cool imagery and action scenes without giving us much context or story points '' and having unique music choices, featuring "BagBak '' by Vince Staples and "The Revolution Will Not Be Televised '' by Gil Scott - Heron. Writing for Rolling Stone, Tre Johnson felt the trailer showed T'Challa as "someone with the arrogance of (John) Shaft, the coolness of (Barack) Obama and the hot - headed impulsiveness of Kanye West ''. He continued, "After decades of trying to nail the modern black superhero, we may finally be getting what we 've asked for... Coogler has set out to do something with the modern black superhero that all previous iterations have fallen short of doing: making it respectable, imaginative and powerful. The Afro - punk aesthetic, the unapologetic black swagger, the miniscule appearances from non-black characters -- it 's an important resetting of a standard of what 's possible ''. A few days later, Marvel Comics published a prelude tie - in comic focusing on one of T'Challa's first missions as the Black Panther around the time of Iron Man.
The first College Football Playoff National Championship halftime show was organized by Disney for the 2018 championship game, with Kendrick Lamar performing to promote Black Panther: The Album, to release a new trailer for the film, and to begin selling tickets for the film 's opening weekend. Marvel again partnered with Lexus to create a commercial for Super Bowl LII. Promoting the 2018 Lexus LS 500 F Sport, it featured Boseman and Wright reprising their roles. The commercial was released on January 25, 2018, ahead of its airing during the Super Bowl. According to RelishMix, the Lexus commercial had 4.3 million views on social media after it aired in the Super Bowl. Marvel also partnered with British shoe manufacturer Clarks to create a variant of their Originals ' Trigenic Evo shoe, inspired by the film. By February 12, 2018, Black Panther had amassed more than 5 million tweets on Twitter globally, becoming the most tweeted about film of 2018, after being a top film in 2017 as well. Twitter also launched a custom emoji for the film, that appears when the hashtag # BlackPanther is used. During New York Fashion Week at Industria Studios in lower Manhattan, designers Cushnie et Ochs, Ikiré Jones, Tome, Sophie Theallet, Fear of God, Chromat, and LaQuan Smith created custom pieces that were inspired by the film for an event titled "Welcome to Wakanda: Fashion for the Black Panther Era ''. Nick Barose applied makeup for the event, while Rodney Cutler styled hair. By mid-March 2018, the film became the most - tweeted about film of all time on Twitter, with 35 million tweets. Twitter noted the most used Black Panther - related hashtags were # BlackPanther, # WakandaForever, and # Wakanda, with the most discussed characters Black Panther, Killmonger, and Shuri. Additionally, the most - retweeted tweets about the film were Lamar 's reveal of the soundtrack tracklist he curated, a video of kids trying to buy tickets using a Vincent Adultman - style trench coat disguise, and former First Lady Michelle Obama 's praise for the film.
Other marketing partners included PepsiCo and Unilever, which launched an arts program in urban areas to provide an opportunity for young people interested in film to be mentored by established artists. Brisk created an interactive Black Panther installation at the 2018 NBA All - Star Game weekend, which showcased nine Brisk labels created by emerging artists to promote the Creators Class program. These labels debuted on all Brisk packaging nationwide in late February. Lancôme highlighted a line of makeup that Lupita Nyong'o and Letitia Wright used at the premiere of the film. Synchrony Financial worked with Coogler and Marvel to award the Ghetto Film School Fellows program with a $50,000 grant, with Coogler also visiting the school to speak to the students.
Black Panther had the most expansive advertising budget and biggest line of merchandise of any Marvel non-sequel. Deadline Hollywood estimated the marketing budget globally was $140 million. In order to make the film "feel like a cultural event '', Asad Ayaz, Executive Vice President of Marketing for Marvel films at Disney, said the marketing campaign was about "super-serving black moviegoers while also making it the broadest moviegoing event ''. Disney and Marvel also created a "synergy program '' with the College Football Playoffs on ESPN, the ABC 's television series Black - ish, Grey 's Anatomy, Scandal, and How to Get Away With Murder, the Freeform series Grown - ish, and the Bravo franchise The Real Housewives. Marketing in territories outside the United States by Disney was fairly uniform, with a few exceptions. In the Middle East, the focus was kept on Black Panther, rather than Boseman out of costume, as superhero films "just keep working '' in the territory, according to Gianluca Chakra, Managing Partner of major regional Middle East distributor Front Row. For Asian territories, they also focused on Black Panther as well as the action in the film, a strong selling point for audiences there. A Wakanda exhibit was featured in malls in seven cities in China, along with displays showing Black Panther next to other established MCU characters. A special trailer was also created for the Chinese audience, with Boseman introducing himself and the character 's connection to the other MCU films. Weibo attended the Los Angeles premiere of the film to take pictures and videos with the cast and crew in real time for China, the first time the company has partnered with a foreign studio for this type of engagement.
Black Panther was released on digital download by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on May 8, 2018, and on Ultra HD Blu - ray, Blu - ray, and DVD on May 15. The digital and Blu - ray releases include behind - the - scenes featurettes; audio commentary; deleted scenes; a blooper reel; an exclusive look at Ant - Man and the Wasp; and a featurette on the first ten years of the MCU.
As of May 28, 2018, Black Panther has grossed $698.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $646.2 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $1.345 billion. The $370.5 million earned worldwide in its opening weekend was the 15th - largest of all time. It became the highest - grossing solo superhero film, the third - highest - grossing film of the MCU after The Avengers and Age of Ultron, and the ninth - highest - grossing film of all time. By its second weekend, the film earned $54.6 million globally from IMAX, which was the fastest Marvel film to reach the $50 million mark. In its fourth weekend, the film surpassed $1 billion, becoming the fifth MCU film, sixteenth Walt Disney Studios film, and 33rd film overall to do so. In March 2018, five weeks after the film released, Deadline Hollywood estimated the net profit of the film would be $461 million, accounting for production budgets, P&A, talent participations and other costs, with box office grosses and ancillary revenues from home media.
In December 2017, a survey from Fandango indicated that Black Panther was the second most anticipated film of 2018, behind Avengers: Infinity War. Fandango reported that its first 24 hours of ticket pre-sales for the film were the largest ever for a Marvel film, surpassing Captain America: Civil War. Two weeks ahead of its release, Fandango announced that the film outsold all previous superhero films at the same point in the sales cycle, breaking the record previously held by Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. Additionally, Black Panther had the highest number of ticket pre-sales for any superhero film at Alamo Drafthouse Cinema, after 18 days of sales. This was more than Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, the next closest film, which only had 72 % of Black Panther 's ticket sales in the same time frame. AMC Theatres also revealed that the film was out - selling all previous Marvel films, with strong sales in both urban areas and suburban locations.
Four days before its United States opening, IMAX Entertainment CEO Greg Foster revealed that Black Panther had the most advanced IMAX ticket sales of any Marvel film. He added that it did not appear the ticket sales had peaked, stating that a film usually peaks 10 days before it opens, but Black Panther "feels like it 's going to peak the day it opens ''. Atom Tickets also revealed strong pre-sales for the film. On February 15, 2017, Fandango announced that the film had the fourth - highest pre-sale tickets sold, behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens, Star Wars: The Last Jedi, and Rogue One. It also became the top pre-seller for a superhero film, beating Captain America: Civil War and Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, for a film released in February, beating Deadpool, as well as for the first quarter of the year, beating The Hunger Games and Beauty and the Beast.
Black Panther earned $75.8 million on its opening day in the United States and Canada (including $25.2 million from Thursday night previews), and earned $242.1 million over the four - day Presidents ' Day weekend, which was the best Presidents ' Day weekend opening, the second - best four - day opening after Star Wars: The Force Awakens ($288 million) and best ever for an African - American director. The Thursday night gross was the second - best for a MCU film, behind Avengers: Age of Ultron ($27.6 million), the second - best preview night for a non-summer release, behind Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice ($27.7 million), and the best preview night for a February release, beating Deadpool ($12.7 million). $3 million of the Thursday preview gross came from IMAX, which was tied for the most with Age of Ultron and Captain America: Civil War. The total opening day gross was the third - highest for a superhero film, behind Age of Ultron ($84 million) and The Avengers ($80 million), the second - highest pre-summer release, behind Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice ($81 million), and the eighth - highest opening day ever. The $50.6 million earned on Friday was the largest single - day gross for a solo superhero film and the largest single - day gross for a non-sequel film. The $60.1 million earned on Sunday was the best single - day gross for a superhero film and the second best Sunday ever, behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens ($60.5 million). The three - day total weekend gross of $202 million was the fifth - best three - day opening ever and the biggest opening for a pre-summer and February release. The film 's $40.2 million gross on Monday was the best Monday gross of all time. IMAX contributed $23.5 million to the opening weekend gross, which was the best ever for a February release and any Marvel film, and the fourth - best opening ever. Speaking to the success of the film in its opening weekend, Anthony D'Alessandro of Deadline Hollywood said it was "summer box office records during the second month of the year ''.
AMC Theatres also reported that Black Panther became the highest - grossing film in history at 33 of their locations after two days, earning more than other films have earned in an entire weekend. They later stated that the film became the highest - grossing film in an opening weekend for 150 of their theaters, with 15 locations more than doubling their previous record and two tripling their previous record. Black Panther also had the second - largest Saturday and largest Sunday in AMC history, and had the second - largest opening weekend for the chain with 4.4 million admissions. Atom Tickets sold more tickets for Black Panther than any other superhero film. Fandango 's pre-sales accounted for 30 % of the opening weekend gross, one of the largest box office shares for any film in Fandango 's history. The opening weekend gross surpassed early projections for the film. Early projections in December 2017 had it earning between $80 -- 90 million, which increased to $100 -- 120 million by the end of January 2018, and ultimately increasing again closer to the film 's release, projecting it to earn $150 -- 170 million or more. Several other film studios projected the total could be as high as $180 -- 200 million, while Disney initially projected the film to gross around $150 million in its opening weekend.
On the Tuesday after its opening weekend, Black Panther earned an estimated $21.07 million, which was the best pre-summer Tuesday ever, beating Beauty and the Beast ($17.8 million), the best Tuesday ever for an MCU film, beating The Avengers ($17.6 million), and the second - best Tuesday all time, after The Force Awakens ($37.3 million). Its five - day total of $263.2 million was still second to The Force Awakens ($325.4 million). The $14.3 million earned the Thursday after its opening weekend was the best Thursday ever for a MCU film, beating The Avengers ($12.4 million). It also surpassed $300 million on Friday, becoming the fastest MCU film to reach that mark in eight days, once again surpassing The Avengers, which had reached the mark in nine days, and tying The Last Jedi and Jurassic World. It also became the MCU film with the highest first - week gross.
In its second weekend, the film earned $112 million, which was a 45 percent decrease from its opening week. This percentage was the smallest decline in a second weekend for any MCU film and was described by D'Alessandro as "an amazing second - weekend hold ''. It was the second - best second weekend ever after The Force Awakens ($149.2 million) and the best second weekend ever for a Marvel film, beating The Avengers ($103 million). Over its second weekend, the film also surpassed $400 million for its total domestic gross, reaching the mark in ten days; this was the second fastest to reach that milestone, tied with Jurassic World behind The Force Awakens (eight days). It became the highest - grossing film released in the month of February, surpassing The Passion of the Christ ($370.3 million). IMAX also contributed $9 million to the weekend gross, bringing the domestic total to $36 million, which was the most for any MCU film. By surpassing $400 million, Black Panther exceeded initial early projections for its total domestic gross. By February 28, 2018, the film had earned $421.8 million, which made it the highest - grossing superhero origin film, surpassing Wonder Woman ($412.6 million).
The third weekend at the box office saw the film remain the top grossing film, earning $65.7 million and having its total gross surpass $500 million becoming the second - highest - grossing MCU film; the $65.7 million was the third - best third weekend ever, behind The Force Awakens ($90.2 million) and Avatar ($68.5 million). Black Panther remained the top film for the fourth straight weekend with an additional $41.1 million, which was the third - highest fourth weekend of all time, again behind The Force Awakens and Avatar. Black Panther remained number one in its fifth weekend, having the fourth - highest fifth weekend ever with $27 million. It became the first film to hold the number one spot at the box office for at least five weekends since Avatar, which led for seven weeks, and the first February release to hold the top box office spot for five weekends since The Silence of the Lambs in 1991 and Wayne 's World in 1992. By surpassing $600 million, it became the seventh film ever to break that point, and the second fastest film to do so in 31 days, after The Force Awakens (12 days). The film 's sixth weekend saw it fall to number two at the box office, behind Pacific Rim: Uprising, while also becoming the highest - grossing superhero film ever. The next weekend it fell to third, behind Ready Player One and Acrimony, to fourth in its eighth weekend, to sixth in its ninth weekend, and to eighth in its tenth weekend. However, in its eleventh weekend, Black Panther rose back to fifth place, in part because of the release of Avengers: Infinity War the same weekend. The next weekend, the film placed seventh, earning $3.14 million from over 1,600 locations. D'Alessandro noted the gross from that number of locations indicated people were continuing to see Black Panther in conjunction with Infinity War. Black Panther remained in the top ten in its thirteenth weekend, placing ninth. Black Panther is the highest - grossing film of 2018 and the third - highest - grossing film of all time.
Outside the United States and Canada, the film opened in 48 territories in its first weekend and has earned $184 million, opening at number one in most territories (and second in territories where Fifty Shades Freed performed better such as in Germany and Italy), and becoming the top February opening in many as well. The film opened at number one in the United Kingdom, where it had the best single day gross of 2018 so far and the highest - grossing February opening weekend ever. In South Korea, where it also opened at number one, the opening day gross of $4.7 million was the second - best MCU opening and the best ever for February. The $25.3 million it earned in its opening weekend was the fifth - highest Western release in South Korea. The other Asian markets that opened in its first weekend were also number one along with the biggest opening weekend of 2018 to date. The Latin America market also had all territories open at number one, and Black Panther was the best opening of 2018 in all except Argentina and Uruguay. It also was the highest - grossing opening of February of all time in Mexico, Brazil, Colombia, Bolivia, Ecuador, Panama and Paraguay. The African market saw the highest - grossing February opening of all - time in Bahrain, East Africa, Kuwait, Qatar, South Africa, the United Arab Emirates, and West Africa. South Africa also had the highest - grossing Saturday ever and the second highest - grossing opening weekend of all time. The Netherlands had the highest - grossing day ever for a superhero film and the highest - grossing February opening weekend ever.
Other territories opening at number one included Australia, Bosnia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Greece, Israel, Portugal, Serbia, Ukraine, and in France, Belgium, and Switzerland for the remainder of the opening weekend, after Fifty Shades Freed 's top gross on Valentine 's Day. Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines, and Indonesia recorded the largest opening day ever for February, while Malaysia was the third - highest MCU opening of all time and Indonesia had the third - largest opening weekend of all time. In Hong Kong, the opening was the second - largest opening day in February, while Taiwan and Australia had the third - largest February opening. IMAX accounted for $11.5 million of the opening weekend gross on 272 screens, with Nigeria, Kenya, and Indonesia having the best opening weekend ever in the format, South Korea had the second - best opening weekend, and Angola, Belgium, Bahrain, France, Israel, Netherlands, and Argentina and the best IMAX opening ever for a Marvel film. In its second weekend in 55 territories, the film earned $83.5 million and remained number one in most territories, including retaining the top spot in the Latin America market and becoming the top film in Germany. The West Africa region saw a 7 % increase, which resulted in the biggest three - day weekend ever. In South Africa, the second weekend gross became the third - biggest three - day weekend ever, behind the first weekend gross and The Fate of the Furious. The film opened in Russia in IMAX, earning $1.7 million which was a February record in the country, while the opening in Vietnam ($2.5 million, including previews) was the fifth - highest opening weekend, and Trinidad had the biggest opening weekend ever ($700,000).
In its third weekend in 56 territories, the film remained number one in Austria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Singapore, and all markets in Latin America, while its opening in Japan was the top Western film for the weekend, the second overall. IMAX contributed $713,000 to Japan 's opening weekend, which was a record for a March opening and the fourth - highest Marvel IMAX opening ever. Black Panther also became the highest - grossing film of all time in West and East Africa, the fifth - highest - grossing film all time in South Africa, and the top MCU film in the Netherlands. In its fourth weekend, Black Panther opened in China ($66.5 million), which was the fourth - highest MCU and superhero opening ever in the market. $7.3 million came from IMAX, which was the best - ever March opening weekend and the best - ever opening day for March in the territory. The film also remained at number one in the United Kingdom and the Latin America market except Argentina for the fourth straight weekend, as well as number one in South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. The film 's fifth weekend saw it once again be the top film in South Africa for the fifth weekend, where it also became the highest - grossing film ever, along with becoming the highest - grossing film in West, East, and southern Africa. It also became the fifth - highest - grossing MCU film in other territories of all time. Black Panther remained the top film in South Africa for a sixth weekend and became the highest - grossing superhero film ever in the Netherlands. The film continued to be the top film in South Africa for a seventh week, where it also became the fourth best MCU film in the country, and became the second - highest grossing MCU film in the United Kingdom in its eighth weekend. As of April 8, 2018, the film 's largest markets were China ($104.6 million), the United Kingdom ($67.7 million), and South Korea ($42.8 million).
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 97 % based on 374 reviews, with an average rating of 8.2 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Black Panther elevates superhero cinema to thrilling new heights while telling one of the MCU 's most absorbing stories -- and introducing some of its most fully realized characters. '' As of February 18, 2018, it is the best - reviewed live - action superhero film on the site, beating The Dark Knight and Iron Man (both 94 %). Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 88 out of 100, based on 55 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A + '' on an A+ to F scale, the second superhero film to receive that grade after Marvel 's own The Avengers. Filmgoers polled by Screen Engine / comScore 's PostTrak service gave the film a 92 % overall positive score and a 88 % "definite recommend '', with a third of people planning to see the film again. RelishMix reported that Twitter hashtags for # BlackPanther and tagging of the film 's Twitter account from audiences leaving the theater set an all - time film record in its opening weekend, with 559,000 unique posts in one day. This was twice the number The Last Jedi received in December 2017, with 232,000, while 100,000 posts for a film is average.
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "The actors are all seen to very good advantage. Boseman certainly holds his own, but there are quite a few charismatic supporting players here keen to steal every scene they can -- and they do, notably the physically imposing Jordan, the radiant Nyong'o and especially Wright, who gives her every scene extra punch and humor. '' Peter Debruge of Variety said, "Black Panther celebrates its hero 's heritage while delivering one of Marvel 's most all - around appealing standalone installments to date. '' Manohla Dargis of The New York Times called Black Panther "a jolt of a movie '', and said, "in its emphasis on black imagination, creation and liberation, the movie becomes an emblem of a past that was denied and a future that feels very present. And in doing so opens up its world, and yours, beautifully. '' Kenneth Turan of Los Angeles Times said, "With dialogue that deftly explores serious questions, such as how much if anything do wealthy countries owe the poor and oppressed of the world, Black Panther draws energy from Coogler 's sense of excitement at all he 's attempting. The result is a superhero movie that 's worth seeing twice, and that is a rare sighting indeed. '' Richard Roeper, writing for the Chicago Sun - Times, called the film "one of the best superhero movies of the century '' and said, "If you appreciate finely honed storytelling with a Shakespearean core; winning performances from an enormously talented ensemble; provocative premises touching on isolationism, revolution and cultures of oppression, and oh yeah, tons of whiz - bang action sequences and good humor -- then you should see Black Panther. ''
Brian Truitt of USA Today awarded the film four out of four stars, and called it Marvel Studios ' best origin film since Guardians of the Galaxy. Truitt also praised the "superb cast '' and stated, "While the themes are deep, Black Panther is at the same time a visual joy to behold, with confident quirkiness, insane action sequences and special effects, and the glorious reveal of Wakanda, whose culture is steeped in African influences but which also offers a jaw - dropping look at what a city of the future could be. '' Also giving the film four stars, Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called it "(un) like any other Marvel movie -- an exhilarating triumph on every level from writing, directing, acting, production design, costumes, music, special effects to you name it ''. Natasha Alford of The Grio said, "Black Panther is remarkable because this film is a movement, a revolution in progress, and a joy to experience all wrapped into one '', and called it "a master class in what it means to be proud of who you are, where you have been and where you and your people are going. '' Jamie Broadnax of Black Girl Nerds said Marvel "created a masterpiece with Black Panther '', adding, "it 's afro - futuristic and Blackity - black as hell. It 's everything I 've ever desired in a live - action version of this popular superhero and yet so much more. Quite frankly, the experience is indescribable. '' Jamelle Bouie of Slate said, "it is fair to say that Black Panther is the most political movie ever produced by Marvel Studios, both in its very existence... and in the questions its story raises. '' He added that the film should be included with Superman, Spider - Man 2 and The Dark Knight as films in the superhero genre that do not "transcend the genre as much as they embrace it in all its respects ''. Bouie concluded, "Black Panther could have been just another Marvel romp -- a fun but ultimately disposable entry in the studio 's catalogue. But Ryan Coogler and company had the power, and perhaps the responsibility, to do much more. And they did. ''
In early January 2018, New York resident Frederick Joseph created a GoFundMe campaign in hopes to raise money to help children of color at the Boys & Girls Club in Harlem see Black Panther. Joseph called the release of Black Panther a "rare opportunity for young students (primarily of color) to see a black major cinematic and comic book character come to life. This representation is truly fundamental for young people, especially those who are often underserved, unprivileged, and marginalized both nationally and globally. '' The campaign exceeded its goal, and given the popularity of its intent, Joseph asked others to create their own campaigns in their own communities to take more children to see the film, which he named the "Black Panther Challenge ''. GoFundMe created a centralized page for anyone wishing to create a campaign for the challenge, and revealed that 10 campaigns created using the sign - up page would receive a $100 donation from GoFundMe. Over 400 additional campaigns were started around the world, with many celebrities offering their support and contributions to the campaigns, such as actress Octavia Spencer, who intended to buy out a theater in Mississippi for underserved members of the community. Obi Umunna, a Jacksonville, Florida - based attorney born to Nigerian immigrants, participated in the challenge, saying, "I just want for kids in my community to have the same opportunity and to see this movie... I think this is an awesome opportunity for them to see themselves represented in a very positive light... compared to some of the negative images that you see on a daily basis. '' The campaign became the largest GoFundMe in history for an entertainment event and raised over $400,000.
Science & Entertainment Exchange Director for the National Academy of Sciences Richard Loverd felt the film would increase interest in science, technology, and Africa for young black Americans, similarly to how The Hunger Games films and Brave sparked girls ' interest in archery. Jamie Broadnax, editor - in - chief and creator of the website Black Girl Nerds, felt Black Panther would "bring in a lot of people (of color) who do n't even really go to comic - book movies... (since) they 're going to see themselves reflected in a huge way that they just have n't been able to see before '', especially since the film avoided black pain, suffering, and poverty, usual topics in films about the black experience. She added that the strong female characters, such as Shuri, would be an inspiration for girls and young people. Gil Robertson, co-founder and president of the African American Film Critics Association, added that the film was "critically important '' and "a gate - opener opportunity for other black - centered projects ''. Child development expert Deborah Gilboa felt the film would make a huge impact on children 's spirits, by offering positive role models and knowing that "not only can they succeed, they need to see that lots of people want to sit in a theater and watch someone like them succeed in a big, big way. That 's how we help build a generation of young people who are engaged in the greater good and courageous in their actions. '' In the film 's opening weekend, 37 % of audiences in the United States were African - American, according to Screen Engine / comScore 's PostTrak service, compared to 35 % Caucasian, 18 % Hispanic, and 5 % Asian. This was the most diverse audience for a superhero film ever, where African - Americans generally make up 15 % of audiences for such films. In its second weekend, demographics were 37 % Caucasian, 33 % African American, 18 % Hispanic and 7 % Asian.
Writing for Time, Jamil Smith felt Black Panther, which he described as a film "about what it means to be black in both America and Africa -- and, more broadly, in the world '', was "poised to prove to Hollywood that African - American narratives have the power to generate profits from all audiences. And, more important, that making movies about black lives is part of showing that they matter. '' He added, "In the midst of a regressive cultural and political moment fueled in part by the white - nativist movement, the very existence of Black Panther feels like resistance. Its themes challenge institutional bias, its characters take unsubtle digs at oppressors, and its narrative includes prismatic perspectives on black life and tradition. '' Discussing why the film was a defining moment for black America in The New York Times Magazine, Carvell Wallace said that in contrast to earlier black superhero films, Black Panther "is steeped very specifically and purposefully in its blackness ''. He continued, "Black Panther is a Hollywood movie, and Wakanda is a fictional nation. But coming when they do, from a director like Coogler, they must also function as a place for multiple generations of black Americans to store some of our most deeply held aspirations. We have for centuries sought to either find or create a promised land where we would be untroubled by the criminal horrors of our American existence. '' Wallace also commented on how the film fits into the larger idea of Afrofuturism, particularly in its presentation of Wakanda. Historian Nathan D.B. Connolly felt Black Panther was "a breakthrough in black cultural representation. It 's a powerful fictional analogy for real - life struggles. And Black Panther owes its very existence to centuries of political and artistic activity, always occurring in real places and under the mortal (but still super -) powers of real people... Black Panther taps a 500 - year history of African - descended people imagining freedom, land and national autonomy. '' Connolly also felt, culturally, the film would be this generation 's A Raisin in the Sun.
A number of writers looked to the film 's subtext and what it said about African history, colonialism (including post-colonialism and neocolonialism), and tensions between African and African - American cultures. Patrick Gathara, writing in The Washington Post, described the film as offering a "regressive, neocolonial vision of Africa '', which -- rather than a "redemptive counter-mythology '' -- offers "the same destructive myths ''. Gathara highlighted the Africa that is portrayed as being divided and tribalized, with Wakanda run by a wealthy and feuding elite, centered upon "royalty and warriors '', whose fortune comes not from its citizens ' endeavors, skill or innate abilities, but from a "lucky meteor strike '', and as a country which, despite its advanced technical abilities, does not evince any great thinkers, nor even a means of succession beyond lethal combat and primeval trials of strength. Gathara continued that the very idea of "Africa '' is essentially of European creation, and concluded that "Despite their centuries of vibranium - induced technological advancement, the Wakandans remain so remarkably unsophisticated that a ' returning ' American can basically stroll in and take over, just as 19th - century Europeans did to the real Africa... (The film) should not be mistaken for an attempt at liberating Africa from Europe. Quite the opposite. Its ' redemptive counter-mythology ' entrenches the tropes that have been used to dehumanize Africans for centuries. The Wakandans, for all their technological progress, still cleanly fit into the Western molds, a dark people in a dark continent ''.
Dwayne Wong (Omowale) writing in HuffPost saw the film and its comic origins as "address (ing) serious political issues concerning Africa 's relationship to the West that is very rarely given the serious attention that it deserves ''. Wakandans are "at times portrayed as being very suspicious towards outsiders, to the point of almost being xenophobic '' and "no outsider can truly be trusted '' with its security. He concludes that while the country is fictional, "the politics... are very real. The end of colonialism did not end Western tampering in Africa 's politics. We see this issue still going on in Africa today... The Black Panther movie offers an opportunity to explore this issue of neo-colonialism and its continued impact on Africa 's development ''. Carlos Rosario Gonzalez of Bam! Smack! Pow!, noting the struggle between T'Challa and Killmonger, saw "two very distinct philosophies collide... what it means to be African and conversely, what Africa means to Afro - minorities today '', and described the film as exploring these themes "through the lens of colonialism ''. In this view, Wakanda represents Africa without Western colonialism, and Killmonger shows us that "we can sometimes inevitably become what we seek to destroy... With Wakanda 's resources in his fingertips, Killmonger want (s) to become the new colonizer; a colonizer of the West... In the end, Wakanda 's conservative ways created the very problem that sought to destroy them, Eric (sic) Killmonger ''. Jelani Cobb, writing in The New Yorker, discussed the divide between Africans and African - Americans, which he called a "fundamental dissonance ''. He felt T'Challa and Killmonger represented "dueling responses to five centuries of African exploitation at the hands of the West. The villain, to the extent that the term applies, is history itself ''. Cobb added, "nothing in Marvel 's collection of films is or could be political in the same way as Black Panther, because, in those other stories, we were at least clear about where the lines of fantasy departed from reality. '' The film "exists in an invented nation in Africa, a continent that has been grappling with invented versions of itself ever since white men first declared it the ' dark continent ' and set about plundering its people and its resources. ''
By contrast, James Wilt, writing for Canadian Dimension, stated that "at its core, Black Panther contains a fundamentally reactionary understanding of black liberation that blatantly advocates respectability politics over revolution, sterilizes the history of real - life anti-colonial struggles in Africa and elsewhere, and allows white folks such as myself to feel extremely comfortable watching it ''. Wilt considered the scene where Ross is portrayed as "the hero '' for shooting down the Wakandan ships attempting to leave as the film 's way of endorsing the crushing of armed revolt against oppression, and in particular, "it helped solidify the message that violence is perfectly fine, so long as it 's not directed against white people. '' Wilt also wrote, concerning the villain Killmonger, that "all the most hideous traits imaginable are downgraded on to (him), making the only major African - American character and agitator for revolution a manic killer consumed by rage and violence '', which is a common trope. Russell Rickford of Africa is a Country agreed with Wilt 's assessment of Killmonger, whose role as a character is "to discredit radical internationalism '' and reproduce "a host of disturbing tropes ''. Faisal Kutty from Middle East Eye felt the film had underlying Islamophobic themes, such as in the beginning of the film where Islamic characters are depicted as villains by showing a group based on Boko Haram that kidnapped several girls and forced them to wear hijab.
Christopher Lebron, in a piece for Boston Review, saw Black Panther as "racist ''. He observed that black Americans who had been left in poverty and oppression, as exemplified by Killmonger, were still being "relegated to the lowest rung of political regard '' in the film, treated as less deserving of empathy and less capable of their acts being deemed heroic, than even Ross ' white spy. Lebron felt that T'Challa could have shown himself a good person by "understand (ing) that Killmonger is in part the product of American racism and T'Chaka's cruelty '' and by "realiz (ing) that Wakanda has been hoarding resources '', and could have agreed that justice sometimes requires violence as a last resort against oppression. He comments rhetorically on this, "After all, what else do comic - book heroes do but dispense justice with their armored fists and laser rifles ''? Instead, T'Challa stays silent despite Killmonger 's description of the oppression suffered by his fellows around the world, until eventually Killmonger allows himself to die. He summed up by commenting that "In 2018, a world home to both the Movement for Black Lives and a president who identifies white supremacists as fine people, we are given a movie about black empowerment where the only redeemed blacks are African nobles. They safeguard virtue and goodness against the threat not of white Americans or Europeans, but a black American ''.
With the release of Black Panther, Feige said "there are many, many stories to tell '' about the character, and that he wanted Coogler to return for any potential sequel. Coogler added that he wanted to see how T'Challa would grow as a king in future films, since his reign only began recently in the MCU, while in the comics, he has been king since childhood. In March 2018, Feige added there was "nothing specific to reveal '' in terms of a sequel, but that there "absolutely '' were "ideas and a pretty solid direction on where we want to head with the second one ''.
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it is often said that the only function of a virus | Virus - wikipedia
I: dsDNA viruses II: ssDNA viruses III: dsRNA viruses IV: (+) ssRNA viruses V: (−) ssRNA viruses VI: ssRNA - RT viruses VII: dsDNA - RT viruses
A virus is a small infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of other organisms. Viruses can infect all types of life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea.
Since Dmitri Ivanovsky 's 1892 article describing a non-bacterial pathogen infecting tobacco plants, and the discovery of the tobacco mosaic virus by Martinus Beijerinck in 1898, about 5,000 virus species have been described in detail, although there are millions of types. Viruses are found in almost every ecosystem on Earth and are the most abundant type of biological entity. The study of viruses is known as virology, a sub-speciality of microbiology.
While not inside an infected cell or in the process of infecting a cell, viruses exist in the form of independent particles. These viral particles, also known as virions, consist of two or three parts: (i) the genetic material made from either DNA or RNA, long molecules that carry genetic information; (ii) a protein coat, called the capsid, which surrounds and protects the genetic material; and in some cases (iii) an envelope of lipids that surrounds the protein coat. The shapes of these virus particles range from simple helical and icosahedral forms for some virus species to more complex structures for others. Most virus species have virions that are too small to be seen with an optical microscope. The average virion is about one one - hundredth the size of the average bacterium.
The origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids -- pieces of DNA that can move between cells -- while others may have evolved from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of horizontal gene transfer, which increases genetic diversity. Viruses are considered by some to be a life form, because they carry genetic material, reproduce, and evolve through natural selection, but lack key characteristics (such as cell structure) that are generally considered necessary to count as life. Because they possess some but not all such qualities, viruses have been described as "organisms at the edge of life '', and as replicators.
Viruses spread in many ways; viruses in plants are often transmitted from plant to plant by insects that feed on plant sap, such as aphids; viruses in animals can be carried by blood - sucking insects. These disease - bearing organisms are known as vectors. Influenza viruses are spread by coughing and sneezing. Norovirus and rotavirus, common causes of viral gastroenteritis, are transmitted by the faecal -- oral route and are passed from person to person by contact, entering the body in food or water. HIV is one of several viruses transmitted through sexual contact and by exposure to infected blood. The range of host cells that a virus can infect is called its "host range ''. This can be narrow, meaning a virus is capable of infecting few species, or broad, meaning it is capable of infecting many.
Viral infections in animals provoke an immune response that usually eliminates the infecting virus. Immune responses can also be produced by vaccines, which confer an artificially acquired immunity to the specific viral infection. Some viruses including those that cause AIDS and viral hepatitis evade these immune responses and result in chronic infections. Antibiotics have no effect on viruses, but several antiviral drugs have been developed.
The word is from the Latin neuter vīrus referring to poison and other noxious liquids, from ' the same Indo - European base as Sanskrit viṣa poison, Avestan vīša poison, ancient Greek ἰός poison ', first attested in English in 1398 in John Trevisa 's translation of Bartholomeus Anglicus 's De Proprietatibus Rerum. Virulent, from Latin virulentus (poisonous), dates to c. 1400. A meaning of "agent that causes infectious disease '' is first recorded in 1728, before the discovery of viruses by Dmitri Ivanovsky in 1892. The English plural is viruses (sometimes also viri or vira), whereas the Latin word is a mass noun, which has no classically attested plural (Neo-Latin had vīra is used). The adjective viral dates to 1948. The term virion (plural virions), which dates from 1959, is also used to refer to a single, stable infective viral particle that is released from the cell and is fully capable of infecting other cells of the same type.
Louis Pasteur was unable to find a causative agent for rabies and speculated about a pathogen too small to be detected using a microscope. In 1884, the French microbiologist Charles Chamberland invented a filter (known today as the Chamberland filter or the Pasteur - Chamberland filter) with pores smaller than bacteria. Thus, he could pass a solution containing bacteria through the filter and completely remove them. In 1892, the Russian biologist Dmitri Ivanovsky used this filter to study what is now known as the tobacco mosaic virus. His experiments showed that crushed leaf extracts from infected tobacco plants remain infectious after filtration. Ivanovsky suggested the infection might be caused by a toxin produced by bacteria, but did not pursue the idea. At the time it was thought that all infectious agents could be retained by filters and grown on a nutrient medium -- this was part of the germ theory of disease. In 1898, the Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck repeated the experiments and became convinced that the filtered solution contained a new form of infectious agent. He observed that the agent multiplied only in cells that were dividing, but as his experiments did not show that it was made of particles, he called it a contagium vivum fluidum (soluble living germ) and re-introduced the word virus. Beijerinck maintained that viruses were liquid in nature, a theory later discredited by Wendell Stanley, who proved they were particulate. In the same year Friedrich Loeffler and Paul Frosch passed the first animal virus -- agent of foot - and - mouth disease (aphthovirus) -- through a similar filter.
In the early 20th century, the English bacteriologist Frederick Twort discovered a group of viruses that infect bacteria, now called bacteriophages (or commonly phages), and the French - Canadian microbiologist Félix d'Herelle described viruses that, when added to bacteria on an agar plate, would produce areas of dead bacteria. He accurately diluted a suspension of these viruses and discovered that the highest dilutions (lowest virus concentrations), rather than killing all the bacteria, formed discrete areas of dead organisms. Counting these areas and multiplying by the dilution factor allowed him to calculate the number of viruses in the original suspension. Phages were heralded as a potential treatment for diseases such as typhoid and cholera, but their promise was forgotten with the development of penicillin. The study of phages provided insights into the switching on and off of genes, and a useful mechanism for introducing foreign genes into bacteria.
By the end of the 19th century, viruses were defined in terms of their infectivity, their ability to be filtered, and their requirement for living hosts. Viruses had been grown only in plants and animals. In 1906, Ross Granville Harrison invented a method for growing tissue in lymph, and, in 1913, E. Steinhardt, C. Israeli, and R.A. Lambert used this method to grow vaccinia virus in fragments of guinea pig corneal tissue. In 1928, H.B. Maitland and M.C. Maitland grew vaccinia virus in suspensions of minced hens ' kidneys. Their method was not widely adopted until the 1950s, when poliovirus was grown on a large scale for vaccine production.
Another breakthrough came in 1931, when the American pathologist Ernest William Goodpasture and Alice Miles Woodruff grew influenza and several other viruses in fertilised chickens ' eggs. In 1949, John Franklin Enders, Thomas Weller, and Frederick Robbins grew polio virus in cultured human embryo cells, the first virus to be grown without using solid animal tissue or eggs. This work enabled Jonas Salk to make an effective polio vaccine.
The first images of viruses were obtained upon the invention of electron microscopy in 1931 by the German engineers Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll. In 1935, American biochemist and virologist Wendell Meredith Stanley examined the tobacco mosaic virus and found it was mostly made of protein. A short time later, this virus was separated into protein and RNA parts. The tobacco mosaic virus was the first to be crystallised and its structure could therefore be elucidated in detail. The first X-ray diffraction pictures of the crystallised virus were obtained by Bernal and Fankuchen in 1941. On the basis of her pictures, Rosalind Franklin discovered the full structure of the virus in 1955. In the same year, Heinz Fraenkel - Conrat and Robley Williams showed that purified tobacco mosaic virus RNA and its protein coat can assemble by themselves to form functional viruses, suggesting that this simple mechanism was probably the means through which viruses were created within their host cells.
The second half of the 20th century was the golden age of virus discovery and most of the over 2,000 recognised species of animal, plant, and bacterial viruses were discovered during these years. In 1957, equine arterivirus and the cause of Bovine virus diarrhoea (a pestivirus) were discovered. In 1963, the hepatitis B virus was discovered by Baruch Blumberg, and in 1965, Howard Temin described the first retrovirus. Reverse transcriptase, the enzyme that retroviruses use to make DNA copies of their RNA, was first described in 1970, independently by Howard Martin Temin and David Baltimore. In 1983 Luc Montagnier 's team at the Pasteur Institute in France, first isolated the retrovirus now called HIV. In 1989 Michael Houghton 's team at Chiron Corporation discovered Hepatitis C.
Viruses are found wherever there is life and have probably existed since living cells first evolved. The origin of viruses is unclear because they do not form fossils, so molecular techniques have been used to compare the DNA or RNA of viruses and are a useful means of investigating how they arose. In addition, viral genetic material may occasionally integrate into the germline of the host organisms, by which they can be passed on vertically to the offspring of the host for many generations. This provides an invaluable source of information for paleovirologists to trace back ancient viruses that have existed up to millions of years ago. There are three main hypotheses that aim to explain the origins of viruses:
In the past, there were problems with all of these hypotheses: the regressive hypothesis did not explain why even the smallest of cellular parasites do not resemble viruses in any way. The escape hypothesis did not explain the complex capsids and other structures on virus particles. The virus - first hypothesis contravened the definition of viruses in that they require host cells. Viruses are now recognised as ancient and as having origins that pre-date the divergence of life into the three domains. This discovery has led modern virologists to reconsider and re-evaluate these three classical hypotheses.
The evidence for an ancestral world of RNA cells and computer analysis of viral and host DNA sequences are giving a better understanding of the evolutionary relationships between different viruses and may help identify the ancestors of modern viruses. To date, such analyses have not proved which of these hypotheses is correct. It seems unlikely that all currently known viruses have a common ancestor, and viruses have probably arisen numerous times in the past by one or more mechanisms.
Prions are infectious protein molecules that do not contain DNA or RNA. They can cause infections such as scrapie in sheep, bovine spongiform encephalopathy ("mad cow '' disease) in cattle, and chronic wasting disease in deer; in humans, prionic diseases include Kuru, Creutzfeldt -- Jakob disease, and Gerstmann -- Sträussler -- Scheinker syndrome. Although prions are fundamentally different from viruses and viroids, their discovery gives credence to the theory that viruses could have evolved from self - replicating molecules.
Opinions differ on whether viruses are a form of life, or organic structures that interact with living organisms. They have been described as "organisms at the edge of life '', since they resemble organisms in that they possess genes, evolve by natural selection, and reproduce by creating multiple copies of themselves through self - assembly. Although they have genes, they do not have a cellular structure, which is often seen as the basic unit of life. Viruses do not have their own metabolism, and require a host cell to make new products. They therefore can not naturally reproduce outside a host cell -- although bacterial species such as rickettsia and chlamydia are considered living organisms despite the same limitation. Accepted forms of life use cell division to reproduce, whereas viruses spontaneously assemble within cells. They differ from autonomous growth of crystals as they inherit genetic mutations while being subject to natural selection. Virus self - assembly within host cells has implications for the study of the origin of life, as it lends further credence to the hypothesis that life could have started as self - assembling organic molecules.
Viruses display a wide diversity of shapes and sizes, called morphologies. In general, viruses are much smaller than bacteria. Most viruses that have been studied have a diameter between 20 and 300 nanometres. Some filoviruses have a total length of up to 1400 nm; their diameters are only about 80 nm. Most viruses can not be seen with an optical microscope so scanning and transmission electron microscopes are used to visualise them. To increase the contrast between viruses and the background, electron - dense "stains '' are used. These are solutions of salts of heavy metals, such as tungsten, that scatter the electrons from regions covered with the stain. When virions are coated with stain (positive staining), fine detail is obscured. Negative staining overcomes this problem by staining the background only.
A complete virus particle, known as a virion, consists of nucleic acid surrounded by a protective coat of protein called a capsid. These are formed from identical protein subunits called capsomeres. Viruses can have a lipid "envelope '' derived from the host cell membrane. The capsid is made from proteins encoded by the viral genome and its shape serves as the basis for morphological distinction. Virally coded protein subunits will self - assemble to form a capsid, in general requiring the presence of the virus genome. Complex viruses code for proteins that assist in the construction of their capsid. Proteins associated with nucleic acid are known as nucleoproteins, and the association of viral capsid proteins with viral nucleic acid is called a nucleocapsid. The capsid and entire virus structure can be mechanically (physically) probed through atomic force microscopy. In general, there are four main morphological virus types:
The poxviruses are large, complex viruses that have an unusual morphology. The viral genome is associated with proteins within a central disc structure known as a nucleoid. The nucleoid is surrounded by a membrane and two lateral bodies of unknown function. The virus has an outer envelope with a thick layer of protein studded over its surface. The whole virion is slightly pleiomorphic, ranging from ovoid to brick shape. Mimivirus is one of the largest characterised viruses, with a capsid diameter of 400 nm. Protein filaments measuring 100 nm project from the surface. The capsid appears hexagonal under an electron microscope, therefore the capsid is probably icosahedral. In 2011, researchers discovered the largest then known virus in samples of water collected from the ocean floor off the coast of Las Cruces, Chile. Provisionally named Megavirus chilensis, it can be seen with a basic optical microscope. In 2013, the Pandoravirus genus was discovered in Chile and Australia, and has genomes about twice as large as Megavirus and Mimivirus.
Some viruses that infect Archaea have complex structures that are unrelated to any other form of virus, with a wide variety of unusual shapes, ranging from spindle - shaped structures, to viruses that resemble hooked rods, teardrops or even bottles. Other archaeal viruses resemble the tailed bacteriophages, and can have multiple tail structures.
An enormous variety of genomic structures can be seen among viral species; as a group, they contain more structural genomic diversity than plants, animals, archaea, or bacteria. There are millions of different types of viruses, although only about 5,000 types have been described in detail. As of September 2015, the NCBI Virus genome database has more than 75,000 complete genome sequences. but there are doubtlessly many more to be discovered.
A virus has either a DNA or an RNA genome and is called a DNA virus or an RNA virus, respectively. The vast majority of viruses have RNA genomes. Plant viruses tend to have single - stranded RNA genomes and bacteriophages tend to have double - stranded DNA genomes.
Viral genomes are circular, as in the polyomaviruses, or linear, as in the adenoviruses. The type of nucleic acid is irrelevant to the shape of the genome. Among RNA viruses and certain DNA viruses, the genome is often divided up into separate parts, in which case it is called segmented. For RNA viruses, each segment often codes for only one protein and they are usually found together in one capsid. All segments are not required to be in the same virion for the virus to be infectious, as demonstrated by brome mosaic virus and several other plant viruses.
A viral genome, irrespective of nucleic acid type, is almost always either single - stranded or double - stranded. Single - stranded genomes consist of an unpaired nucleic acid, analogous to one - half of a ladder split down the middle. Double - stranded genomes consist of two complementary paired nucleic acids, analogous to a ladder. The virus particles of some virus families, such as those belonging to the Hepadnaviridae, contain a genome that is partially double - stranded and partially single - stranded.
For most viruses with RNA genomes and some with single - stranded DNA genomes, the single strands are said to be either positive - sense (called the plus - strand) or negative - sense (called the minus - strand), depending on if they are complementary to the viral messenger RNA (mRNA). Positive - sense viral RNA is in the same sense as viral mRNA and thus at least a part of it can be immediately translated by the host cell. Negative - sense viral RNA is complementary to mRNA and thus must be converted to positive - sense RNA by an RNA - dependent RNA polymerase before translation. DNA nomenclature for viruses with single - sense genomic ssDNA is similar to RNA nomenclature, in that the template strand for the viral mRNA is complementary to it (−), and the coding strand is a copy of it (+). Several types of ssDNA and ssRNA viruses have genomes that are ambisense in that transcription can occur off both strands in a double - stranded replicative intermediate. Examples include geminiviruses, which are ssDNA plant viruses and arenaviruses, which are ssRNA viruses of animals.
Genome size varies greatly between species. The smallest viral genomes -- the ssDNA circoviruses, family Circoviridae -- code for only two proteins and have a genome size of only two kilobases; the largest -- the pandoraviruses -- have genome sizes of around two megabases which code for about 2500 proteins. Virus genes rarely have introns and often are arranged in the genome so that they overlap.
In general, RNA viruses have smaller genome sizes than DNA viruses because of a higher error - rate when replicating, and have a maximum upper size limit. Beyond this limit, errors in the genome when replicating render the virus useless or uncompetitive. To compensate for this, RNA viruses often have segmented genomes -- the genome is split into smaller molecules -- thus reducing the chance that an error in a single - component genome will incapacitate the entire genome. In contrast, DNA viruses generally have larger genomes because of the high fidelity of their replication enzymes. Single - strand DNA viruses are an exception to this rule, as mutation rates for these genomes can approach the extreme of the ssRNA virus case.
Viruses undergo genetic change by several mechanisms. These include a process called antigenic drift where individual bases in the DNA or RNA mutate to other bases. Most of these point mutations are "silent '' -- they do not change the protein that the gene encodes -- but others can confer evolutionary advantages such as resistance to antiviral drugs. Antigenic shift occurs when there is a major change in the genome of the virus. This can be a result of recombination or reassortment. When this happens with influenza viruses, pandemics might result. RNA viruses often exist as quasispecies or swarms of viruses of the same species but with slightly different genome nucleoside sequences. Such quasispecies are a prime target for natural selection.
Segmented genomes confer evolutionary advantages; different strains of a virus with a segmented genome can shuffle and combine genes and produce progeny viruses or (offspring) that have unique characteristics. This is called reassortment or viral sex.
Genetic recombination is the process by which a strand of DNA is broken and then joined to the end of a different DNA molecule. This can occur when viruses infect cells simultaneously and studies of viral evolution have shown that recombination has been rampant in the species studied. Recombination is common to both RNA and DNA viruses.
Viral populations do not grow through cell division, because they are acellular. Instead, they use the machinery and metabolism of a host cell to produce multiple copies of themselves, and they assemble in the cell.
The life cycle of viruses differs greatly between species but there are six basic stages in the life cycle of viruses:
Attachment is a specific binding between viral capsid proteins and specific receptors on the host cellular surface. This specificity determines the host range of a virus. For example, HIV infects a limited range of human leucocytes. This is because its surface protein, gp120, specifically interacts with the CD4 molecule -- a chemokine receptor -- which is most commonly found on the surface of CD4+ T - Cells. This mechanism has evolved to favour those viruses that infect only cells in which they are capable of replication. Attachment to the receptor can induce the viral envelope protein to undergo changes that results in the fusion of viral and cellular membranes, or changes of non-enveloped virus surface proteins that allow the virus to enter.
Penetration follows attachment: Virions enter the host cell through receptor - mediated endocytosis or membrane fusion. This is often called viral entry. The infection of plant and fungal cells is different from that of animal cells. Plants have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose, and fungi one of chitin, so most viruses can get inside these cells only after trauma to the cell wall. Nearly all plant viruses (such as tobacco mosaic virus) can also move directly from cell to cell, in the form of single - stranded nucleoprotein complexes, through pores called plasmodesmata. Bacteria, like plants, have strong cell walls that a virus must breach to infect the cell. Given that bacterial cell walls are much thinner than plant cell walls due to their much smaller size, some viruses have evolved mechanisms that inject their genome into the bacterial cell across the cell wall, while the viral capsid remains outside.
Uncoating is a process in which the viral capsid is removed: This may be by degradation by viral enzymes or host enzymes or by simple dissociation; the end - result is the releasing of the viral genomic nucleic acid.
Replication of viruses involves primarily multiplication of the genome. Replication involves synthesis of viral messenger RNA (mRNA) from "early '' genes (with exceptions for positive sense RNA viruses), viral protein synthesis, possible assembly of viral proteins, then viral genome replication mediated by early or regulatory protein expression. This may be followed, for complex viruses with larger genomes, by one or more further rounds of mRNA synthesis: "late '' gene expression is, in general, of structural or virion proteins.
Assembly -- Following the structure - mediated self - assembly of the virus particles, some modification of the proteins often occurs. In viruses such as HIV, this modification (sometimes called maturation) occurs after the virus has been released from the host cell.
Release -- Viruses can be released from the host cell by lysis, a process that kills the cell by bursting its membrane and cell wall if present: This is a feature of many bacterial and some animal viruses. Some viruses undergo a lysogenic cycle where the viral genome is incorporated by genetic recombination into a specific place in the host 's chromosome. The viral genome is then known as a "provirus '' or, in the case of bacteriophages a "prophage ''. Whenever the host divides, the viral genome is also replicated. The viral genome is mostly silent within the host. At some point, the provirus or prophage may give rise to active virus, which may lyse the host cells. Enveloped viruses (e.g., HIV) typically are released from the host cell by budding. During this process the virus acquires its envelope, which is a modified piece of the host 's plasma or other, internal membrane.
The genetic material within virus particles, and the method by which the material is replicated, varies considerably between different types of viruses.
The range of structural and biochemical effects that viruses have on the host cell is extensive. These are called cytopathic effects. Most virus infections eventually result in the death of the host cell. The causes of death include cell lysis, alterations to the cell 's surface membrane and apoptosis. Often cell death is caused by cessation of its normal activities because of suppression by virus - specific proteins, not all of which are components of the virus particle.
Some viruses cause no apparent changes to the infected cell. Cells in which the virus is latent and inactive show few signs of infection and often function normally. This causes persistent infections and the virus is often dormant for many months or years. This is often the case with herpes viruses. Some viruses, such as Epstein -- Barr virus, can cause cells to proliferate without causing malignancy, while others, such as papillomaviruses, are established causes of cancer.
Viruses are by far the most abundant biological entities on Earth and they outnumber all the others put together. They infect all types of cellular life including animals, plants, bacteria and fungi. Different types of viruses can infect only a limited range of hosts and many are species - specific. Some, such as smallpox virus for example, can infect only one species -- in this case humans, and are said to have a narrow host range. Other viruses, such as rabies virus, can infect different species of mammals and are said to have a broad range. The viruses that infect plants are harmless to animals, and most viruses that infect other animals are harmless to humans. The host range of some bacteriophages is limited to a single strain of bacteria and they can be used to trace the source of outbreaks of infections by a method called phage typing.
Classification seeks to describe the diversity of viruses by naming and grouping them on the basis of similarities. In 1962, André Lwoff, Robert Horne, and Paul Tournier were the first to develop a means of virus classification, based on the Linnaean hierarchical system. This system bases classification on phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. Viruses were grouped according to their shared properties (not those of their hosts) and the type of nucleic acid forming their genomes. Later the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses was formed. Viruses are not classified on the basis of phylum or class, as their small genome size and high rate of mutation makes it difficult to determine their ancestry beyond order. As such, the Baltimore classification is used to supplement the more traditional hierarchy.
The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) developed the current classification system and wrote guidelines that put a greater weight on certain virus properties to maintain family uniformity. A unified taxonomy (a universal system for classifying viruses) has been established. The 9th ICTV Report defines the concept of the virus species as the lowest taxon (group) in a branching hierarchy of viral taxa. At present only a small part of the total diversity of viruses has been studied, with analyses of samples from humans finding that about 20 % of the virus sequences recovered have not been seen before, and samples from the environment, such as from seawater and ocean sediments, finding that the large majority of sequences are completely novel.
The general taxonomic structure is as follows:
In the current (2017) ICTV taxonomy, 8 orders have been established, the Bunyavirales, Caudovirales, Herpesvirales, Ligamenvirales, Mononegavirales, Nidovirales, Picornavirales, and Tymovirales. The committee does not formally distinguish between subspecies, strains, and isolates. In total there are 8 orders, 135 families, 35 subfamilies, 455 genera, about 2,827 species and over 4,000 types yet unclassified.
The Nobel Prize - winning biologist David Baltimore devised the Baltimore classification system. The ICTV classification system is used in conjunction with the Baltimore classification system in modern virus classification.
The Baltimore classification of viruses is based on the mechanism of mRNA production. Viruses must generate mRNAs from their genomes to produce proteins and replicate themselves, but different mechanisms are used to achieve this in each virus family. Viral genomes may be single - stranded (ss) or double - stranded (ds), RNA or DNA, and may or may not use reverse transcriptase (RT). In addition, ssRNA viruses may be either sense (+) or antisense (−). This classification places viruses into seven groups:
As an example of viral classification, the chicken pox virus, varicella zoster (VZV), belongs to the order Herpesvirales, family Herpesviridae, subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae, and genus Varicellovirus. VZV is in Group I of the Baltimore Classification because it is a dsDNA virus that does not use reverse transcriptase.
The complete set of viruses in an organism or habitat is called the virome; for example, all human viruses constitute the human virome.
Examples of common human diseases caused by viruses include the common cold, influenza, chickenpox, and cold sores. Many serious diseases such as Ebola virus disease, AIDS, avian influenza, and SARS are caused by viruses. The relative ability of viruses to cause disease is described in terms of virulence. Other diseases are under investigation to discover if they have a virus as the causative agent, such as the possible connection between human herpesvirus 6 (HHV6) and neurological diseases such as multiple sclerosis and chronic fatigue syndrome. There is controversy over whether the bornavirus, previously thought to cause neurological diseases in horses, could be responsible for psychiatric illnesses in humans.
Viruses have different mechanisms by which they produce disease in an organism, which depends largely on the viral species. Mechanisms at the cellular level primarily include cell lysis, the breaking open and subsequent death of the cell. In multicellular organisms, if enough cells die, the whole organism will start to suffer the effects. Although viruses cause disruption of healthy homeostasis, resulting in disease, they may exist relatively harmlessly within an organism. An example would include the ability of the herpes simplex virus, which causes cold sores, to remain in a dormant state within the human body. This is called latency and is a characteristic of the herpes viruses, including Epstein -- Barr virus, which causes glandular fever, and varicella zoster virus, which causes chickenpox and shingles. Most people have been infected with at least one of these types of herpes virus. These latent viruses might sometimes be beneficial, as the presence of the virus can increase immunity against bacterial pathogens, such as Yersinia pestis.
Some viruses can cause lifelong or chronic infections, where the viruses continue to replicate in the body despite the host 's defence mechanisms. This is common in hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections. People chronically infected are known as carriers, as they serve as reservoirs of infectious virus. In populations with a high proportion of carriers, the disease is said to be endemic.
Viral epidemiology is the branch of medical science that deals with the transmission and control of virus infections in humans. Transmission of viruses can be vertical, which means from mother to child, or horizontal, which means from person to person. Examples of vertical transmission include hepatitis B virus and HIV, where the baby is born already infected with the virus. Another, more rare, example is the varicella zoster virus, which, although causing relatively mild infections in humans, can be fatal to the foetus and newborn baby.
Horizontal transmission is the most common mechanism of spread of viruses in populations. Transmission can occur when: body fluids are exchanged during sexual activity, e.g., HIV; blood is exchanged by contaminated transfusion or needle sharing, e.g., hepatitis C; exchange of saliva by mouth, e.g., Epstein -- Barr virus; contaminated food or water is ingested, e.g., norovirus; aerosols containing virions are inhaled, e.g., influenza virus; and insect vectors such as mosquitoes penetrate the skin of a host, e.g., dengue. The rate or speed of transmission of viral infections depends on factors that include population density, the number of susceptible individuals, (i.e., those not immune), the quality of healthcare and the weather.
Epidemiology is used to break the chain of infection in populations during outbreaks of viral diseases. Control measures are used that are based on knowledge of how the virus is transmitted. It is important to find the source, or sources, of the outbreak and to identify the virus. Once the virus has been identified, the chain of transmission can sometimes be broken by vaccines. When vaccines are not available, sanitation and disinfection can be effective. Often, infected people are isolated from the rest of the community, and those that have been exposed to the virus are placed in quarantine. To control the outbreak of foot - and - mouth disease in cattle in Britain in 2001, thousands of cattle were slaughtered. Most viral infections of humans and other animals have incubation periods during which the infection causes no signs or symptoms. Incubation periods for viral diseases range from a few days to weeks, but are known for most infections. Somewhat overlapping, but mainly following the incubation period, there is a period of communicability -- a time when an infected individual or animal is contagious and can infect another person or animal. This, too, is known for many viral infections, and knowledge of the length of both periods is important in the control of outbreaks. When outbreaks cause an unusually high proportion of cases in a population, community, or region, they are called epidemics. If outbreaks spread worldwide, they are called pandemics.
Native American populations were devastated by contagious diseases, in particular, smallpox, brought to the Americas by European colonists. It is unclear how many Native Americans were killed by foreign diseases after the arrival of Columbus in the Americas, but the numbers have been estimated to be close to 70 % of the indigenous population. The damage done by this disease significantly aided European attempts to displace and conquer the native population.
A pandemic is a worldwide epidemic. The 1918 flu pandemic, which lasted until 1919, was a category 5 influenza pandemic caused by an unusually severe and deadly influenza A virus. The victims were often healthy young adults, in contrast to most influenza outbreaks, which predominantly affect juvenile, elderly, or otherwise - weakened patients. Older estimates say it killed 40 -- 50 million people, while more recent research suggests that it may have killed as many as 100 million people, or 5 % of the world 's population in 1918.
Most researchers believe that HIV originated in sub-Saharan Africa during the 20th century; it is now a pandemic, with an estimated 38.6 million people now living with the disease worldwide. The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV / AIDS (UNAIDS) and the World Health Organization (WHO) estimate that AIDS has killed more than 25 million people since it was first recognised on 5 June 1981, making it one of the most destructive epidemics in recorded history. In 2007 there were 2.7 million new HIV infections and 2 million HIV - related deaths.
Several highly lethal viral pathogens are members of the Filoviridae. Filoviruses are filament - like viruses that cause viral hemorrhagic fever, and include ebolaviruses and marburgviruses. Marburg virus, first discovered in 1967, attracted widespread press attention in April 2005 for an outbreak in Angola. Ebola Virus Disease has also caused intermittent outbreaks with high mortality rates since 1976 when it was first identified. The worst and most recent one is the West Africa epidemic.
Viruses are an established cause of cancer in humans and other species. Viral cancers occur only in a minority of infected persons (or animals). Cancer viruses come from a range of virus families, including both RNA and DNA viruses, and so there is no single type of "oncovirus '' (an obsolete term originally used for acutely transforming retroviruses). The development of cancer is determined by a variety of factors such as host immunity and mutations in the host. Viruses accepted to cause human cancers include some genotypes of human papillomavirus, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, Epstein -- Barr virus, Kaposi 's sarcoma - associated herpesvirus and human T - lymphotropic virus. The most recently discovered human cancer virus is a polyomavirus (Merkel cell polyomavirus) that causes most cases of a rare form of skin cancer called Merkel cell carcinoma. Hepatitis viruses can develop into a chronic viral infection that leads to liver cancer. Infection by human T - lymphotropic virus can lead to tropical spastic paraparesis and adult T - cell leukaemia. Human papillomaviruses are an established cause of cancers of cervix, skin, anus, and penis. Within the Herpesviridae, Kaposi 's sarcoma - associated herpesvirus causes Kaposi 's sarcoma and body - cavity lymphoma, and Epstein -- Barr virus causes Burkitt 's lymphoma, Hodgkin 's lymphoma, B lymphoproliferative disorder, and nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Merkel cell polyomavirus closely related to SV40 and mouse polyomaviruses that have been used as animal models for cancer viruses for over 50 years.
The body 's first line of defence against viruses is the innate immune system. This comprises cells and other mechanisms that defend the host from infection in a non-specific manner. This means that the cells of the innate system recognise, and respond to, pathogens in a generic way, but, unlike the adaptive immune system, it does not confer long - lasting or protective immunity to the host.
RNA interference is an important innate defence against viruses. Many viruses have a replication strategy that involves double - stranded RNA (dsRNA). When such a virus infects a cell, it releases its RNA molecule or molecules, which immediately bind to a protein complex called a dicer that cuts the RNA into smaller pieces. A biochemical pathway -- the RISC complex -- is activated, which ensures cell survival by degrading the viral mRNA. Rotaviruses have evolved to avoid this defence mechanism by not uncoating fully inside the cell, and releasing newly produced mRNA through pores in the particle 's inner capsid. Their genomic dsRNA remains protected inside the core of the virion.
When the adaptive immune system of a vertebrate encounters a virus, it produces specific antibodies that bind to the virus and often render it non-infectious. This is called humoral immunity. Two types of antibodies are important. The first, called IgM, is highly effective at neutralising viruses but is produced by the cells of the immune system only for a few weeks. The second, called IgG, is produced indefinitely. The presence of IgM in the blood of the host is used to test for acute infection, whereas IgG indicates an infection sometime in the past. IgG antibody is measured when tests for immunity are carried out.
Antibodies can continue to be an effective defence mechanism even after viruses have managed to gain entry to the host cell. A protein that is in cells, called TRIM21, can attach to the antibodies on the surface of the virus particle. This primes the subsequent destruction of the virus by the enzymes of the cell 's proteosome system.
A second defence of vertebrates against viruses is called cell - mediated immunity and involves immune cells known as T cells. The body 's cells constantly display short fragments of their proteins on the cell 's surface, and, if a T cell recognises a suspicious viral fragment there, the host cell is destroyed by killer T cells and the virus - specific T - cells proliferate. Cells such as the macrophage are specialists at this antigen presentation. The production of interferon is an important host defence mechanism. This is a hormone produced by the body when viruses are present. Its role in immunity is complex; it eventually stops the viruses from reproducing by killing the infected cell and its close neighbours.
Not all virus infections produce a protective immune response in this way. HIV evades the immune system by constantly changing the amino acid sequence of the proteins on the surface of the virion. This is known as "escape mutation '' as the viral epitopes escape recognition by the host immune response. These persistent viruses evade immune control by sequestration, blockade of antigen presentation, cytokine resistance, evasion of natural killer cell activities, escape from apoptosis, and antigenic shift. Other viruses, called neurotropic viruses, are disseminated by neural spread where the immune system may be unable to reach them.
Because viruses use vital metabolic pathways within host cells to replicate, they are difficult to eliminate without using drugs that cause toxic effects to host cells in general. The most effective medical approaches to viral diseases are vaccinations to provide immunity to infection, and antiviral drugs that selectively interfere with viral replication.
Vaccination is a cheap and effective way of preventing infections by viruses. Vaccines were used to prevent viral infections long before the discovery of the actual viruses. Their use has resulted in a dramatic decline in morbidity (illness) and mortality (death) associated with viral infections such as polio, measles, mumps and rubella. Smallpox infections have been eradicated. Vaccines are available to prevent over thirteen viral infections of humans, and more are used to prevent viral infections of animals. Vaccines can consist of live - attenuated or killed viruses, or viral proteins (antigens). Live vaccines contain weakened forms of the virus, which do not cause the disease but, nonetheless, confer immunity. Such viruses are called attenuated. Live vaccines can be dangerous when given to people with a weak immunity (who are described as immunocompromised), because in these people, the weakened virus can cause the original disease. Biotechnology and genetic engineering techniques are used to produce subunit vaccines. These vaccines use only the capsid proteins of the virus. Hepatitis B vaccine is an example of this type of vaccine. Subunit vaccines are safe for immunocompromised patients because they can not cause the disease. The yellow fever virus vaccine, a live - attenuated strain called 17D, is probably the safest and most effective vaccine ever generated.
Antiviral drugs are often nucleoside analogues (fake DNA building - blocks), which viruses mistakenly incorporate into their genomes during replication. The life - cycle of the virus is then halted because the newly synthesised DNA is inactive. This is because these analogues lack the hydroxyl groups, which, along with phosphorus atoms, link together to form the strong "backbone '' of the DNA molecule. This is called DNA chain termination. Examples of nucleoside analogues are aciclovir for Herpes simplex virus infections and lamivudine for HIV and Hepatitis B virus infections. Aciclovir is one of the oldest and most frequently prescribed antiviral drugs. Other antiviral drugs in use target different stages of the viral life cycle. HIV is dependent on a proteolytic enzyme called the HIV - 1 protease for it to become fully infectious. There is a large class of drugs called protease inhibitors that inactivate this enzyme.
Hepatitis C is caused by an RNA virus. In 80 % of people infected, the disease is chronic, and without treatment, they are infected for the remainder of their lives. There is now an effective treatment that uses the nucleoside analogue drug ribavirin combined with interferon. The treatment of chronic carriers of the hepatitis B virus by using a similar strategy using lamivudine has been developed.
Viruses infect all cellular life and, although viruses occur universally, each cellular species has its own specific range that often infect only that species. Some viruses, called satellites, can replicate only within cells that have already been infected by another virus.
Viruses are important pathogens of livestock. Diseases such as foot - and - mouth disease and bluetongue are caused by viruses. Companion animals such as cats, dogs, and horses, if not vaccinated, are susceptible to serious viral infections. Canine parvovirus is caused by a small DNA virus and infections are often fatal in pups. Like all invertebrates, the honey bee is susceptible to many viral infections. Most viruses co-exist harmlessly in their host and cause no signs or symptoms of disease.
There are many types of plant virus, but often they cause only a loss of yield, and it is not economically viable to try to control them. Plant viruses are often spread from plant to plant by organisms, known as vectors. These are normally insects, but some fungi, nematode worms, and single - celled organisms have been shown to be vectors. When control of plant virus infections is considered economical, for perennial fruits, for example, efforts are concentrated on killing the vectors and removing alternate hosts such as weeds. Plant viruses can not infect humans and other animals because they can reproduce only in living plant cells.
Plants have elaborate and effective defence mechanisms against viruses. One of the most effective is the presence of so - called resistance (R) genes. Each R gene confers resistance to a particular virus by triggering localised areas of cell death around the infected cell, which can often be seen with the unaided eye as large spots. This stops the infection from spreading. RNA interference is also an effective defence in plants. When they are infected, plants often produce natural disinfectants that kill viruses, such as salicylic acid, nitric oxide, and reactive oxygen molecules.
Plant virus particles or virus - like particles (VLPs) have applications in both biotechnology and nanotechnology. The capsids of most plant viruses are simple and robust structures and can be produced in large quantities either by the infection of plants or by expression in a variety of heterologous systems. Plant virus particles can be modified genetically and chemically to encapsulate foreign material and can be incorporated into supramolecular structures for use in biotechnology.
Bacteriophages are a common and diverse group of viruses and are the most abundant biological entity in aquatic environments -- there are up to ten times more of these viruses in the oceans than there are bacteria, reaching levels of 250,000,000 bacteriophages per millilitre of seawater. These viruses infect specific bacteria by binding to surface receptor molecules and then entering the cell. Within a short amount of time, in some cases just minutes, bacterial polymerase starts translating viral mRNA into protein. These proteins go on to become either new virions within the cell, helper proteins, which help assembly of new virions, or proteins involved in cell lysis. Viral enzymes aid in the breakdown of the cell membrane, and, in the case of the T4 phage, in just over twenty minutes after injection over three hundred phages could be released.
The major way bacteria defend themselves from bacteriophages is by producing enzymes that destroy foreign DNA. These enzymes, called restriction endonucleases, cut up the viral DNA that bacteriophages inject into bacterial cells. Bacteria also contain a system that uses CRISPR sequences to retain fragments of the genomes of viruses that the bacteria have come into contact with in the past, which allows them to block the virus 's replication through a form of RNA interference. This genetic system provides bacteria with acquired immunity to infection.
Some viruses replicate within archaea: these are double - stranded DNA viruses with unusual and sometimes unique shapes. These viruses have been studied in most detail in the thermophilic archaea, particularly the orders Sulfolobales and Thermoproteales. Defences against these viruses involve RNA interference from repetitive DNA sequences within archaean genomes that are related to the genes of the viruses. Most archaea have CRISPR -- Cas systems as an adaptive defence against viruses. These enable archaea to retain sections of viral DNA, which are then used to target and eliminate subsequent infections by the virus using a process similar to RNA interference.
A teaspoon of seawater (~ 5 mL) contains about 50 million viruses, which contain enormous genetic diversity. Most of these are viruses infecting heterotrophic bacteria "bacteriophages '' and cyanobacteria "cyanophages '', which are harmless to plants and animals, and are essential to the regulation of marine and freshwater ecosystems; they are also important mortality agents of phytoplankton, the base of the foodchain in aquatic environments. They infect and destroy bacteria in aquatic microbial communities, and are one of the most important mechanisms of recycling carbon and nutrient cycling in marine environments. The organic molecules released from the dead bacterial cells stimulate fresh bacterial and algal growth, in a process known as the viral shunt. In particular, lysis of bacteria by viruses has been shown to enhance nitrogen cycling and stimulate phytoplankton growth. Viral activity may also affect the biological pump, the process whereby carbon is sequestered in the deep ocean.
Microorganisms constitute more than 90 % of the biomass in the sea. It is estimated that viruses kill approximately 20 % of this biomass each day and that there are 10 to 15 times as many viruses in the oceans as there are bacteria and archaea. Viruses are also major agents responsible for the destruction of phytoplankton including harmful algal blooms, The number of viruses in the oceans decreases further offshore and deeper into the water, where there are fewer host organisms.
Like any organism, marine mammals are susceptible to viral infections. In 1988 and 2002, thousands of harbour seals were killed in Europe by phocine distemper virus. Many other viruses, including caliciviruses, herpesviruses, adenoviruses and parvoviruses, circulate in marine mammal populations.
Viruses are an important natural means of transferring genes between different species, which increases genetic diversity and drives evolution. It is thought that viruses played a central role in the early evolution, before the diversification of bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes, at the time of the last universal common ancestor of life on Earth. Viruses are still one of the largest reservoirs of unexplored genetic diversity on Earth.
Viruses are important to the study of molecular and cell biology as they provide simple systems that can be used to manipulate and investigate the functions of cells. The study and use of viruses have provided valuable information about aspects of cell biology. For example, viruses have been useful in the study of genetics and helped our understanding of the basic mechanisms of molecular genetics, such as DNA replication, transcription, RNA processing, translation, protein transport, and immunology.
Geneticists often use viruses as vectors to introduce genes into cells that they are studying. This is useful for making the cell produce a foreign substance, or to study the effect of introducing a new gene into the genome. In similar fashion, virotherapy uses viruses as vectors to treat various diseases, as they can specifically target cells and DNA. It shows promising use in the treatment of cancer and in gene therapy. Eastern European scientists have used phage therapy as an alternative to antibiotics for some time, and interest in this approach is increasing, because of the high level of antibiotic resistance now found in some pathogenic bacteria. Expression of heterologous proteins by viruses is the basis of several manufacturing processes that are currently being used for the production of various proteins such as vaccine antigens and antibodies. Industrial processes have been recently developed using viral vectors and a number of pharmaceutical proteins are currently in pre-clinical and clinical trials.
Virotherapy involves the use of genetically modified viruses to treat diseases. Viruses have been modified by scientists to reproduce in cancer cells and destroy them but not infect healthy cells. Talimogene laherparepvec (T - VEC), for example, is a modified herpes simplex virus that has had a gene, which is required for viruses to replicate in healthy cells, deleted and replaced with a human gene (GM - CSF) that stimulates immunity. When this virus infects cancer cells, it destroys them and in doing so the presence the GM - CSF gene attracts dendritic cells from the surrounding tissues of the body. The dendritic cells process the dead cancer cells and present components of them to other cells of the immune system. Having completed successful clinical trials, this virus is expected to gain approval for the treatment of a skin cancer called melanoma in late 2015. Viruses that have been reprogrammed to kill cancer cells are called oncolytic viruses.
Current trends in nanotechnology promise to make much more versatile use of viruses. From the viewpoint of a materials scientist, viruses can be regarded as organic nanoparticles. Their surface carries specific tools designed to cross the barriers of their host cells. The size and shape of viruses, and the number and nature of the functional groups on their surface, is precisely defined. As such, viruses are commonly used in materials science as scaffolds for covalently linked surface modifications. A particular quality of viruses is that they can be tailored by directed evolution. The powerful techniques developed by life sciences are becoming the basis of engineering approaches towards nanomaterials, opening a wide range of applications far beyond biology and medicine.
Because of their size, shape, and well - defined chemical structures, viruses have been used as templates for organising materials on the nanoscale. Recent examples include work at the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington, D.C., using Cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV) particles to amplify signals in DNA microarray based sensors. In this application, the virus particles separate the fluorescent dyes used for signalling to prevent the formation of non-fluorescent dimers that act as quenchers. Another example is the use of CPMV as a nanoscale breadboard for molecular electronics.
Many viruses can be synthesised de novo ("from scratch '') and the first synthetic virus was created in 2002. Although somewhat of a misconception, it is not the actual virus that is synthesised, but rather its DNA genome (in case of a DNA virus), or a cDNA copy of its genome (in case of RNA viruses). For many virus families the naked synthetic DNA or RNA (once enzymatically converted back from the synthetic cDNA) is infectious when introduced into a cell. That is, they contain all the necessary information to produce new viruses. This technology is now being used to investigate novel vaccine strategies. The ability to synthesise viruses has far - reaching consequences, since viruses can no longer be regarded as extinct, as long as the information of their genome sequence is known and permissive cells are available. As of November 2017, the full - length genome sequences of 7454 different viruses, including smallpox, are publicly available in an online database maintained by the National Institutes of Health.
The ability of viruses to cause devastating epidemics in human societies has led to the concern that viruses could be weaponised for biological warfare. Further concern was raised by the successful recreation of the infamous 1918 influenza virus in a laboratory. Smallpox virus devastated numerous societies throughout history before its eradication. There are only two centres in the world that are authorised by the WHO to keep stocks of smallpox virus: the State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR in Russia and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the United States. Fears that it may be used as a weapon may not be totally unfounded. As the vaccine for smallpox sometimes had severe side - effects, it is no longer used routinely in any country. Thus, much of the modern human population has almost no established resistance to smallpox, and would be vulnerable to the virus.
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who does michael fire in the halloween episode | Halloween (the Office) - wikipedia
"Halloween '' is the fifth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office, and the show 's eleventh episode overall. It was written by executive producer and showrunner Greg Daniels and was directed by Paul Feig. The episode first aired on NBC in the United States on October 18, 2005. Guest stars in this episode included Devon Abner, Hugh Dane, George Gaus, Annabelle Kopack, Ava Nisbet and Alec Zbornak.
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton, Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company. In this episode, the employees at Dunder Mifflin celebrate Halloween at the office. Michael Scott (Steve Carell) struggles with making the decision of whom to fire. Meanwhile, Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) and Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) post Dwight Schrute 's (Rainn Wilson) resume on the internet.
Due to the Halloween concept of the episode, the cast members of The Office were allowed to wear costumes rather than their "usual, realistically plain suits ''. B.J. Novak, writer for the series as well as actor, called the experience "fun ''. The episode features the last on - screen appearance of the background character Devon until the series finale. The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 4.1 in the 18 -- 49 demographic and was viewed by 8 million viewers.
Although informed early in October that he must fire somebody by the end of the month, Michael Scott (Steve Carell) waits until the last day of the month, Halloween, and still has n't fired anyone. Meanwhile, Jim Halpert (John Krasinski) and Pam Beesly (Jenna Fischer) post Dwight Schrute 's (Rainn Wilson) résumé on the internet, and when a prospective employer (Cumberland Mills in Maryland) calls, Jim pretends to be Michael and gives Dwight a great reference. When the company calls Dwight to set up an interview, Dwight immediately ruins his chances by arguing with the caller over the importance and relevance of martial arts in his résumé. Later in the day, Pam suggests that Jim should apply for the Cumberland Mills position. Jim is quietly hurt by the suggestion that Pam would not miss him if he left.
After several failed attempted firings of other employees, Michael calls Creed Bratton (Creed Bratton) into his office to fire him. Creed, in turn, convinces Michael to let Devon (Devon Abner) go. After Michael fires Devon, Devon angrily rebuffs Michael 's attempts to save their friendship, and invites everyone in the office (except Michael, Creed, Dwight and Angela) to join him at a local bar. As Jim leaves, Pam apologizes for pushing him into taking the Cumberland job and assures him that she would "blow her brains out '' if he ever left. Jim admits to the camera that Pam is the only thing keeping him there. When the group leaves the office, Devon smashes a pumpkin over Michael 's car in revenge.
At the end of the episode, Michael is alone at his home in front of the television, upset over firing Devon. When trick - or - treaters come, Michael cheerfully gives them a generous amount of candy.
"Halloween '' is the third episode written by the series developer, executive producer, and show runner Greg Daniels. The episode was directed by Paul Feig, his second credit after "Office Olympics ''. This episode is the only episode to date to have a quote to play over the Deedle - Dee Productions title card in the closing credits. The quote features Dwight Schrute exclaiming "Quiet, you! '' The episode is rated TV - PG on television in the United States.
During the pre-production for the episode, the cast and crew realized that the Halloween conceit would allow the various cast members to wear costumes, rather than their "usual, realistically plain suits ''. B.J. Novak called the dress - up experience "fun '', noting that "seeing the most serious of our plotlines play out alongside such silly and bizarre visuals was, I think, one of the most inspired ideas of the episode 's writer, Greg Daniels. '' The idea for Pam to be dressed as a cat was inspired by several unused stories, created by Gene Stupnitsky, in which "Pam Beesley must disguise herself as a cat ''. The plot lines were vetoed by the shows writers, but Stupnitsky successfully petitioned to allow Pam to wear a cat costume.
"Halloween '' marks the last appearance of Devon in an episode until the series finale, seven seasons later. Although Devon was only a background character, he is mentioned during "The Dundies '', seen in the background of "The Fire '', and is seen in a deleted scene during "Diversity Day ''. Devon is later seen in a deleted scene on "Valentine 's Day '', when Michael passes by a homeless Devon in New York. Devon then chases Michael, presumably still angry over the events of "Halloween ''. Guest stars in this episode included Devon Abner, Hugh Dane, George Gaus, Annabelle Kopack, Ava Nisbet and Alec Zbornak.
Due to the presence of Halloween, many of the employees costumes reflect movie and literary characters. Kelly is dressed as Dorothy Gale, but Michael makes an insensitive remark about Bend It Like Beckham. Dwight is dressed as a Sith, one of the characters in the Star Wars universe capable of using the "dark side '' of the Force. Phyllis, however, confuses him for "some sort of monk ''. Kevin is dressed as a Dunder Mifflin super hero, with a costume design similar to Mr. Incredible. Creed is dressed like a vampire and Devon is dressed like a hobo. Pam, Phyllis, and Angela are all dressed up as cats. Oscar is dressed as a woman, and Michael asks him if he is "flying his true colors '', to which Oscar reacts defensively.
"Halloween '' was originally broadcast on NBC in the United States on October 18, 2005. The episode was viewed by 8 million viewers and received a 4.1 rating / 10 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. This means that it was seen by 4.1 % of all 18 - to 49 - year - olds, and 10 % of all 18 - to 49 - year - olds watching television at the time of the broadcast. The episode was the number one ranked episode among adults, men, and women in the 18 -- 34 demographic, and achieved its highest 18 -- 49 rating since the season 's premiere. "Halloween '' retained 73 percent of its lead - in My Name Is Earl audience, its best lead - in retention at the time.
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a "B + ''. He felt that the plot revolving around downsizing was "fitting '', because the episode takes place on "Halloween '', and that this plot returned Michael to the role of villain. Adams also felt that "director Paul Feig and credited writer Greg Daniels had a lot of fun dressing the show up for "Halloween, '' framing Dwight like a shrouded Emperor Palpatine and making John Krasinski step into Steve Carell 's shoes for a couple of great punchlines. ''
The episode received mostly positive reviews from television critics. Michael Sciannamea of TV Squad gave the episode a relatively positive review and noted that he "could certainly relate to (the) episode. '' Sciannamea also said that "great moment '' in the episode was when "Michael tells Creed, who is dressed as a vampire, that he can spread his wings and fly to wherever he wants. '' "Miss Alli '' of Television Without Pity rated "Halloween '' a B+. Entertainment Weekly named Michael Scott 's line, "I just hope that you and I can remain friends, '' one of "TV 's funniest lines '' for the week ending October 24, 2005.
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what is the primary stain in the gram stain | Gram stain - wikipedia
Gram stain or Gram staining, also called Gram 's method, is a method of staining used to distinguish and classify bacterial species into two large groups (gram - positive and gram - negative). The name comes from the Danish bacteriologist Hans Christian Gram, who developed the technique.
Gram staining differentiates bacteria by the chemical and physical properties of their cell walls by detecting peptidoglycan, which is present in the cell wall of Gram - positive bacteria. Gram - negative cells also contain peptidoglycan, but a very small layer of it that is dissolved when the alcohol is added. This is why the cell loses its initial color from the primary stain. Gram - positive bacteria retain the crystal violet dye, and thus are stained violet, while the Gram - negative bacteria do not; after washing, a counterstain is added (commonly safranin or fuchsine) that will stain these Gram - negative bacteria a pink color. Both Gram - positive bacteria and Gram - negative bacteria pick up the counterstain. The counterstain, however, is unseen on Gram - positive bacteria because of the darker crystal violet stain.
The Gram stain is almost always the first step in the preliminary identification of a bacterial organism. While Gram staining is a valuable diagnostic tool in both clinical and research settings, not all bacteria can be definitively classified by this technique. This gives rise to gram - variable and gram - indeterminate groups.
The method is named after its inventor, the Danish scientist Hans Christian Gram (1853 -- 1938), who developed the technique while working with Carl Friedländer in the morgue of the city hospital in Berlin in 1884. Gram devised his technique not for the purpose of distinguishing one type of bacterium from another but to make bacteria more visible in stained sections of lung tissue. He published his method in 1884, and included in his short report the observation that the typhus bacillus did not retain the stain.
Gram staining is a bacteriological laboratory technique used to differentiate bacterial species into two large groups (gram - positive and gram - negative) based on the physical properties of their cell walls. Gram staining is not used to classify archaea, formerly archaeabacteria, since these microorganisms yield widely varying responses that do not follow their phylogenetic groups.
The Gram stain is not an infallible tool for diagnosis, identification, or phylogeny, and it is of extremely limited use in environmental microbiology. It is used mainly to make a preliminary morphologic identification or to establish that there are significant numbers of bacteria in a clinical specimen. It can not identify bacteria to the species level, and for most medical conditions, it should not be used as the sole method of bacterial identification. In clinical microbiology laboratories, it is used in combination with other traditional and molecular techniques to identify bacteria. Some organisms are gram - variable (meaning they may stain either negative or positive); some are not stained with either dye used in the Gram technique and are not seen. In a modern environmental or molecular microbiology lab, most identification is done using genetic sequences and other molecular techniques, which are far more specific and informative than differential staining.
Gram staining has been suggested to be as effective a diagnostic tool as PCR in one primary research report regarding gonococcal urethritis.
Gram stains are performed on body fluid or biopsy when infection is suspected. Gram stains yield results much more quickly than culturing, and is especially important when infection would make an important difference in the patient 's treatment and prognosis; examples are cerebrospinal fluid for meningitis and synovial fluid for septic arthritis.
Gram - positive bacteria have a thick mesh - like cell wall made of peptidoglycan (50 -- 90 % of cell envelope), and as a result are stained purple by crystal violet, whereas gram - negative bacteria have a thinner layer (10 % of cell envelope), so do not retain the purple stain and are counter-stained pink by safranin. There are four basic steps of the Gram stain:
Crystal violet (CV) dissociates in aqueous solutions into CV and chloride (Cl) ions. These ions penetrate through the cell wall and cell membrane of both gram - positive and gram - negative cells. The CV ion interacts with negatively charged components of bacterial cells and stains the cells purple.
Iodide (I or I) interacts with CV and forms large complexes of crystal violet and iodine (CV -- I) within the inner and outer layers of the cell. Iodine is often referred to as a mordant, but is a trapping agent that prevents the removal of the CV -- I complex and, therefore, color the cell.
When a decolorizer such as alcohol or acetone is added, it interacts with the lipids of the cell membrane. A gram - negative cell loses its outer lipopolysaccharide membrane, and the inner peptidoglycan layer is left exposed. The CV -- I complexes are washed from the gram - negative cell along with the outer membrane. In contrast, a gram - positive cell becomes dehydrated from an ethanol treatment. The large CV -- I complexes become trapped within the gram - positive cell due to the multilayered nature of its peptidoglycan. The decolorization step is critical and must be timed correctly; the crystal violet stain is removed from both gram - positive and negative cells if the decolorizing agent is left on too long (a matter of seconds).
After decolorization, the gram - positive cell remains purple and the gram - negative cell loses its purple color. Counterstain, which is usually positively charged safranin or basic fuchsine, is applied last to give decolorized gram - negative bacteria a pink or red color.
Gram - positive bacteria generally have a single membrane (monoderm) surrounded by a thick peptidoglycan. This rule is followed by two phyla: Firmicutes (except for the classes Mollicutes and Negativicutes) and the Actinobacteria. In contrast, members of the Chloroflexi (green non-sulfur bacteria) are monoderms but possess a thin or absent (class Dehalococcoidetes) peptidoglycan and can stain negative, positive or indeterminate; members of the Deinococcus - Thermus group, stain positive but are diderms with a thick peptidoglycan.
Historically, the gram - positive forms made up the phylum Firmicutes, a name now used for the largest group. It includes many well - known genera such as Bacillus, Listeria, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, and Clostridium. It has also been expanded to include the Mollicutes, bacteria like Mycoplasma that lack cell walls and so can not be stained by Gram, but are derived from such forms.
Some bacteria have cell walls which are particularly adept at retaining stains. These will appear positive by Gram stain even though they are not closely related to other gram - positive bacteria. These are called acid fast bacteria, and can only be differentiated from other gram - positive bacteria by special staining procedures.
Gram - negative bacteria generally possess a thin layer of peptidoglycan between two membranes (diderms). Most bacterial phyla are gram - negative, including the cyanobacteria, spirochaetes, and green sulfur bacteria, and most Proteobacteria (exceptions being some members of the Rickettsiales and the insect - endosymbionts of the Enterobacteriales).
Some bacteria, after staining with the Gram stain, yield a gram - variable pattern: a mix of pink and purple cells are seen. In cultures of Bacillus, Butyrivibrio, and Clostridium, a decrease in peptidoglycan thickness during growth coincides with an increase in the number of cells that stain gram - negative. In addition, in all bacteria stained using the Gram stain, the age of the culture may influence the results of the stain.
Gram - indeterminate bacteria do not respond predictably to Gram staining and, therefore, can not be determined as either gram - positive or gram - negative. Examples include many species of Mycobacterium, including M. tuberculosis and M. leprae.
The term Gram staining is derived from the surname of Hans Christian Gram, the eponym (Gram) is therefore capitalized but not the common noun (stain) as is usual for scientific terms. The adjectives ' gram - positive ' and ' gram - negative '; as eponymous adjectives, their initial letter can be either lowercase ' g ' or capital ' G ', depending on whose style guide (if any) governs the document being written. Lowercase style is used by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and other style regimens such as the AMA style. Dictionaries may use lowercase, uppercase, or both. Uppercase ' Gram - positive ' or ' Gram - negative ' usage is also common in many scientific journal articles and publications. When articles are submitted to journals, each journal may or may not apply house style to the postprint version. Preprint versions contain whichever style the author happened to use. Even style regimens that use lowercase for the adjectives ' gram - positive ' and ' gram - negative ' still use capital for ' Gram stain '.
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when did the l word jump the shark | The L Word (season 6) - wikipedia
The sixth and final season of The L Word started airing on January 18, 2009 and ended its original run on March 8 of the same year. 8 episodes were produced instead of 12.
Showtime confirmed a sixth and final season for The L Word. Unlike the show 's previous seasons, it only lasted 8 episodes to conclude the show with 71 episodes in total. Studio executives commented on the longevity of the show, with the Showtime president of entertainment Robert Greenblatt saying that The L Word has "surpassed its niche as a gay show ''. The sixth season premiered on January 18, 2009 and ended its original run on March 8 of the same year. Producers and writers of The L Word took viewers ' opinions regarding the final season 's episodes.
Before airing the show, Creator Ilene Chaiken denied reports of socialite Paris Hilton guest starring on an interview on gaydarnation.com. Ilene Chaiken said in an interview with the New York Post Magazine that she had offered DJ Samantha Ronson a guest spot in Season 6 but Ronson declined as she was busy. In July 2008, it was confirmed that Elizabeth Berkley would star as Kelly Wentworth (née Freemont) in a multi-episode arc of the final season.
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who scored the fastest hat trick in football | List of Premier League hat - tricks - wikipedia
Since the inception of the English football league competition, the Premier League, in 1992, more than 100 players have scored three goals (a hat - trick) or more in a single match. The first player to achieve the feat was Frenchman Eric Cantona, who scored three times for Leeds United in a 5 -- 0 victory over Tottenham Hotspur. Twenty players have scored more than three goals in a match; of these, five players, Andy Cole, Alan Shearer, Jermain Defoe, Dimitar Berbatov and Sergio Agüero have scored five. Sadio Mané holds the record for the quickest Premier League hat - trick, netting three times for Southampton against Aston Villa in 2 minutes 56 seconds, breaking Robbie Fowler 's record, while in 1999, Manchester United player Ole Gunnar Solskjær scored four goals in twelve minutes as a substitute against Nottingham Forest, "the fastest scorer of a four - goal haul on record in England ''.
The fixture between Arsenal and Southampton at Highbury in 2003 saw both Jermaine Pennant and Robert Pirès score a hat - trick for the home team. In 2007, Blackburn 's Roque Santa Cruz and Wigan 's Marcus Bent both scored hat - tricks in a match that Wigan won 5 -- 3. Only five players -- Les Ferdinand, Ian Wright, Didier Drogba, Wayne Rooney and Harry Kane -- have scored hat - tricks in two consecutive league games. Rooney 's hat - trick on 10 September 2011 and Matt Le Tissier 's hat - trick on 19 August 1995 were scored through set pieces, which consists of penalty kicks and direct free kicks. Everton 's Duncan Ferguson and Salomón Rondón of West Bromwich Albion are the only Premier League players to have scored a hat - trick of headers.
Shearer has scored three or more goals eleven times in the Premier League, more than any other player. Robbie Fowler has scored nine hat - tricks; Thierry Henry and Michael Owen have scored eight hat - tricks each. Five players have each scored hat - tricks for three different clubs: Yakubu Aiyegbeni (Blackburn Rovers, Everton and Portsmouth); Nicolas Anelka (Arsenal, Chelsea and Manchester City); Kevin Campbell (Arsenal, Everton and Nottingham Forest); Les Ferdinand (Newcastle United, Queens Park Rangers and Tottenham Hotspur) and Teddy Sheringham (Manchester United, Portsmouth and Tottenham Hotspur).
Four players have scored hat - tricks and still ended up on the losing side: Matt Le Tissier (twice), Dion Dublin, Roque Santa Cruz and Dwight Yorke.
The Dubious Goals Committee has sometimes decided after a match that players have not scored hat - tricks because one of the goals was incorrectly credited to them. Southampton player Egil Østenstad was thought to have scored a hat - trick against Manchester United in 1996, but the committee ruled that one of the goals be credited as an own goal to United 's Phil Neville. Anelka 's first goal for Manchester City in September 2002 was later credited as an own goal to Everton 's Tomasz Radzinski. Javier Hernández was denied a hat - trick against Aston Villa in November 2011 after the committee ruled his second goal was actually an own goal by Ron Vlaar.
The following table lists the minimum number of hat - tricks scored by players who have scored two or more hat - tricks.
Players in bold are still active in the Premier League.
The following table lists the number of hat - tricks scored by players from a single nation.
The Premier League, created in 1992, is the top tier of English league football.
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geet hui sabse parayi full serial free download | Geet (tv series) - Wikipedia
Geet - Hui Sabse Parayi is an Indian soap opera which premiered on 5 April 2010 on STAR One. The show ended on 14 December 2011 when STAR One was replaced by Life OK.
Geet, abandoned by her NRI husband, braves difficulties to find her way in a new city, and in turn, finds the love and support of a new family.
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where does the word fairy tale come from | Fairy tale - wikipedia
A fairy tale, wonder tale, magic tale, or Märchen is folklore genre that takes the form of a short story that typically features entities such as dwarfs, dragons, elves, fairies, giants, gnomes, goblins, griffins, mermaids, talking animals, trolls, unicorns, or witches, and usually magic or enchantments. Fairy tales may be distinguished from other folk narratives such as legends (which generally involve belief in the veracity of the events described) and explicitly moral tales, including beast fables. The term is mainly used for stories with origins in European tradition and, at least in recent centuries, mostly relates to children 's literature.
In less technical contexts, the term is also used to describe something blessed with unusual happiness, as in "fairy tale ending '' (a happy ending) or "fairy tale romance ''. Colloquially, a "fairy tale '' or "fairy story '' can also mean any far - fetched story or tall tale; it is used especially of any story that not only is not true, but could not possibly be true. Legends are perceived as real; fairy tales may merge into legends, where the narrative is perceived both by teller and hearers as being grounded in historical truth. However, unlike legends and epics, they usually do not contain more than superficial references to religion and actual places, people, and events; they take place once upon a time rather than in actual times.
Fairy tales are found in oral and in literary form; the name "fairy tale '' was first ascribed to them by Madame d'Aulnoy in the late 17th century. Many of today 's fairy tales have evolved from centuries - old stories that have appeared, with variations, in multiple cultures around the world. The history of the fairy tale is particularly difficult to trace because only the literary forms can survive. Still, according to researchers at universities in Durham and Lisbon, such stories may date back thousands of years, some to the Bronze Age more than 6,000 years ago. Fairy tales, and works derived from fairy tales, are still written today.
Folklorists have classified fairy tales in various ways. The Aarne - Thompson classification system and the morphological analysis of Vladimir Propp are among the most notable. Other folklorists have interpreted the tales ' significance, but no school has been definitively established for the meaning of the tales.
Some folklorists prefer to use the German term Märchen or "wonder tale '' to refer to the genre over fairy tale, a practice given weight by the definition of Thompson in his 1977 (1946) edition of The Folktale: "a tale of some length involving a succession of motifs or episodes. It moves in an unreal world without definite locality or definite creatures and is filled with the marvellous. In this never - never land, humble heroes kill adversaries, succeed to kingdoms and marry princesses. '' The characters and motifs of fairy tales are simple and archetypal: princesses and goose - girls; youngest sons and gallant princes; ogres, giants, dragons, and trolls; wicked stepmothers and false heroes; fairy godmothers and other magical helpers, often talking horses, or foxes, or birds; glass mountains; and prohibitions and breaking of prohibitions.
A fairy tale with a tragic rather than a happy end is called an anti-fairy tale.
Although the fairy tale is a distinct genre within the larger category of folktale, the definition that marks a work as a fairy tale is a source of considerable dispute. The term itself comes from the translation of Madame D'Aulnoy's Conte de fées, first used in her collection in 1697.) Common parlance conflates fairy tales with beast fables and other folktales, and scholars differ on the degree to which the presence of fairies and / or similarly mythical beings (e.g., elves, goblins, trolls, giants, huge monsters) should be taken as a differentiator. Vladimir Propp, in his Morphology of the Folktale, criticized the common distinction between "fairy tales '' and "animal tales '' on the grounds that many tales contained both fantastic elements and animals. Nevertheless, to select works for his analysis, Propp used all Russian folktales classified as a folklore Aarne - Thompson 300 - 749 -- in a cataloguing system that made such a distinction -- to gain a clear set of tales. His own analysis identified fairy tales by their plot elements, but that in itself has been criticized, as the analysis does not lend itself easily to tales that do not involve a quest, and furthermore, the same plot elements are found in non-fairy tale works.
Were I asked, what is a fairytale? I should reply, Read Undine: that is a fairytale... of all fairytales I know, I think Undine the most beautiful.
As Stith Thompson points out, talking animals and the presence of magic seem to be more common to the fairy tale than fairies themselves. However, the mere presence of animals that talk does not make a tale a fairy tale, especially when the animal is clearly a mask on a human face, as in fables.
In his essay "On Fairy - Stories '', J. R. R. Tolkien agreed with the exclusion of "fairies '' from the definition, defining fairy tales as stories about the adventures of men in Faërie, the land of fairies, fairytale princes and princesses, dwarves, elves, and not only other magical species but many other marvels. However, the same essay excludes tales that are often considered fairy tales, citing as an example The Monkey 's Heart, which Andrew Lang included in The Lilac Fairy Book.
Steven Swann Jones identified the presence of magic as the feature by which fairy tales can be distinguished from other sorts of folktales. Davidson and Chaudri identify "transformation '' as the key feature of the genre. From a psychological point of view, Jean Chiriac argued for the necessity of the fantastic in these narratives.
In terms of aesthetic values, Italo Calvino cited the fairy tale as a prime example of "quickness '' in literature, because of the economy and concision of the tales.
Originally, stories that would contemporarily be considered fairy tales were not marked out as a separate genre. The German term "Märchen '' stems from the old German word "Mär '', which means story or tale. The word "Märchen '' is the diminutive of the word "Mär '', therefore it means a "little story ''. Together with the common beginning "once upon a time '' it means a fairy tale or a märchen was originally a little story from a long time ago when the world was still magic. (Indeed, one less regular German opening is "In the old times when wishing was still effective ''.)
The English term "fairy tale '' stems from the fact that the French contes often included fairies.
Roots of the genre come from different oral stories passed down in European cultures. The genre was first marked out by writers of the Renaissance, such as Giovanni Francesco Straparola and Giambattista Basile, and stabilized through the works of later collectors such as Charles Perrault and the Brothers Grimm. In this evolution, the name was coined when the précieuses took up writing literary stories; Madame d'Aulnoy invented the term Conte de fée, or fairy tale, in the late 17th century.
Before the definition of the genre of fantasy, many works that would now be classified as fantasy were termed "fairy tales '', including Tolkien 's The Hobbit, George Orwell 's Animal Farm, and L. Frank Baum 's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. Indeed, Tolkien 's "On Fairy - Stories '' includes discussions of world - building and is considered a vital part of fantasy criticism. Although fantasy, particularly the subgenre of fairytale fantasy, draws heavily on fairy tale motifs, the genres are now regarded as distinct.
The fairy tale, told orally, is a sub-class of the folktale. Many writers have written in the form of the fairy tale. These are the literary fairy tales, or Kunstmärchen. The oldest forms, from Panchatantra to the Pentamerone, show considerable reworking from the oral form. The Brothers Grimm were among the first to try to preserve the features of oral tales. Yet the stories printed under the Grimm name have been considerably reworked to fit the written form.
Literary fairy tales and oral fairy tales freely exchanged plots, motifs, and elements with one another and with the tales of foreign lands. The literary fairy tale came into fashion during the 17th century, developed by aristocratic women as a parlour game. This, in turn, helped to maintain the oral tradition. According to Jack Zipes, "The subject matter of the conversations consisted of literature, mores, taste, and etiquette, whereby the speakers all endeavoured to portray ideal situations in the most effective oratorical style that would gradually have a major effect on literary forms. '' Many 18th - century folklorists attempted to recover the "pure '' folktale, uncontaminated by literary versions. Yet while oral fairy tales likely existed for thousands of years before the literary forms, there is no pure folktale, and each literary fairy tale draws on folk traditions, if only in parody. This makes it impossible to trace forms of transmission of a fairy tale. Oral story - tellers have been known to read literary fairy tales to increase their own stock of stories and treatments.
The oral tradition of the fairy tale came long before the written page. Tales were told or enacted dramatically, rather than written down, and handed down from generation to generation. Because of this, the history of their development is necessarily obscure and blurred. Fairy tales appear, now and again, in written literature throughout literate cultures, as in The Golden Ass, which includes Cupid and Psyche (Roman, 100 -- 200 AD), or the Panchatantra (India 3rd century BC), but it is unknown to what extent these reflect the actual folk tales even of their own time. The stylistic evidence indicates that these, and many later collections, reworked folk tales into literary forms. What they do show is that the fairy tale has ancient roots, older than the Arabian Nights collection of magical tales (compiled circa 1500 AD), such as Vikram and the Vampire, and Bel and the Dragon. Besides such collections and individual tales, in China, Taoist philosophers such as Liezi and Zhuangzi recounted fairy tales in their philosophical works. In the broader definition of the genre, the first famous Western fairy tales are those of Aesop (6th century BC) in ancient Greece.
Jack Zipes writes in When Dreams Came True, "There are fairy tale elements in Chaucer 's The Canterbury Tales, Edmund Spenser 's The Faerie Queene, and... in many of William Shakespeare plays. '' King Lear can be considered a literary variant of fairy tales such as Water and Salt and Cap O ' Rushes. The tale itself resurfaced in Western literature in the 16th and 17th centuries, with The Facetious Nights of Straparola by Giovanni Francesco Straparola (Italy, 1550 and 1553), which contains many fairy tales in its inset tales, and the Neapolitan tales of Giambattista Basile (Naples, 1634 -- 6), which are all fairy tales. Carlo Gozzi made use of many fairy tale motifs among his Commedia dell'Arte scenarios, including among them one based on The Love For Three Oranges (1761). Simultaneously, Pu Songling, in China, included many fairy tales in his collection, Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio (published posthumously, 1766). The fairy tale itself became popular among the précieuses of upper - class France (1690 -- 1710), and among the tales told in that time were the ones of La Fontaine and the Contes of Charles Perrault (1697), who fixed the forms of Sleeping Beauty and Cinderella. Although Straparola 's, Basile 's and Perrault 's collections contain the oldest known forms of various fairy tales, on the stylistic evidence, all the writers rewrote the tales for literary effect.
In the mid-17th century, a vogue for magical tales emerged among the intellectuals who frequented the salons of Paris. These salons were regular gatherings hosted by prominent aristocratic women, where women and men could gather together to discuss the issues of the day.
In the 1630s, aristocratic women began to gather in their own living rooms, salons, in order to discuss the topics of their choice: arts and letters, politics, and social matters of immediate concern to the women of their class: marriage, love, financial and physical independence, and access to education. This was a time when women were barred from receiving a formal education. Some of the most gifted women writers of the period came out of these early salons (such as Madeleine de Scudéry and Madame de Lafayette), which encouraged women 's independence and pushed against the gender barriers that defined their lives. The salonnières argued particularly for love and intellectual compatibility between the sexes, opposing the system of arranged marriages.
Sometime in the middle of the 17th century, a passion for the conversational parlour game based on the plots of old folk tales swept through the salons. Each salonnière was called upon to retell an old tale or rework an old theme, spinning clever new stories that not only showcased verbal agility and imagination but also slyly commented on the conditions of aristocratic life. Great emphasis was placed on a mode of delivery that seemed natural and spontaneous. The decorative language of the fairy tales served an important function: disguising the rebellious subtext of the stories and sliding them past the court censors. Critiques of court life (and even of the king) were embedded in extravagant tales and in dark, sharply dystopian ones. Not surprisingly, the tales by women often featured young (but clever) aristocratic girls whose lives were controlled by the arbitrary whims of fathers, kings, and elderly wicked fairies, as well as tales in which groups of wise fairies (i.e., intelligent, independent women) stepped in and put all to rights.
The salon tales as they were originally written and published have been preserved in a monumental work called Le Cabinet des Fées, an enormous collection of stories from the 17th and 18th centuries.
The first collectors to attempt to preserve not only the plot and characters of the tale, but also the style in which they were told, was the Brothers Grimm, collecting German fairy tales; ironically, this meant although their first edition (1812 & 1815) remains a treasure for folklorists, they rewrote the tales in later editions to make them more acceptable, which ensured their sales and the later popularity of their work.
Such literary forms did not merely draw from the folktale, but also influenced folktales in turn. The Brothers Grimm rejected several tales for their collection, though told orally to them by Germans, because the tales derived from Perrault, and they concluded they were thereby French and not German tales; an oral version of Bluebeard was thus rejected, and the tale of Little Briar Rose, clearly related to Perrault 's The Sleeping Beauty, was included only because Jacob Grimm convinced his brother that the figure of Brynhildr, from much earlier Norse mythology, proved that the sleeping princess was authentically Germanic folklore.
This consideration of whether to keep Sleeping Beauty reflected a belief common among folklorists of the 19th century: that the folk tradition preserved fairy tales in forms from pre-history except when "contaminated '' by such literary forms, leading people to tell inauthentic tales. The rural, illiterate, and uneducated peasants, if suitably isolated, were the folk and would tell pure folk tales. Sometimes they regarded fairy tales as a form of fossil, the remnants of a once - perfect tale. However, further research has concluded that fairy tales never had a fixed form, and regardless of literary influence, the tellers constantly altered them for their own purposes.
The work of the Brothers Grimm influenced other collectors, both inspiring them to collect tales and leading them to similarly believe, in a spirit of romantic nationalism, that the fairy tales of a country were particularly representative of it, to the neglect of cross-cultural influence. Among those influenced were the Russian Alexander Afanasyev (first published in 1866), the Norwegians Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe (first published in 1845), the Romanian Petre Ispirescu (first published in 1874), the English Joseph Jacobs (first published in 1890), and Jeremiah Curtin, an American who collected Irish tales (first published in 1890). Ethnographers collected fairy tales throughout the world, finding similar tales in Africa, the Americas, and Australia; Andrew Lang was able to draw on not only the written tales of Europe and Asia, but those collected by ethnographers, to fill his "coloured '' fairy books series. They also encouraged other collectors of fairy tales, as when Yei Theodora Ozaki created a collection, Japanese Fairy Tales (1908), after encouragement from Lang. Simultaneously, writers such as Hans Christian Andersen and George MacDonald continued the tradition of literary fairy tales. Andersen 's work sometimes drew on old folktales, but more often deployed fairytale motifs and plots in new tales. MacDonald incorporated fairytale motifs both in new literary fairy tales, such as The Light Princess, and in works of the genre that would become fantasy, as in The Princess and the Goblin or Lilith.
Two theories of origins have attempted to explain the common elements in fairy tales found spread over continents. One is that a single point of origin generated any given tale, which then spread over the centuries; the other is that such fairy tales stem from common human experience and therefore can appear separately in many different origins.
Fairy tales with very similar plots, characters, and motifs are found spread across many different cultures. Many researchers hold this to be caused by the spread of such tales, as people repeat tales they have heard in foreign lands, although the oral nature makes it impossible to trace the route except by inference. Folklorists have attempted to determine the origin by internal evidence, which can not always be clear; Joseph Jacobs, comparing the Scottish tale The Ridere of Riddles with the version collected by the Brothers Grimm, The Riddle, noted that in The Ridere of Riddles one hero ends up polygamously married, which might point to an ancient custom, but in The Riddle, the simpler riddle might argue greater antiquity.
Folklorists of the "Finnish '' (or historical - geographical) school attempted to place fairy tales to their origin, with inconclusive results. Sometimes influence, especially within a limited area and time, is clearer, as when considering the influence of Perrault 's tales on those collected by the Brothers Grimm. Little Briar - Rose appears to stem from Perrault 's The Sleeping Beauty, as the Grimms ' tale appears to be the only independent German variant. Similarly, the close agreement between the opening of the Grimms ' version of Little Red Riding Hood and Perrault 's tale points to an influence, although the Grimms ' version adds a different ending (perhaps derived from The Wolf and the Seven Young Kids).
Fairy tales tend to take on the color of their location, through the choice of motifs, the style in which they are told, and the depiction of character and local color.
The Brothers Grimm believed that European fairy tales derived from the cultural history shared by all Indo - European peoples and were therefore ancient, far older than written records. This view is supported by research by the anthropologist Jamie Tehrani and the folklorist Sara Graca Da Silva using phylogenetic analysis, a technique developed by evolutionary biologists to trace the relatedness of living and fossil species. Among the tales analysed were Jack and the Beanstalk, traced to the time of splitting of Eastern and Western Indo - European, over 5000 years ago. Both Beauty and the Beast and Rumpelstiltskin appear to have been created some 4000 years ago. The story of The Smith and the Devil (Deal with the Devil) appears to date from the Bronze Age, some 6000 years ago.
Originally, adults were the audience of a fairy tale just as often as children. Literary fairy tales appeared in works intended for adults, but in the 19th and 20th centuries the fairy tale became associated with children 's literature.
The précieuses, including Madame d'Aulnoy, intended their works for adults, but regarded their source as the tales that servants, or other women of lower class, would tell to children. Indeed, a novel of that time, depicting a countess 's suitor offering to tell such a tale, has the countess exclaim that she loves fairy tales as if she were still a child. Among the late précieuses, Jeanne - Marie Le Prince de Beaumont redacted a version of Beauty and the Beast for children, and it is her tale that is best known today. The Brothers Grimm titled their collection Children 's and Household Tales and rewrote their tales after complaints that they were not suitable for children.
In the modern era, fairy tales were altered so that they could be read to children. The Brothers Grimm concentrated mostly on sexual references; Rapunzel, in the first edition, revealed the prince 's visits by asking why her clothing had grown tight, thus letting the witch deduce that she was pregnant, but in subsequent editions carelessly revealed that it was easier to pull up the prince than the witch. On the other hand, in many respects, violence -- particularly when punishing villains -- was increased. Other, later, revisions cut out violence; J. R. R. Tolkien noted that The Juniper Tree often had its cannibalistic stew cut out in a version intended for children. The moralizing strain in the Victorian era altered the classical tales to teach lessons, as when George Cruikshank rewrote Cinderella in 1854 to contain temperance themes. His acquaintance Charles Dickens protested, "In an utilitarian age, of all other times, it is a matter of grave importance that fairy tales should be respected. ''
Psychoanalysts such as Bruno Bettelheim, who regarded the cruelty of older fairy tales as indicative of psychological conflicts, strongly criticized this expurgation, because it weakened their usefulness to both children and adults as ways of symbolically resolving issues. Fairy tales do teach children how to deal with difficult times. To quote Rebecca Walters (2017, p. 56) "Fairytales and folktales are part of the cultural conserve that can be used to address children 's fears.... and give them some role training in an approach that honors the children 's window of tolerance ''. These fairy tales teach children how to deal with certain social situations and helps them to find their place in society. Fairy tales teach children other important lessons too. For example, Tsitsani et al carried out a study on children to determine the benefits of fairy tales. Parents of the children who took part in the study found that fairy tales, especially the color in them, triggered their child 's imagination as the read them. Jungian Analyst and fairy tale scholar, Marie Louise Von Franz interprets fairy tales based on Jung 's view of fairy tales as a spontaneous and naive product of soul, which can only express what soul is. That means, she looks at fairy tales as images of different phases of experiencing the reality of the soul. They are the "purest and simplest expression of collective unconscious psychic processes '' and "they represent the archetypes in their simplest, barest and most concise form '' because they are less overlaid with conscious material than myths and legends. "In this pure form, the archetypal images afford us the best clues to the understanding of the processes going on in the collective psyche ''. "The fairy tale itself is its own best explanation; that is, its meaning is contained in the totality of its motifs connected by the thread of the story. (...) Every fairy tale is a relatively closed system compounding one essential psychological meaning which is expressed in a series of symbolical pictures and events and is discoverable in these ''. "I have come to the conclusion that all fairy tales endeavour to describe one and the same psychic fact, but a fact so complex and far - reaching and so difficult for us to realize in all its different aspects that hundreds of tales and thousands of repetitions with a musician 's variation are needed until this unknown fact is delivered into consciousness; and even then the theme is not exhausted. This unknown fact is what Jung calls the Self, which is the psychic reality of the collective unconscious. (...) Every archetype is in its essence only one aspect of the collective unconscious as well as always representing also the whole collective unconscious.
Other famous people commented on the importance of fairy tales, especially for children. For example, Albert Einstein once showed how important he believed fairy tales were for children 's intelligence in the quote "If you want your children to be intelligent, read them fairytales. If you want them to be more intelligent, read them more fairytales. ''
The adaptation of fairy tales for children continues. Walt Disney 's influential Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was largely (although certainly not solely) intended for the children 's market. The anime Magical Princess Minky Momo draws on the fairy tale Momotarō. Jack Zipes has spent many years working to make the older traditional stories accessible to modern readers and their children.
In contemporary literature, many authors have used the form of fairy tales for various reasons, such as examining the human condition from the simple framework a fairytale provides. Some authors seek to recreate a sense of the fantastic in a contemporary discourse. Some writers use fairy tale forms for modern issues; this can include using the psychological dramas implicit in the story, as when Robin McKinley retold Donkeyskin as the novel Deerskin, with emphasis on the abusive treatment the father of the tale dealt to his daughter. Sometimes, especially in children 's literature, fairy tales are retold with a twist simply for comic effect, such as The Stinky Cheese Man by Jon Scieszka and The ASBO Fairy Tales by Chris Pilbeam. A common comic motif is a world where all the fairy tales take place, and the characters are aware of their role in the story, such as in the film series Shrek.
Other authors may have specific motives, such as multicultural or feminist reevaluations of predominantly Eurocentric masculine - dominated fairy tales, implying critique of older narratives. The figure of the damsel in distress has been particularly attacked by many feminist critics. Examples of narrative reversal rejecting this figure include The Paperbag Princess by Robert Munsch, a picture book aimed at children in which a princess rescues a prince, and Angela Carter 's The Bloody Chamber, which retells a number of fairy tales from a female point of view.
There are also many contemporary erotic retellings of fairy tales, which explicitly draw upon the original spirit of the tales, and are specifically for adults. Modern retellings focus on exploring the tale through use of the erotic, explicit sexuality, dark and / or comic themes, female empowerment, fetish and BDSM, multicultural, and heterosexual characters. Cleis Press has released several fairy tale themed erotic anthologies, including Fairy Tale Lust, Lustfully Ever After, and A Princess Bound.
It may be hard to lay down the rule between fairy tales and fantasies that use fairy tale motifs, or even whole plots, but the distinction is commonly made, even within the works of a single author: George MacDonald 's Lilith and Phantastes are regarded as fantasies, while his "The Light Princess '', "The Golden Key '', and "The Wise Woman '' are commonly called fairy tales. The most notable distinction is that fairytale fantasies, like other fantasies, make use of novelistic writing conventions of prose, characterization, or setting.
Fairy tales have been enacted dramatically; records exist of this in commedia dell'arte, and later in pantomime. The advent of cinema has meant that such stories could be presented in a more plausible manner, with the use of special effects and animation. The Walt Disney Company has had a significant impact on the evolution of the fairy tale film. Some of the earliest short silent films from the Disney studio were based on fairy tales, and some fairy tales were adapted into shorts in the musical comedy series "Silly Symphonies '', such as Three Little Pigs. Walt Disney 's first feature - length film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, released in 1937, was a ground - breaking film for fairy tales and, indeed, fantasy in general. Disney and his creative successors have returned to traditional and literary fairy tales numerous times with films such as Cinderella (1950), Sleeping Beauty (1959) and Beauty and the Beast (1991). Disney 's influence helped establish the fairy tale genre as a genre for children, and has been accused by some of bowdlerizing the gritty naturalism -- and sometimes unhappy endings -- of many folk fairy tales. However, others note that the softening of fairy tales occurred long before Disney, some of which was even done by the Grimm brothers themselves.
Many filmed fairy tales have been made primarily for children, from Disney 's later works to Aleksandr Rou 's retelling of Vasilissa the Beautiful, the first Soviet film to use Russian folk tales in a big - budget feature. Others have used the conventions of fairy tales to create new stories with sentiments more relevant to contemporary life, as in Labyrinth, My Neighbor Totoro, Happily N'Ever After, and the films of Michel Ocelot.
Other works have retold familiar fairy tales in a darker, more horrific or psychological variant aimed primarily at adults. Notable examples are Jean Cocteau 's Beauty and the Beast and The Company of Wolves, based on Angela Carter 's retelling of Little Red Riding Hood. Likewise, Princess Mononoke, Pan 's Labyrinth, Suspiria, and Spike create new stories in this genre from fairy tale and folklore motifs.
In comics and animated TV series, The Sandman, Revolutionary Girl Utena, Princess Tutu, Fables and MÄR all make use of standard fairy tale elements to various extents but are more accurately categorised as fairytale fantasy due to the definite locations and characters which a longer narrative requires.
A more modern cinematic fairy tale would be Luchino Visconti 's Le Notti Bianche, starring Marcello Mastroianni before he became a superstar. It involves many of the romantic conventions of fairy tales, yet it takes place in post-World War II Italy, and it ends realistically.
Any comparison of fairy tales quickly discovers that many fairy tales have features in common with each other. Two of the most influential classifications are those of Antti Aarne, as revised by Stith Thompson into the Aarne - Thompson classification system, and Vladimir Propp 's Morphology of the Folk Tale.
This system groups fairy and folk tales according to their overall plot. Common, identifying features are picked out to decide which tales are grouped together. Much therefore depends on what features are regarded as decisive.
For instance, tales like Cinderella -- in which a persecuted heroine, with the help of the fairy godmother or similar magical helper, attends an event (or three) in which she wins the love of a prince and is identified as his true bride -- are classified as type 510, the persecuted heroine. Some such tales are The Wonderful Birch; Aschenputtel; Katie Woodencloak; The Story of Tam and Cam; Ye Xian; Cap O ' Rushes; Catskin; Fair, Brown and Trembling; Finette Cendron; Allerleirauh.
Further analysis of the tales shows that in Cinderella, The Wonderful Birch, The Story of Tam and Cam, Ye Xian, and Aschenputtel, the heroine is persecuted by her stepmother and refused permission to go to the ball or other event, and in Fair, Brown and Trembling and Finette Cendron by her sisters and other female figures, and these are grouped as 510A; while in Cap O ' Rushes, Catskin, and Allerleirauh, the heroine is driven from home by her father 's persecutions, and must take work in a kitchen elsewhere, and these are grouped as 510B. But in Katie Woodencloak, she is driven from home by her stepmother 's persecutions and must take service in a kitchen elsewhere, and in Tattercoats, she is refused permission to go to the ball by her grandfather. Given these features common with both types of 510, Katie Woodencloak is classified as 510A because the villain is the stepmother, and Tattercoats as 510B because the grandfather fills the father 's role.
This system has its weaknesses in the difficulty of having no way to classify subportions of a tale as motifs. Rapunzel is type 310 (The Maiden in the Tower), but it opens with a child being demanded in return for stolen food, as does Puddocky; but Puddocky is not a Maiden in the Tower tale, while The Canary Prince, which opens with a jealous stepmother, is.
It also lends itself to emphasis on the common elements, to the extent that the folklorist describes The Black Bull of Norroway as the same story as Beauty and the Beast. This can be useful as a shorthand but can also erase the coloring and details of a story.
Vladimir Propp specifically studied a collection of Russian fairy tales, but his analysis has been found useful for the tales of other countries. Having criticized Aarne - Thompson type analysis for ignoring what motifs did in stories, and because the motifs used were not clearly distinct, he analyzed the tales for the function each character and action fulfilled and concluded that a tale was composed of thirty - one elements (' functions ') and seven characters or ' spheres of action ' (' the princess and her father ' are a single sphere). While the elements were not all required for all tales, when they appeared they did so in an invariant order -- except that each individual element might be negated twice, so that it would appear three times, as when, in Brother and Sister, the brother resists drinking from enchanted streams twice, so that it is the third that enchants him. Propp 's 31 functions also fall within six ' stages ' (preparation, complication, transference, struggle, return, recognition), and a stage can also be repeated, which can affect the perceived order of elements.
One such element is the donor who gives the hero magical assistance, often after testing him. In The Golden Bird, the talking fox tests the hero by warning him against entering an inn and, after he succeeds, helps him find the object of his quest; in The Boy Who Drew Cats, the priest advised the hero to stay in small places at night, which protects him from an evil spirit; in Cinderella, the fairy godmother gives Cinderella the dresses she needs to attend the ball, as their mothers ' spirits do in Bawang Putih Bawang Merah and The Wonderful Birch; in The Fox Sister, a Buddhist monk gives the brothers magical bottles to protect against the fox spirit. The roles can be more complicated. In The Red Ettin, the role is split into the mother -- who offers the hero the whole of a journey cake with her curse or half with her blessing -- and when he takes the half, a fairy who gives him advice; in Mr Simigdáli, the sun, the moon, and the stars all give the heroine a magical gift. Characters who are not always the donor can act like the donor. In Kallo and the Goblins, the villain goblins also give the heroine gifts, because they are tricked; in Schippeitaro, the evil cats betray their secret to the hero, giving him the means to defeat them. Other fairy tales, such as The Story of the Youth Who Went Forth to Learn What Fear Was, do not feature the donor.
Analogies have been drawn between this and the analysis of myths into the Hero 's journey.
Many fairy tales have been interpreted for their (purported) significance. One mythological interpretation saw many fairy tales, including Hansel and Gretel, Sleeping Beauty, and The Frog King, as solar myths; this mode of interpretation subsequently became rather less popular. Freudian, Jungian, and other psychological analyses have also explicated many tales, but no mode of interpretation has established itself definitively.
Specific analyses have often been criticized for lending great importance to motifs that are not, in fact, integral to the tale; this has often stemmed from treating one instance of a fairy tale as the definitive text, where the tale has been told and retold in many variations. In variants of Bluebeard, the wife 's curiosity is betrayed by a blood - stained key, by an egg 's breaking, or by the singing of a rose she wore, without affecting the tale, but interpretations of specific variants have claimed that the precise object is integral to the tale.
Other folklorists have interpreted tales as historical documents. Many German folklorists, believing the tales to have preserved details from ancient times, have used the Grimms ' tales to explain ancient customs.
One approach sees the topography of European Märchen as echoing the period immediately following the last Ice Age. Other folklorists have explained the figure of the wicked stepmother in a historical / sociological context: many women did die in childbirth, their husbands remarried, and the new stepmothers competed with the children of the first marriage for resources.
In a 2012 lecture, Jack Zipes reads fairy tales as examples of what he calls "childism ''. He suggests that there are terrible aspects to the tales, which (among other things) have conditioned children to accept mistreatment and even abuse.
Fairy tales have inspired music, namely opera, such as the French Opéra féerie and the German Märchenoper. French examples include Gretry 's Zémire et Azor, and Auber 's Le cheval de bronze, German operas are Mozart 's Die Zauberflöte, Humperdinck 's Hänsel und Gretel, Siegfried Wagner 's An allem ist Hütchen schuld!, which is based on many fairy tales, and Carl Orff 's Die Kluge. Even contemporary fairy tales have been written for the purpose of inspiration in the music world. "Raven Girl '' by Audrey Niffenegger was written to inspire a new dance for the Royal Ballet in London.
Authors and works:
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how do you know if your degree is honours | Honours degree - wikipedia
The term "honours degree '' (or "honors degree '') has various meanings in the context of different degrees and education systems. Most commonly it refers to a variant of the undergraduate bachelor 's degree containing a larger volume of material or a higher standard of study, or both, rather than an "ordinary '', "general '' or "pass '' bachelor 's degree. Honours degrees are sometimes indicated by "Hons '' after the degree abbreviation, with various punctuation according to local custom, e.g. "BA (Hons) '', "B.A., Hons '', etc.
Examples of honours degree include the honors bachelor 's degree in the United States, the bachelor 's degree with honours in the United Kingdom, Hong Kong and India, the honours bachelor 's degree in Ireland, the honours bachelor 's degree in Canada, and the bachelor honours degree in Australia. In South Africa the bachelor honours degree is a postgraduate degree that follows on from the completion of a bachelor 's degree. The undergraduate master of arts degree awarded by the ancient universities of Scotland in place of the bachelor of arts may be awarded as an honours or non-honours degree; these are at the same level as equivalent bachelor 's degrees. At master 's level, the integrated master 's degrees in British universities, which students enter at the same level as bachelor 's degrees, are also honours degrees. Honours degrees should not be confused with the Latin honors attached to degrees in the US and some other countries.
Many universities and colleges offer both honours and non-honours bachelor 's degrees. In most countries where honours degrees are granted, they imply a higher level of achievement than a non-honours degree. In some countries (e.g. Canada or Australia), an honours degree may also involve a longer period of study than a non-honours degree. Students who complete all the requirements for a non-honours bachelor 's degree but do not receive sufficient merit to be awarded the honours degree would normally be awarded the non-honours degree (also known as a "pass '', "general '' or "ordinary '' degree). In England, Northern Ireland and Wales, almost all bachelor 's degrees are awarded as honours degrees; in contrast, honours degrees are rarely awarded in the United States.
The current British undergraduate degree classification system, with its division into first, upper and lower second, and third class honours, was developed in 1918 to distinguish between students on the basis of their academic achievement. The concept of an "honours '' degree goes back a lot further than this, however, with there being examinations for honours in the original regulations of the University of London in 1839, and Nevil Maskelyne being recorded as taking a bachelor 's degree with honours at Cambridge in 1754. Other countries influenced by this system include Australia, Brunei, Canada, New Zealand, Malta, Singapore, South Africa and Hong Kong.
The consecutive Australian with Honours degree is usually a one - to two - year research program, after the completion of a Bachelor 's degree in the same field. It can also be started as a concurrent program in the fourth year of a four - year bachelor 's degree. It is generally considered a postgraduate year because a bachelor 's degree can be completed without it. Entry to an Honours degree generally requires proven abilities and a distinction (75 % or greater) average in the relevant area or the final year units, and even then is quite competitive.
In the regular (standalone) Honours, the student will complete selected courses within a supervised program of research (field, laboratory, or secondary), and produce a long, high - quality research thesis. This is usually accompanied by a seminar or presentation of the findings to an academic board for marking. In the case of a quality thesis being produced, it may be published in a peer - reviewed journal or similar publication. Students receiving high marks in their Honours program have the option of continuing to candidature of a Doctoral program, such as Doctor of Philosophy, without having to complete a master 's degree.
At master 's level, Monash University has a Master of Business with Honours program in which students can be awarded an Honours classification upon completion.
In Canada, honours bachelor 's degrees take at least four years to complete, often therefore requiring an extra year of study beyond the general bachelor 's degree. Honours degrees are normally required for admission to master 's programs, and may sometimes allow direct access to doctoral programs. Honours degrees are allocated a GPA grade, and are considered equivalent to UK honours degrees.
In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, Bachelor 's degrees are normally awarded "with Honours '' after three years of study. The bachelor 's degree with Honours meets the requirements for a higher education qualification at level 6 of the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications in full, and is a first cycle, end - of - cycle award on the Qualifications Framework of the European Higher Education Area established by the Bologna process. Students can be awarded an "Ordinary '' degree if they achieve the required learning outcomes over a smaller volume of studies than is required for an honours degree, e.g. only passing 300 credits rather than the 360 usually required for an honours degree. In addition to bachelor 's degrees, four year integrated master 's degrees, which combine study at bachelor 's and master 's level, are also awarded with honours.
The University of Oxford does not award honours with its standard BA degree, but considers students who gain a third class degree or better to have "achieved honours status ''.
A number of Honours degrees are offered by the University of Malta, usually indicating an extra year of study with an undergraduate dissertation or a specialisation within a 3 - year programme.
The Bachelor honours degree is a separate level on the New Zealand Qualifications Framework from the bachelor 's degree without honours, as in Australia and Scotland. It may either be a 4 - year (480 credit) course or a single year (120 credit) course following on from a bachelor 's degree, and prepares students for postgraduate study.
In Scotland, all undergraduate degrees with Honours must be of four - year duration. Students can choose to do the Honours degree or the general (or pass / ordinary) degree. The first two years of both types of degrees are the same; however, after that, students who pursue the Honours route will complete more advanced subjects and a dissertation in their last year, while students who choose to do the general degree will complete their third year at a lower level of specialisation.
Entry into the Honours year in Scotland is generally not restricted and students are encouraged to take the Honours year as the general / ordinary / pass degree does not provide the same level of depth and specialisation.
Students enrolling in the Honours program but failing to achieve the required academic merit for Honours are awarded a pass / ordinary / general degree.
In Ireland, undergraduate degrees fall under two levels in the National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ) of the Quality and Qualifications Ireland (QQI). Courses of study at level 7 take three years and are awarded an Ordinary Bachelor Degree (180 ECTS credits) whereas a course of study at level 8 typically takes four years for an award of a Honours Bachelor Degree (180 - 240 ECTS credits). There is also an equivalent award at level 8 of a Higher Diploma which follows a course of study of one year duration (60 ECTS credits), such Higher Diplomas are designed for holders of either Honours Bachelor Degree or Ordinary Bachelor Degree who wish to study in a different field of learning than their initial award.
In South Africa, non-professional bachelor 's degrees (BA, BSc, BCom) are three year degrees (professional degrees such as engineering degrees or medicine are longer). The honours degree is an optional fourth - year and is an additional one - year qualification. Usually the honours degree specialises in one subject matter (e.g., mathematics, English). Intake into the honours degree is often highly selective. The bachelor 's degree is at level 7 and the honours degree at level 8 on the National Qualifications Framework of the South African Qualifications Authority. Research components must comprise at least 25 % of the honours degree.
In the United States, an honours degree (or honors degree in US spelling) requires a thesis or project work beyond that needed for the normal bachelor 's program. Honours programs in the US are taken alongside the rest of the degree and often have a minimum GPA requirement for entry, which can vary between institutions. Some institutions do not have a separate honours program, but instead refer to bachelor 's degrees awarded with Latin honours, which may be based either on GPA or class position, as honours degrees.
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who played bear on bj and the bear | B.J. and the Bear - wikipedia
B.J. and the Bear is an American comedy series which aired on NBC from 1979 to 1981. Created by Glen A. Larson and Christopher Crowe, the series stars Greg Evigan. The series was produced when the CB Radio / trucking craze had peaked in the United States, following the 1974 - 1976 television series Movin ' On, the number one song "Convoy '' (1975) by C.W. McCall, as well as the films White Line Fever (1975), Smokey and the Bandit (1977), Convoy (1978), and Every Which Way but Loose (1978).
The theme song, also titled "B.J. and the Bear '', was written by Glen Larson and performed by Greg Evigan.
Greg Evigan stars as Billie Joe "B.J. '' McKay, a professional freelance itinerant trucker who travels the country 's highways in a red and white Kenworth K - 100 Aerodyne (a COE semi truck) with his pet chimpanzee Bear (named after Bear Bryant, the famed football coach for the University of Alabama). In the pilot movie, it is stated that he had spent two years in Vietnam as a medical helicopter pilot, had been a captain and earned a distinguished service cross. He was a prisoner of war in North Vietnam at the Hanoi Hilton for four months in 1973 after his helicopter went down over the DMZ. Episodes typically deal with B.J. uncovering or getting mixed up with crime in the area he 's traveling through, and a local resident -- usually, a young, beautiful woman -- appealing to him for help.
A frequent guest star in the first season is Sheriff Elroy P. Lobo (Claude Akins, who had previously starred in the trucking series Movin ' On), whose character eventually spun off onto his own show The Misadventures of Sheriff Lobo along with guest character "Waverly '' Ben Cooper.
Two episodes in season two, "Eyes Of Texas '' (1979) and "The Girls On The Hollywood High '' (1980), were designed as prospective pilots for a series about a pair of private detectives called Heather Fern (Rebecca Reynolds) and Caroline Capoty (Lorrie McCaffrey in the first one, Heather Thomas in the second). The latter episode has cameo appearances from John S. Ragin and Robert Ito as their characters from Quincy, M.E. (also a Glen A. Larson series).
In 1981, when the show returned for its third season with the two - part episode "B.J. And The Seven Lady Truckers '' (not to be confused with the season two opener "Snow White And The Seven Lady Truckers, '' also a two - parter), B.J. has settled down to run Bear Enterprises, a trucking company based in Los Angeles. His nemesis is Rutherford T. Grant (Murray Hamilton), the corrupt head of the state 's Special Crimes Action Team, who is a secret partner in a competing trucking company. Because of Grant 's harassment, B.J. is unable to hire experienced truckers, and is forced to hire seven beautiful young female truckers, consisting of Grant 's daughter Cindy (Sherilyn Wolter), twins Teri and Geri (Candi and Randi Brough), no - nonsense Angie (Sheila Wills), Samantha (Amanda Horan Kennedy), Callie (Linda McCullough), and a busty blonde nicknamed "Stacks '' (Judy Landers).
In Season 4, Episode 7 of the popular Canadian sitcom Trailer Park Boys Bubbles is about to get his big rig license, he says to Julian "I 'm gon na be just like that fuckin ' B.J. and the Bear cock - sucker, ' cept I 'm gon na have kitties in my truck instead of a dirty assed stinky little monkey. ''
In the 1995 movie Mallrats, Jason Lee 's character Brodie makes a reference to the show with: "Why do n't they ever bring back or remake good shows, like B.J. and the Bear. Now there 's a concept I ca n't get enough of, a man and his monkey ''. The line foreshadows the film 's close in which Jay and Silent Bob leave with an orangutan, a plot device fleshed out six years later in Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back.
In episode 302, "Peanut Butter, Eggs, and Dice '' of Mr. Show with Bob and David, during a sketch entitled "The Bob Lamonta Story, '' Bob Lamonta 's father, played by Bob Odenkirk, tells the Bob Lamonta character, played by David Cross, during an out - of - body experience to wake him and his mother when B.J. and the Bear comes on.
In an episode of My Name Is Earl, Earl 's brother Randy asks Joy why a chimp was named "Bear ''. She obligingly explains that B.J. McKay was a fan of the University of Alabama 's football team, hence the moniker. In yet another episode, while Randy is going to sleep, he asks what Bear 's name is, even though he just said it in the title of the show.
In the series Breaking Bad, a replica of the red and white Kenworth appears in the episode "One Minute ''. In the Breaking Bad Original Mini Episode "Just Married '', character Hank Schrader makes a pun with the show 's title as "B.J. and the Bear, minus the bear ''.
In the comedy series 30 Rock, Kenneth Parcell refers to the show as You - Know - What and the Bear.
Seattle - based indie rock group Minus the Bear derives their name from a joke referencing B.J. and the Bear. "A friend of the band had gone on a date, '' explains singer - guitarist Jake Snider, "and one of us asked him afterwards how the date went. Our friend said, ' You know that TV show from the ' 70s, B.J. and the Bear? It was like that... minus the Bear. ' That 's the straight truth. ''
In the South Park episode "The Ring '', Cartman quotes the theme song, referencing "B.J. McKay and his best friend Bear. ''
In the 2007 Quentin Tarantino 's Movie Death Proof, Kurt Russell 's character introduces himself as Stuntman Mike McKay and is mocked by two other characters (Dov and Omar) by making a reference to B.J. and the Bear due to his last name.
British radio host Jon Holmes frequently makes reference to B.J. and the Bear on his radio show, notably that the Bear is n't actually a bear, but a chimpanzee called Bear. This has become a running joke due to Jon 's on - air colleague Cornelius not grasping how a chimpanzee can be called Bear.
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who sang the song when i need you | When I Need You - wikipedia
"When I Need You '' is a popular song written by Albert Hammond and Carole Bayer Sager. Its first appearance was as the title track of Hammond 's 1976 album When I Need You. Leo Sayer 's version, produced by Richard Perry, was a massive hit worldwide, reaching number 1 on the UK Singles Chart for three weeks in February 1977 after three of his earlier singles had stalled at number 2. It also reached number 1 on both the Billboard Hot 100 for a single week in May 1977; and the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks. Billboard ranked it as the No. 24 song of 1977. Sayer performed it on the second show of the third season of The Muppet Show.
The melody of the "hook '' line, or chorus of "When I Need You '' is identical to the part of the Leonard Cohen song "Famous Blue Raincoat '', where the lyrics are as follows: "Jane came by with a lock of your hair, she said that you gave it to her that night, that you planned to go clear. '' The melody of these lyrics matches the lyrics of "When I Need You '' as follows: "(When I) need you, I just close my eyes and I 'm with you, and all that I so want to give you, is only a heart beat away. ''
In a 2006 interview with The Globe & Mail Cohen said:
I once had that nicking happen with Leo Sayer. Do you remember that song ' When I Need You '? '' Cohen sings the chorus of Sayer 's number one hit from 1977, then segues into ' And Jane came by with a lock of your hair ', a lyric from ' Famous Blue Raincoat '. ' Somebody sued them on my behalf... and they did settle ', even though, he laughs, ' they hired a musicologist, who said, that particular motif was in the public domain and, in fact, could be traced back as far as Schubert.
The same melody can be heard in Elton John 's "Little Jeannie '' in the lyrics: "Stepped into my life from a bad dream / Making the life that I had seem / Suddenly shiny and new ''
Rod Stewart recorded the song for his 1996 ballad compilation album If We Fall in Love Tonight. This version was produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis and was released as the second single from the album, though it did not chart in the US or UK.
"When I Need You '' is a promotional single from Celine Dion 's Let 's Talk About Love album, released on 7 September 1998 in Brazil only.
After Dion finished her Falling into You Tour in June 1997, she began to record her next English album. Dion and her manager and husband René Angélil wanted to include few cover versions on it. David Foster came up with the idea of recording Leo Sayer 's hit "When I Need You. '' The song, recorded at Paramount Studios and Chartmaker Studios, was produced by Foster and included on Dion 's Let 's Talk About Love album, released on 15 November 1997. Dion performed this song during the Let 's Talk About Love avec Julie Snyder Canadian TV show in late 1997.
After a string of successful singles like "My Heart Will Go On '' and "Immortality '', Sony Music Entertainment decided to release "When I Need You '' as a promotional single in Brazil (September 1998). Two previous singles were very successful in Brazil. However, with no music video and no promotion "When I Need You '' failed to repeat the success of Dion 's earlier songs.
Authors of "When I Need You '' worked with Dion also on several other songs. Albert Hammond wrote "Just Walk Away '', included on The Colour of My Love album (1993) and Carole Bayer Sager wrote "The Prayer '', which became a part of These Are Special Times (1998).
EW editor David Browne wrote: "an obligatory remake (a precisely enunciated version of Leo Sayer 's When I Need You) ''. The New York Observer editor Jonathan Bernstein: "A sliver of redemption is found in the passable version of Leo Sayer 's "When I Need You '' ".
Brazilian promotional CD single
On 29 October 2007, Cliff Richard released "When I Need You '' and reached number 38 on the UK Singles Chart. It is also one of the five new recordings featured on his album Love... The Album.
Swedish singer Siv - Inger (Siw Inger) recorded Swedish cover version in 1979. The song, called "Varför '', was released on her LP Liv och kärlek. "Varför '' reached the Swedish Svensktoppen Chart and stayed 10 weeks in the top ten between 30 March and 1 June 1980, peaking at number four.
The Spanish singer achieved one of his best performances of this song in 1994.
In 1998, the American singer Luther Vandross covered the song as part of his I Know album. Longtime associate and smooth jazz musician Kirk Whalum performed the saxophone solo on the track.
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when did the first battle of panipat took place | First battle of Panipat - wikipedia
The First Battle of Panipat, on 21 April 1526, was fought between the invading forces of Babur and the Lodi Kingdom. It took place in north India and marked the beginning of the Mughal Empire and the end of the delhi sultanate. This was one of the earliest battles involving gunpowder firearms and field artillery in the Indian subcontinent which were introduced by Mughals in this battle.
After losing Samarkand for the second time, Babur gave attention to conquer India as he reached the banks of the Chenab in 1519. Until 1524, his aim was to only expand his rule to Punjab, mainly to fulfil his ancestor Timur 's legacy, since it used to be part of his empire. At the time parts of north India were under the rule of Ibrahim Lodi of the Lodi dynasty, but the empire was crumbling and there were many defectors. He received invitations from Daulat Khan Lodi, Governor of Punjab and Ala - ud - Din, uncle of Ibrahim. He sent an ambassador to Ibrahim, claiming himself the rightful heir to the throne of the country, however the ambassador was detained at Lahore and released months later.
Babur started for Lahore, Punjab, in 1524 but found that Daulat Khan Lodi had been driven out by forces sent by Ibrahim Lodi. When Babur arrived at Lahore, the Lodi army marched out and his army was routed. In response, Babur burned Lahore for two days, then marched to Dipalpur, placing Alam Khan, another rebel uncle of Lodi 's, as governor. Alam Khan was quickly overthrown and fled to Kabul. In response, Babur supplied Alam Khan with troops who later joined up with Daulat Khan Lodi and together with about 30,000 troops, they besieged Ibrahim Lodi at Delhi. He defeated them and drove Alam 's army off; and Babur realised Lodi would not allow him to occupy the Punjab.
Hearing of the size of Ibrahim 's army, Babur secured his right flank against the city of Panipat, while digging a trench covered with tree branches to secure his left flanks. In the center, he placed 700 carts tied together with ropes. Between every two carts there were breastworks for his matchlockmen. Babur also ensured there was enough space for his cavalry to charge between these carts.
When Ibrahim 's army arrived, he found the approach to Babur 's army too narrow to attack. While Ibrahim redeployed his forces to allow for the narrower front, Babur quickly took advantage of the situation to flank (tulghuma) the Lodi army. Many of Ibrahim 's troops were unable to get into action, and fled when the battle turned against Ibrahim. Faced with musket fire, cannon fire and cavalry attacks from all sides, Ibrahim Lodi fought and died with 6,000 of his remaining troops.
Babur 's guns proved decisive in battle, firstly because Ibrahim lacked any field artillery, but also because the sound of the cannon frightened Ibrahim 's elephants, causing them to trample his own men.
New tactics introduced by Babur were the tulguhma and the araba. Tulguhma meant dividing the whole army into various units, viz. the Left, the Right and the Centre. The Left and Right divisions were further subdivided into Forward and Rear divisions. Through this a small army could be used to surround the enemy from all sides. The Centre Forward division was then provided with carts (araba) which were placed in rows facing the enemy and tied to each other with animal hide ropes. Behind them were placed cannons protected and supported by mantlets which could be used to easily maneuver the cannons. These two tactics made Babur 's artillery lethal. The cannons could be fired without any fear of being hit, as they were shielded by the bullock carts held in place by hide ropes. The heavy cannons could also be easily traversed onto new targets, as they could be maneuvered by the mantlets which were on wheels.
Ibrahim Lodi died on the field of battle along with 20,000 of his troops. The battle of Panipat was militarily a decisive victory. Politically it gained Babur little, and initiated a new phase of his establishment of the Mughal empire.
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where did brazil come in 2006 world cup | Brazil at the 2006 FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
At the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Brazil participated for the 18th time in the event. The country remained as the only national team to have participated in every installment of the FIFA World Cup.
The Brazilian team played until the quarter - finals, where they were defeated by France, finishing the tournament in the fifth place -- for the third time in history (1954 and 1986 were the previous instances).
Brazil 's qualifying for the event marked the first time in history in which a returning champion (the country had won the 2002 World Cup) had to play for a berth in the next World Cup -- that had a direct effect in the organization of the 2006 World Cup: since the 1990 World Cup, the competition has had an opening match, which is played immediately after the Opening Ceremonies; until the last World Cup, this match was a privilege of the winner of the previous World Cup, who would play its first match as the first match of the given World Cup, against an opponent from its group, as decided by the official draw (in the 1990 World Cup, Argentina, winner of the 1986 FIFA World Cup, played Cameroon in the opening match; in 1994, Germany, winner of the 1990 World Cup, played Bolivia; in 1998, Brazil played Scotland and in 2002 France played Senegal). As of the 2006 World Cup, because of the change in the rules, with the last champion no longer having a secured berth in the competition, the opening match has become another privilege of the host nation (in the 2006 World Cup, Germany, as the host nation, played Costa Rica in the opening match). Despite being the returning champion, the Brazilian team debuted, against Croatia, only four days after the Opening Ceremonies and the opening match.
The national team qualified with more ease than in previous years -- for the 1994 World Cup, Brazil only qualified in the very last match, against Uruguay, where a defeat would have meant missing the finals; For the 2002 FIFA World Cup, Brazil had four different managers, and was once in serious jeopardy of being left out of the event.
The Qualifying for the 2006 World Cup repeated the format installed for the previous Qualifying tournament, in 2000 and 2001 (for the 2002 World Cup): all ten South American countries played each other, in two - leg matches, with the top four teams qualifying automatically for the World Cup, whereas the fifth best team would play the champion of Oceania, which was Australia, for a berth in the World Cup.
Brazil finished first, winning the Qualifying tournament. The results were the following:
The final standings were the following:
A month before the start of the competition, the Brazilian national team took quarters in the small Swiss town of Weggis, at the Weggis Park Hotel. The objective was to get the team accustomed to Germany 's climate while maintaining the focus on the competition. The preparation started on May 22 and ended on June 4.
During this time, the Brazilian team played two friendly matches. The first was on May 28, against the under - 20 team of the Brazilian club Fluminense, which was in Europe to play a tournament and took a detour to Switzerland to meet and play the national team; this match ended 13 -- 1 in favour of the national team. The second match was played against the state team of the Swiss Lucerne. The match took place in Basel, at the St. Jakob Stadion and was won by the Brazilian team with a score of 8 goals to nul.
For this period in Switzerland, the Brazilian Football Confederation sold the rights to explore the presence of the national team to a Swiss events enterprise. In exchange for the declared amount of US $ 1.2 million, the Swiss company was allowed to sell tickets for the practice sessions -- which were sold at € 40 each, for about 5,000 people per session --, negotiate permissions for vending points to operate within the training facility and surrounding area -- which were sold for about € 2,000 plus 10 % of the profit -- and to organize and explore the friendly matches that the national team was to play during its preparation in Switzerland.
On May 31, only 13 days away from the team 's debut in the World Cup, defender Edmílson was cut from the squad due to a knee injury he had sustained during the practice session the day prior. São Paulo 's Mineiro was called to take his place.
Upon leaving Weggis, on June 4 the national team made a stop in Geneva on June 5 to play its last friendly match before arriving in Germany. There, the team played New Zealand at the Stade de Genève -- refereed by Jerome Laperriere -- defeating New Zealand 4 -- 0.
Finally, the team travelled to the German town of Königstein im Taunus, which invested the declared amount of € 500,000 in order to prepare for receiving the Brazilian team.
Traditionally, the host nation (in this case, Germany) is the first seed, being placed in Group A. On December 6, 2005, so as to prevent a possible match between Brazil and Germany before the final, FIFA placed the previous competition champion as the sixth seed, in Group F. The opponents of the Brazilian team in the first stage were, respectively, Croatia, Australia and Japan.
Round Robin
The Brazilian team had never faced any of its first round opponents before in World Cups. But other matches, both official and friendly ones, have taken place. The history of those matches until, but not including, the 2006 World Cup is as follows:
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Round of 16
Prior to their meeting in the Round of 16 of the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Brazil and Ghana had played only one friendly match. Although this was officially a match between the two main teams, Brazil played it using its under - 23 team (the so - called "Olympic squad ''), as the match was a part of the preparation for the football competition of the 1996 Summer Olympic Games.
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Quarterfinal
Both the first and the last matches between Brazil and France prior to their 2006 World Cup quarterfinal encounter were friendly matches. The last one was a commemorative display for FIFA 's centennial anniversary.
Sources: /
Pld = matches played, YC = yellow cards, RC = red cards.
All times local (UTC + 2)
Group F
First Round
Brazil vs Croatia
Tuesday, June 13, 2006 21: 00 - Olympiastadion, Berlin - Attendance: 72,000
Second Round
Brazil vs. Australia
Sunday, June 18, 2006 18: 00 - FIFA World Cup Stadium Munich, Munich - Attendance: 66,000
Third Round
Brazil vs Japan
Thursday, June 22, 2006 21: 00 - FIFA World Cup Stadium Dortmund, Dortmund - Attendance: 65,000
Round of 16 -- Brazil vs Ghana
Tuesday, June 27, 2006 17: 00 - FIFA WM - Stadion Dortmund, Dortmund - Attendance: 65,000
Quarterfinal -- Brazil vs France
Saturday, July 1, 2006 21: 00 - FIFA WM - Stadion Frankfurt, Frankfurt - Attendance: 52,000
The Brazilian participation in the World Cup was not restricted to the national football team. Many individuals were involved with other national teams, some as players, some as members of their teams ' technical staff. Those playing for other national teams had acquired the respective country 's citizenship, and according to FIFA 's ruling, can never play for the Brazilian team in the future. Those were:
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where was amanda and jack go glamping filmed | Amanda & Jack Go Glamping - Wikipedia
Amanda & Jack Go Glamping is a 2017 American comedy - drama film written and directed by Brandon Dickerson and starring David Arquette, Amy Acker, Adan Canto and June Squibb. Principal photography focused in the areas of Elgin, TX and Austin, TX.
Jack Spencer (David Arquette) has his marriage and career in trouble, he is a dejected author. He decides to leave his kids with his brother in - law and travel with his wife Amanda to an isolated glamping (glamorous camping) retreat in search of a spark in life.
There is a surprise double booking and he finds their private retreat anything but private. Jack then runs into various comedic scenarios, including a friendship with a miniature donkey.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 40 % based on 5 reviews, with an average score of 5 / 10.
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who played guitar on in a broken dream | In a Broken Dream - Wikipedia
"In a Broken Dream '' is a song and single by Australian rock band Python Lee Jackson featuring vocals from Rod Stewart.
Released in 1972 it entered the UK chart in September, reaching number 3 in October. Stewart 's vocals are not credited on the record label, although the popularity of the song can be attributed to his vocals and star profile.
The song was written in the 1960s by the group 's keyboard player and singer, Dave Bentley. Believing his vocals were not correct for the song, Bentley brought in Rod Stewart. Before being successful with Faces or in his solo career, Stewart was recruited as a session musician for the song and paid by being bought a new set of seat covers for his car. Issued in October 1970, it did not make the charts. Re-released in 1972 following the rise to stardom by Stewart, the song reached number 56 in the US charts before greater success in the UK later that year.
Stewart re-recorded the song in 1992 with David Gilmour and John Paul Jones but did not release it. The recording was eventually released in 2009 as part of The Rod Stewart Sessions 1971 - 1998 box set.
The Python Lee Jackson version was later sampled in A $ AP Rocky 's 2015 single "Everyday '', which credited Stewart as a feature and also guest starred Miguel and Mark Ronson. This original version was also included on Stewart 's 2015 studio album Another Country.
English hard rock band Thunder covered the song releasing it in 1995. In 2004 Kathryn Williams recorded a version for her Relations anthology.
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list of historic districts in the united states | Category: Historic districts in the United States - wikipedia Help
This category has the following 7 subcategories, out of 7 total.
The following 54 pages are in this category, out of 54 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more).
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where can theme be found in any literary text | Theme (narrative) - wikipedia
In contemporary literary studies, a theme is the central topic a text treats. Themes can be divided into two categories: a work 's thematic concept is what readers "think the work is about '' and its thematic statement being "what the work says about the subject ''.
The most common contemporary understanding of theme is an idea or point that is central to a story, which can often be summed in a single word (e.g. love, death, betrayal). Typical examples of themes of this type are conflict between the individual and society; coming of age; humans in conflict with technology; nostalgia; and the dangers of unchecked ambition. A theme may be exemplified by the actions, utterances, or thoughts of a character in a novel. An example of this would be the thematic idea of loneliness in John Steinbeck 's Of Mice and Men, wherein many of the characters seem to be lonely. It may differ from the thesis -- the text 's or author 's implied worldview.
A story may have several themes. Themes often explore historically common or cross-culturally recognizable ideas, such as ethical questions, and are usually implied rather than stated explicitly. An example of this would be whether one should live a seemingly better life, at the price of giving up parts of one 's humanity, which is a theme in Aldous Huxley 's Brave New World. Along with plot, character, setting, and style, theme is considered one of the components of fiction.
Various techniques may be used to express many more themes.
Leitwortstil is the repetition of a wording, often with a theme, in a narrative to make sure it catches the reader 's attention. An example of a leitwortstil is the recurring phrase, "So it goes '', in Kurt Vonnegut 's novel Slaughterhouse - Five. Its seeming message is that the world is deterministic: that things only could have happened in one way, and that the future already is predetermined. But given the anti-war tone of the story, the message perhaps is on the contrary, that things could have been different. A non-fictional example of leitwortstil is in the book Too Soon Old, Too Late Smart: Thirty True Things You Need to Know Now written by Gordon Livingston, which is an anthology of personal anecdotes multiple times interjected by the phrases "Do n't do the same thing and expect different results '', "It is a bad idea to lie to yourself '', and "No one likes to be told what to do ''.
Thematic patterning means the insertion of a recurring motif in a narrative. For example, various scenes in John Steinbeck 's Of Mice and Men are about loneliness. Thematic patterning is evident in One Thousand and One Nights, an example being the story of "The City of Brass ''. According to David Pinault, the overarching theme of that tale, in which a group of travelers roam the desert in search of ancient brass artifacts, is that "riches and pomp tempt one away from God ''. The narrative is interrupted several times by stories within the story. These include a tale recorded in an inscription found in the palace of Kush ibh Shaddad; a story told by a prisoner about Solomon; and an episode involving Queen Tadmur 's corpse. According to Pinault, "each of these minor narratives introduces a character who confesses that he once proudly enjoyed worldly prosperity: subsequently, we learn, the given character has been brought low by God... These minor tales ultimately reinforce the theme of the major narrative ''.
Some common themes in literature are "love, '' "war, '' "revenge, '' "betrayal, '' "patriotism, '' "grace, '' "isolation, '' "motherhood, '' "forgiveness, '' "wartime loss, '' "treachery, '' "rich versus poor, '' "appearance versus reality, '' and "help from other - worldly powers. ''
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where do calluses on your feet come from | Callus - Wikipedia
A callus is an area of thickened skin in response to repeated friction, pressure, or other irritation. Rubbing that is too frequent or forceful will cause blisters rather than allow calluses to form. Since repeated contact is required, calluses are most often found on feet because of frequent walking and incorrectly fitting footwear. Calluses are generally not harmful, but may sometimes lead to other problems, such as an skin ulceration or infection or cause the sufferer to try and offload the effected painful area, which can place excessive stress on the asymptomatic side.
Normally, a callus will form on any part of the skin exposed to friction over a long period of time. For example, people often develop calluses on the middle finger of their dominant hand due to writing with a pen or pencil. Another cause is from playing string instruments like the guitar or the violin; calluses will develop on the four fingers of the hand used in holding the strings down to the fingerboard, and sometimes on the fingers of the hand used for pizzicato or strumming. Weightlifters commonly experience callus on the upper - palm area due to repeated friction.
Calluses are also very common on the fingers of rock climbers on almost all of their fingers. There are many activities that can result in the formation of a callus, which may even be viewed as a badge of experience and commitment to the activity. On the feet, calluses commonly form on the metatarsal - phalangeal joint area ("balls of the foot), heels and small toes due to the compression applied by tightly fitting shoes. Activities that are notorious for causing calluses include (but are not limited to) construction work, many sports, wood carving, playing musical instruments, use of a chef 's knife, rock climbing, hiking, martial arts, weight training, rowing, BMXing, dancing (especially ballet), chopping wood, monkey bars and wearing high heels. Tenpin bowlers will often develop calluses on their thumbs and occasionally their middle fingers from frequent bowling. Although often found on the foot (where the most pressure and friction are applied), calluses can occur anywhere on the body as a reaction to moderate, constant "grinding '' pressure. It is the natural reaction of the palmar or plantar skin. Too much friction occurring too fast for the skin to develop a protective callus will cause a blister or abrasion instead.
Biologically, calluses are formed by the accumulation of terminally undifferentiated keratinocytes in the outermost layer of skin. Though the cells of calluses are dead, they are quite resistant to mechanical and chemical insults due to extensive networks of cross-linked proteins and hydrophobic keratin intermediate filaments containing many disulfide bonds.
Sometimes a callus occurs where there is no rubbing or pressure. These hyperkeratoses can have a variety of causes. Some toxic materials, such as arsenic, can cause thick palms and soles. Some diseases, such as syphilis, can cause thickening of the palms and soles as well as pinpoint hyperkeratoses. There is a benign condition called keratosis palmaris et plantaris, which produces corns in the creases of the fingers and non-weight bearing spaces of the feet. Some of this may be caused by actinic keratosis, which occurs due to overexposure to sun or with age and hormonal shifts.
A corn (or clavus, plural clavi) is a specially shaped callus of dead skin that usually occurs on thin or glabrous (hairless and smooth) skin surfaces, especially on the dorsal surface of toes or fingers. They can sometimes occur on the thicker palmar or plantar skin surfaces. Corns form when the pressure point against the skin traces an elliptical or semi-elliptical path during the rubbing motion, the center of which is at the point of pressure, gradually widening. If there is constant stimulation of the tissue producing the corns, even after the corn is surgically removed, the skin may continue to grow as a corn.
The hard part at the center of the corn resembles a funnel with a broad raised top and a pointed bottom. Because of their shape, corns intensify the pressure at the tip and can cause deep tissue damage and ulceration. The scientific name for a corn is heloma (plural helomata). A hard corn is called a heloma durum, while a soft corn is called a heloma molle.
The location of the soft corns tends to differ from that of hard corns. Hard corns occur on dry, flat surfaces of skin. Soft corns (frequently found between adjacent toes) stay moist, keeping the surrounding skin soft. The corn 's center is not soft however, but indurated.
The specific diagnostic workup and treatments for corns may differ substantially from other forms of calluses.
Corns and calluses are easier to prevent than to treat. When it is usually not desirable to form a callus, minimizing rubbing and pressure will prevent callus formation. Footwear should be properly fitted, gloves may be worn, and protective pads, rings or skin dressings may be used. People with poor circulation or sensation should check their skin often for signs of rubbing and irritation so they can minimize any damage.
Calluses and corns may go away by themselves eventually, once the irritation is consistently avoided. They may also be dissolved with keratolytic agents containing salicylic acid, sanded down with a pumice stone or silicon carbide sandpaper or filed down with a callus shaver, or pared down by a professional such as a podiatrist.
People with diabetes face special skin challenges. Because diabetes affects the capillaries, the small blood vessels which feed the skin, thickening of the skin with callus increases the difficulty of supplying nutrients to the skin. Callus formation is seen in high numbers of patients with diabetes, and together with absent foot pulses and formation of hammer toe, this may be an early sign of individuals at an increased risk for foot ulcers.
The stiffness of a callus or corn, coupled with the shear and pressure that caused it, may tear the capillaries or adjoining tissue, causing bleeding within the callus or corn. Often, bleeding within a callus is an early sign of diabetes, even before elevated blood sugars may be noticed. Although the bleeding can be small, sometimes small pools of blood or hematoma are formed. The blood itself is an irritant, a foreign body within the callus that makes the area burn or itch. If the pool of blood is exposed to the outside, infection may follow. Infection may also lead to ulceration. Fortunately, this process can be prevented at several places. Diabetic foot infections are the leading cause of diabetic limb amputation.
In botany, the term is also used to describe a condition of thickened surfaces of leaves or other plant parts. A callus also can refer to an undifferentiated plant cell mass grown on a culture medium, which can be put into a bioreactor to produce genetically identical cells. This is a type of tissue culture, and can be started from almost any part of the plant, although tissues taken from the vicinity of meristems usually produce the best results.
The term has also been used in orthopedic medicine to describe heterogeneous tissue involved in the intermediate stages of bone healing.
In English, the adjective "callous '' means insensitive or unfeeling, similarly to how calluses can cause a loss of pain sensitivity in the affected area.
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the good fight season 2 ep 2 recap | The Good Fight - Wikipedia
The Good Fight is an American legal and political drama web television series produced for CBS 's streaming service CBS All Access. It is CBS All Access 's first original scripted series. The series -- created by Robert King, Michelle King, and Phil Alden Robinson -- is a sequel / spinoff to The Good Wife, which was created by the Kings. The first season contains 10 episodes, and premiered on February 19, 2017, with the first episode airing on CBS and the following nine episodes on CBS All Access. The series was initially planned to air in May 2017, but was moved up after production delays forced CBS to postpone the premiere of the new series Star Trek: Discovery.
The series follows Christine Baranski as Diane Lockhart, as she is forced out of Lockhart, Deckler, Gussman, Lee, Lyman, Gilbert - Lurie, Kagan, Tannebaum, & Associates after an enormous financial scam destroys the reputation of her goddaughter Maia (Rose Leslie) and Diane 's savings, leading them to join Lucca Quinn (Cush Jumbo) at one of Chicago 's preeminent law firms. The series stars Baranski, Leslie, Jumbo, Erica Tazel, Sarah Steele, Justin Bartha, Delroy Lindo, Nyambi Nyambi, Michael Boatman, and Audra McDonald, and features Paul Guilfoyle and Bernadette Peters in recurring roles. It is executive produced by Robert King, Michelle King, Ridley Scott, David W. Zucker, Liz Glotzer, Brooke Kennedy and Alison Scott, with Phil Alden Robinson producing and co-writing the first episode.
A second 13 - episode season premiered on March 4, 2018. On May 2, 2018, the series was renewed for a third season.
A year after the finale of The Good Wife, an enormous financial scam destroys the reputation of young lawyer Maia and wipes out the savings of her mentor, Diane Lockhart. The two are forced out of Lockhart, Deckler, Gussman, Lee, Lyman, Gilbert - Lurie, Kagan, Tannebaum, & Associates and join Diane 's former employee Lucca Quinn at Reddick, Boseman, & Kolstad, a prestigious African American -- owned firm making waves by taking on Illinois police brutality cases. In season two, Diane becomes a name partner at the firm, which takes the name Reddick, Boseman & Lockhart.
The show primarily deals with the storylines of its three female leads -- Diane, Lucca, and Maia -- and contains considerable political and social commentary, exploring topical issues such as the alt - right, the Me Too movement, online harassment, and fake news. As well as starting again in a new firm with its own office politics to deal with, longtime Democrat Diane must navigate a world she hardly recognizes, becoming increasingly troubled by Trump - era politics and the actions of his administration. Lucca Quinn, a former employee of Diane 's, has found firm footing at Reddick, Boseman & Lockhart and is a rising star on the partner track, balancing her dedication to her work and a romantic entanglement with US Attorney Colin Morello, a frequent opposing counsel. Meanwhile Maia, Diane 's goddaughter, is trying to get her legal career off to a good start, while coming under pressure from the FBI over alleged involvement with her father 's Ponzi scheme.
Like The Good Wife, the show makes use of an extensive cast of supporting characters, including a recurring stable of opposing counsel, clients, police officers, FBI agents, judges, and politicians. Many are played by well - known guest stars.
In February 2016, Michelle and Robert King, when asked about a spin - off, stated that there was a possibility for a spin - off series. In May 2016, CBS was in final negotiations to set up a spin - off featuring Christine Baranski reprising her role as Diane Lockhart, but which would air on CBS All Access instead of the network. The spin - off was officially ordered to series on May 18, with Cush Jumbo returning as well. In September 2016, it was confirmed that the 10 episode spin - off would premiere in February 2017, with the story picking up a year after the final episode of the original series and seeing Diane pushed out of her firm after a financial scam involving her mentee wipes out her savings, resulting in her move to Lucca Quinn 's firm. The series was initially planned to air in May 2017, but was moved to February 2017 after production delays forced CBS to postpone the premiere of the new series, Star Trek: Discovery. After months of speculation, CBS revealed the title for the spin - off series, which was revealed to be The Good Fight, on October 31, 2016. It was announced that The Good Fight would premiere on February 19, 2017. CBS released the first trailer for the spinoff on December 18, 2016, featuring footage from the premiere and later episodes.
In May 2016, CBS was in final negotiations with Christine Baranski to reprise her role as Diane Lockhart and Cush Jumbo to reprise her role as well. After the series was picked up, it was announced that Jumbo would reprise her role as Lucca Quinn. Deadline announced on September 17, 2016 that Sarah Steele had been added to the cast, returning as Marissa Gold and appearing as Diane Lockhart 's secretary - turned - investigator. On October 12, 2016, it was announced that former Game of Thrones star Rose Leslie had been cast to play a lead in the show, the role of Diane 's goddaughter Maia who joins Diane 's firm just after passing the bar.
The day after, The Hollywood Reporter announced that Delroy Lindo had been cast as "Robert '' Boseman, an attorney who starts poaching Diane 's associates and clients. The first name of Lindo 's character was changed to "Adrian ''. Deadline reported on October 27, 2016 that the show had added Paul Guilfoyle and Bernadette Peters for recurring roles as Maia 's parents. Guilfoyle would play Maia 's father Henry, a wildly successful financial advisor who is phenomenally wealthy and universally loved. Peters ' character Lenore was described as a woman who came from a tough working - class background and is a natively brilliant financial whiz. It was announced on October 31, 2016 that Justified alum Erica Tazel had joined the cast as a series regular.
On November 7, 2016, it was announced that Gary Cole would be reprising his role as Diane 's husband Kurt McVeigh. It was confirmed on November 11, 2016, that Zach Grenier, Jerry Adler, and Carrie Preston would be returning as guest stars, reprising their roles of David Lee, Howard Lyman, and Elsbeth Tascioni respectively. On November 18, 2016, it was announced that Justin Bartha had been added as a series regular as Colin, a rising star in the US Attorney 's office and love interest to Lucca. On August 1, 2017, it was announced that Audra McDonald had been added to the main cast for season 2 as Liz Lawrence, reprising her role from The Good Wife season 4, and that Michael Boatman and Nyambi Nyambi had been promoted to main cast.
On February 8, 2017, the series was picked up in Canada by Corus Entertainment to air on their cable channel, W Network; the U.S. broadcast premiere of the series would be simulcast by Corus ' broadcast system Global.
On March 2, 2017, Channel 4 confirmed it had acquired the UK broadcast rights for the series for its More4 channel following the success of progenitor series The Good Wife on that same channel. The series debuted on More4 on March 30, 2017.
HBO Europe and HBO Nordic began streaming all 10 episodes of the first season on June 1, 2017, in Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Macedonia, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Denmark, Norway and Finland, while India 's Zee Entertainment Enterprises took exclusive pay - TV rights to The Good Fight for its English - language general entertainment channel Zee Café, which was also the Indian home of The Good Wife.
In Australia, SBS picked up the series which premiered on August 2, 2017.
In Southeast Asia, the series broadcasts on Star World but later moved to Fox Life starting from the second season.
In Greece the series first aired on Cosmote TV beginning in December 2017.
The Good Fight has received positive reviews. Rotten Tomatoes awarded the series with a rating of 98 % based on reviews from 50 critics and an average rating of 8.2 out of 10. The site 's critical consensus reads: "An auspicious beginning for CBS All Access, The Good Fight solidly follows its predecessor while allowing for new storytelling styles, a wider narrative scope, and a chance for its lead to explore new territory with a relatable human struggle. '' On Metacritic, the series received a score of 80 based on reviews from 25 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
The LA Times suggested that Good Fight creators Robert and Michelle King "still had the Good Wife magic '' and though Good Wife "had already (run) its course '' after seasons 6 and 7 had received mediocre reviews, "they just needed a clean slate '' to allow them to continue to mine more stories from that fictional universe. In addition, unlike Good Wife which was centered around "romantic tension '' and got bogged down in Alicia Florrick 's (Julianne Margulies) love life, Good Fight was considered "refreshing for steering the story the other way '' as relationships are "not the plot points that drive the story ''. Good Fight is regarded as a rare successful example of a TV series spin - off, as other contemporary TV series are either reboots or remakes.
Writing for Vox.com, Todd VanDerWerff praised the show 's deft use of political themes, commenting that while The Good Wife was a commentary on "liberal hypocrisy '' and the nature of moral compromise, The Good Fight stands out as a much more earnest "defence of liberal values '', giving the show a compelling "reason to exist ''.
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first multi purpose river valley project in india | Damodar Valley Corporation - wikipedia
The Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC) is a government organization which operates several power stations in the Damodar River area of West Bengal and Jharkhand states of India. The corporation operates both thermal power stations and hydel power stations under the Ministry of Power, Govt of India. DVC is headquartered in the city of Kolkata, West Bengal, India.
DVC emerged as a culmination of attempts made over a whole century to control the wild and erratic Damodar River. The valley has been ravaged frequently by floods at varying intensities. Serious floods occurred in 1730, 1823, 1848, 1856, 1882, 1898, 1901, 1916, 1923, 1935 & 1943. The river spans over an area of 25,235 sq. km covering the states of Bihar (now Jharkhand) & West Bengal. The catastrophe caused by the 1943 flood, led to serious public indignation gainst the Government. As a result, the Government of Bengal appointed a board of Enquiry titled "Damodar Flood Enquiry Committee '' with the Maharaja of Burdwan and the noted physicist Dr. Meghnad Saha as members for suggesting remedial measures.
The Damodar Flood Enquiry Committee suggested creation of an authority similar to the Tennessee Valley Authority in the USA, and recommended the construction of dams and storage reservoirs at the sites with a total capacity of 1.5 millions acre ft. (1.850 millions cu. M) and highlighted the possibilities of multipurpose development in the valley area. The Govt. of India then commissioned the ' Central Technical Power Board ' to study the proposal and appointed Mr. WL Voorduin, a senior engineer of the TVA to study the problem at the Damodar and to make his recommendation for comprehensive development of the valley. Accordingly, in August, 1944 Mr. Voorduin submitted his ' Preliminary Memorandum on the unified Development of the Damodar River. '
Mr. Voorduin 's "Preliminary Memorandum '' suggested a multipurpose development plan designed for achieving flood control, irrigation, power generation and navigation in the Damodar Valley. Four consultants appointed by the Government of India examined it. They also approved the main technical features of Voorduin 's scheme and recommended early initiation of construction beginning with Tilaiya to be followed by Maithon. By April 1947, full agreement was practically reached between the three Governments of Central, West Bengal and Bihar on the implementation of the scheme and in March 1948, the Damodar Valley Corporation Act (Act No. XIV of 1948) was passed by the Central Legislature, requiring the three Governments, The Central Government and the State Governments of West Bengal and Bihar (now Jharkhand) to participate jointly for the purpose of building the Damodar Valley Corporation. The Corporation came into existence on 7 July 1948 as the first multipurpose river valley project of independent India.
Command area: 24,235 km spread across the Damodar basin. Jharkhand: 2 districts fully (Dhanbad and Bokaro) and parts of 8 districts (Hazaribagh, Koderma, Chatra, Palamau, Ranchi, Loherdaga, Giridih and Dumka) West Bengal: 5 districts (Bardhhaman, Hoogly, Howrah, Bankura, Purulia)
The Damodar Valley Corporation has been generating and transmitting power since 1953.
DVC developed and expanded its infrastructure to six thermal power stations ' (7410 MW) ' and three hydro - electric power stations with a capacity of 147.2 MW which contribute to a total installed capacity of 7557.2 MW. Presently DVC has 49 sub-stations and receiving stations more than 8900 - circuit km of transmission and distribution lines. DVC has also four dams, a barrage and a network of canals (2494 km) that play an effective role in water management. The construction of check dams, development of forests and farms and upland and wasteland treatment developed by DVC play a vital role in eco conservation and environment management.
DVC has a network of four dams - Tilaiya and Maithon on Barakar River, Panchet on Damodar river and Konar on Konar river. Besides, Durgapur barrage and the canal network, handed over to Government of West Bengal in 1964, remained a part of the total system of water management. DVC dams are capable of moderating floods of 6.51 lac cusec to 2.5 lac cusecs.
Four multipurpose dams were constructed during the period 1948 to 1959.
Flood reserve capacity of 1,292 mcm has been provided in 4 reservoirs, which can moderate a peak flood of 18,395 cumec to a safe carrying capacity of 7,076 cumec. 419 mcm of water is stored in the 4 DVC reservoirs to supply 680 cusec of water to meet industrial, municipal and domestic requirements in West Bengal & Jharkhand. The Durgapur barrage on river Damodar was constructed in 1955 for supply of irrigation water to the districts of Burdwan, Bankura & Hooghly.
30,000 hectares (300 km) of land in the upper valley is being irrigated, every year by lift irrigation with the water available from 16,000 (approx) check dams constructed by DVC.
A joint venture company by DVC and Tata Power has been formed to implement 1,050 MW Maithon Right Bank Thermal Power Project for meeting the energy needs of power deficient regions on export basis.
A joint venture of DVC and SAIL has been established to operate and maintain the captive power and steam generation plant, hived off by SAIL and its Bokaro Steel Plant and supply power and steam exclusively to Bokaro Steel Ltd.
A joint venture company formed with Eastern Minerals & Trading Agency for development and operation of Captive Coal Mine Blocks and supply of coal exclusively to DVC Thermal Power Projects of 10th and 11th plan.
The Mining and Allied Machinery Corporation (MAMC) in Durgapur -- one of the PSU 's in India set up under the rupee - rouble agreement and enjoying Soviet patronage in the early sixties. Bharat Earth Movers has the highest stake (48 %) in the consortium while the other two PSUs -- DVC and Coal India -- have 26 % stake each.
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summary of the japanese attack on pearl harbor | Attack on Pearl Harbor - wikipedia
Coordinates: 21 ° 22 ′ N 157 ° 57 ′ W / 21.367 ° N 157.950 ° W / 21.367; - 157.950
Major Japanese tactical victory; precipitated the entrance of the United States into World War II
Southeast Asia
Burma
Southwest Pacific
North America
Japan
Manchuria
The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii Territory, on the morning of December 7, 1941. The attack, also known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor, led to the United States ' entry into World War II. The Japanese military leadership referred to the attack as the Hawaii Operation and Operation AI, and as Operation Z during its planning.
Japan intended the attack as a preventive action to keep the U.S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with its planned military actions in Southeast Asia against overseas territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United States. Over the course of seven hours there were coordinated Japanese attacks on the U.S. - held Philippines, Guam and Wake Island and on the British Empire in Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong.
The attack commenced at 7: 48 a.m. Hawaiian Time (18: 18 GMT). The base was attacked by 353 Imperial Japanese aircraft (including fighters, level and dive bombers, and torpedo bombers) in two waves, launched from six aircraft carriers. All eight U.S. Navy battleships were damaged, with four sunk. All but the USS Arizona were later raised, and six were returned to service and went on to fight in the war. The Japanese also sank or damaged three cruisers, three destroyers, an anti-aircraft training ship, and one minelayer. One hundred eighty - eight U.S. aircraft were destroyed; 2,403 Americans were killed and 1,178 others were wounded. Important base installations such as the power station, dry dock, shipyard, maintenance, and fuel and torpedo storage facilities, as well as the submarine piers and headquarters building (also home of the intelligence section), were not attacked. Japanese losses were light: 29 aircraft and five midget submarines lost, and 64 servicemen killed. One Japanese sailor, Kazuo Sakamaki, was captured.
The surprise attack came as a profound shock to the American people and led directly to the American entry into World War II in both the Pacific and European theaters. The following day, December 8, the United States declared war on Japan, and several days later, on December 11, Germany and Italy each declared war on the U.S. The U.S. responded with a declaration of war against Germany and Italy. Domestic support for non-interventionism, which had been fading since the Fall of France in 1940, disappeared.
There were numerous historical precedents for unannounced military action by Japan, but the lack of any formal warning, particularly while negotiations were still apparently ongoing, led President Franklin D. Roosevelt to proclaim December 7, 1941, "a date which will live in infamy ''. Because the attack happened without a declaration of war and without explicit warning, the attack on Pearl Harbor was later judged in the Tokyo Trials to be a war crime.
War between Japan and the United States had been a possibility that each nation had been aware of, and planned for, since the 1920s. However, tensions did not seriously grow until Japan 's invasion of Manchuria in 1931. Over the next decade, Japan expanded into China, leading to the Second Sino - Japanese War in 1937. Japan spent considerable effort trying to isolate China, and endeavored to secure enough independent resources to attain victory on the mainland. The "Southern Operation '' was designed to assist these efforts.
Starting in December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on USS Panay, the Allison incident, and the Nanking Massacre swung Western public opinion sharply against Japan. Fearing Japanese expansion, the United States, United Kingdom, and France assisted China with its loans for war supply contracts.
In 1940, Japan invaded French Indochina, attempting to stymie the flow of supplies reaching China. The United States halted shipments of airplanes, parts, machine tools, and aviation gasoline to Japan, which the latter perceived as an unfriendly act. The United States did not stop oil exports, however, partly because of the prevailing sentiment in Washington: given Japanese dependence on American oil, such an action was likely to be considered an extreme provocation.
In mid-1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt moved the Pacific Fleet from San Diego to Hawaii. He also ordered a military buildup in the Philippines, taking both actions in the hope of discouraging Japanese aggression in the Far East. Because the Japanese high command was (mistakenly) certain any attack on the United Kingdom 's Southeast Asian colonies, including Singapore, would bring the U.S. into the war, a devastating preventive strike appeared to be the only way to prevent American naval interference. An invasion of the Philippines was also considered necessary by Japanese war planners. The U.S. War Plan Orange had envisioned defending the Philippines with an elite force of 40,000 men; this option was never implemented due to opposition from Douglas MacArthur, who felt he would need a force ten times that size. By 1941, U.S. planners expected to abandon the Philippines at the outbreak of war. Late that year, Admiral Thomas C. Hart, commander of the Asiatic Fleet, was given orders to that effect.
The U.S. finally ceased oil exports to Japan in July 1941, following the seizure of French Indochina after the Fall of France)), in part because of new American restrictions on domestic oil consumption. Because of this decision, Japan proceeded with plans to take the oil - rich Dutch East Indies. On August 17, Roosevelt warned Japan that America was prepared to take opposing steps if "neighboring countries '' were attacked. The Japanese were faced with a dichotomy -- either withdraw from China and lose face, or seize new sources of raw materials in the resource - rich European colonies of Southeast Asia.
Japan and the U.S. engaged in negotiations during 1941, attempting to improve relations. In the course of these negotiations, Japan offered to withdraw from most of China and Indochina after making peace with the Nationalist government. It also proposed to adopt an independent interpretation of the Tripartite Pact and to refrain from trade discrimination, provided all other nations reciprocated. Washington rejected these proposals. Japanese Prime Minister Konoye then offered to meet with Roosevelt, but Roosevelt insisted on reaching an agreement before any meeting. The U.S. ambassador to Japan repeatedly urged Roosevelt to accept the meeting, warning that it was the only way to preserve the conciliatory Konoye government and peace in the Pacific. However, his recommendation was not acted upon. The Konoye government collapsed the following month, when the Japanese military rejected a withdrawal of all troops from China.
Japan 's final proposal, delivered on November 20, offered to withdraw from southern Indochina and to refrain from attacks in Southeast Asia, so long as the United States, United Kingdom, and Netherlands ceased aid to China and lifted their sanctions against Japan. The American counter-proposal of November 26 (November 27 in Japan), the Hull note, required Japan completely evacuate China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with Pacific powers. On November 26 in Japan, the day before the note 's delivery, the Japanese task force left port for Pearl Harbor.
Preliminary planning for an attack on Pearl Harbor to protect the move into the "Southern Resource Area '' (the Japanese term for the Dutch East Indies and Southeast Asia generally) had begun very early in 1941 under the auspices of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, then commanding Japan 's Combined Fleet. He won assent to formal planning and training for an attack from the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff only after much contention with Naval Headquarters, including a threat to resign his command. Full - scale planning was underway by early spring 1941, primarily by Rear Admiral Ryūnosuke Kusaka, with assistance from Captain Minoru Genda and Yamamoto 's Deputy Chief of Staff, Captain Kameto Kuroshima. The planners studied the 1940 British air attack on the Italian fleet at Taranto intensively.
Over the next several months, pilots were trained, equipment was adapted, and intelligence was collected. Despite these preparations, Emperor Hirohito did not approve the attack plan until November 5, after the third of four Imperial Conferences called to consider the matter. Final authorization was not given by the emperor until December 1, after a majority of Japanese leaders advised him the "Hull Note '' would "destroy the fruits of the China incident, endanger Manchukuo and undermine Japanese control of Korea. ''
By late 1941, many observers believed that hostilities between the U.S. and Japan were imminent. A Gallup poll just before the attack on Pearl Harbor found that 52 % of Americans expected war with Japan, 27 % did not, and 21 % had no opinion. While U.S. Pacific bases and facilities had been placed on alert on many occasions, U.S. officials doubted Pearl Harbor would be the first target; instead, they expected the Philippines would be attacked first. This presumption was due to the threat that the air bases throughout the country and the naval base at Manila posed to sea lanes, as well as to the shipment of supplies to Japan from territory to the south. They also incorrectly believed that Japan was not capable of mounting more than one major naval operation at a time.
The Japanese attack had several major aims. First, it intended to destroy important American fleet units, thereby preventing the Pacific Fleet from interfering with Japanese conquest of the Dutch East Indies and Malaya and to enable Japan to conquer Southeast Asia without interference. Second, it was hoped to buy time for Japan to consolidate its position and increase its naval strength before shipbuilding authorized by the 1940 Vinson - Walsh Act erased any chance of victory. Third, to deliver a blow to America 's ability to mobilize its forces in the Pacific, battleships were chosen as the main targets, since they were the prestige ships of any navy at the time. Finally, it was hoped that the attack would undermine American morale such that the U.S. government would drop its demands contrary to Japanese interests, and would seek a compromise peace with Japan.
Striking the Pacific Fleet at anchor in Pearl Harbor carried two distinct disadvantages: the targeted ships would be in very shallow water, so it would be relatively easy to salvage and possibly repair them; and most of the crews would survive the attack, since many would be on shore leave or would be rescued from the harbor. A further important disadvantage -- this of timing, and known to the Japanese -- was the absence from Pearl Harbor of all three of the U.S. Pacific Fleet 's aircraft carriers (Enterprise, Lexington, and Saratoga). IJN top command was attached to Admiral Mahan 's "decisive battle '' doctrine, especially that of destroying the maximum number of battleships. Despite these concerns, Yamamoto decided to press ahead.
Japanese confidence in their ability to achieve a short, victorious war also meant other targets in the harbor, especially the navy yard, oil tank farms, and submarine base, were ignored, since -- by their thinking -- the war would be over before the influence of these facilities would be felt.
On November 26, 1941, a Japanese task force (the Striking Force) of six aircraft carriers -- Akagi, Kaga, Sōryū, Hiryū, Shōkaku, and Zuikaku -- departed Hittokapu Bay on Kasatka (now Iterup) Island in the Kurile Islands, en route to a position northwest of Hawaii, intending to launch its 408 aircraft to attack Pearl Harbor: 360 for the two attack waves and 48 on defensive combat air patrol (CAP), including nine fighters from the first wave.
The first wave was to be the primary attack, while the second wave was to attack carriers as its first objective and cruisers as its second, with battleships as the third target. The first wave carried most of the weapons to attack capital ships, mainly specially adapted Type 91 aerial torpedoes which were designed with an anti-roll mechanism and a rudder extension that let them operate in shallow water. The aircrews were ordered to select the highest value targets (battleships and aircraft carriers) or, if these were not present, any other high value ships (cruisers and destroyers). First wave dive bombers were to attack ground targets. Fighters were ordered to strafe and destroy as many parked aircraft as possible to ensure they did not get into the air to intercept the bombers, especially in the first wave. When the fighters ' fuel got low they were to refuel at the aircraft carriers and return to combat. Fighters were to serve CAP duties where needed, especially over U.S. airfields.
Before the attack commenced, two reconnaissance aircraft launched from cruisers Chikuma and Tone were sent to scout over Oahu and Maui and report on U.S. fleet composition and location. Reconnaissance aircraft flights risked alerting the U.S., and were not necessary. U.S. fleet composition and preparedness information in Pearl Harbor was already known due to the reports of the Japanese spy Takeo Yoshikawa. A report of the absence of the U.S. fleet in Lahaina anchorage off Maui was received from the fleet submarine I - 72. Another four scout planes patrolled the area between the Japanese carrier force (the Kidō Butai) and Niihau, to detect any counterattack.
Fleet submarines I - 16, I - 18, I - 20, I - 22, and I - 24 each embarked a Type A midget submarine for transport to the waters off Oahu. The five I - boats left Kure Naval District on November 25, 1941. On December 6, they came to within 10 nmi (19 km; 12 mi) of the mouth of Pearl Harbor and launched their midget subs at about 01: 00 on December 7. At 03: 42 Hawaiian Time, the minesweeper Condor spotted a midget submarine periscope southwest of the Pearl Harbor entrance buoy and alerted the destroyer Ward. The midget may have entered Pearl Harbor. However, Ward sank another midget submarine at 06: 37 in the first American shots in the Pacific Theater. A midget submarine on the north side of Ford Island missed the seaplane tender Curtiss with her first torpedo and missed the attacking destroyer Monaghan with her other one before being sunk by Monaghan at 08: 43.
A third midget submarine, Ha - 19, grounded twice, once outside the harbor entrance and again on the east side of Oahu, where it was captured on December 8. Ensign Kazuo Sakamaki swam ashore and was captured by Hawaii National Guard Corporal David Akui, becoming the first Japanese prisoner of war. A fourth had been damaged by a depth charge attack and was abandoned by its crew before it could fire its torpedoes. Japanese forces received a radio message from a midget submarine at 00: 41 on December 8 claiming damage to one or more large warships inside Pearl Harbor.
In 1992, 2000, and 2001, Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory 's submersibles found the wreck of the fifth midget submarine lying in three parts outside Pearl Harbor. The wreck was in the debris field where much surplus U.S. equipment was dumped after the war, including vehicles and landing craft. Both of its torpedoes were missing. This correlates with reports of two torpedoes fired at the light cruiser St. Louis at 10: 04 at the entrance of Pearl Harbor, and a possible torpedo fired at destroyer Helm at 08: 21.
The attack took place before any formal declaration of war was made by Japan, but this was not Admiral Yamamoto 's intention. He originally stipulated that the attack should not commence until thirty minutes after Japan had informed the United States that peace negotiations were at an end. However, the attack began before the notice could be delivered. Tokyo transmitted the 5000 - word notification (commonly called the "14 - Part Message '') in two blocks to the Japanese Embassy in Washington. Transcribing the message took too long for the Japanese ambassador to deliver it on schedule; in the event, it was not presented until more than an hour after the attack began. (In fact, U.S. code breakers had already deciphered and translated most of the message hours before he was scheduled to deliver it.) The final part is sometimes described as a declaration of war. While it was viewed by a number of senior U.S government and military officials as a very strong indicator negotiations were likely to be terminated and that war might break out at any moment, it neither declared war nor severed diplomatic relations. A declaration of war was printed on the front page of Japan 's newspapers in the evening edition of December 8, but not delivered to the U.S. government until the day after the attack.
For decades, conventional wisdom held that Japan attacked without first formally breaking diplomatic relations only because of accidents and bumbling that delayed the delivery of a document hinting at war to Washington. In 1999, however, Takeo Iguchi, a professor of law and international relations at International Christian University in Tokyo, discovered documents that pointed to a vigorous debate inside the government over how, and indeed whether, to notify Washington of Japan 's intention to break off negotiations and start a war, including a December 7 entry in the war diary saying, "(O) ur deceptive diplomacy is steadily proceeding toward success. '' Of this, Iguchi said, "The diary shows that the army and navy did not want to give any proper declaration of war, or indeed prior notice even of the termination of negotiations... and they clearly prevailed. ''
In any event, even if the Japanese had decoded and delivered the 14 - Part Message before the beginning of the attack, it would not have constituted either a formal break of diplomatic relations or a declaration of war. The final two paragraphs of the message read:
Thus the earnest hope of the Japanese Government to adjust Japanese - American relations and to preserve and promote the peace of the Pacific through cooperation with the American Government has finally been lost.
The first attack wave of 183 planes was launched north of Oahu, led by Commander Mitsuo Fuchida. Six planes failed to launch due to technical difficulties. It included:
As the first wave approached Oahu, it was detected by the U.S. Army SCR - 270 radar at Opana Point near the island 's northern tip. This post had been in training mode for months, but was not yet operational. The operators, Privates George Elliot Jr. and Joseph Lockard, reported a target. But Lieutenant Kermit A. Tyler, a newly assigned officer at the thinly manned Intercept Center, presumed it was the scheduled arrival of six B - 17 bombers from California. The Japanese planes were approaching from a direction very close (only a few degrees difference) to the bombers, and while the operators had never seen a formation as large on radar, they neglected to tell Tyler of its size. Tyler, for security reasons, could not tell the operators of the six B - 17s that were due (even though it was widely known).
As the first wave planes approached Oahu, they encountered and shot down several U.S. aircraft. At least one of these radioed a somewhat incoherent warning. Other warnings from ships off the harbor entrance were still being processed or awaiting confirmation when the attacking planes began bombing and strafing. Nevertheless, it is not clear any warnings would have had much effect even if they had been interpreted correctly and much more promptly. The results the Japanese achieved in the Philippines were essentially the same as at Pearl Harbor, though MacArthur had almost nine hours warning that the Japanese had already attacked Pearl Harbor.
The air portion of the attack began at 7: 48 a.m. Hawaiian Time (3: 18 a.m. December 8 Japanese Standard Time, as kept by ships of the Kido Butai), with the attack on Kaneohe. A total of 353 Japanese planes in two waves reached Oahu. Slow, vulnerable torpedo bombers led the first wave, exploiting the first moments of surprise to attack the most important ships present (the battleships), while dive bombers attacked U.S. air bases across Oahu, starting with Hickam Field, the largest, and Wheeler Field, the main U.S. Army Air Forces fighter base. The 171 planes in the second wave attacked the Army Air Forces ' Bellows Field near Kaneohe on the windward side of the island, and Ford Island. The only aerial opposition came from a handful of P - 36 Hawks, P - 40 Warhawks, and some SBD Dauntless dive bombers from the carrier Enterprise.
In the first wave attack, about eight of the forty - nine 800 kg (1760 lb) armor - piercing bombs dropped hit their intended battleship targets. At least two of those bombs broke up on impact, another detonated before penetrating an unarmored deck, and one was a dud. Thirteen of the forty torpedoes hit battleships, and four torpedoes hit other ships. Men aboard U.S. ships awoke to the sounds of alarms, bombs exploding, and gunfire, prompting bleary - eyed men to dress as they ran to General Quarters stations. (The famous message, "Air raid Pearl Harbor. This is not drill. '', was sent from the headquarters of Patrol Wing Two, the first senior Hawaiian command to respond.) The defenders were very unprepared. Ammunition lockers were locked, aircraft parked wingtip to wingtip in the open to prevent sabotage, guns unmanned (none of the Navy 's 5 "/ 38s, only a quarter of its machine guns, and only four of 31 Army batteries got in action). Despite this low alert status, many American military personnel responded effectively during the attack. Ensign Joe Taussig Jr., aboard Nevada, commanded the ship 's antiaircraft guns and was severely wounded, but continued to be on post. Lt. Commander F.J. Thomas commanded Nevada in the captain 's absence and got her under way until the ship was grounded at 9: 10 a.m. One of the destroyers, Aylwin, got underway with only four officers aboard, all ensigns, none with more than a year 's sea duty; she operated at sea for 36 hours before her commanding officer managed to get back aboard. Captain Mervyn Bennion, commanding West Virginia, led his men until he was cut down by fragments from a bomb which hit Tennessee, moored alongside.
The second planned wave consisted of 171 planes: 54 B5Ns, 81 D3As, and 36 A6Ms, commanded by Lieutenant - Commander Shigekazu Shimazaki. Four planes failed to launch because of technical difficulties. This wave and its targets comprised:
The second wave was divided into three groups. One was tasked to attack Kāne ʻohe, the rest Pearl Harbor proper. The separate sections arrived at the attack point almost simultaneously from several directions.
Ninety minutes after it began, the attack was over. Two thousand and eight sailors were killed, and 710 others wounded; 218 soldiers and airmen (who were part of the Army until the independent U.S. Air Force was formed in 1947) were killed and 364 wounded; 109 marines were killed and 69 wounded; and 68 civilians were killed and 35 wounded. In total, 2,403 Americans died and 1,178 were wounded. Eighteen ships were sunk or run aground, including five battleships. All of the Americans killed or wounded during the attack were non-combatants, given the fact there was no state of war when the attack occurred.
Of the American fatalities, nearly half were due to the explosion of Arizona 's forward magazine after it was hit by a modified 16 - inch (410 mm) shell.
Already damaged by a torpedo and on fire amidships, Nevada attempted to exit the harbor. She was targeted by many Japanese bombers as she got under way and sustained more hits from 250 lb (113 kg) bombs, which started further fires. She was deliberately beached to avoid blocking the harbor entrance.
California was hit by two bombs and two torpedoes. The crew might have kept her afloat, but were ordered to abandon ship just as they were raising power for the pumps. Burning oil from Arizona and West Virginia drifted down on her, and probably made the situation look worse than it was. The disarmed target ship Utah was holed twice by torpedoes. West Virginia was hit by seven torpedoes, the seventh tearing away her rudder. Oklahoma was hit by four torpedoes, the last two above her belt armor, which caused her to capsize. Maryland was hit by two of the converted 16 '' shells, but neither caused serious damage.
Although the Japanese concentrated on battleships (the largest vessels present), they did not ignore other targets. The light cruiser Helena was torpedoed, and the concussion from the blast capsized the neighboring minelayer Oglala. Two destroyers in dry dock, Cassin and Downes were destroyed when bombs penetrated their fuel bunkers. The leaking fuel caught fire; flooding the dry dock in an effort to fight fire made the burning oil rise, and both were burned out. Cassin slipped from her keel blocks and rolled against Downes. The light cruiser Raleigh was holed by a torpedo. The light cruiser Honolulu was damaged, but remained in service. The repair vessel Vestal, moored alongside Arizona, was heavily damaged and beached. The seaplane tender Curtiss was also damaged. The destroyer Shaw was badly damaged when two bombs penetrated her forward magazine.
Of the 402 American aircraft in Hawaii, 188 were destroyed and 159 damaged, 155 of them on the ground. Almost none were actually ready to take off to defend the base. Eight Army Air Forces pilots managed to get airborne during the attack and six were credited with downing at least one Japanese aircraft during the attack: 1st Lt. Lewis M. Sanders, 2nd Lt. Philip M. Rasmussen, 2nd Lt. Kenneth M. Taylor, 2nd Lt. George S. Welch, 2nd Lt. Harry W. Brown, and 2nd Lt. Gordon H. Sterling Jr. Sterling was shot down by Lt. Fujita over Kaneohe Bay and is listed as Body Not Recovered (not Missing In Action). Lt. John L. Dains was killed by friendly fire returning from a victory over Kaawa. Of 33 PBYs in Hawaii, 24 were destroyed, and six others damaged beyond repair. (The three on patrol returned undamaged.) Friendly fire brought down some U.S. planes on top of that, including five from an inbound flight from Enterprise. Japanese attacks on barracks killed additional personnel.
At the time of the attack, nine civilian aircraft were flying in the vicinity of Pearl Harbor. Of these, three were shot down.
Fifty - five Japanese airmen and nine submariners were killed in the attack, and one was captured. Of Japan 's 414 available planes, 29 were lost during the battle (nine in the first attack wave, 20 in the second), with another 74 damaged by antiaircraft fire from the ground.
Several Japanese junior officers including Fuchida and Genda urged Nagumo to carry out a third strike in order to destroy as much of Pearl Harbor 's fuel and torpedo storage, maintenance, and dry dock facilities as possible. Genda, who had unsuccessfully advocated for invading Hawaii after the air attack, believed that without an invasion, three strikes were necessary to disable the base as much as possible. The captains of the other five carriers in the task force reported they were willing and ready to carry out a third strike. Military historians have suggested the destruction of these shore facilities would have hampered the U.S. Pacific Fleet far more seriously than the loss of its battleships. If they had been wiped out, "serious (American) operations in the Pacific would have been postponed for more than a year ''; according to Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, later Commander in Chief of the Pacific Fleet, "it would have prolonged the war another two years. '' Nagumo, however, decided to withdraw for several reasons:
At a conference aboard his flagship the following morning, Yamamoto supported Nagumo 's withdrawal without launching a third wave. In retrospect, sparing the vital dockyards, maintenance shops, and the oil tank farm meant the U.S. could respond relatively quickly to Japanese activities in the Pacific. Yamamoto later regretted Nagumo 's decision to withdraw and categorically stated it had been a great mistake not to order a third strike.
Seventeen ships were damaged or lost in the attack, of which fourteen were repaired and returned to service.
After a systematic search for survivors, formal salvage operations began. Captain Homer N. Wallin, Material Officer for Commander, Battle Force, U.S. Pacific Fleet, was immediately ordered to lead salvage operations. "Within a short time I was relieved of all other duties and ordered to full time work as Fleet Salvage Officer. ''
Around Pearl Harbor, divers from the Navy (shore and tenders), the Naval Shipyard, and civilian contractors (Pacific Bridge and others) began work on the ships that could be refloated. They patched holes, cleared debris, and pumped water out of ships. Navy divers worked inside the damaged ships. Within six months, five battleships and two cruisers were patched or refloated so they could be sent to shipyards in Pearl Harbor and on the mainland for extensive repair.
Intensive salvage operations continued for another year, a total of some 20,000 man - hours under water. Oklahoma, while successfully raised, was never repaired, and capsized while under tow to the mainland in 1947. Arizona and the target ship Utah were too heavily damaged for salvage, though much of their armament and equipment was removed and put to use aboard other vessels. Today, the two hulks remain where they were sunk, with Arizona becoming a war memorial.
In the wake of the attack, 15 Medals of Honor, 51 Navy Crosses, 53 Silver Stars, four Navy and Marine Corps Medals, one Distinguished Flying Cross, four Distinguished Service Crosses, one Distinguished Service Medal, and three Bronze Star Medals were awarded to the American servicemen who distinguished themselves in combat at Pearl Harbor. Additionally, a special military award, the Pearl Harbor Commemorative Medal, was later authorized for all military veterans of the attack.
The day after the attack, Roosevelt delivered his famous Infamy Speech to a Joint Session of Congress, calling for a formal declaration of war on the Empire of Japan. Congress obliged his request less than an hour later. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States, even though the Tripartite Pact did not require it. Congress issued a declaration of war against Germany and Italy later that same day. The UK actually declared war on Japan nine hours before the U.S. did, partially due to Japanese attacks on Malaya, Singapore and Hong Kong, and partially due to Winston Churchill 's promise to declare war "within the hour '' of a Japanese attack on the United States.
The attack was an initial shock to all the Allies in the Pacific Theater. Further losses compounded the alarming setback. Japan attacked the Philippines hours later (because of the time difference, it was December 8 in the Philippines). Only three days after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the battleships Prince of Wales and Repulse were sunk off the coast of Malaya, causing British Prime Minister Winston Churchill later to recollect "In all the war I never received a more direct shock. As I turned and twisted in bed the full horror of the news sank in upon me. There were no British or American capital ships in the Indian Ocean or the Pacific except the American survivors of Pearl Harbor who were hastening back to California. Over this vast expanse of waters Japan was supreme and we everywhere were weak and naked ''.
Throughout the war, Pearl Harbor was frequently used in American propaganda.
One further consequence of the attack on Pearl Harbor and its aftermath (notably the Niihau incident) was that Japanese American residents and citizens were relocated to nearby Japanese - American internment camps. Within hours of the attack, hundreds of Japanese American leaders were rounded up and brought to high - security camps such as Sand Island at the mouth of Honolulu harbor and Kilauea Military Camp on the island of Hawaii. Eventually, more than 110,000 Japanese Americans, nearly all who lived on the West Coast, were forced into interior camps, but in Hawaii, where the 150,000 - plus Japanese Americans composed over one - third of the population, only 1,200 to 1,800 were interned.
The attack also had international consequences. The Canadian province of British Columbia, bordering the Pacific Ocean, had long had a large population of Japanese immigrants and their Japanese Canadian descendants. Pre-war tensions were exacerbated by the Pearl Harbor attack, leading to a reaction from the Government of Canada. On February 24, 1942, Order - in - Council P.C. no. 1486 was passed under the War Measures Act allowing for the forced removal of any and all Canadians of Japanese descent from British Columbia, as well as the prohibiting them from returning to the province. On 4 March, regulations under the Act were adopted to evacuate Japanese - Canadians. As a result, 12,000 were interned in interior camps, 2,000 were sent to road camps and another 2,000 were forced to work in the prairies at sugar beet farms.
The Japanese planners had determined that some means was required for rescuing fliers whose aircraft were too badly damaged to return to the carriers. The island of Niihau, only 30 minutes flying time from Pearl Harbor, was designated as the rescue point.
The Zero flown by Petty Officer Shigenori Nishikaichi of Hiryu was damaged in the attack on Wheeler, so he flew to the rescue point on Niihau. The aircraft was further damaged on landing. Nishikaichi was helped from the wreckage by one of the native Hawaiians, who, aware of the tension between the United States and Japan, took the pilot 's maps and other documents. The island 's residents had no telephones or radio and were completely unaware of the attack on Pearl Harbor. Nishikaichi enlisted the support of three Japanese - American residents in an attempt to recover the documents. During the ensuing struggles, Nishikaichi was killed and a Hawaiian civilian was wounded; one collaborator committed suicide, and his wife and the third collaborator were sent to prison.
The ease with which the local ethnic Japanese residents had apparently gone to the assistance of Nishikaichi was a source of concern for many, and tended to support those who believed that local Japanese could not be trusted.
Admiral Hara Tadaichi summed up the Japanese result by saying, "We won a great tactical victory at Pearl Harbor and thereby lost the war. '' To a similar effect, see Isoroku Yamamoto 's alleged "sleeping giant '' quote.
While the attack accomplished its intended objective, it turned out to be largely unnecessary. Unbeknownst to Yamamoto, who conceived the original plan, the U.S. Navy had decided as far back as 1935 to abandon ' charging ' across the Pacific towards the Philippines in response to an outbreak of war (in keeping with the evolution of Plan Orange). The U.S. instead adopted "Plan Dog '' in 1940, which emphasized keeping the IJN out of the eastern Pacific and away from the shipping lanes to Australia, while the U.S. concentrated on defeating Nazi Germany.
Fortunately for the United States, the American aircraft carriers were untouched by the Japanese attack; otherwise the Pacific Fleet 's ability to conduct offensive operations would have been crippled for a year or more (given no diversions from the Atlantic Fleet). As it was, the elimination of the battleships left the U.S. Navy with no choice but to rely on its aircraft carriers and submarines -- the very weapons with which the U.S. Navy halted and eventually reversed the Japanese advance. While six of the eight battleships were repaired and returned to service, their relatively low speed and high fuel consumption limited their deployment, and they served mainly in shore bombardment roles (their only major action being the Battle of Surigao Strait in October 1944). A major flaw of Japanese strategic thinking was a belief that the ultimate Pacific battle would be fought by battleships, in keeping with the doctrine of Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan. As a result, Yamamoto (and his successors) hoarded battleships for a "decisive battle '' that never happened.
The Japanese confidence in their ability to achieve a short, victorious war meant that they neglected Pearl Harbor 's navy repair yards, oil tank farms, submarine base, and old headquarters building. All of these targets were omitted from Genda 's list, yet they proved more important than any battleship to the American war efforts in the Pacific. The survival of the repair shops and fuel depots allowed Pearl Harbor to maintain logistical support to the U.S. Navy 's operations, such as the Battles of Coral Sea and Midway. It was submarines that immobilized the Imperial Japanese Navy 's heavy ships and brought Japan 's economy to a virtual standstill by crippling the transportation of oil and raw materials: by the end of 1942, import of raw materials was cut to half of what it had been, "to a disastrous ten million tons '', while oil import "was almost completely stopped ''. Lastly, the basement of the Old Administration Building was the home of the cryptanalytic unit which contributed significantly to the Midway ambush and the Submarine Force 's success.
Ever since the Japanese attack, there has been debate as to how and why the United States had been caught unaware, and how much and when American officials knew of Japanese plans and related topics. Military officers including Gen. Billy Mitchell had pointed out the vulnerability of Pearl to air attack. At least two naval war games, one in 1932 and another in 1936, proved that Pearl was vulnerable to such an attack. Admiral James Richardson was removed from command shortly after protesting President Roosevelt 's decision to move the bulk of the Pacific fleet to Pearl Harbor. The decisions of military and political leadership to ignore these warnings has contributed to conspiracy theories. Several writers, including journalist Robert Stinnett and former United States Rear Admiral Robert Alfred Theobald, have argued that various parties high in the U.S. and British governments knew of the attack in advance and may even have let it happen or encouraged it in order to force the U.S. into war via the so - called "back door ''. However, this conspiracy theory is rejected by mainstream historians.
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list of third world countries in southeast asia | Southeast Asia - wikipedia
Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. Southeast Asia is bordered to the north by East Asia, to the west by South Asia and Bay of Bengal, to the east by Oceania and Pacific Ocean, and to the south by Australia and Indian Ocean. The region is the only part of Asia that lies partly within the Southern Hemisphere, although the majority of it is in the Northern Hemisphere. In contemporary definition, Southeast Asia consists of two geographic regions:
The region lies near the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic and volcanic activity. The Sunda Plate is the main plate of the region, featuring almost all Southeast Asian countries except Myanmar, northern Thailand, northern Vietnam, and northern Luzon of the Philippines. The mountain ranges in Myanmar, Thailand, and peninsular Malaysia are part of the Alpide belt, while the islands of the Philippines are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Both seismic belts meet in Indonesia, causing the region to have relatively high occurrences of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Southeast Asia covers about 4.5 million km (1.7 million mi), which is 10.5 % of Asia or 3 % of earth 's total land area. Its total population is more than 641 million, about 8.5 % of the world 's population. It is the third most populous geographical region in the world after South Asia and East Asia. The region is culturally and ethnically diverse, with hundreds of languages spoken by different ethnic groups. Ten countries in the region are members of ASEAN, a regional organisation established for economic, political, military, educational and cultural integration amongst its members.
The region, together with part of South Asia, was well known by the Europeans as the East Indies or simply the Indies until the 20th century. Chinese sources referred the region as 南洋 (Nanyang), which literally means the Southern Ocean. The mainland section of Southeast Asia was referred to as Indochina by European geographers due to its location between China and the Indian subcontinent and cultural influences from both neighboring regions. In the 20th century, however, the term became more restricted to former French Indochina territory (Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam). The maritime section of Southeast Asia is also known as Malay Archipelago, a term derived from the European concept of a Malay race. Another term for Maritime Southeast Asia is Insulindia (Indian Islands), used to describe the region between Indochina and Australasia.
The term "Southeast Asia '' was first used in 1839 by an American pastor Howard Malcolm in his book entitled Travels in South - Eastern Asia. Malcolm only included the Mainland section and excluded the Maritime section in his definition of Southeast Asia. The term was officially used in the midst of World War II by the Allies, through the formation of South East Asia Command (SEAC) in 1943. SEAC popularised the use of the term "Southeast Asia '', although what constituted Southeast Asia in the early days was not fixed, for example the Philippines and a large part of Indonesia were excluded by SEAC while Ceylon was included. However, by the late 1970s, a roughly standard usage of the term "Southeast Asia '' and the territories it encompasses had emerged. Although from a cultural or linguistic perspective, the definitions of "Southeast Asia '' may vary, the most common definitions nowadays include the area represented by the countries (sovereign states and dependent territories) listed below.
Ten of eleven states of Southeast Asia are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), while East Timor is an observer state. Papua New Guinea has stated that it might join ASEAN, and is currently an observer. Sovereignty issues exist over some territories in the South China Sea.
Some part of Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan (a disputed region or nation), are also considered as part of the Southeast Asia by some authors.
* Administrative centre in Putrajaya.
Southeast Asia is geographically divided into two subregions, namely Mainland Southeast Asia (or Indochina) and Maritime Southeast Asia (or the similarly defined Malay Archipelago) (Javanese: Nusantara).
Mainland Southeast Asia includes:
Maritime Southeast Asia includes:
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India are geographically considered part of Maritime Southeast Asia. Eastern Bangladesh and Northeast India have strong cultural ties with Southeast Asia and sometimes considered both South Asian and Southeast Asian. Sri Lanka has on some occasions been considered a part of Southeast Asia because of its cultural ties to mainland Southeast Asia. The rest of the island of New Guinea which is not part of Indonesia, namely, Papua New Guinea, is sometimes included, and so are Palau, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands, which were all part of the Spanish East Indies with strong cultural and linguistic ties to the region.
The eastern half of Indonesia and East Timor (east of the Wallace Line) are considered to be biogeographically part of Oceania (Wallacea) due to its distinctive faunal features. New Guinea and its surrounding islands are geologically considered as a part of Australian continent, connected via the Sahul Shelf.
The region was already inhabited by Homo erectus from 1,000,000 years ago during the Middle Pleistocene age. Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago, having moved eastwards from the Indian subcontinent. Homo floresiensis also lived in the area up until 12,000 years ago, when they became extinct. It has been proposed that the Austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, East Timor, and the Philippines, may have migrated to Southeast Asia from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BC, and as they spread through the archipelago, they often settled along coastal areas and confined indigenous peoples such as Orang Asli of peninsular Malaysia, Negritos of the Philippines or Papuans of New Guinea to inland regions. Archaeologists refer these people as Deutero - Malays, whom are more advanced in farming techniques and metal knowledge than their indigenous counterpart, the Proto - Malays.
Studies presented by HUGO (Human Genome Organization) through genetic studies of the various peoples of Asia, show empirically that there was a single migration event from Africa, whereby the early people travelled along the south coast of Asia, first entered the Malay peninsula 50,000 -- 90,000 years ago. The Orang Asli, in particular the Semang who show Negrito characteristics, are the direct descendants of these earliest settlers of Southeast Asia. These early people diversified and travelled slowly northwards to China, and the populations of Southeast Asia show greater genetic diversity than the younger population of China. Studies on the genetics of modern Malays however show that there is a complex history of admixture of human populations in Southeast Asia, with the Malay population showing four major ancestral components: Austronesian, Proto - Malay, East Asian, and South Asian.
Solheim and others have shown evidence for a Nusantao (Nusantara) maritime trading network ranging from Vietnam to the rest of the archipelago as early as 5000 BC to 1 AD. The Bronze Age Dong Son culture flourished in Northern Vietnam from about 1000 BC to 1 BC. Its influence spread to other parts Southeast Asia. The region entered the Iron Age era in 500 BC, when iron was forged also in northern Vietnam still under Dong Son, due to its frequent interactions with neighboring China.
The peoples of Southeast Asia, especially those of Austronesian descent, have been seafarers for thousands of years, some reaching the island of Madagascar, became the ancestors of modern - day Malagasy people. Passage through the Indian Ocean aided the colonisation of Madagascar, as well as commerce between Western Asia, eastern coast of India and Chinese southern coast. Gold from Sumatra is thought to have reached as far west as Rome. Pliny the Elder wrote in his Natural History about Chryse and Argyre, two legendary islands rich in gold and silver, located in the Indian Ocean. Their vessels, such as the vinta, were capable to sail across ocean. Magellan 's voyage records how much more manoeuvrable their vessels were, as compared to the European ships. A slave from the Sulu Sea was believed to have been used in Magellan 's voyage as a translator.
Most Southeast Asian people were originally animist, engaged in ancestors, nature, and spirits worship. These belief systems were later supplanted by Hinduism and Buddhism after the region, especially coastal areas, came under contacts with Indian subcontinent during the 1st century. Indian Brahmins and traders brought Hinduism to the region and made contacts with local courts. Local rulers converted to Hinduism or Buddhism and adopted Indian religious traditions to reinforce their legitimacy, elevate ritual status above their fellow chief counterparts and facilitate trade with South Asian states. They periodically invited Indian Brahmins into their realms and began a gradual process of Indianisation in the region. Shaivism was the dominant religious tradition of many southern Indian Hindu kingdoms during the 1st century. It then spread into Southeast Asia via Bay of Bengal, Indochina, then Malay Archipelago, leading to thousands of Shiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in the region. Theravada Buddhism entered the region during the 3rd century, via maritime trade routes between the region and Sri Lanka. Buddhism later established a strong presence in Funan region in the 5th century. In present - day mainland Southeast Asia, Theravada is still the dominant branch of Buddhism, practiced by the Thai, Burmese and Cambodian Buddhists. This branch was fused with the Hindu - influenced Khmer culture. Mahayana Buddhism established presence in Maritime Southeast Asia, brought by Chinese monks during their transit in the region en route to Nalanda. It is still the dominant branch of Buddhism practiced by Indonesian and Malaysian Buddhists.
The spread of these two Indian religions confined the adherents of Southeast Asian indigenous beliefs into remote inland areas. Maluku Islands and New Guinea were never been Indianised and its native people were predominantly animists until the 15th century when Islam began to spread in those areas. While in Vietnam, Buddhism never managed to develop strong institutional networks due to strong Chinese influence. In present - day Southeast Asia, Vietnam is the only country where its folk religion makes up the plurality. Recently, Vietnamese folk religion is undergoing a revival with the support of the government. Elsewhere, there are ethnic groups in Southeast Asia that resist conversion and still retain their original animist beliefs, such as the Dayaks in Kalimantan, the Igorots in Luzon, and the Shans in eastern Myanmar.
After the region came under contacts with Indian subcontinent circa 400 BCE, it began a gradual process of Indianisation where Indian ideas such as religions, cultures, architectures and political administrations were brought by traders and religious figures and adopted by local rulers. In turn, Indian Brahmins and monks were invited by local rulers to live in their realms and help transforming local polities to become more Indianised, blending Indian and indigenous traditions. Sanskrit and Pali became the elite language of the region, which effectively made Southeast Asia part of the Indosphere. Most of the region had been Indianised during the first centuries, while the Philippines later Indianised circa 9th century when Kingdom of Tondo was established in Luzon. Vietnam, especially its northern part, was never fully Indianised due to the many periods of Chinese domination it experienced.
The first Indian - influenced polities established in the region were the Pyu city - states that already existed circa 2nd century BCE, located in inland Myanmar. It served as an overland trading hub between India and China. Theravada Buddhism was the predominant religion of these city states, while the presence of other Indian religions such as Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism were also widespread. In the 1st century, the Funan states centered in Mekong Delta were established, encompassed modern - day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Laos, and eastern Thailand. It became the dominant trading power in mainland Southeast Asia for about five centuries, provided passage for Indian and Chinese goods and assumed authority over the flow of commerce through Southeast Asia. In maritime Southeast Asia, the first recorded Indianised kingdom was Salakanagara, established in western Java circa 2nd century CE. This Hindu kingdom was known by the Greeks as Argyre (Land of Silver).
By the 5th century CE, trade networking between East and West was concentrated in the maritime route. Foreign traders were starting to use new routes such as Malacca and Sunda Strait due to the development of maritime Southeast Asia. This change resulted in the decline of Funan, while new maritime powers such as Srivijaya, Tarumanagara, and Medang emerged. Srivijaya especially became the dominant maritime power for more than 5 centuries, controlling both Strait of Malacca and Sunda Strait. This dominance started to decline when Srivijaya were invaded by Chola Empire, a dominant maritime power of Indian subcontinent, in 1025. The invasion reshaped power and trade in the region, resulted in the rise of new regional powers such as the Khmer Empire and Kahuripan. Continued commercial contacts with the Chinese Empire enabled the Cholas to influence the local cultures. Many of the surviving examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout Southeast Asia are the result of the Chola expeditions.
As Srivijaya influence in the region declined, The Hindu Khmer Empire experienced a golden age during the 11th to 13th century CE. The empire 's capital Angkor hosts majestic monuments -- such as Angkor Wat and Bayon. Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its peak, was the largest pre-industrial urban centre in the world. The Champa civilisation was located in what is today central Vietnam, and was a highly Indianised Hindu Kingdom. The Vietnamese launched a massive conquest against the Cham people during the 1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa, ransacking and burning Champa, slaughtering thousands of Cham people, and forcibly assimilating them into Vietnamese culture.
During the 13th century CE, the region experienced Mongol invasions, affected areas such as Vietnamese coast, inland Burma and Java. In 1258, 1285 and 1287, the Mongols try to invade Đại Việt and Champa. The invasions were unsuccessful, yet both Dai Viet and Champa agreed to become tributary states to Yuan dynasty to avoid further conflicts. The Mongols also invaded Pagan Kingdom in Burma from 1277 to 1287, resulted in fragmentation of the Kingdom and rise of smaller Shan States ruled by local chieftains nominally submitted to Yuan dynasty. However, in 1297, a new local power emerged. Myinsaing Kingdom became the real ruler of Central Burma and challenged the Mongol rule. This resulted in the second Mongol invasion of Burma in 1300, which was repulsed by Myinsaing. The Mongols would later in 1303 withdrawn from Burma. In 1292, The Mongols sent envoys to Singhasari Kingdom in Java to ask for submission to Mongol rule. Singhasari rejected the proposal and injured the envoys, enraged the Mongols and made them sent a large invasion fleet to Java. Unbeknownst to them, Singhasari collapsed in 1293 due to a revolt by Kadiri, one of its vassals. When the Mongols arrived in Java, a local prince named Raden Wijaya offered his service to assist the Mongols in punishing Kadiri. After Kadiri was defeated, Wijaya turned on his Mongol allies, ambushed their invasion fleet and forced them to immediately leave Java.
After the departure of the Mongols, Wijaya established the Majapahit Empire in eastern Java in 1293. Majapahit would soon grew into a regional power. Its greatest ruler was Hayam Wuruk, whose reign from 1350 to 1389 marked the empire 's peak when other kingdoms in the southern Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, and Bali came under its influence. Various sources such as the Nagarakertagama also mention that its influence spanned over parts of Sulawesi, Maluku, and some areas of western New Guinea and southern Philippines, making it one of the largest empire to ever exist in Southeast Asian history. By the 15th century CE however, Majapahit 's influence began to wane due to many war of successions it experienced and the rise of new Islamic states such as Samudera Pasai and Malacca Sultanate around the strategic Strait of Malacca. Majapahit then collapsed around 1500. It was the last major Hindu kingdom and the last regional power in the region before the arrival of the Europeans.
Islam began to made contacts with Southeast Asia in the 8th - century CE, when the Umayyads established trade with the region via sea routes. However its spread into the region happened centuries later. In the 11th century, a turbulent period occurred in the history of Maritime Southeast Asia. The Indian Chola navy crossed the ocean and attacked the Srivijaya kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman in Kadaram (Kedah); the capital of the powerful maritime kingdom was sacked and the king was taken captive. Along with Kadaram, Pannai in present - day Sumatra and Malaiyur and the Malayan peninsula were attacked too. Soon after that, the king of Kedah Phra Ong Mahawangsa became the first ruler to abandon the traditional Hindu faith, and converted to Islam with the Sultanate of Kedah established in 1136. Samudera Pasai converted to Islam in 1267, the King of Malacca Parameswara married the princess of Pasai, and the son became the first sultan of Malacca. Soon, Malacca became the center of Islamic study and maritime trade, and other rulers followed suit. Indonesian religious leader and Islamic scholar Hamka (1908 -- 1981) wrote in 1961: "The development of Islam in Indonesia and Malaya is intimately related to a Chinese Muslim, Admiral Zheng He. ''
There are several theories to the Islamisation process in Southeast Asia. Another theory is trade. The expansion of trade among West Asia, India and Southeast Asia helped the spread of the religion as Muslim traders from Southern Yemen (Hadramout) brought Islam to the region with their large volume of trade. Many settled in Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia. This is evident in the Arab - Indonesian, Arab - Singaporean, and Arab - Malay populations who were at one time very prominent in each of their countries. Finally, the ruling classes embraced Islam and that further aided the permeation of the religion throughout the region. The ruler of the region 's most important port, Malacca Sultanate, embraced Islam in the 15th century, heralding a period of accelerated conversion of Islam throughout the region as Islam provided a positive force among the ruling and trading classes. Gujarati Muslims played a pivotal role in establishing Islam in Southeast Asia.
Trade among Southeast Asian countries has a long tradition. The consequences of colonial rule, struggle for independence and in some cases war influenced the economic attitudes and policies of each country until today.
From 111 BC to 938 AD northern Vietnam was under Chinese rule. Vietnam was successfully governed by a series of Chinese dynasties including the Han, Eastern Han, Eastern Wu, Cao Wei, Jin, Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang, Sui, Tang, and Southern Han.
Records from Magellan 's voyage show that Brunei possessed more cannon than European ships, so the Chinese must have been trading with them.
Malaysian legend has it that a Chinese Ming emperor sent a princess, Hang Li Po, to Malacca, with a retinue of 500, to marry Sultan Mansur Shah after the emperor was impressed by the wisdom of the sultan. Han Li Po 's well (constructed 1459) is now a tourist attraction there, as is Bukit Cina, where her retinue settled.
The strategic value of the Strait of Malacca, which was controlled by Sultanate of Malacca in the 15th and early 16th century, did not go unnoticed by Portuguese writer Duarte Barbosa, who in 1500 wrote "He who is lord of Malacca has his hand on the throat of Venice ''.
Western influence started to enter in the 16th century, with the arrival of the Portuguese in Malacca, Maluku and the Philippines, the latter being settled by the Spanish years later. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies; the French Indochina; and the British Strait Settlements. By the 19th century, all Southeast Asian countries were colonised except for Thailand.
European explorers were reaching Southeast Asia from the west and from the east. Regular trade between the ships sailing east from the Indian Ocean and south from mainland Asia provided goods in return for natural products, such as honey and hornbill beaks from the islands of the archipelago. Before the eighteenth and nineteenth century, the Europeans mostly were interested in expanding trade links. For the majority of the populations in each country, there was comparatively little interaction with Europeans and traditional social routines and relationships continued. For most, a life with subsistence level agriculture, fishing and, in less developed civilizations, hunting and gathering was still hard.
Europeans brought Christianity allowing Christian missionaries to become widespread. Thailand also allowed Western scientists to enter its country to develop its own education system as well as start sending Royal members and Thai scholars to get higher education from Europe and Russia.
During World War II, Imperial Japan invaded most of the former western colonies. The Shōwa occupation regime committed violent actions against civilians such as the Manila massacre and the implementation of a system of forced labour, such as the one involving 4 to 10 million romusha in Indonesia. A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as a result of famine and forced labour during the Japanese occupation. The Allied powers who defeated Japan in the South - East Asian theatre of World War II then contended with nationalists to whom the occupation authorities had granted independence.
Gujarat, India had a flourishing trade relationship with Southeast Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries. The trade relationship with Gujarat declined after the Portuguese invasion of Southeast Asia in the 17th century.
Most countries in the region enjoy national autonomy. Democratic forms of government and the recognition of human rights are taking root. ASEAN provides a framework for the integration of commerce, and regional responses to international concerns.
China has asserted broad claims over the South China Sea, based on its Nine - Dash Line, and has built artificial islands in an attempt to bolster its claims. China also has asserted an exclusive economic zone based on the Spratly Islands. The Philippines challenged China in the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague in 2013, and in Philippines v. China (2016), the Court ruled in favor of the Philippines and rejected China 's claims.
Indonesia is the largest country in Southeast Asia and it also the largest archipelago in the world by size (according to the CIA World Factbook). Geologically. the Indonesian archipelago is one of the most volcanically active regions in the world. Geological uplifts in the region have also produced some impressive mountains, culminating in Puncak Jaya in Papua, Indonesia at 5,030 metres (16,500 feet), on the island of New Guinea; it is the only place where ice glaciers can be found in Southeast Asia. The highest mountain in Southeast Asia is Hkakabo Razi at 5,967 meters and can be found in northern Burma sharing the same range of its parent peak, Mount Everest.
The South China Sea is the major body of water within Southeast Asia. The Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and Singapore, have integral rivers that flow into the South China Sea.
Mayon Volcano, despite being dangerously active, holds the record of the world 's most perfect cone which is built from past and continuous eruption.
Southeast Asia is bounded to the southeast by the Australian continent, a boundary which runs through Indonesia. But a cultural touch point lies between Papua New Guinea and the Indonesian region of the Papua and West Papua, which shares the island of New Guinea with Papua New Guinea.
The climate in Southeast Asia is mainly tropical -- hot and humid all year round with plentiful rainfall. Northern Vietnam and the Myanmar Himalayas are the only regions in Southeast Asia that feature a subtropical climate, which has a cold winter with snow. The majority of Southeast Asia has a wet and dry season caused by seasonal shift in winds or monsoon. The tropical rain belt causes additional rainfall during the monsoon season. The rain forest is the second largest on earth (with the Amazon being the largest). An exception to this type of climate and vegetation is the mountain areas in the northern region, where high altitudes lead to milder temperatures and drier landscape. Other parts fall out of this climate because they are desert like. Climate change will have a big effect on agriculture in Southeast Asia such as irrigation systems will be affected by changes in rainfall and runoff, and subsequently, water quality and supply.
The vast majority of Southeast Asia falls within the warm, humid tropics, and its climate generally can be characterised as monsoonal. The animals of Southeast Asia are diverse; on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra, the orangutan, the Asian elephant, the Malayan tapir, the Sumatran rhinoceros and the Bornean clouded leopard can also be found. Six subspecies of the binturong or bearcat exist in the region, though the one endemic to the island of Palawan is now classed as vulnerable.
Tigers of three different subspecies are found on the island of Sumatra (the Sumatran tiger), in peninsular Malaysia (the Malayan tiger), and in Indochina (the Indochinese tiger); all of which are endangered species.
The Komodo dragon is the largest living species of lizard and inhabits the islands of Komodo, Rinca, Flores, and Gili Motang in Indonesia.
The Philippine eagle is the national bird of the Philippines. It is considered by scientists as the largest eagle in the world, and is endemic to the Philippines ' forests.
The wild Asian water buffalo, and on various islands related dwarf species of Bubalus such as anoa were once widespread in Southeast Asia; nowadays the domestic Asian water buffalo is common across the region, but its remaining relatives are rare and endangered.
The mouse deer, a small tusked deer as large as a toy dog or cat, mostly can be found on Sumatra, Borneo (Indonesia) and in Palawan Islands (Philippines). The gaur, a gigantic wild ox larger than even wild water buffalo, is found mainly in Indochina. There is very little scientific information available regarding Southeast Asian amphibians.
Birds such as the peafowl and drongo live in this subregion as far east as Indonesia. The babirusa, a four - tusked pig, can be found in Indonesia as well. The hornbill was prized for its beak and used in trade with China. The horn of the rhinoceros, not part of its skull, was prized in China as well.
The Indonesian Archipelago is split by the Wallace Line. This line runs along what is now known to be a tectonic plate boundary, and separates Asian (Western) species from Australasian (Eastern) species. The islands between Java / Borneo and Papua form a mixed zone, where both types occur, known as Wallacea. As the pace of development accelerates and populations continue to expand in Southeast Asia, concern has increased regarding the impact of human activity on the region 's environment. A significant portion of Southeast Asia, however, has not changed greatly and remains an unaltered home to wildlife. The nations of the region, with only few exceptions, have become aware of the need to maintain forest cover not only to prevent soil erosion but to preserve the diversity of flora and fauna. Indonesia, for example, has created an extensive system of national parks and preserves for this purpose. Even so, such species as the Javan rhinoceros face extinction, with only a handful of the animals remaining in western Java.
The shallow waters of the Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels of biodiversity for the world 's marine ecosystems, where coral, fish and molluscs abound. According to Conservation International, marine surveys suggest that the marine life diversity in the Raja Ampat (Indonesia) is the highest recorded on Earth. Diversity is considerably greater than any other area sampled in the Coral Triangle composed of Indonesia, Philippines, and Papua New Guinea. The Coral Triangle is the heart of the world 's coral reef biodiversity, the Verde Passage is dubbed by Conservation International as the world 's "center of the center of marine shorefish biodiversity ''. The whale shark, the world 's largest species of fish and 6 species of sea turtles can also be found in the South China Sea and the Pacific Ocean territories of the Philippines.
The trees and other plants of the region are tropical; in some countries where the mountains are tall enough, temperate - climate vegetation can be found. These rainforest areas are currently being logged - over, especially in Borneo.
While Southeast Asia is rich in flora and fauna, Southeast Asia is facing severe deforestation which causes habitat loss for various endangered species such as orangutan and the Sumatran tiger. Predictions have been made that more than 40 % of the animal and plant species in Southeast Asia could be wiped out in the 21st century. At the same time, haze has been a regular occurrence. The two worst regional hazes were in 1997 and 2006 in which multiple countries were covered with thick haze, mostly caused by "slash and burn '' activities in Sumatra and Borneo. In reaction, several countries in Southeast Asia signed the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution to combat haze pollution.
The 2013 Southeast Asian Haze saw API levels reach a hazardous level in some countries. Muar experienced the highest API level of 746 on 23 June 2013 at around 7 am.
Even prior to the penetration of European interests, Southeast Asia was a critical part of the world trading system. A wide range of commodities originated in the region, but especially important were spices such as pepper, ginger, cloves, and nutmeg. The spice trade initially was developed by Indian and Arab merchants, but it also brought Europeans to the region. First Spaniards (Manila galleon) and Portuguese, then the Dutch, and finally the British and French became involved in this enterprise in various countries. The penetration of European commercial interests gradually evolved into annexation of territories, as traders lobbied for an extension of control to protect and expand their activities. As a result, the Dutch moved into Indonesia, the British into Malaya and parts of Borneo, the French into Indochina, and the Spanish and the US into the Philippines. An economic effect of this imperialism was the shift in the production of commodities. For example, the rubber plantations of Malaysia, Java, Vietnam and Cambodia, the tin mining of Malaya, the rice fields of the Mekong Delta in Vietnam and Irrawaddy River delta in Burma, were a response to powerful market demands.
The overseas Chinese community has played a large role in the development of the economies in the region. These business communities are connected through the bamboo network, a network of overseas Chinese businesses operating in the markets of Southeast Asia that share common family and cultural ties. The origins of Chinese influence can be traced to the 16th century, when Chinese migrants from southern China settled in Indonesia, Thailand, and other Southeast Asian countries. Chinese populations in the region saw a rapid increase following the Communist Revolution in 1949, which forced many refugees to emigrate outside of China.
The region 's economy greatly depends on agriculture; rice and rubber have long been prominent exports. Manufacturing and services are becoming more important. An emerging market, Indonesia is the largest economy in this region. Newly industrialised countries include Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines, while Singapore and Brunei are affluent developed economies. The rest of Southeast Asia is still heavily dependent on agriculture, but Vietnam is notably making steady progress in developing its industrial sectors. The region notably manufactures textiles, electronic high - tech goods such as microprocessors and heavy industrial products such as automobiles. Oil reserves in Southeast Asia are plentiful.
Seventeen telecommunications companies contracted to build the Asia - America Gateway submarine cable to connect Southeast Asia to the US This is to avoid disruption of the kind recently caused by the cutting of the undersea cable from Taiwan to the US in the 2006 Hengchun earthquakes.
Tourism has been a key factor in economic development for many Southeast Asian countries, especially Cambodia. According to UNESCO, "tourism, if correctly conceived, can be a tremendous development tool and an effective means of preserving the cultural diversity of our planet. '' Since the early 1990s, "even the non-ASEAN nations such as Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Burma, where the income derived from tourism is low, are attempting to expand their own tourism industries. '' In 1995, Singapore was the regional leader in tourism receipts relative to GDP at over 8 %. By 1998, those receipts had dropped to less than 6 % of GDP while Thailand and Lao PDR increased receipts to over 7 %. Since 2000, Cambodia has surpassed all other ASEAN countries and generated almost 15 % of its GDP from tourism in 2006.
Indonesia is the only member of G - 20 major economies and is the largest economy in the region. Indonesia 's estimated gross domestic product for 2016 was US $932.4 billion (nominal) or $3,031.3 billion (PPP) with per capita GDP of US $3,604 (nominal) or $11,717 (PPP).
Stock markets in Southeast Asia have performed better than other bourses in the Asia - Pacific region in 2010, with the Philippines ' PSE leading the way with 22 percent growth, followed by Thailand 's SET with 21 percent and Indonesia 's JKSE with 19 percent.
Southeast Asia 's GDP per capita is US $3,853 according to a 2015 United Nations report, which is comparable to Guatemala and Tonga.
(2017)
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Southeast Asia has an area of approximately 4,500,000 km (1.7 million square miles). As of 2016, around 642 million people live in the region, more than a fifth live (143 million) on the Indonesian island of Java, the most densely populated large island in the world. Indonesia is the most populous country with 261 million people, and also the 4th most populous country in the world. The distribution of the religions and people is diverse in Southeast Asia and varies by country. Some 30 million overseas Chinese also live in Southeast Asia, most prominently in Christmas Island, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand, and also as the Hoa in Vietnam. People of Southeast Asian origins are known as Southeast Asians or Aseanites.
The Aslians and Negritos were believed as one of the earliest inhabitant in the region. They are genetically related to the Papuans in Eastern Indonesia and Australian Aborigines. The next waves of human migration to Southeast Asia were Austroasiatic and Austronesians, which today forming the majority of the regional population.
In modern times, the Javanese are the largest ethnic group in Southeast Asia, with more than 100 million people, mostly concentrated in Java, Indonesia. The second largest ethnic group in Southeast Asia is Vietnamese with around 86 million population, mainly inhabit Vietnam forming significant minority in neighboring Cambodia and Laos. The Thais is also a significant ethnic group with around 59 million population forming the majority in Thailand. In Burma, the Burmese account for more than two - thirds of the ethnic stock in this country.
Indonesia is clearly dominated by the Javanese and Sundanese ethnic groups, with hundreds of ethnic minorities inhabited the archipelago, including Madurese, Minangkabau, Bugis, Balinese, Dayak, Batak and Malays. While Malaysia is split between more than half Malays and one - quarter Chinese, and also Indian minority in the West Malaysia however Dayaks is the most majority in Sarawak and Kadazan - dusun is the most majority in Sabah which are in the East Malaysia. The Malays are the majority in West Malaysia and Brunei, while they forming a significant minority in Indonesia, Southern Thailand, East Malaysia and Singapore. In city - state Singapore, Chinese are the majority, yet the city is a multicultural melting pot with Malays, Indians and Eurasian also called the island their home.
The Chams forming a significant minority in Central and South Vietnam, also in Central Cambodia. While the Khmers are the majority in Cambodia, and forming a significant minority in Southern Vietnam and Thailand. The Hmong people are the minority in Vietnam, China and Laos.
Within the Philippines, the Visayan (mainly Cebuanos and Hiligaynons), Tagalog, Ilocano, Bicolano and Central Luzon (mainly Kapampangan and Pangasinan) groups are significant.
Countries in Southeast Asia practice many different religions. By population, Islam is the most practised faith, numbering approximately 240 million adherents, or about 40 % of the entire population, concentrated in Indonesia, Brunei, Malaysia, Southern Thailand and in the Southern Philippines. Indonesia is the most populous Muslim - majority country around the world.
Buddhism is predominant in Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Burma and Singapore. Ancestor worship and Confucianism are also widely practised in Vietnam and Singapore.
Christianity is predominant in the Philippines, eastern Indonesia, East Malaysia and East Timor. The Philippines has the largest Roman Catholic population in Asia. East Timor is also predominantly Roman Catholic due to a history of Portuguese rule.
No individual Southeast Asian country is religiously homogeneous. In the world 's most populous Muslim nation, Indonesia, Hinduism is dominant on islands such as Bali. Christianity also predominates in the rest of the part of the Philippines, New Guinea and Timor. Pockets of Hindu population can also be found around Southeast Asia in Singapore, Malaysia etc. Garuda (Sanskrit: Garuḍa), the phoenix who is the mount (vahanam) of Vishnu, is a national symbol in both Thailand and Indonesia; in the Philippines, gold images of Garuda have been found on Palawan; gold images of other Hindu gods and goddesses have also been found on Mindanao. Balinese Hinduism is somewhat different from Hinduism practised elsewhere, as Animism and local culture is incorporated into it. Christians can also be found throughout Southeast Asia; they are in the majority in East Timor and the Philippines, Asia 's largest Christian nation. In addition, there are also older tribal religious practices in remote areas of Sarawak in East Malaysia, Highland Philippines and Papua in eastern Indonesia. In Burma, Sakka (Indra) is revered as a nat. In Vietnam, Mahayana Buddhism is practised, which is influenced by native animism but with strong emphasis on ancestor worship.
The religious composition for each country is as follows: Some values are taken from the CIA World Factbook:
Each of the languages have been influenced by cultural pressures due to trade, immigration, and historical colonization as well. There are nearly over 800 native languages in the region.
The language composition for each country is as follows (with official languages in bold):
Indonesia has over 700 languages in over 17,000 islands across the archipelago, making Indonesia the second most linguistically diverse country on the planet, slightly behind Papua New Guinea. The official language of Indonesia is Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia), widely used in educational, political, economic, and other formal situations. In daily activities and informal situations, most Indonesians speak in their local language (s). For more details, see: Languages of Indonesia.
The Philippines has more than a hundred native languages, most without official recognition from the national government. Spanish and Arabic are on a voluntary and optional basis. Malaysian, Indonesian, Mandarin, Lan - nang (Hokkien), Cantonese, Hakka, Japanese and Korean are also spoken in the Philippines due to immigration, geographic proximity and historical ties. See: Languages of the Philippines
The culture in Southeast Asia is very diverse: on mainland Southeast Asia, the culture is a mix of Burmese, Cambodian, Laotian and Thai (Indian) and Vietnamese (Chinese) cultures. While in Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore and Malaysia the culture is a mix of indigenous Austronesian, Indian, Islamic, Western, and Chinese cultures. Also Brunei shows a strong influence from Arabia. Singapore and Vietnam show more Chinese influence in that Singapore, although being geographically a Southeast Asian nation, is home to a large Chinese majority and Vietnam was in China 's sphere of influence for much of its history. Indian influence in Singapore is only evident through the Tamil migrants, which influenced, to some extent, the cuisine of Singapore. Throughout Vietnam 's history, it has had no direct influence from India -- only through contact with the Thai, Khmer and Cham peoples.
Rice paddy agriculture has existed in Southeast Asia for thousands of years, ranging across the subregion. Some dramatic examples of these rice paddies populate the Banaue Rice Terraces in the mountains of Luzon in the Philippines. Maintenance of these paddies is very labour - intensive. The rice paddies are well - suited to the monsoon climate of the region.
Stilt houses can be found all over Southeast Asia, from Thailand and Vietnam, to Borneo, to Luzon in the Philippines, to Papua New Guinea. The region has diverse metalworking, especially in Indonesia. This include weaponry, such as the distinctive kris, and musical instruments, such as the gamelan.
The region 's chief cultural influences have been from some combination of Islam, India, and China. Diverse cultural influence is pronounced in the Philippines, derived particularly from the period of the Spanish and American rule, contact with Indian - influenced cultures, and the Chinese and Japanese trading era.
As a rule, the peoples who ate with their fingers were more likely influenced by the culture of India, for example, than the culture of China, where the peoples ate with chopsticks; tea, as a beverage, can be found across the region. The fish sauces distinctive to the region tend to vary.
The arts of Southeast Asia have affinity with the arts of other areas. Dance in much of Southeast Asia includes movement of the hands as well as the feet, to express the dance 's emotion and meaning of the story that the ballerina is going to tell the audience. Most of Southeast Asia introduced dance into their court; in particular, Cambodian royal ballet represented them in the early 7th century before the Khmer Empire, which was highly influenced by Indian Hinduism. Apsara Dance, famous for strong hand and feet movement, is a great example of Hindu symbolic dance.
Puppetry and shadow plays were also a favoured form of entertainment in past centuries, a famous one being Wayang from Indonesia. The arts and literature in some of Southeast Asia is quite influenced by Hinduism, which was brought to them centuries ago. Indonesia, despite conversion to Islam which opposes certain forms of art, has retained many forms of Hindu - influenced practices, culture, art and literature. An example is the Wayang Kulit (Shadow Puppet) and literature like the Ramayana. The wayang kulit show has been recognized by UNESCO on November 7, 2003, as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
It has been pointed out that Khmer and Indonesian classical arts were concerned with depicting the life of the gods, but to the Southeast Asian mind the life of the gods was the life of the peoples themselves -- joyous, earthy, yet divine. The Tai, coming late into Southeast Asia, brought with them some Chinese artistic traditions, but they soon shed them in favour of the Khmer and Mon traditions, and the only indications of their earlier contact with Chinese arts were in the style of their temples, especially the tapering roof, and in their lacquerware.
Traditional music in Southeast Asia is as varied as its many ethnic and cultural divisions. Main styles of traditional music can be seen: Court music, folk music, music styles of smaller ethnic groups, and music influenced by genres outside the geographic region.
Of the court and folk genres, gong - chime ensembles and orchestras make up the majority (the exception being lowland areas of Vietnam). Gamelan and Angklung orchestras from Indonesia, Piphat / Pinpeat ensembles of Thailand and Cambodia and the Kulintang ensembles of the southern Philippines, Borneo, Sulawesi and Timor are the three main distinct styles of musical genres that have influenced other traditional musical styles in the region. String instruments also are popular in the region.
On November 18, 2010, UNESCO officially recognized angklung as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity, and encourage Indonesian people and government to safeguard, transmit, promote performances and to encourage the craftsmanship of angklung making.
The history of Southeast Asia has led to a wealth of different authors, from both within and without writing about the region.
Originally, Indians were the ones who taught the native inhabitants about writing. This is shown through Brahmic forms of writing present in the region such as the Balinese script shown on split palm leaf called lontar (see image to the left -- magnify the image to see the writing on the flat side, and the decoration on the reverse side).
The antiquity of this form of writing extends before the invention of paper around the year 100 in China. Note each palm leaf section was only several lines, written longitudinally across the leaf, and bound by twine to the other sections. The outer portion was decorated. The alphabets of Southeast Asia tended to be abugidas, until the arrival of the Europeans, who used words that also ended in consonants, not just vowels. Other forms of official documents, which did not use paper, included Javanese copperplate scrolls. This material would have been more durable than paper in the tropical climate of Southeast Asia.
In Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore, the Malay language is now generally written in the Latin script. The same phenomenon is present in Indonesian, although different spelling standards are utilised (e.g. ' Teksi ' in Malay and ' Taksi ' in Indonesian for the word ' Taxi ').
The use of Chinese characters, in the past and present, is only evident in Vietnam and more recently, Singapore and Malaysia. The adoption of Chinese characters in Vietnam dates back to around 111BC, when it was occupied by the Chinese. A Vietnamese script called Chu nom used modified Chinese characters to express the Vietnamese language. Both classical Chinese and Chu Nom were used up until the early 20th century.
However, the use of the Chinese script has been in decline, especially in Singapore and Malaysia as the younger generations are in favour of the Latin Script.
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what is the ideal stage of moral development | Lawrence Kohlberg 's stages of moral Development - wikipedia
Lawrence Kohlberg 's stages of moral development constitute an adaptation of a psychological theory originally conceived by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. Kohlberg began work on this topic while a psychology graduate student at the University of Chicago in 1958, and expanded upon the theory throughout his life.
The theory holds that moral reasoning, the basis for ethical behavior, has six identifiable developmental stages, each more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than its predecessor. Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment far beyond the ages studied earlier by Piaget, who also claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages. Expanding on Piaget 's work, Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that it continued throughout the individual 's lifetime, a notion that spawned dialogue on the philosophical implications of such research.
The six stages of moral development are grouped into three levels: pre-conventional morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality.
For his studies, Kohlberg relied on stories such as the Heinz dilemma, and was interested in how individuals would justify their actions if placed in similar moral dilemmas. He then analyzed the form of moral reasoning displayed, rather than its conclusion, and classified it as belonging to one of six distinct stages.
There have been critiques of the theory from several perspectives. Arguments include that it emphasizes justice to the exclusion of other moral values, such as caring; that there is such an overlap between stages that they should more properly be regarded as separate domains; or that evaluations of the reasons for moral choices are mostly post hoc rationalizations (by both decision makers and psychologists studying them) of essentially intuitive decisions.
Nevertheless, an entirely new field within psychology was created as a direct result of Kohlberg 's theory, and according to Haggbloom et al. 's study of the most eminent psychologists of the 20th century, Kohlberg was the 16th most frequently cited psychologist in introductory psychology textbooks throughout the century, as well as the 30th most eminent overall.
Kohlberg 's scale is about how people justify behaviors and his stages are not a method of ranking how moral someone 's behavior is. There should, however, be a correlation between how someone scores on the scale and how they behave, and the general hypothesis is that moral behaviour is more responsible, consistent and predictable from people at higher levels.
Kohlberg 's six stages can be more generally grouped into three levels of two stages each: pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional. Following Piaget 's constructivist requirements for a stage model, as described in his theory of cognitive development, it is extremely rare to regress in stages -- to lose the use of higher stage abilities. Stages can not be skipped; each provides a new and necessary perspective, more comprehensive and differentiated than its predecessors but integrated with them.
The understanding gained in each stage is retained in later stages, but may be regarded by those in later stages as simplistic, lacking in sufficient attention to detail.
The pre-conventional level of moral reasoning is especially common in children, although adults can also exhibit this level of reasoning. Reasoners at this level judge the morality of an action by its direct consequences. The pre-conventional level consists of the first and second stages of moral development and is solely concerned with the self in an egocentric manner. A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society 's conventions regarding what is right or wrong but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.
In Stage one (obedience and punishment driven), individuals focus on the direct consequences of their actions on themselves. For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished. "The last time I did that I got spanked, so I will not do it again. '' The worse the punishment for the act is, the more "bad '' the act is perceived to be. This can give rise to an inference that even innocent victims are guilty in proportion to their suffering. It is "egocentric '', lacking recognition that others ' points of view are different from one 's own. There is "deference to superior power or prestige ''.
An example of obedience and punishment driven morality would be a child refusing to do something because it is wrong and that the consequences could result in punishment. For example, a child 's classmate tries to dare the child to skip school. The child would apply obedience and punishment driven morality by refusing to skip school because he would get punished.
Stage two (self - interest driven) expresses the "what 's in it for me '' position, in which right behavior is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest but understood in a narrow way which does not consider one 's reputation or relationships to groups of people. Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, but only to a point where it might further the individual 's own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a "You scratch my back, and I 'll scratch yours '' mentality. The lack of a societal perspective in the pre-conventional level is quite different from the social contract (stage five), as all actions at this stage have the purpose of serving the individual 's own needs or interests. For the stage two theorist, the world 's perspective is often seen as morally relative.
An example of self - interest driven is when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks, "what 's in it for me? '' The parents offer the child an incentive by giving a child an allowance to pay them for their chores. The child is motivated by self - interest to do chores.
The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults. To reason in a conventional way is to judge the morality of actions by comparing them to society 's views and expectations. The conventional level consists of the third and fourth stages of moral development. Conventional morality is characterized by an acceptance of society 's conventions concerning right and wrong. At this level an individual obeys rules and follows society 's norms even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid, however, and a rule 's appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.
In Stage three (good intentions as determined by social consensus), the self enters society by conforming to social standards. Individuals are receptive to approval or disapproval from others as it reflects society 's views. They try to be a "good boy '' or "good girl '' to live up to these expectations, having learned that being regarded as good benefits the self. Stage three reasoning may judge the morality of an action by evaluating its consequences in terms of a person 's relationships, which now begin to include things like respect, gratitude, and the "golden rule ''. "I want to be liked and thought well of; apparently, not being naughty makes people like me. '' Conforming to the rules for one 's social role is not yet fully understood. The intentions of actors play a more significant role in reasoning at this stage; one may feel more forgiving if one thinks that "they mean well ''.
In Stage four (authority and social order obedience driven), it is important to obey laws, dictums, and social conventions because of their importance in maintaining a functioning society. Moral reasoning in stage four is thus beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three. A central ideal or ideals often prescribe what is right and wrong. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would -- thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. When someone does violate a law, it is morally wrong; culpability is thus a significant factor in this stage as it separates the bad domains from the good ones. Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.
The post-conventional level, also known as the principled level, is marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society, and that the individual 's own perspective may take precedence over society 's view; individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles -- principles that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice. People who exhibit post-conventional morality view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms -- ideally rules can maintain the general social order and protect human rights. Rules are not absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can be confused with that of those at the pre-conventional level.
Some theorists have speculated that many people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.
In Stage five (social contract driven), the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet "the greatest good for the greatest number of people ''. This is achieved through majority decision and inevitable compromise. Democratic government is ostensibly based on stage five reasoning.
In Stage six (universal ethical principles driven), moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. Legal rights are unnecessary, as social contracts are not essential for deontic moral action. Decisions are not reached hypothetically in a conditional way but rather categorically in an absolute way, as in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant. This involves an individual imagining what they would do in another 's shoes, if they believed what that other person imagines to be true. The resulting consensus is the action taken. In this way action is never a means but always an end in itself; the individual acts because it is right, and not because it avoids punishment, is in their best interest, expected, legal, or previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently operated at that level.
In Kohlberg 's empirical studies of individuals throughout their life Kohlberg observed that some had apparently undergone moral stage regression. This could be resolved either by allowing for moral regression or by extending the theory. Kohlberg chose the latter, postulating the existence of sub-stages in which the emerging stage has not yet been fully integrated into the personality. In particular Kohlberg noted a stage 41⁄2 or 4 +, a transition from stage four to stage five, that shared characteristics of both. In this stage the individual is disaffected with the arbitrary nature of law and order reasoning; culpability is frequently turned from being defined by society to viewing society itself as culpable. This stage is often mistaken for the moral relativism of stage two, as the individual views those interests of society that conflict with their own as being relatively and morally wrong. Kohlberg noted that this was often observed in students entering college.
Kohlberg suggested that there may be a seventh stage -- Transcendental Morality, or Morality of Cosmic Orientation -- which linked religion with moral reasoning. Kohlberg 's difficulties in obtaining empirical evidence for even a sixth stage, however, led him to emphasize the speculative nature of his seventh stage.
Kohlberg 's stages of moral development are based on the assumption that humans are inherently communicative, capable of reason, and possess a desire to understand others and the world around them. The stages of this model relate to the qualitative moral reasonings adopted by individuals, and so do not translate directly into praise or blame of any individual 's actions or character. Arguing that his theory measures moral reasoning and not particular moral conclusions, Kohlberg insists that the form and structure of moral arguments is independent of the content of those arguments, a position he calls "formalism ''.
Kohlberg 's theory centers on the notion that justice is the essential characteristic of moral reasoning. Justice itself relies heavily upon the notion of sound reasoning based on principles. Despite being a justice - centered theory of morality, Kohlberg considered it to be compatible with plausible formulations of deontology and eudaimonia.
Kohlberg 's theory understands values as a critical component of the right. Whatever the right is, for Kohlberg, it must be universally valid across societies (a position known as "moral universalism ''): there can be no relativism. Moreover, morals are not natural features of the world; they are prescriptive. Nevertheless, moral judgments can be evaluated in logical terms of truth and falsity.
According to Kohlberg, someone progressing to a higher stage of moral reasoning can not skip stages. For example, an individual can not jump from being concerned mostly with peer judgments (stage three) to being a proponent of social contracts (stage five). On encountering a moral dilemma and finding their current level of moral reasoning unsatisfactory, however, an individual will look to the next level. Realizing the limitations of the current stage of thinking is the driving force behind moral development, as each progressive stage is more adequate than the last. The process is therefore considered to be constructive, as it is initiated by the conscious construction of the individual, and is not in any meaningful sense a component of the individual 's innate dispositions, or a result of past inductions.
Progress through Kohlberg 's stages happens as a result of the individual 's increasing competence, both psychologically and in balancing conflicting social - value claims. The process of resolving conflicting claims to reach an equilibrium is called "justice operation ''. Kohlberg identifies two of these justice operations: "equality '', which involves an impartial regard for persons, and "reciprocity '', which means a regard for the role of personal merit. For Kohlberg, the most adequate result of both operations is "reversibility '', in which a moral or dutiful act within a particular situation is evaluated in terms of whether or not the act would be satisfactory even if particular persons were to switch roles within that situation (also known colloquially as "moral musical chairs '').
Knowledge and learning contribute to moral development. Specifically important are the individual 's "view of persons '' and their "social perspective level '', each of which becomes more complex and mature with each advancing stage. The "view of persons '' can be understood as the individual 's grasp of the psychology of other persons; it may be pictured as a spectrum, with stage one having no view of other persons at all, and stage six being entirely socio - centric. Similarly, the social perspective level involves the understanding of the social universe, differing from the view of persons in that it involves an appreciation of social norms.
Kohlberg established the Moral Judgement Interview in his original 1958 dissertation. During the roughly 45 - minute tape recorded semi-structured interview, the interviewer uses moral dilemmas to determine which stage of moral reasoning a person uses. The dilemmas are fictional short stories that describe situations in which a person has to make a moral decision. The participant is asked a systemic series of open - ended questions, like what they think the right course of action is, as well as justifications as to why certain actions are right or wrong. The form and structure of these replies are scored and not the content; over a set of multiple moral dilemmas an overall score is derived.
A dilemma that Kohlberg used in his original research was the druggist 's dilemma: Heinz Steals the Drug In Europe.
One criticism of Kohlberg 's theory is that it emphasizes justice to the exclusion of other values, and so may not adequately address the arguments of those who value other moral aspects of actions. Carol Gilligan has argued that Kohlberg 's theory is overly androcentric. Kohlberg 's theory was initially developed based on empirical research using only male participants; Gilligan argued that it did not adequately describe the concerns of women. Kohlberg stated that women tend to get stuck at level 3, focusing on details of how to maintain relationships and promote the welfare of family and friends. Men are likely to move on to the abstract principles, and thus have less concern with the particulars of who is involved. Consistent with this observation, Gilligan 's theory of moral development does not focus on the value of justice. She developed an alternative theory of moral reasoning based on the ethics of caring. Critics such as Christina Hoff Sommers, however, argued that Gilligan 's research is ill - founded, and that no evidence exists to support her conclusion.
Kohlberg 's stages are not culturally neutral, as demonstrated by its application to a number of different cultures. Although they progress through the stages in the same order, individuals in different cultures seem to do so at different rates. Kohlberg has responded by saying that although different cultures do indeed inculcate different beliefs, his stages correspond to underlying modes of reasoning, rather than to those beliefs.
Another criticism of Kohlberg 's theory is that people frequently demonstrate significant inconsistency in their moral judgements. This often occurs in moral dilemmas involving drinking and driving and business situations where participants have been shown to reason at a subpar stage, typically using more self - interest driven reasoning (i.e., stage two) than authority and social order obedience driven reasoning (i.e., stage four). Kohlberg 's theory is generally considered to be incompatible with inconsistencies in moral reasoning. Carpendale has argued that Kohlberg 's theory should be modified to focus on the view that the process of moral reasoning involves integrating varying perspectives of a moral dilemma rather than simply fixating on applying rules. This view would allow for inconsistency in moral reasoning since individuals may be hampered by their inability to consider different perspectives. Krebs and Denton have also attempted to modify Kohlberg 's theory to account for a multitude of conflicting findings, but eventually concluded that the theory is not equipped to take into consideration how most individuals make moral decisions in their everyday lives.
Other psychologists have questioned the assumption that moral action is primarily a result of formal reasoning. Social intuitionists such as Jonathan Haidt, for example, argue that individuals often make moral judgments without weighing concerns such as fairness, law, human rights, or abstract ethical values. Thus the arguments analyzed by Kohlberg and other rationalist psychologists could be considered post hoc rationalizations of intuitive decisions; moral reasoning may be less relevant to moral action than Kohlberg 's theory suggests.
Kohlberg 's body of work on the stages of moral development has been utilized by others working in the field. One example is the Defining Issues Test (DIT) created in 1979 by James Rest, originally as a pencil - and - paper alternative to the Moral Judgement Interview. Heavily influenced by the six - stage model, it made efforts to improve the validity criteria by using a quantitative test, the Likert scale, to rate moral dilemmas similar to Kohlberg 's. It also used a large body of Kohlbergian theory such as the idea of "post-conventional thinking ''. In 1999 the DIT was revised as the DIT - 2; the test continues to be used in many areas where moral testing is required, such as divinity, politics, and medicine.
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which of the following gini ratios indicates the lowest degree of income inequality | Gini coefficient - wikipedia
In economics, the Gini coefficient (/ ˈdʒiːni / JEE - nee; sometimes expressed as a Gini ratio or a normalized Gini index) is a measure of statistical dispersion intended to represent the income or wealth distribution of a nation 's residents, and is the most commonly used measurement of inequality. It was developed by the Italian statistician and sociologist Corrado Gini and published in his 1912 paper Variability and Mutability (Italian: Variabilità e mutabilità).
The Gini coefficient measures the inequality among values of a frequency distribution (for example, levels of income). A Gini coefficient of zero expresses perfect equality, where all values are the same (for example, where everyone has the same income). A Gini coefficient of 1 (or 100 %) expresses maximal inequality among values (e.g., for a large number of people, where only one person has all the income or consumption, and all others have none, the Gini coefficient will be very nearly one). However, a value greater than one may occur if some persons represent negative contribution to the total (for example, having negative income or wealth). For larger groups, values close to or above 1 are very unlikely in practice. Given the normalization of both the cumulative population and the cumulative share of income used to calculate the Gini coefficient, the measure is not overly sensitive to the specifics of the income distribution, but rather only on how incomes vary relative to the other members of a population. The exception to this is in the redistribution of wealth resulting in a minimum income for all people. When the population is sorted, if their income distribution were to approximate a well - known function, then some representative values could be calculated.
The Gini coefficient was proposed by Gini as a measure of inequality of income or wealth. For OECD countries, in the late 20th century, considering the effect of taxes and transfer payments, the income Gini coefficient ranged between 0.24 and 0.49, with Slovenia being the lowest and Chile the highest. African countries had the highest pre-tax Gini coefficients in 2008 -- 2009, with South Africa the world 's highest, variously estimated to be 0.63 to 0.7, although this figure drops to 0.52 after social assistance is taken into account, and drops again to 0.47 after taxation. The global income Gini coefficient in 2005 has been estimated to be between 0.61 and 0.68 by various sources.
There are some issues in interpreting a Gini coefficient. The same value may result from many different distribution curves. The demographic structure should be taken into account. Countries with an aging population, or with a baby boom, experience an increasing pre-tax Gini coefficient even if real income distribution for working adults remains constant. Scholars have devised over a dozen variants of the Gini coefficient.
Income inequality is prevalent, however efficient a nation 's social welfare system. In no nation is perfect distributional equality found, where everyone would receive the same share of all productivity of the state. Defining and measuring "inequality '' is problematic. What ways of measuring various types of inequality have been suggested? The Gini coefficient has been advanced to measure differences in aggregate distributions of resources, defined by money. The Gini coefficient is a single number aimed at measuring how far a country 's wealth distribution deviates from totally equal distribution of productivity.
The Gini coefficient is usually defined mathematically based on the Lorenz curve, which plots the proportion of the total income of the population (y axis) that is cumulatively earned by the bottom x % of the population (see diagram). The line at 45 degrees thus represents perfect equality of incomes. The Gini coefficient can then be thought of as the ratio of the area that lies between the line of equality and the Lorenz curve (marked A in the diagram) over the total area under the line of equality (marked A and B in the diagram); i.e., G = A / (A + B). It is also equal to 2A and to 1 − 2B due to the fact that A + B = 0.5 (since the axes scale from 0 to 1).
If all people have non-negative income (or wealth, as the case may be), the Gini coefficient can theoretically range from 0 (complete equality) to 1 (complete inequality); it is sometimes expressed as a percentage ranging between 0 and 100. In practice, both extreme values are not quite reached. If negative values are possible (such as the negative wealth of people with debts), then the Gini coefficient could theoretically be more than 1. Normally the mean (or total) is assumed positive, which rules out a Gini coefficient less than zero.
An alternative approach is to define the Gini coefficient as half of the relative mean absolute difference, which is mathematically equivalent to the Lorenz curve definition. The mean absolute difference is the average absolute difference of all pairs of items of the population, and the relative mean absolute difference is the mean absolute difference divided by the average, to normalize for scale. if x is the wealth or income of person i, and there are n persons, then the Gini coefficient G is given by:
When the income (or wealth) distribution is given as a continuous probability distribution function p (x), where p (x) dx is the fraction of the population with income x to x + dx, then the Gini coefficient is again half of the relative mean absolute difference:
where μ is the mean of the distribution μ = ∫ − ∞ ∞ x p (x) d x (\ displaystyle \ mu = \ int _ (- \ infty) ^ (\ infty) x \, p (x) \, dx) and the lower limits of integration may be replaced by zero when all incomes are positive.
The most equal society will be one in which every person receives the same income (G = 0); the most unequal society will be one in which a single person receives 100 % of the total income and the remaining N − 1 people receive none (G = 1 − 1 / N).
While the income distribution of any particular country need not follow simple functions, these functions give a qualitative understanding of the income distribution in a nation given the Gini coefficient. The effects of minimum income policy due to redistribution can be seen in the linear relationships.
An informative simplified case just distinguishes two levels of income, low and high. If the high income group is u % of the population and earns a fraction f % of all income, then the Gini coefficient is f − u. An actual more graded distribution with these same values u and f will always have a higher Gini coefficient than f − u.
The proverbial case where the richest 20 % have 80 % of all income (see Pareto principle) would lead to an income Gini coefficient of at least 60 %.
An often cited case that 1 % of all the world 's population owns 50 % of all wealth, means a wealth Gini coefficient of at least 49 %.
In some cases, this equation can be applied to calculate the Gini coefficient without direct reference to the Lorenz curve. For example, (taking y to mean the income or wealth of a person or household):
Since the Gini coefficient is half the relative mean absolute difference, it can also be calculated using formulas for the relative mean absolute difference. For a random sample S consisting of values y, i = 1 to n, that are indexed in non-decreasing order (y ≤ y), the statistic:
There does not exist a sample statistic that is in general an unbiased estimator of the population Gini coefficient, like the relative mean absolute difference.
For a discrete probability distribution with probability mass function f (y), i = 1 to n, where f (y) is the fraction of the population with income or wealth y > 0, the Gini coefficient is:
When the population is large, the income distribution may be represented by a continuous probability density function f (x) where f (x) dx is the fraction of the population with wealth or income in the interval dx about x. If F (x) is the cumulative distribution function for f (x), then the Lorenz curve L (F) may then be represented as a function parametric in L (x) and F (x) and the value of B can be found by integration:
The Gini coefficient can also be calculated directly from the cumulative distribution function of the distribution F (y). Defining μ as the mean of the distribution, and specifying that F (y) is zero for all negative values, the Gini coefficient is given by:
The latter result comes from integration by parts. (Note that this formula can be applied when there are negative values if the integration is taken from minus infinity to plus infinity.)
The Gini coefficient may be expressed in terms of the quantile function Q (F) (inverse of the cumulative distribution function: Q (F (x)) = x)
For some functional forms, the Gini index can be calculated explicitly. For example, if y follows a lognormal distribution with the standard deviation of logs equal to σ (\ displaystyle \ sigma), then G = erf (σ 2) (\ displaystyle G = \ operatorname (erf) \ left ((\ frac (\ sigma) (2)) \ right)) where erf (\ displaystyle \ operatorname (erf)) is the error function (since G = 2 φ (σ 2) − 1 (\ displaystyle G = 2 \ phi \ left ((\ frac (\ sigma) (\ sqrt (2))) \ right) - 1), where φ (\ displaystyle \ phi) is the cumulative standard normal distribution). In the table below, some examples are shown. The Dirac delta distribution represents the case where everyone has the same wealth (or income); it implies that there are no variations at all between incomes.
Sometimes the entire Lorenz curve is not known, and only values at certain intervals are given. In that case, the Gini coefficient can be approximated by using various techniques for interpolating the missing values of the Lorenz curve. If (X, Y) are the known points on the Lorenz curve, with the X indexed in increasing order (X < X), so that:
If the Lorenz curve is approximated on each interval as a line between consecutive points, then the area B can be approximated with trapezoids and:
is the resulting approximation for G. More accurate results can be obtained using other methods to approximate the area B, such as approximating the Lorenz curve with a quadratic function across pairs of intervals, or building an appropriately smooth approximation to the underlying distribution function that matches the known data. If the population mean and boundary values for each interval are also known, these can also often be used to improve the accuracy of the approximation.
The Gini coefficient calculated from a sample is a statistic and its standard error, or confidence intervals for the population Gini coefficient, should be reported. These can be calculated using bootstrap techniques but those proposed have been mathematically complicated and computationally onerous even in an era of fast computers. Ogwang (2000) made the process more efficient by setting up a "trick regression model '' in which respective income variables in the sample are ranked with the lowest income being allocated rank 1. The model then expresses the rank (dependent variable) as the sum of a constant A and a normal error term whose variance is inversely proportional to y;
Ogwang showed that G can be expressed as a function of the weighted least squares estimate of the constant A and that this can be used to speed up the calculation of the jackknife estimate for the standard error. Giles (2004) argued that the standard error of the estimate of A can be used to derive that of the estimate of G directly without using a jackknife at all. This method only requires the use of ordinary least squares regression after ordering the sample data. The results compare favorably with the estimates from the jackknife with agreement improving with increasing sample size.
However it has since been argued that this is dependent on the model 's assumptions about the error distributions (Ogwang 2004) and the independence of error terms (Reza & Gastwirth 2006) and that these assumptions are often not valid for real data sets. It may therefore be better to stick with jackknife methods such as those proposed by Yitzhaki (1991) and Karagiannis and Kovacevic (2000). The debate continues.
Guillermina Jasso and Angus Deaton independently proposed the following formula for the Gini coefficient:
where μ (\ displaystyle \ mu) is mean income of the population, P is the income rank P of person i, with income X, such that the richest person receives a rank of 1 and the poorest a rank of N. This effectively gives higher weight to poorer people in the income distribution, which allows the Gini to meet the Transfer Principle. Note that the Jasso - Deaton formula rescales the coefficient so that its value is 1 if all the X i (\ displaystyle X_ (i)) are zero except one. Note however Allison 's reply on the need to divide by N2 instead.
FAO explains another version of the formula.
The Gini coefficient and other standard inequality indices reduce to a common form. Perfect equality -- the absence of inequality -- exists when and only when the inequality ratio, r j = x j / x _̄ (\ displaystyle r_ (j) = x_ (j) / (\ overline (x))), equals 1 for all j units in some population (for example, there is perfect income equality when everyone 's income x j (\ displaystyle x_ (j)) equals the mean income x _̄ (\ displaystyle (\ overline (x))), so that r j = 1 (\ displaystyle r_ (j) = 1) for everyone). Measures of inequality, then, are measures of the average deviations of the r j = 1 (\ displaystyle r_ (j) = 1) from 1; the greater the average deviation, the greater the inequality. Based on these observations the inequality indices have this common form:
where p weights the units by their population share, and f (r) is a function of the deviation of each unit 's r from 1, the point of equality. The insight of this generalised inequality index is that inequality indices differ because they employ different functions of the distance of the inequality ratios (the r) from 1.
Gini coefficients of income are calculated on market income as well as disposable income basis. The Gini coefficient on market income -- sometimes referred to as a pre-tax Gini coefficient -- is calculated on income before taxes and transfers, and it measures inequality in income without considering the effect of taxes and social spending already in place in a country. The Gini coefficient on disposable income -- sometimes referred to as after - tax Gini coefficient -- is calculated on income after taxes and transfers, and it measures inequality in income after considering the effect of taxes and social spending already in place in a country.
The difference in Gini indices between OECD countries, on after - taxes and transfers basis, is significantly narrower. For OECD countries, over 2008 -- 2009 period, Gini coefficient on pre-taxes and transfers basis for total population ranged between 0.34 and 0.53, with South Korea the lowest and Italy the highest. Gini coefficient on after - taxes and transfers basis for total population ranged between 0.25 and 0.48, with Denmark the lowest and Mexico the highest. For United States, the country with the largest population in OECD countries, the pre-tax Gini index was 0.49, and after - tax Gini index was 0.38, in 2008 -- 2009. The OECD averages for total population in OECD countries was 0.46 for pre-tax income Gini index and 0.31 for after - tax income Gini Index. Taxes and social spending that were in place in 2008 -- 2009 period in OECD countries significantly lowered effective income inequality, and in general, "European countries -- especially Nordic and Continental welfare states -- achieve lower levels of income inequality than other countries. ''
Using the Gini can help quantify differences in welfare and compensation policies and philosophies. However it should be borne in mind that the Gini coefficient can be misleading when used to make political comparisons between large and small countries or those with different immigration policies (see limitations of Gini coefficient section).
The Gini coefficient for the entire world has been estimated by various parties to be between 0.61 and 0.68. The graph shows the values expressed as a percentage in their historical development for a number of countries.
According to UNICEF, Latin America and the Caribbean region had the highest net income Gini index in the world at 48.3, on unweighted average basis in 2008. The remaining regional averages were: sub-Saharan Africa (44.2), Asia (40.4), Middle East and North Africa (39.2), Eastern Europe and Central Asia (35.4), and High - income Countries (30.9). Using the same method, the United States is claimed to have a Gini index of 36, while South Africa had the highest income Gini index score of 67.8.
The table below presents the estimated world income Gini coefficients over the last 200 years, as calculated by Milanovic. Taking income distribution of all human beings, the worldwide income inequality has been constantly increasing since the early 19th century. There was a steady increase in the global income inequality Gini score from 1820 to 2002, with a significant increase between 1980 and 2002. This trend appears to have peaked and begun a reversal with rapid economic growth in emerging economies, particularly in the large populations of BRIC countries.
More detailed data from similar sources plots a continuous decline since 1988. This is attributed to globalization increasing incomes for billions of poor people, mostly in India and China. Developing countries like Brazil have also improved basic services like health care, education, and sanitation; others like Chile and Mexico have enacted more progressive tax policies.
Gini coefficient is widely used in fields as diverse as sociology, economics, health science, ecology, engineering and agriculture. For example, in social sciences and economics, in addition to income Gini coefficients, scholars have published education Gini coefficients and opportunity Gini coefficients.
Education Gini index estimates the inequality in education for a given population. It is used to discern trends in social development through educational attainment over time. From a study of 85 countries by three Economists of World Bank Vinod Thomas, Yan Wang, Xibo Fan, estimate Mali had the highest education Gini index of 0.92 in 1990 (implying very high inequality in education attainment across the population), while the United States had the lowest education inequality Gini index of 0.14. Between 1960 and 1990, South Korea, China and India had the fastest drop in education inequality Gini Index. They also claim education Gini index for the United States slightly increased over the 1980 -- 1990 period.
Similar in concept to income Gini coefficient, opportunity Gini coefficient measures inequality of opportunity. The concept builds on Amartya Sen 's suggestion that inequality coefficients of social development should be premised on the process of enlarging people 's choices and enhancing their capabilities, rather than on the process of reducing income inequality. Kovacevic in a review of opportunity Gini coefficient explains that the coefficient estimates how well a society enables its citizens to achieve success in life where the success is based on a person 's choices, efforts and talents, not his background defined by a set of predetermined circumstances at birth, such as, gender, race, place of birth, parent 's income and circumstances beyond the control of that individual.
In 2003, Roemer reported Italy and Spain exhibited the largest opportunity inequality Gini index amongst advanced economies.
In 1978, Anthony Shorrocks introduced a measure based on income Gini coefficients to estimate income mobility. This measure, generalized by Maasoumi and Zandvakili, is now generally referred to as Shorrocks index, sometimes as Shorrocks mobility index or Shorrocks rigidity index. It attempts to estimate whether the income inequality Gini coefficient is permanent or temporary, and to what extent a country or region enables economic mobility to its people so that they can move from one (e.g. bottom 20 %) income quantile to another (e.g. middle 20 %) over time. In other words, Shorrocks index compares inequality of short - term earnings such as annual income of households, to inequality of long - term earnings such as 5 - year or 10 - year total income for same households.
Shorrocks index is calculated in number of different ways, a common approach being from the ratio of income Gini coefficients between short - term and long - term for the same region or country.
A 2010 study using social security income data for the United States since 1937 and Gini - based Shorrocks indices concludes that income mobility in the United States has had a complicated history, primarily due to mass influx of women into the American labor force after World War II. Income inequality and income mobility trendsc have been different for men and women workers between 1937 and the 2000s. When men and women are considered together, the Gini coefficient - based Shorrocks index trends imply long - term income inequality has been substantially reduced among all workers, in recent decades for the United States. Other scholars, using just 1990s data or other short periods have come to different conclusions. For example, Sastre and Ayala, conclude from their study of income Gini coefficient data between 1993 and 1998 for six developed economies, that France had the least income mobility, Italy the highest, and the United States and Germany intermediate levels of income mobility over those 5 years.
The Gini coefficient has features that make it useful as a measure of dispersion in a population, and inequalities in particular. It is a ratio analysis method making it easier to interpret. It also avoids references to a statistical average or position unrepresentative of most of the population, such as per capita income or gross domestic product. For a given time interval, Gini coefficient can therefore be used to compare diverse countries and different regions or groups within a country; for example states, counties, urban versus rural areas, gender and ethnic groups. Gini coefficients can be used to compare income distribution over time, thus it is possible to see if inequality is increasing or decreasing independent of absolute incomes.
Other useful features of the Gini coefficient include:
A Gini index value above 50 is considered high; countries including Brazil, Colombia, South Africa, Botswana, and Honduras can be found in this category. A Gini index value of 30 or above is considered medium; countries including Vietnam, Mexico, Poland, The United States, Argentina, Russia and Uruguay can be found in this category. A Gini index value lower than 30 is considered low; countries including Austria, Germany, Denmark, Slovenia, Sweden and Ukraine can be found in this category.
The Gini coefficient is a relative measure. Its proper use and interpretation is controversial. It is possible for the Gini coefficient of a developing country to rise (due to increasing inequality of income) while the number of people in absolute poverty decreases. This is because the Gini coefficient measures relative, not absolute, wealth. Changing income inequality, measured by Gini coefficients, can be due to structural changes in a society such as growing population (baby booms, aging populations, increased divorce rates, extended family households splitting into nuclear families, emigration, immigration) and income mobility. Gini coefficients are simple, and this simplicity can lead to oversights and can confuse the comparison of different populations; for example, while both Bangladesh (per capita income of $1,693) and the Netherlands (per capita income of $42,183) had an income Gini coefficient of 0.31 in 2010, the quality of life, economic opportunity and absolute income in these countries are very different, i.e. countries may have identical Gini coefficients, but differ greatly in wealth. Basic necessities may be available to all in a developed economy, while in an undeveloped economy with the same Gini coefficient, basic necessities may be unavailable to most or unequally available, due to lower absolute wealth.
Even when the total income of a population is the same, in certain situations two countries with different income distributions can have the same Gini index (e.g. cases when income Lorenz Curves cross). Table A illustrates one such situation. Both countries have a Gini coefficient of 0.2, but the average income distributions for household groups are different. As another example, in a population where the lowest 50 % of individuals have no income and the other 50 % have equal income, the Gini coefficient is 0.5; whereas for another population where the lowest 75 % of people have 25 % of income and the top 25 % have 75 % of the income, the Gini index is also 0.5. Economies with similar incomes and Gini coefficients can have very different income distributions. Bellù and Liberati claim that to rank income inequality between two different populations based on their Gini indices is sometimes not possible, or misleading.
A Gini index does not contain information about absolute national or personal incomes. Populations can have very low income Gini indices, yet simultaneously very high wealth Gini index. By measuring inequality in income, the Gini ignores the differential efficiency of use of household income. By ignoring wealth (except as it contributes to income) the Gini can create the appearance of inequality when the people compared are at different stages in their life. Wealthy countries such as Sweden can show a low Gini coefficient for disposable income of 0.31 thereby appearing equal, yet have very high Gini coefficient for wealth of 0.79 to 0.86 thereby suggesting an extremely unequal wealth distribution in its society. These factors are not assessed in income - based Gini.
Gini index has a downward - bias for small populations. Counties or states or countries with small populations and less diverse economies will tend to report small Gini coefficients. For economically diverse large population groups, a much higher coefficient is expected than for each of its regions. Taking world economy as one, and income distribution for all human beings, for example, different scholars estimate global Gini index to range between 0.61 and 0.68. As with other inequality coefficients, the Gini coefficient is influenced by the granularity of the measurements. For example, five 20 % quantiles (low granularity) will usually yield a lower Gini coefficient than twenty 5 % quantiles (high granularity) for the same distribution. Philippe Monfort has shown that using inconsistent or unspecified granularity limits the usefulness of Gini coefficient measurements.
The Gini coefficient measure gives different results when applied to individuals instead of households, for the same economy and same income distributions. If household data is used, the measured value of income Gini depends on how the household is defined. When different populations are not measured with consistent definitions, comparison is not meaningful.
Deininger and Squire (1996) show that income Gini coefficient based on individual income, rather than household income, are different. For example, for the United States, they find that the individual income - based Gini index was 0.35, while for France it was 0.43. According to their individual focused method, in the 108 countries they studied, South Africa had the world 's highest Gini coefficient at 0.62, Malaysia had Asia 's highest Gini coefficient at 0.5, Brazil the highest at 0.57 in Latin America and Caribbean region, and Turkey the highest at 0.5 in OECD countries.
Expanding on the importance of life - span measures, the Gini coefficient as a point - estimate of equality at a certain time, ignores life - span changes in income. Typically, increases in the proportion of young or old members of a society will drive apparent changes in equality, simply because people generally have lower incomes and wealth when they are young than when they are old. Because of this, factors such as age distribution within a population and mobility within income classes can create the appearance of inequality when none exist taking into account demographic effects. Thus a given economy may have a higher Gini coefficient at any one point in time compared to another, while the Gini coefficient calculated over individuals ' lifetime income is actually lower than the apparently more equal (at a given point in time) economy 's. Essentially, what matters is not just inequality in any particular year, but the composition of the distribution over time.
Kwok claims income Gini coefficient for Hong Kong has been high (0.434 in 2010), in part because of structural changes in its population. Over recent decades, Hong Kong has witnessed increasing numbers of small households, elderly households and elderly living alone. The combined income is now split into more households. Many old people are living separately from their children in Hong Kong. These social changes have caused substantial changes in household income distribution. Income Gini coefficient, claims Kwok, does not discern these structural changes in its society. Household money income distribution for the United States, summarized in Table C of this section, confirms that this issue is not limited to just Hong Kong. According to the US Census Bureau, between 1979 and 2010, the population of United States experienced structural changes in overall households, the income for all income brackets increased in inflation - adjusted terms, household income distributions shifted into higher income brackets over time, while the income Gini coefficient increased.
Another limitation of Gini coefficient is that it is not a proper measure of egalitarianism, as it is only measures income dispersion. For example, if two equally egalitarian countries pursue different immigration policies, the country accepting a higher proportion of low - income or impoverished migrants will report a higher Gini coefficient and therefore may appear to exhibit more income inequality.
Some countries distribute benefits that are difficult to value. Countries that provide subsidized housing, medical care, education or other such services are difficult to value objectively, as it depends on quality and extent of the benefit. In absence of free markets, valuing these income transfers as household income is subjective. The theoretical model of Gini coefficient is limited to accepting correct or incorrect subjective assumptions.
In subsistence - driven and informal economies, people may have significant income in other forms than money, for example through subsistence farming or bartering. These income tend to accrue to the segment of population that is below - poverty line or very poor, in emerging and transitional economy countries such as those in sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, Asia and Eastern Europe. Informal economy accounts for over half of global employment and as much as 90 per cent of employment in some of the poorer sub-Saharan countries with high official Gini inequality coefficients. Schneider et al., in their 2010 study of 162 countries, report about 31.2 %, or about $20 trillion, of world 's GDP is informal. In developing countries, the informal economy predominates for all income brackets except for the richer, urban upper income bracket populations. Even in developed economies, between 8 % (United States) to 27 % (Italy) of each nation 's GDP is informal, and resulting informal income predominates as a livelihood activity for those in the lowest income brackets. The value and distribution of the incomes from informal or underground economy is difficult to quantify, making true income Gini coefficients estimates difficult. Different assumptions and quantifications of these incomes will yield different Gini coefficients.
Gini has some mathematical limitations as well. It is not additive and different sets of people can not be averaged to obtain the Gini coefficient of all the people in the sets.
Given the limitations of Gini coefficient, other statistical methods are used in combination or as an alternative measure of population dispersity. For example, entropy measures are frequently used (e.g. the Theil Index, the Atkinson index and the generalized entropy index). These measures attempt to compare the distribution of resources by intelligent agents in the market with a maximum entropy random distribution, which would occur if these agents acted like non-intelligent particles in a closed system following the laws of statistical physics.
The Gini coefficient is closely related to the AUC (Area Under receiver operating characteristic Curve) measure of performance. The relation follows the formula A U C = (G + 1) / 2 (\ displaystyle AUC = (G + 1) / 2). Gini coefficient is also closely related to Mann -- Whitney U.
The Gini index is also related to Pietra index -- both of which are a measure of statistical heterogeneity and are derived from Lorenz curve and the diagonal line.
In certain fields such as ecology, inverse Simpson 's index 1 / λ (\ displaystyle 1 / \ lambda) is used to quantify diversity, and this should not be confused with the Simpson index λ (\ displaystyle \ lambda). These indicators are related to Gini. The inverse Simpson index increases with diversity, unlike Simpson index and Gini coefficient which decrease with diversity. The Simpson index is in the range (0, 1), where 0 means maximum and 1 means minimum diversity (or heterogeneity). Since diversity indices typically increase with increasing heterogeneity, Simpson index is often transformed into inverse Simpson, or using the complement 1 − λ (\ displaystyle 1 - \ lambda), known as Gini - Simpson Index.
Although the Gini coefficient is most popular in economics, it can in theory be applied in any field of science that studies a distribution. For example, in ecology the Gini coefficient has been used as a measure of biodiversity, where the cumulative proportion of species is plotted against cumulative proportion of individuals. In health, it has been used as a measure of the inequality of health related quality of life in a population. In education, it has been used as a measure of the inequality of universities. In chemistry it has been used to express the selectivity of protein kinase inhibitors against a panel of kinases. In engineering, it has been used to evaluate the fairness achieved by Internet routers in scheduling packet transmissions from different flows of traffic.
The Gini coefficient is sometimes used for the measurement of the discriminatory power of rating systems in credit risk management.
A 2005 study accessed US census data to measure home computer ownership, and used the Gini coefficient to measure inequalities amongst whites and African Americans. Results indicated that although decreasing overall, home computer ownership inequality is substantially smaller among white households.
A 2016 peer - reviewed study titled Employing the Gini coefficient to measure participation inequality in treatment - focused Digital Health Social Networks illustrated that the Gini coefficient was helpful and accurate in measuring shifts in inequality, however as a standalone metric it failed to incorporate overall network size.
The discriminatory power refers to a credit risk model 's ability to differentiate between defaulting and non-defaulting clients. The formula G 1 (\ displaystyle G_ (1)), in calculation section above, may be used for the final model and also at individual model factor level, to quantify the discriminatory power of individual factors. It is related to accuracy ratio in population assessment models.
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when is g3p removed from the calvin cycle | Light - independent reactions - wikipedia
The light - independent reactions, or dark reactions, of photosynthesis are chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and other compounds into glucose. These reactions occur in the stroma, the fluid - filled area of a chloroplast outside the thylakoid membranes. These reactions take the products (ATP and NADPH) of light - dependent reactions and perform further chemical processes on them. There are three phases to the light - independent reactions, collectively called the Calvin cycle: carbon fixation, reduction reactions, and ribulose 1, 5 - bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration.
This process occurs only when light is available. Plants do not carry out the Calvin cycle during nighttime. They instead release sucrose into the phloem from their starch reserves. This process happens when light is available independent of the kind of photosynthesis (C3 carbon fixation, C4 carbon fixation, and Crassulacean acid metabolism); CAM plants store malic acid in their vacuoles every night and release it by day to make this process work. They are also known as dark reactions.
These reactions are closely coupled to the thylakoid electron transport chain as reducing power provided by NADPH produced in the photosystem I is actively needed. The process of photorespiration, also known as C2 cycle, is also coupled to the dark reactions, as it results from an alternative reaction of the RuBisCO enzyme, and its final byproduct is also another glyceraldehyde - 3 - P.
The Calvin cycle, Calvin -- Benson -- Bassham (CBB) cycle, reductive pentose phosphate cycle or C3 cycle is a series of biochemical redox reactions that take place in the stroma of chloroplast in photosynthetic organisms.
The cycle was discovered by Melvin Calvin, James Bassham, and Andrew Benson at the University of California, Berkeley by using the radioactive isotope carbon - 14.
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages in a cell. In the first stage, light - dependent reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy - storage and transport molecules ATP and NADPH. The Calvin cycle uses the energy from short - lived electronically excited carriers to convert carbon dioxide and water into organic compounds that can be used by the organism (and by animals that feed on it). This set of reactions is also called carbon fixation. The key enzyme of the cycle is called RuBisCO. In the following biochemical equations, the chemical species (phosphates and carboxylic acids) exist in equilibria among their various ionized states as governed by the pH.
The enzymes in the Calvin cycle are functionally equivalent to most enzymes used in other metabolic pathways such as gluconeogenesis and the pentose phosphate pathway, but they are found in the chloroplast stroma instead of the cell cytosol, separating the reactions. They are activated in the light (which is why the name "dark reaction '' is misleading), and also by products of the light - dependent reaction. These regulatory functions prevent the Calvin cycle from being respired to carbon dioxide. Energy (in the form of ATP) would be wasted in carrying out these reactions that have no net productivity.
The sum of reactions in the Calvin cycle is the following:
Hexose (six - carbon) sugars are not a product of the Calvin cycle. Although many texts list a product of photosynthesis as C O, this is mainly a convenience to counter the equation of respiration, where six - carbon sugars are oxidized in mitochondria. The carbohydrate products of the Calvin cycle are three - carbon sugar phosphate molecules, or "triose phosphates, '' namely, glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate (G3P).
In the first stage of the Calvin cycle, a CO molecule is incorporated into one of two three - carbon molecules (glyceraldehyde 3 - phosphate or G3P), where it uses up two molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADPH, which had been produced in the light - dependent stage. The three steps involved are:
The next stage in the Calvin cycle is to regenerate RuBP. Five G3P molecules produce three RuBP molecules, using up three molecules of ATP. Since each CO molecule produces two G3P molecules, three CO molecules produce six G3P molecules, of which five are used to regenerate RuBP, leaving a net gain of one G3P molecule per three CO molecules (as would be expected from the number of carbon atoms involved).
The regeneration stage can be broken down into steps.
Thus, of six G3P produced, five are used to make three RuBP (5C) molecules (totaling 15 carbons), with only one G3P available for subsequent conversion to hexose. This requires nine ATP molecules and six NADPH molecules per three CO molecules. The equation of the overall Calvin cycle is shown diagrammatically below.
RuBisCO also reacts competitively with O instead of CO in photorespiration. The rate of photorespiration is higher at high temperatures. Photorespiration turns RuBP into 3 - PGA and 2 - phosphoglycolate, a 2 - carbon molecule that can be converted via glycolate and glyoxalate to glycine. Via the glycine cleavage system and tetrahydrofolate, two glycines are converted into serine + CO. Serine can be converted back to 3 - phosphoglycerate. Thus, only 3 of 4 carbons from two phosphoglycolates can be converted back to 3 - PGA. It can be seen that photorespiration has very negative consequences for the plant, because, rather than fixing CO, this process leads to loss of CO. C4 carbon fixation evolved to circumvent photorespiration, but can occur only in certain plants native to very warm or tropical climates -- corn, for example.
The immediate products of one turn of the Calvin cycle are 2 glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate (G3P) molecules, 3 ADP, and 2 NADP. (ADP and NADP are not really "products. '' They are regenerated and later used again in the Light - dependent reactions). Each G3P molecule is composed of 3 carbons. For the Calvin cycle to continue, RuBP (ribulose 1, 5 - bisphosphate) must be regenerated. So, 5 out of 6 carbons from the 2 G3P molecules are used for this purpose. Therefore, there is only 1 net carbon produced to play with for each turn. To create 1 surplus G3P requires 3 carbons, and therefore 3 turns of the Calvin cycle. To make one glucose molecule (which can be created from 2 G3P molecules) would require 6 turns of the Calvin cycle. Surplus G3P can also be used to form other carbohydrates such as starch, sucrose, and cellulose, depending on what the plant needs.
These reactions do not occur in the dark or at night. There is a light - dependent regulation of the cycle enzymes, as the third step requires reduced NADP.
There are two regulation systems at work when the cycle must be turned on or off: the thioredoxin / ferredoxin activation system, which activates some of the cycle enzymes; and the RuBisCo enzyme activation, active in the Calvin cycle, which involves its own activase.
The thioredoxin / ferredoxin system activates the enzymes glyceraldehyde - 3 - P dehydrogenase, glyceraldehyde - 3 - P phosphatase, fructose - 1, 6 - bisphosphatase, sedoheptulose - 1, 7 - bisphosphatase, and ribulose - 5 - phosphatase kinase, which are key points of the process. This happens when light is available, as the ferredoxin protein is reduced in the photosystem I complex of the thylakoid electron chain when electrons are circulating through it. Ferredoxin then binds to and reduces the thioredoxin protein, which activates the cycle enzymes by severing a cystine bond found in all these enzymes. This is a dynamic process as the same bond is formed again by other proteins that deactivate the enzymes. The implications of this process are that the enzymes remain mostly activated by day and are deactivated in the dark when there is no more reduced ferredoxin available.
The enzyme RuBisCo has its own, more complex activation process. It requires that a specific lysine amino acid be carbamylated to activate the enzyme. This lysine binds to RuBP and leads to a non-functional state if left uncarbamylated. A specific activase enzyme, called RuBisCo activase, helps this carbamylation process by removing one proton from the lysine and making the binding of the carbon dioxide molecule possible. Even then the RuBisCo enzyme is not yet functional, as it needs a magnesium ion bound to the lysine to function. This magnesium ion is released from the thylakoid lumen when the inner pH drops due to the active pumping of protons from the electron flow. RuBisCo activase itself is activated by increased concentrations of ATP in the stroma caused by its phosphorylation.
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who did the voice of rusty nail in joy ride | Joy Ride (2001 film) - wikipedia
Joy Ride is a 2001 American horror thriller film directed by John Dahl and written by J.J. Abrams and Clay Tarver. The film stars Steve Zahn, Paul Walker, and Leelee Sobieski. The film follows after three university students and friends going out to a ride on the highway and eventually coming into a terrfying conflict with a mysterious yet murderous truck driver.
University students Lewis Thomas (Paul Walker) and Venna Wilcox (Leelee Sobieski), Lewis 's childhood friend and crush, prepare to go home for the summer holiday. Lewis offers to come by Venna 's campus (they go to different universities) to drive her home instead of both of them flying back; Venna happily agrees. After refunding his plane ticket to buy a 1971 Chrysler Newport, Lewis calls his parents to announce the change of plan and learns that his older brother Fuller (Steve Zahn), the family 's black sheep, has been arrested once again. Lewis drives to Salt Lake City and bails out Fuller, who then tags along for the trip.
At a gas station, Fuller has a CB radio installed on Lewis 's car for $40, and the two begin listening in on truckers ' chatter. Fuller coaxes Lewis into playing a prank on a truck driver nicknamed ' Rusty Nail ' (voiced by Ted Levine (uncredited)). Lewis pretends to be a woman named Candy Cane and sets up a meeting with Rusty Nail in the motel where Lewis and Fuller will be spending the night. Lewis tells Rusty that "she '' is in room 17, the room of an irritable businessman with whom Fuller had earlier argued, but the guys are actually in room 18. When Rusty Nail arrives at the man 's room, an argument and sounds of a scuffle are briefly heard. The next morning, Sheriff Ritter announces to Lewis and Fuller that they found the businessman on the highway, still alive with his lower jaw ripped off. Ritter figures out the two are involved in the incident, but lets them go, as he already has his hands full, and they do not know anything other than the man 's nickname. However, he orders them to leave the state by sundown.
On the road, Rusty Nail is heard again on the CB radio looking for Candy Cane. Lewis talks to him and reveals that he is Candy Cane. Rusty Nail demands an apology, but Fuller insults him, instead. Rusty Nail simply notes that they should get their taillight fixed, indicating that he is right behind them, causing the duo to panic and speed up. At the next gas station, they unsuccessfully attempt to contact Ritter. Seeing an ice truck pulling into the gas station, the already paranoid pair drives away. The ice truck driver chases them down. However, the driver turns out to be merely trying to return Lewis 's credit card, which he left behind in panic. The real Rusty Nail then shows up in his truck and crushes the ice truck and its driver. He then slowly pins Lewis 's car against a tree. The two hysterically apologize, and Rusty Nail drives away, declaring his actions to be simply a retaliatory joke.
Believing themselves safe, the brothers arrive at the University of Colorado and pick up Venna. They stop at a motel and drink at a bar. Lewis goes to sleep, but Rusty Nail calls him, revealing he knows of Venna. The three flee the motel. Rusty Nail contacts them, announcing that he has kidnapped Charlotte, Venna 's friend. He directs them to a cornfield, where he gets them to split up, and kidnaps Venna.
Rusty Nail sets up a meeting at another motel in room 17, mirroring the false date with which he was pranked. He sets up a trap that will kill Venna if the room door is opened. Fuller attempts to get in the room by a window, but is injured by Rusty Nail and stuck outside the room. Rusty Nail 's truck appears uphill and begins rolling down toward Venna 's room. Lewis frees Fuller, and the brothers save Venna just in time. As the police investigate Rusty Nail 's truck, they see a dead body in the driver 's seat and Charlotte, still alive, on the floor.
Lewis, Fuller, and Venna are treated for their injuries at an ambulance. At this point, the dead man turns out to be the ice truck driver. A CB in the ambulance is on, and the group hear Rusty Nail 's voice, learning that he is still alive and free.
In his screenplay for Joy Ride, J.J. Abrams was influenced by the first film directed by Steven Spielberg, Duel, and there are numerous references to it. For example, in one scene, a seemingly maniacal ICE truck pulls up to a gas station that the brothers have pulled up to. In Duel, a likewise maniacal truck pulls up the protagonist, and a small billboard for ICE is visible in the background.
The central antagonist, "Rusty Nail '', remains almost entirely unseen throughout the film and was portrayed by hulking actor Matthew Kimbrough in the brief shot of the villain towards the end of the film. Rusty Nail 's voice heard on the radio throughout most of the film was provided by veteran actor Ted Levine (The Silence of the Lambs) due to his distinctive voice tone, and was added in post production. Eric Stoltz and Sylvester Stallone also auditioned for the role of Rusty Nail. Rusty Nail 's truck is a 359 Peterbilt.
On the DVD release, there is a 29 - minute - long alternate ending, and four other shorter alternate endings. The main one featured Rusty Nail 's shotgun suicide and numerous bodies are found by the police in his trailer. One featured Rusty Nail being arrested, another being beaten in a fight with both Thomas brothers, another wherein he is blown up in his truck, and another saw Rusty Nail run over with his own truck. The ending featured in the actual theatrical cut of the film is the only ending in which Rusty Nail lives. There are also numerous deleted scenes.
In the alternate ending where Rusty Nail 's truck explodes, you can see a water tower behind the truck as it burns. The original intention was to have the truck hit the water tower and have the water come down and put the flames out so that it would be believable if Rusty Nail survived. However, time constraints kept the scene from being filmed. The water tower cost over $100,000.
Sobieski filmed two different romantic interludes, one with Zahn and one with Walker during the shooting and re-shooting of the film. Both scenes ended up getting cut. This may explain why Venna appears to be romantically interested in both of them.
The film also goes under numerous other titles in other countries. In Australia, Sweden, Finland, Ireland and some other European countries the film was retitled Roadkill, Never Play with Strangers in Israel and Spain, Radio Killer in Italy, Never talk to strangers in Greece, Road Killer in Japan, Ничего себе поездочка (What a ride!) in Russia and Mortal Frequency in Mexico.
The film went under the working titles of Candy Cane, Highway Horror, Deadly Frequency, and Squelch.
Joy Ride opened theatrically on October 5, 2001 in 2,497 venues and earned $7,347,259 in its opening weekend, ranking number five in the domestic box office. By the end of its run, the film had grossed $21,974,919 domestically and $14,667,919 overseas for a worldwide total of $36,642,838.
The film received generally positive reviews from critics. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 73 % rating based on 113 reviews, with an average rating of 6.6 / 10. The site 's consensus states: "A well - constructed B - movie thriller, Joy Ride keeps up the necessary level of tension and chills. Critics also liked Zahn 's performance as the goofball older brother. '' Metacritic reports a 75 out of 100 rating based on 31 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
The film was followed by two direct to video sequels, Joy Ride 2: Dead Ahead (2008) and Joy Ride 3 (2014).
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what is the star of david used for | Star of David - wikipedia
The Star of David (✡), known in Hebrew as the Shield of David or Magen David (Hebrew מָגֵן דָּוִד ; Biblical Hebrew Māḡēn Dāwīḏ (maːˈɣeːn daːˈwiːð), Tiberian (mɔˈɣen dɔˈvið), Modern Hebrew (maˈɡen daˈvid), Ashkenazi Hebrew and Yiddish Mogein Dovid (ˈmɔɡeɪn ˈdɔvid) or Mogen Dovid), is a generally recognized symbol of modern Jewish identity and Judaism. Its shape is that of a hexagram, the compound of two equilateral triangles. Unlike the menorah, the Lion of Judah, the shofar and the lulav, the Star of David was never a uniquely Jewish symbol, although it had been used in that way as a printer 's colophon since the sixteenth century.
During the 19th century the symbol began to proliferate among the Jewish communities of Eastern Europe, ultimately being used among the Jewish communities in the Pale of Settlement. A significant motivating factor, according to scholar Gershom Sholem, was the desire to represent Jewish religion and / or identity in the same manner the Christian cross identified that religion 's believers. The earliest Jewish usage of the symbol was inherited from medieval Arabic literature by Kabbalists for use in talismanic protective amulets (segulot) where it was known as a Seal of Solomon. The symbol was also used in Christian churches as a decorative motif many centuries before its first known use in a Jewish synagogue. Before the 19th century, official use in Jewish communities was generally known only in the region of today 's Czech Republic, Austria and possibly parts of Southern Germany, having begun in medieval Prague.
The symbol became representative of the worldwide Zionist community, and later the broader Jewish community, after it was chosen as the central symbol on a flag at the First Zionist Congress in 1897.
The identification of the term "Star of David '' or "Shield of David '' with the hexagram shape dates to the 17th century. The term "Shield of David '' is also used in the Siddur (Jewish prayer book) as a title of the God of Israel.
The hexagram does appear occasionally in Jewish contexts since antiquity, apparently as a decorative motif. For example, in Israel, there is a stone bearing a hexagram from the arch of a 3rd -- 4th century synagogue in the Galilee. Originally, the hexagram may have been employed as an architectural ornament on synagogues, as it is, for example, on the cathedrals of Brandenburg and Stendal, and on the Marktkirche at Hanover. A hexagram in this form is found on the ancient synagogue at Tell Hum. In the synagogues, perhaps, it was associated with the mezuzah.
The use of the hexagram in a Jewish context as a possibly meaningful symbol may occur as early as the 11th century, in the decoration of the carpet page of the famous Tanakh manuscript, the Leningrad Codex dated 1008. Similarly, the symbol illuminates a medieval Tanakh manuscript dated 1307 belonging to Rabbi Yosef bar Yehuda ben Marvas from Toledo, Spain. A Siddur dated 1512 from Prague displays a large hexagram on the cover with the phrase, "He will merit to bestow a bountiful gift on anyone who grasps the Shield of David. ''
A hexagram has been noted on a Jewish tombstone in Taranto, Apulia in Southern Italy, which may date as early as the third century CE. The Jews of Apulia were noted for their scholarship in Kabbalah, which has been connected to the use of the Star of David.
Medieval Kabbalistic grimoires show hexagrams among the tables of segulot, but without identifying them as "Shield of David ''.
In the Renaissance Period, in the 16th - century Land of Israel, the book Ets Khayim conveys the Kabbalah of Ha - Ari (Rabbi Isaac Luria) who arranges the traditional items on the seder plate for Passover into two triangles, where they explicitly correspond to Jewish mystical concepts. The six sfirot of the masculine Zer Anpin correspond to the six items on the seder plate, while the seventh sfira being the feminine Malkhut corresponds to the plate itself.
However, these seder - plate triangles are parallel, one above the other, and do not actually form a hexagram.
According to G.S. Oegema (1996)
Isaac Luria provided the hexagram with a further mystical meaning. In his book Etz Chayim he teaches that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram: above the three sefirot "Crown '', "Wisdom '', and "Insight '', below the other seven.
Similarly, M. Costa wrote that M. Gudemann and other researchers in the 1920s claimed that Isaac Luria was influential in turning the Star of David into a national Jewish emblem by teaching that the elements of the plate for the Seder evening have to be placed in the order of the hexagram. Gershom Scholem (1990) disagrees with this view, arguing that Isaac Luria talked about parallel triangles one beneath the other and not about the hexagram.
The Star of David at least since the 20th century remains associated with the number seven and thus with the Menorah, and popular accounts associate it with the six directions of space plus the center (under the influence of the description of space found in the Sefer Yetsira: Up, Down, East, West, South, North, and Center), or the Six Sefirot of the Male (Zeir Anpin) united with the Seventh Sefirot of the Female (Nukva). Some say that one triangle represents the ruling tribe of Judah and the other the former ruling tribe of Benjamin. It is also seen as a dalet and yud, the two letters assigned to Judah. There are 12 Vav, or "men, '' representing the 12 tribes or patriarchs of Israel.
In 1354, King of Bohemia Charles IV prescribed for the Jews of Prague a red flag with both David 's shield and Solomon 's seal, while the red flag with which the Jews met King Matthias of Hungary in the 15th century showed two pentagrams with two golden stars.
In 1460, the Jews of Ofen (Budapest, Hungary) received King Matthias Corvinus with a red flag on which were two Shields of David and two stars. In the first Hebrew prayer book, printed in Prague in 1512, a large hexagram appears on the cover. In the colophon is written: "Each man beneath his flag according to the house of their fathers... and he will merit to bestow a bountiful gift on anyone who grasps the Shield of David. '' In 1592, Mordechai Maizel was allowed to affix "a flag of King David, similar to that located on the Main Synagogue '' on his synagogue in Prague. Following the Battle of Prague (1648), the Jews of Prague were again granted a flag, in recognition in their contribution to the city 's defense. That flag showed a yellow hexagram on a red background, with a star placed in the center of the hexagram.
The symbol became representative of the worldwide Zionist community, and later the broader Jewish community, after it was chosen to represent the First Zionist Congress in 1897.
A year before the congress, Herzl had written in his 1896 Der Judenstaat:
We have no flag, and we need one. If we desire to lead many men, we must raise a symbol above their heads. I would suggest a white flag, with seven golden stars. The white field symbolizes our pure new life; the stars are the seven golden hours of our working - day. For we shall march into the Promised Land carrying the badge of honor.
David Wolffsohn (1856 -- 1914), a businessman prominent in the early Zionist movement, was aware that the nascent Zionist movement had no official flag, and that the design proposed by Theodor Herzl was gaining no significant support, wrote:
At the behest of our leader Herzl, I came to Basle to make preparations for the Zionist Congress. Among many other problems that occupied me then was one that contained something of the essence of the Jewish problem. What flag would we hang in the Congress Hall? Then an idea struck me. We have a flag -- and it is blue and white. The talith (prayer shawl) with which we wrap ourselves when we pray: that is our symbol. Let us take this Talith from its bag and unroll it before the eyes of Israel and the eyes of all nations. So I ordered a blue and white flag with the Shield of David painted upon it. That is how the national flag, that flew over Congress Hall, came into being.
In the early 20th century, the symbol began to be used to express Jewish affiliations in sports. Hakoah Vienna was a Jewish sports club founded in Vienna, Austria, in 1909 whose teams competed with the Star of David on the chest of their uniforms, and won the 1925 Austrian League soccer championship. Similarly, The Philadelphia Sphas basketball team in Philadelphia (whose name was an acronym of its founding South Philadelphia Hebrew Association) wore a large Star of David on their jerseys to proudly proclaim their Jewish identity, as they competed in the first half of the 20th century.
In boxing, Benny "the Ghetto Wizard '' Leonard (who said he felt as though he was fighting for all Jews) fought with a Star of David embroidered on his trunks in the 1910s. World heavyweight boxing champion Max Baer fought with a Star of David on his trunks as well, notably, for the first time as he knocked out Nazi Germany hero Max Schmeling in 1933; Hitler never permitted Schmeling to fight a Jew again.
A Star of David, often yellow, was used by the Nazis during the Holocaust to identify Jews. After the German invasion of Poland in 1939, there initially were different local decrees forcing Jews to wear distinct signs (e.g. in the General Government, a white armband with a blue Star of David; in the Warthegau, a yellow badge, in the form of a Star of David, on the left breast and on the back). If a Jew was found in public without the star, he could be severely punished. The requirement to wear the Star of David with the word Jude (German for Jew) was then extended to all Jews over the age of six in the Reich and in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (by a decree issued on September 1, 1941 and signed by Reinhard Heydrich) and was gradually introduced in other Nazi - occupied areas. Others, however, wore the Star of David as a symbol of defiance against Nazi antisemitism, as in the case of United States Army private Hal Baumgarten, who wore a Star of David emblazoned on his back during the 1944 invasion of Normandy.
The flag of Israel, depicting a blue Star of David on a white background, between two horizontal blue stripes was adopted on October 28, 1948, five months after the country 's establishment. The origins of the flag 's design date from the First Zionist Congress in 1897; the flag has subsequently been known as the "flag of Zion ''.
Many Modern Orthodox synagogues, and many synagogues of other Jewish movements, have the Israeli flag with the Star of David prominently displayed at the front of the synagogues near the Ark containing the Torah scrolls.
Magen David Adom (MDA) ("Red Star of David '' or, translated literally, "Red Shield of David '') is Israel 's only official emergency medical, disaster, ambulance service.
It has been an official member of the International Committee of the Red Cross since June 2006. According to the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Magen David Adom was boycotted by the International Committee of the Red Cross, which refused to grant the organization membership because "it was (...) argued that having an emblem used by only one country was contrary to the principles of universality. '' Other commentators said the ICRC did not recognize the medical and humanitarian use of this Jewish symbol, a Red Shield, alongside the Christian cross and the Muslim crescent.
Since 1948, the Star of David has carried the dual significance of representing both the state of Israel, and Jewish identity in general. In the United States especially, it continues to be used in the latter sense by a number of athletes.
In baseball, Jewish major leaguer Gabe Kapler had a Star of David tattooed on his left calf in 2000, with the words "strong - willed '' and "strong - minded '', major leaguer Mike "SuperJew '' Epstein drew a Star of David on his baseball glove, and major leaguer Ron Blomberg had a Star of David emblazoned in the knob of his bat which is on display at the Baseball Hall of Fame.
NBA basketball star Amar'e Stoudemire, who says he is spiritually and culturally Jewish, had a Star of David tattoo put on his left hand in 2010. NFL football defensive end Igor Olshansky has Star of David tattoos on each side of his neck, near his shoulders. Israeli golfer Laetitia Beck displays a blue - and - white magen david symbol on her golf apparel.
In boxing, Jewish light heavyweight world champion Mike "The Jewish Bomber '' Rossman fought with a Star of David embroidered on his boxing trunks, and also has a blue Star of David tattoo on the outside of his right calf.
Other boxers fought with Stars of David embroidered on their trunks include world lightweight champion, world light heavyweight boxing champion Battling Levinsky, Barney Ross (world champion as a lightweight, as a junior welterweight, and as a welterweight), world flyweight boxing champion Victor "Young '' Peres, world bantamweight champion Alphonse Halimi, and more recently World Boxing Association super welterweight champion Yuri Foreman, light welterweight champion Cletus Seldin, and light middleweight Boyd Melson. Welterweight Zachary "Kid Yamaka '' Wohlman has a tattoo of a Star of David across his stomach, and welterweight Dmitriy Salita even boxes under the nickname "Star of David ''.
Maccabi clubs still use the Star of David in their emblems.
The Jewish Encyclopedia cites a 12th - century Karaite document as the earliest Jewish literary source to mention a symbol called "Magen Dawid '' (without specifying its shape).
The name ' Shield of David ' was used by at least the 11th century as a title of the God of Israel, independent of the use of the symbol. The phrase occurs independently as a Divine title in the Siddur, the traditional Jewish prayer book, where it poetically refers to the Divine protection of ancient King David and the anticipated restoration of his dynastic house, perhaps based on Psalm 18, which is attributed to David, and in which God is compared to a shield (v. 31 and v. 36). The term occurs at the end of the "Samkhaynu / Gladden us '' blessing, which is recited after the reading of the Haftara portion on Saturday and holidays.
The earliest known text related to Judaism which mentions a sign called the "Shield of David '' is Eshkol Ha - Kofer by the Karaite Judah Hadassi, in the mid-12th century CE:
Seven names of angels precede the mezuzah: Michael, Gabriel, etc.... Tetragrammaton protect you! And likewise the sign, called the "Shield of David '', is placed beside the name of each angel.
This book is of Karaite, and not of Rabbinic Jewish origin, and it does not describe the shape of the sign in any way.
Star in the Schneider Synagogue, Istanbul
Star in the Ari Ashkenazi Synagogue, Safed
The Magen David Adom emblem
A synagogue in Karlsruhe, Germany, with the outline of a Star of David
A recruitment poster published in American Jewish magazines during WWI. Daughter of Zion (representing the Jewish people): Your Old New Land must have you! Join the Jewish regiment.
Roundel displayed on Israeli Air Force aircraft, 1948 - today
Stained glass Star of David
USVA headstone emblem 3
USVA headstone emblem 44
Morocco fly mask embroidery
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each proton or neutron is given a weight of | Neutron - wikipedia
5000000000000000000 ♠ 0 e
The neutron is a subatomic particle, symbol n or n0, with no net electric charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton. Protons and neutrons constitute the nuclei of atoms. Since protons and neutrons behave similarly within the nucleus, and each has a mass of approximately one atomic mass unit, they are both referred to as nucleons. Their properties and interactions are described by nuclear physics.
The chemical and nuclear properties of the nucleus are determined by the number of protons, called the atomic number, and the number of neutrons, called the neutron number. The atomic mass number is the total number of nucleons. For example, carbon has atomic number 6, and its abundant carbon - 12 isotope has 6 neutrons, whereas its rare carbon - 13 isotope has 7 neutrons. Some elements occur in nature with only one stable isotope, such as fluorine. Other elements occur with many stable isotopes, such as tin with ten stable isotopes.
Within the nucleus, protons and neutrons are bound together through the nuclear force, and neutrons are required for the stability of nuclei. Neutrons are produced copiously in nuclear fission and fusion. They are a primary contributor to the nucleosynthesis of chemical elements within stars through fission, fusion, and neutron capture processes.
The neutron is essential to the production of nuclear power. In the decade after the neutron was discovered by James Chadwick in 1932, neutrons were used to induce many different types of nuclear transmutations. With the discovery of nuclear fission in 1938, it was quickly realized that, if a fission event produced neutrons, each of these neutrons might cause further fission events, etc., in a cascade known as a nuclear chain reaction. These events and findings led to the first self - sustaining nuclear reactor (Chicago Pile - 1, 1942) and the first nuclear weapon (Trinity, 1945).
Free neutrons, or individual neutrons free of the nucleus, are a form of ionizing radiation and, as such, are a biological hazard, depending upon dose. A small natural "neutron background '' flux of free neutrons exists on Earth, caused by cosmic ray showers, and by the natural radioactivity of spontaneously fissionable elements in the Earth 's crust. Dedicated neutron sources like neutron generators, research reactors and spallation sources produce free neutrons for use in irradiation and in neutron scattering experiments.
Atomic nuclei are formed by a number of protons, Z the atomic number, and a number of neutrons, N the neutron number, bound together by the nuclear force. The atomic number defines the chemical properties of the atom, and the neutron number determines the isotope or nuclide. The terms isotope and nuclide are often used synonymously, but they refer to chemical and nuclear properties, respectively. The atomic mass number, symbol A, equals Z + N. The nucleus of the most common isotope of the hydrogen atom (with the chemical symbol H) is a lone proton. The nuclei of the heavy hydrogen isotopes deuterium (D or H) and tritium (T or H) contain one proton bound to one and two neutrons, respectively. All other types of atomic nuclei are composed of two or more protons and various numbers of neutrons. The most common nuclide of the common chemical element lead, Pb, has 82 protons and 126 neutrons, for example. The table of nuclides comprises all the known nuclides. Even though it is not a chemical element, the neutron is included in this table.
The free neutron has a mass of about 6973167500000000000 ♠ 1.675 × 10 kg (equivalent to 7002939600000000000 ♠ 939.6 MeV / c, or 7000100870000000000 ♠ 1.0087 u). The neutron has a mean square radius of about 6984800000000000000 ♠ 0.8 × 10 m, or 0.8 fm, and it is a spin - 1⁄2 fermion. The neutron has no measurable electric charge. With its positive electric charge, the proton is directly influenced by electric fields, whereas the neutron is unaffected by electric fields. The neutron has a magnetic moment, however, so the neutron is influenced by magnetic fields. The neutron 's magnetic moment has a negative value, because its orientation is opposite to the neutron 's spin.
A free neutron is unstable, decaying to a proton, electron and antineutrino with a mean lifetime of just under 15 minutes (7002881500000000000 ♠ 881.5 ± 1.5 s). This radioactive decay, known as beta decay, is possible because the mass of the neutron is slightly greater than the proton. The free proton is stable (with the possible exception of proton decay). Neutrons or protons bound in a nucleus can be stable or unstable, however, depending on the nuclide. Beta decay, in which neutrons decay to protons, or vice versa, is governed by the weak force, and it requires the emission or absorption of electrons and neutrinos, or their antiparticles.
Protons and neutrons behave almost identically under the influence of the nuclear force within the nucleus. The concept of isospin, in which the proton and neutron are viewed as two quantum states of the same particle, is used to model the interactions of nucleons by the nuclear or weak forces. Because of the strength of the nuclear force at short distances, the binding energy of nucleons is more than seven orders of magnitude larger than the electromagnetic energy binding electrons in atoms. Nuclear reactions (such as nuclear fission) therefore have an energy density that is more than ten million times that of chemical reactions. Because of the mass -- energy equivalence, nuclear binding energies add or subtract from the mass of nuclei. Ultimately, the ability of the nuclear force to store energy arising from the electromagnetic repulsion of nuclear components is the basis for most of the energy that makes nuclear reactors or bombs possible. In nuclear fission, the absorption of a neutron by a heavy nuclide (e.g., uranium - 235) causes the nuclide to become unstable and break into light nuclides and additional neutrons. The positively charged light nuclides then repel, releasing electromagnetic potential energy.
The neutron is classified as a generic particle called hadron, because it is made of quarks. The neutron is also classified as a baryon, because it is composed of three quarks. The finite size of the neutron and its magnetic moment indicates that the neutron is a composite particle (in contrast of being an elementary particle). A neutron consists of two down quarks with charge − 1⁄3 e and one up quark with charge + 2⁄3 e.
Like protons, the quarks of the neutron are held together by the strong force, mediated by gluons. The nuclear force results from secondary effects of the more fundamental strong force.
The story of the discovery of the neutron and its properties is central to the extraordinary developments in atomic physics that occurred in the first half of the 20th century, leading ultimately to the atomic bomb in 1945. In the 1911 Rutherford model, the atom consisted of a small positively charged massive nucleus surrounded by a much larger cloud of negatively charged electrons. In 1920, Rutherford suggested that the nucleus consisted of positive protons and neutrally - charged particles, suggested to be a proton and an electron bound in some way. Electrons were assumed to reside within the nucleus because it was known that beta radiation consisted of electrons emitted from the nucleus. Rutherford called these uncharged particles neutrons, by the Latin root for neutralis (neuter) and the Greek suffix - on (a suffix used in the names of subatomic particles, i.e. electron and proton). References to the word neutron in connection with the atom can be found in the literature as early as 1899, however.
Throughout the 1920s, physicists assumed that the atomic nucleus was composed of protons and "nuclear electrons '' but there were obvious problems. It was difficult to reconcile the proton -- electron model for nuclei with the Heisenberg uncertainty relation of quantum mechanics. The Klein paradox, discovered by Oskar Klein in 1928, presented further quantum mechanical objections to the notion of an electron confined within a nucleus. Observed properties of atoms and molecules were inconsistent with the nuclear spin expected from the proton -- electron hypothesis. Since both protons and electrons carry an intrinsic spin of 1⁄2 ħ, there is no way to arrange an odd number of spins ± 1⁄2 ħ to give a spin integer multiple of ħ. Nuclei with integer spin are common, e.g., N.
In 1931, Walther Bothe and Herbert Becker found that if alpha particle radiation from polonium fell on beryllium, boron, or lithium, an unusually penetrating radiation was produced. The radiation was not influenced by an electric field, so Bothe and Becker assumed it was gamma radiation. The following year Irène Joliot - Curie and Frédéric Joliot in Paris showed that if this "gamma '' radiation fell on paraffin, or any other hydrogen - containing compound, it ejected protons of very high energy. Neither Rutherford nor James Chadwick at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge were convinced by the gamma ray interpretation. Chadwick quickly performed a series of experiments that showed that the new radiation consisted of uncharged particles with about the same mass as the proton. These particles were neutrons. Chadwick won the Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery in 1935.
Models for atomic nucleus consisting of protons and neutrons were quickly developed by Werner Heisenberg and others. The proton -- neutron model explained the puzzle of nuclear spins. The origins of beta radiation were explained by Enrico Fermi in 1934 by the process of beta decay, in which the neutron decays to a proton by creating an electron and a (as yet undiscovered) neutrino. In 1935 Chadwick and his doctoral student Maurice Goldhaber, reported the first accurate measurement of the mass of the neutron.
By 1934, Fermi had bombarded heavier elements with neutrons to induce radioactivity in elements of high atomic number. In 1938, Fermi received the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons ''. In 1938 Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner, and Fritz Strassmann discovered nuclear fission, or the fractionation of uranium nuclei into light elements, induced by neutron bombardment. In 1945 Hahn received the 1944 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his discovery of the fission of heavy atomic nuclei. '' The discovery of nuclear fission would lead to the development of nuclear power and the atomic bomb by the end of World War II.
Under the Standard Model of particle physics, the only possible decay mode for the neutron that conserves baryon number is for one of the neutron 's quarks to change flavour via the weak interaction. The decay of one of the neutron 's down quarks into a lighter up quark can be achieved by the emission of a W boson. By this process, the Standard Model description of beta decay, the neutron decays into a proton (which contains one down and two up quarks), an electron, and an electron antineutrino.
Since interacting protons have a mutual electromagnetic repulsion that is stronger than their attractive nuclear interaction, neutrons are a necessary constituent of any atomic nucleus that contains more than one proton (see diproton and neutron -- proton ratio). Neutrons bind with protons and one another in the nucleus via the nuclear force, effectively moderating the repulsive forces between the protons and stabilizing the nucleus.
Outside the nucleus, free neutrons are unstable and have a mean lifetime of 7002881500000000000 ♠ 881.5 ± 1.5 s (about 14 minutes, 42 seconds); therefore the half - life for this process (which differs from the mean lifetime by a factor of ln (2) = 0.693) is 7002611000000000000 ♠ 611.0 ± 1.0 s (about 10 minutes, 11 seconds). Beta decay of the neutron, described above, can be denoted by the radioactive decay:
where p +, e −, and ν e denote the proton, electron and electron antineutrino, respectively. For the free neutron the decay energy for this process (based on the masses of the neutron, proton, and electron) is 0.782343 MeV. The maximal energy of the beta decay electron (in the process wherein the neutrino receives a vanishingly small amount of kinetic energy) has been measured at 0.782 ± 0.013 MeV. The latter number is not well - enough measured to determine the comparatively tiny rest mass of the neutrino (which must in theory be subtracted from the maximal electron kinetic energy) as well as neutrino mass is constrained by many other methods.
A small fraction (about one in 1000) of free neutrons decay with the same products, but add an extra particle in the form of an emitted gamma ray:
This gamma ray may be thought of as a sort of "internal bremsstrahlung '' that arises as the emitted beta particle interacts with the charge of the proton in an electromagnetic way. Internal bremsstrahlung gamma ray production is also a minor feature of beta decays of bound neutrons (as discussed below).
A very small minority of neutron decays (about four per million) are so - called "two - body (neutron) decays '', in which a proton, electron and antineutrino are produced as usual, but the electron fails to gain the 13.6 eV necessary energy to escape the proton (the ionization energy of hydrogen), and therefore simply remains bound to it, as a neutral hydrogen atom (one of the "two bodies ''). In this type of free neutron decay, in essence all of the neutron decay energy is carried off by the antineutrino (the other "body '').
The transformation of a free proton to a neutron (plus a positron and a neutrino) is energetically impossible, since a free neutron has a greater mass than a free proton.
While a free neutron has a half life of about 10.2 min, most neutrons within nuclei are stable. According to the nuclear shell model, the protons and neutrons of a nuclide are a quantum mechanical system organized into discrete energy levels with unique quantum numbers. For a neutron to decay, the resulting proton requires an available state at lower energy than the initial neutron state. In stable nuclei the possible lower energy states are all filled, meaning they are each occupied by two protons with spin up and spin down. The Pauli exclusion principle therefore disallows the decay of a neutron to a proton within stable nuclei. The situation is similar to electrons of an atom, where electrons have distinct atomic orbitals and are prevented from decaying to lower energy states, with the emission of a photon, by the exclusion principle.
Neutrons in unstable nuclei can decay by beta decay as described above. In this case, an energetically allowed quantum state is available for the proton resulting from the decay. One example of this decay is carbon - 14 (6 protons, 8 neutrons) that decays to nitrogen - 14 (7 protons, 7 neutrons) with a half - life of about 5,730 years.
Inside a nucleus, a proton can transform into a neutron via inverse beta decay, if an energetically allowed quantum state is available for the neutron. This transformation occurs by emission of an antielectron (also called positron) and an electron neutrino:
The transformation of a proton to a neutron inside of a nucleus is also possible through electron capture:
Positron capture by neutrons in nuclei that contain an excess of neutrons is also possible, but is hindered because positrons are repelled by the positive nucleus, and quickly annihilate when they encounter electrons.
Three types of beta decay in competition are illustrated by the single isotope copper - 64 (29 protons, 35 neutrons), which has a half - life of about 12.7 hours. This isotope has one unpaired proton and one unpaired neutron, so either the proton or the neutron can decay. This particular nuclide is almost equally likely to undergo proton decay (by positron emission, 18 % or by electron capture, 43 %) or neutron decay (by electron emission, 39 %).
The mass of a neutron can not be directly determined by mass spectrometry due to lack of electric charge. However, since the masses of a proton and of a deuteron can be measured with a mass spectrometer, the mass of a neutron can be deduced by subtracting proton mass from deuteron mass, with the difference being the mass of the neutron plus the binding energy of deuterium (expressed as a positive emitted energy). The latter can be directly measured by measuring the energy (B d (\ displaystyle B_ (d))) of the single 6987125322244813139 ♠ 0.7822 MeV gamma photon emitted when neutrons are captured by protons (this is exothermic and happens with zero - energy neutrons), plus the small recoil kinetic energy (E r d (\ displaystyle E_ (rd))) of the deuteron (about 0.06 % of the total energy).
The energy of the gamma ray can be measured to high precision by X-ray diffraction techniques, as was first done by Bell and Elliot in 1948. The best modern (1986) values for neutron mass by this technique are provided by Greene, et al. These give a neutron mass of:
The value for the neutron mass in MeV is less accurately known, due to less accuracy in the known conversion of u to MeV:
Another method to determine the mass of a neutron starts from the beta decay of the neutron, when the momenta of the resulting proton and electron are measured.
The total electric charge of the neutron is 5000000000000000000 ♠ 0 e. This zero value has been tested experimentally, and the present experimental limit for the charge of the neutron is 3021799999999999999 ♠ − 2 (8) × 10 e, or 3040700000000000000 ♠ − 3 (13) × 10 C. This value is consistent with zero, given the experimental uncertainties (indicated in parentheses). By comparison, the charge of the proton is, of course, 7000100000000000000 ♠ + 1 e.
Even though the neutron is a neutral particle, the magnetic moment of a neutron is not zero. The neutron is not affected by electric fields, but it is affected by magnetic fields. The magnetic moment of the neutron is an indication of its quark substructure and internal charge distribution. The value for the neutron 's magnetic moment was first directly measured by Luis Alvarez and Felix Bloch at Berkeley, California in 1940, using an extension of the magnetic resonance methods developed by Rabi. Alvarez and Bloch determined the magnetic moment of the neutron to be μ = 2999807000000000000 ♠ − 1.93 (2) μ, where μ is the nuclear magneton.
In the quark model for hadrons, the neutron is composed of one up quark (charge + 2 / 3 e) and two down quarks (charge − 1 / 3 e). The magnetic moment of the neutron can be modeled as a sum of the magnetic moments of the constituent quarks. The calculation assumes that the quarks behave like pointlike Dirac particles, each having their own magnetic moment. Simplistically, the magnetic moment of the neutron can be viewed as resulting from the vector sum of the three quark magnetic moments, plus the orbital magnetic moments caused by the movement of the three charged quarks within the neutron.
In one of the early successes of the Standard Model (SU (6) theory, now understood in terms of quark behavior), in 1964 Mirza A.B. Beg, Benjamin W. Lee, and Abraham Pais theoretically calculated the ratio of proton to neutron magnetic moments to be − 3 / 2, which agrees with the experimental value to within 3 %. The measured value for this ratio is 2999854010194000000 ♠ − 1.459 898 06 (34). A contradiction of the quantum mechanical basis of this calculation with the Pauli exclusion principle, led to the discovery of the color charge for quarks by Oscar W. Greenberg in 1964.
The above treatment compares neutrons with protons, allowing the complex behavior of quarks to be subtracted out between models, and merely exploring what the effects would be of differing quark charges (or quark type). Such calculations are enough to show that the interior of neutrons is very much like that of protons, save for the difference in quark composition with a down quark in the neutron replacing an up quark in the proton.
Attempts have been made to quantitatively recover the neutron magnetic moment from first principles. From the nonrelativistic, quantum mechanical wavefunction for baryons composed of three quarks, a straightforward calculation gives fairly accurate estimates for the magnetic moments of neutrons, protons, and other baryons. For a neutron, the end result of this calculation is that the magnetic moment of the neutron is given by μ = 4 / 3 μ − 1 / 3 μ, where μ and μ are the magnetic moments for the down and up quarks, respectively. This result combines the intrinsic magnetic moments of the quarks with their orbital magnetic moments, and assumes the three quarks are in a particular, dominant quantum state.
The results of this calculation are encouraging, but the masses of the up or down quarks were assumed to be 1 / 3 the mass of a nucleon. The masses of the quarks are actually only about 1 % that of a nucleon. The discrepancy stems from the complexity of the Standard Model for nucleons, where most of their mass originates in the gluon fields, virtual particles, and their associated energy that are essential aspects of the strong force. Furthermore, the complex system of quarks and gluons that constitute a neutron requires a relativistic treatment. The nucleon magnetic moment has been successfully computed numerically from first principles, however, including all the effects mentioned and using more realistic values for the quark masses. The calculation gave results that were in fair agreement with measurement, but it required significant computing resources.
The neutron is a spin 1 / 2 particle, that is, it is a fermion with intrinsic angular momentum equal to 1 / 2 ħ, where ħ is the reduced Planck constant. For many years after the discovery of the neutron, its exact spin was ambiguous. Although it was assumed to be a spin 1 / 2 Dirac particle, the possibility that the neutron was a spin 3 / 2 particle lingered. The interactions of the neutron 's magnetic moment with an external magnetic field were exploited to finally determine the spin of the neutron. In 1949, Hughes and Burgy measured neutrons reflected from a ferromagnetic mirror and found that the angular distribution of the reflections was consistent with spin 1 / 2. In 1954, Sherwood, Stephenson, and Bernstein employed neutrons in a Stern -- Gerlach experiment that used a magnetic field to separate the neutron spin states. They recorded two such spin states, consistent with a spin 1 / 2 particle.
As a fermion, the neutron is subject to the Pauli exclusion principle; two neutrons can not have the same quantum numbers. This is the source of the degeneracy pressure which makes neutron stars possible.
An article published in 2007 featuring a model - independent analysis concluded that the neutron has a negatively charged exterior, a positively charged middle, and a negative core. In a simplified classical view, the negative "skin '' of the neutron assists it to be attracted to the protons with which it interacts in the nucleus. (However, the main attraction between neutrons and protons is via the nuclear force, which does not involve charge.)
The simplified classical view of the neutron 's charge distribution also "explains '' the fact that the neutron magnetic dipole points in the opposite direction from its spin angular momentum vector (as compared to the proton). This gives the neutron, in effect, a magnetic moment which resembles a negatively charged particle. This can be reconciled classically with a neutral neutron composed of a charge distribution in which the negative sub-parts of the neutron have a larger average radius of distribution, and therefore contribute more to the particle 's magnetic dipole moment, than do the positive parts that are, on average, nearer the core.
The Standard Model of particle physics predicts a tiny separation of positive and negative charge within the neutron leading to a permanent electric dipole moment. The predicted value is, however, well below the current sensitivity of experiments. From several unsolved puzzles in particle physics, it is clear that the Standard Model is not the final and full description of all particles and their interactions. New theories going beyond the Standard Model generally lead to much larger predictions for the electric dipole moment of the neutron. Currently, there are at least four experiments trying to measure for the first time a finite neutron electric dipole moment, including:
The antineutron is the antiparticle of the neutron. It was discovered by Bruce Cork in the year 1956, a year after the antiproton was discovered. CPT - symmetry puts strong constraints on the relative properties of particles and antiparticles, so studying antineutrons yields provide stringent tests on CPT - symmetry. The fractional difference in the masses of the neutron and antineutron is 6995900000000000000 ♠ (9 ± 6) × 10. Since the difference is only about two standard deviations away from zero, this does not give any convincing evidence of CPT - violation.
The existence of stable clusters of 4 neutrons, or tetraneutrons, has been hypothesised by a team led by Francisco - Miguel Marqués at the CNRS Laboratory for Nuclear Physics based on observations of the disintegration of beryllium - 14 nuclei. This is particularly interesting because current theory suggests that these clusters should not be stable.
In February 2016, Japanese physicist Susumu Shimoura of the University of Tokyo and co-workers reported they had observed the purported tetraneutrons for the first time experimentally. Nuclear physicists around the world say this discovery, if confirmed, would be a milestone in the field of nuclear physics and certainly would deepen our understanding of the nuclear forces.
The dineutron is another hypothetical particle. In 2012, Artemis Spyrou from Michigan State University and coworkers reported that they observed, for the first time, the dineutron emission in the decay of Be. The dineutron character is evidenced by a small emission angle between the two neutrons. The authors measured the two - neutron separation energy to be 1.35 (10) MeV, in good agreement with shell model calculations, using standard interactions for this mass region.
At extremely high pressures and temperatures, nucleons and electrons are believed to collapse into bulk neutronic matter, called neutronium. This is presumed to happen in neutron stars.
The extreme pressure inside a neutron star may deform the neutrons into a cubic symmetry, allowing tighter packing of neutrons.
The common means of detecting a charged particle by looking for a track of ionization (such as in a cloud chamber) does not work for neutrons directly. Neutrons that elastically scatter off atoms can create an ionization track that is detectable, but the experiments are not as simple to carry out; other means for detecting neutrons, consisting of allowing them to interact with atomic nuclei, are more commonly used. The commonly used methods to detect neutrons can therefore be categorized according to the nuclear processes relied upon, mainly neutron capture or elastic scattering.
A common method for detecting neutrons involves converting the energy released from neutron capture reactions into electrical signals. Certain nuclides have a high neutron capture cross section, which is the probability of absorbing a neutron. Upon neutron capture, the compound nucleus emits more easily detectable radiation, for example an alpha particle, which is then detected. The nuclides 3 He, 6 Li, 10, 233 U, 235 U, 237 Np, and 239 Pu are useful for this purpose.
Neutrons can elastically scatter off nuclei, causing the struck nucleus to recoil. Kinematically, a neutron can transfer more energy to a light nucleus such as hydrogen or helium than to a heavier nucleus. Detectors relying on elastic scattering are called fast neutron detectors. Recoiling nuclei can ionize and excite further atoms through collisions. Charge and / or scintillation light produced in this way can be collected to produce a detected signal. A major challenge in fast neutron detection is discerning such signals from erroneous signals produced by gamma radiation in the same detector.
Fast neutron detectors have the advantage of not requiring a moderator, and are therefore capable of measuring the neutron 's energy, time of arrival, and in certain cases direction of incidence.
Free neutrons are unstable, although they have the longest half - life of any unstable subatomic particle by several orders of magnitude. Their half - life is still only about 10 minutes, however, so they can be obtained only from sources that produce them continuously.
Natural neutron background. A small natural background flux of free neutrons exists everywhere on Earth. In the atmosphere and deep into the ocean, the "neutron background '' is caused by muons produced by cosmic ray interaction with the atmosphere. These high - energy muons are capable of penetration to considerable depths in water and soil. There, in striking atomic nuclei, among other reactions they induce spallation reactions in which a neutron is liberated from the nucleus. Within the Earth 's crust a second source is neutrons produced primarily by spontaneous fission of uranium and thorium present in crustal minerals. The neutron background is not strong enough to be a biological hazard, but it is of importance to very high resolution particle detectors that are looking for very rare events, such as (hypothesized) interactions that might be caused by particles of dark matter. Recent research has shown that even thunderstorms can produce neutrons with energies of up to several tens of MeV. Recent research has shown that the fluence of these neutrons lies between 10 and 10 per ms and per m depending on the detection altitude. The energy of most of these neutrons, even with initial energies of 20 MeV, decreases down to the keV range within 1 ms.
Even stronger neutron background radiation is produced at the surface of Mars, where the atmosphere is thick enough to generate neutrons from cosmic ray muon production and neutron - spallation, but not thick enough to provide significant protection from the neutrons produced. These neutrons not only produce a Martian surface neutron radiation hazard from direct downward - going neutron radiation but may also produce a significant hazard from reflection of neutrons from the Martian surface, which will produce reflected neutron radiation penetrating upward into a Martian craft or habitat from the floor.
Sources of neutrons for research. These include certain types of radioactive decay (spontaneous fission and neutron emission), and from certain nuclear reactions. Convenient nuclear reactions include tabletop reactions such as natural alpha and gamma bombardment of certain nuclides, often beryllium or deuterium, and induced nuclear fission, such as occurs in nuclear reactors. In addition, high - energy nuclear reactions (such as occur in cosmic radiation showers or accelerator collisions) also produce neutrons from disintegration of target nuclei. Small (tabletop) particle accelerators optimized to produce free neutrons in this way, are called neutron generators.
In practice, the most commonly used small laboratory sources of neutrons use radioactive decay to power neutron production. One noted neutron - producing radioisotope, californium - 252 decays (half - life 2.65 years) by spontaneous fission 3 % of the time with production of 3.7 neutrons per fission, and is used alone as a neutron source from this process. Nuclear reaction sources (that involve two materials) powered by radioisotopes use an alpha decay source plus a beryllium target, or else a source of high - energy gamma radiation from a source that undergoes beta decay followed by gamma decay, which produces photoneutrons on interaction of the high - energy gamma ray with ordinary stable beryllium, or else with the deuterium in heavy water. A popular source of the latter type is radioactive antimony - 124 plus beryllium, a system with a half - life of 60.9 days, which can be constructed from natural antimony (which is 42.8 % stable antimony - 123) by activating it with neutrons in a nuclear reactor, then transported to where the neutron source is needed.
Nuclear fission reactors naturally produce free neutrons; their role is to sustain the energy - producing chain reaction. The intense neutron radiation can also be used to produce various radioisotopes through the process of neutron activation, which is a type of neutron capture.
Experimental nuclear fusion reactors produce free neutrons as a waste product. However, it is these neutrons that possess most of the energy, and converting that energy to a useful form has proved a difficult engineering challenge. Fusion reactors that generate neutrons are likely to create radioactive waste, but the waste is composed of neutron - activated lighter isotopes, which have relatively short (50 -- 100 years) decay periods as compared to typical half - lives of 10,000 years for fission waste, which is long due primarily to the long half - life of alpha - emitting transuranic actinides.
Free neutron beams are obtained from neutron sources by neutron transport. For access to intense neutron sources, researchers must go to a specialized neutron facility that operates a research reactor or a spallation source.
The neutron 's lack of total electric charge makes it difficult to steer or accelerate them. Charged particles can be accelerated, decelerated, or deflected by electric or magnetic fields. These methods have little effect on neutrons. However, some effects may be attained by use of inhomogeneous magnetic fields because of the neutron 's magnetic moment. Neutrons can be controlled by methods that include moderation, reflection, and velocity selection. Thermal neutrons can be polarized by transmission through magnetic materials in a method analogous to the Faraday effect for photons. Cold neutrons of wavelengths of 6 -- 7 angstroms can be produced in beams of a high degree of polarization, by use of magnetic mirrors and magnetized interference filters.
The neutron plays an important role in many nuclear reactions. For example, neutron capture often results in neutron activation, inducing radioactivity. In particular, knowledge of neutrons and their behavior has been important in the development of nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. The fissioning of elements like uranium - 235 and plutonium - 239 is caused by their absorption of neutrons.
Cold, thermal, and hot neutron radiation is commonly employed in neutron scattering facilities, where the radiation is used in a similar way one uses X-rays for the analysis of condensed matter. Neutrons are complementary to the latter in terms of atomic contrasts by different scattering cross sections; sensitivity to magnetism; energy range for inelastic neutron spectroscopy; and deep penetration into matter.
The development of "neutron lenses '' based on total internal reflection within hollow glass capillary tubes or by reflection from dimpled aluminum plates has driven ongoing research into neutron microscopy and neutron / gamma ray tomography.
A major use of neutrons is to excite delayed and prompt gamma rays from elements in materials. This forms the basis of neutron activation analysis (NAA) and prompt gamma neutron activation analysis (PGNAA). NAA is most often used to analyze small samples of materials in a nuclear reactor whilst PGNAA is most often used to analyze subterranean rocks around bore holes and industrial bulk materials on conveyor belts.
Another use of neutron emitters is the detection of light nuclei, in particular the hydrogen found in water molecules. When a fast neutron collides with a light nucleus, it loses a large fraction of its energy. By measuring the rate at which slow neutrons return to the probe after reflecting off of hydrogen nuclei, a neutron probe may determine the water content in soil.
Because neutron radiation is both penetrating and ionizing, it can be exploited for medical treatments. Neutron radiation can have the unfortunate side - effect of leaving the affected area radioactive, however. Neutron tomography is therefore not a viable medical application.
Fast neutron therapy utilizes high - energy neutrons typically greater than 20 MeV to treat cancer. Radiation therapy of cancers is based upon the biological response of cells to ionizing radiation. If radiation is delivered in small sessions to damage cancerous areas, normal tissue will have time to repair itself, while tumor cells often can not. Neutron radiation can deliver energy to a cancerous region at a rate an order of magnitude larger than gamma radiation
Beams of low - energy neutrons are used in boron capture therapy to treat cancer. In boron capture therapy, the patient is given a drug that contains boron and that preferentially accumulates in the tumor to be targeted. The tumor is then bombarded with very low - energy neutrons (although often higher than thermal energy) which are captured by the boron - 10 isotope in the boron, which produces an excited state of boron - 11 that then decays to produce lithium - 7 and an alpha particle that have sufficient energy to kill the malignant cell, but insufficient range to damage nearby cells. For such a therapy to be applied to the treatment of cancer, a neutron source having an intensity of the order of billion (10) neutrons per second per cm is preferred. Such fluxes require a research nuclear reactor.
Exposure to free neutrons can be hazardous, since the interaction of neutrons with molecules in the body can cause disruption to molecules and atoms, and can also cause reactions that give rise to other forms of radiation (such as protons). The normal precautions of radiation protection apply: Avoid exposure, stay as far from the source as possible, and keep exposure time to a minimum. Some particular thought must be given to how to protect from neutron exposure, however. For other types of radiation, e.g., alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays, material of a high atomic number and with high density make for good shielding; frequently, lead is used. However, this approach will not work with neutrons, since the absorption of neutrons does not increase straightforwardly with atomic number, as it does with alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Instead one needs to look at the particular interactions neutrons have with matter (see the section on detection above). For example, hydrogen - rich materials are often used to shield against neutrons, since ordinary hydrogen both scatters and slows neutrons. This often means that simple concrete blocks or even paraffin - loaded plastic blocks afford better protection from neutrons than do far more dense materials. After slowing, neutrons may then be absorbed with an isotope that has high affinity for slow neutrons without causing secondary capture radiation, such as lithium - 6.
Hydrogen - rich ordinary water affects neutron absorption in nuclear fission reactors: Usually, neutrons are so strongly absorbed by normal water that fuel enrichment with fissionable isotope is required. The deuterium in heavy water has a very much lower absorption affinity for neutrons than does protium (normal light hydrogen). Deuterium is, therefore, used in CANDU - type reactors, in order to slow (moderate) neutron velocity, to increase the probability of nuclear fission compared to neutron capture.
A thermal neutron is a free neutron that is Boltzmann distributed with kT = 6979405350651211000 ♠ 0.0253 eV (6979399999999999999 ♠ 4.0 × 10 J) at room temperature. This gives characteristic (not average, or median) speed of 2.2 km / s. The name ' thermal ' comes from their energy being that of the room temperature gas or material they are permeating. (see kinetic theory for energies and speeds of molecules). After a number of collisions (often in the range of 10 -- 20) with nuclei, neutrons arrive at this energy level, provided that they are not absorbed.
In many substances, thermal neutron reactions show a much larger effective cross-section than reactions involving faster neutrons, and thermal neutrons can therefore be absorbed more readily (i.e., with higher probability) by any atomic nuclei that they collide with, creating a heavier -- and often unstable -- isotope of the chemical element as a result.
Most fission reactors use a neutron moderator to slow down, or thermalize the neutrons that are emitted by nuclear fission so that they are more easily captured, causing further fission. Others, called fast breeder reactors, use fission energy neutrons directly.
Cold neutrons are thermal neutrons that have been equilibrated in a very cold substance such as liquid deuterium. Such a cold source is placed in the moderator of a research reactor or spallation source. Cold neutrons are particularly valuable for neutron scattering experiments.
Ultracold neutrons are produced by elastically scattering cold neutrons in substances with a temperature of a few kelvins, such as solid deuterium or superfluid helium. An alternative production method is the mechanical deceleration of cold neutrons.
A fast neutron is a free neutron with a kinetic energy level close to 6987160217648700000 ♠ 1 MeV (6987160000000000000 ♠ 1.6 × 10 J), hence a speed of ~ 7007140000000000000 ♠ 14 000 km / s (~ 5 % of the speed of light). They are named fission energy or fast neutrons to distinguish them from lower - energy thermal neutrons, and high - energy neutrons produced in cosmic showers or accelerators. Fast neutrons are produced by nuclear processes such as nuclear fission. Neutrons produced in fission, as noted above, have a Maxwell -- Boltzmann distribution of kinetic energies from 0 to ~ 14 MeV, a mean energy of 2 MeV (for U-235 fission neutrons), and a mode of only 0.75 MeV, which means that more than half of them do not qualify as fast (and thus have almost no chance of initiating fission in fertile materials, such as U-238 and Th - 232).
Fast neutrons can be made into thermal neutrons via a process called moderation. This is done with a neutron moderator. In reactors, typically heavy water, light water, or graphite are used to moderate neutrons.
D -- T (deuterium -- tritium) fusion is the fusion reaction that produces the most energetic neutrons, with 14.1 MeV of kinetic energy and traveling at 17 % of the speed of light. D -- T fusion is also the easiest fusion reaction to ignite, reaching near - peak rates even when the deuterium and tritium nuclei have only a thousandth as much kinetic energy as the 14.1 MeV that will be produced.
14.1 MeV neutrons have about 10 times as much energy as fission neutrons, and are very effective at fissioning even non-fissile heavy nuclei, and these high - energy fissions produce more neutrons on average than fissions by lower - energy neutrons. This makes D -- T fusion neutron sources such as proposed tokamak power reactors useful for transmutation of transuranic waste. 14.1 MeV neutrons can also produce neutrons by knocking them loose from nuclei.
On the other hand, these very high - energy neutrons are less likely to simply be captured without causing fission or spallation. For these reasons, nuclear weapon design extensively utilizes D -- T fusion 14.1 MeV neutrons to cause more fission. Fusion neutrons are able to cause fission in ordinarily non-fissile materials, such as depleted uranium (uranium - 238), and these materials have been used in the jackets of thermonuclear weapons. Fusion neutrons also can cause fission in substances that are unsuitable or difficult to make into primary fission bombs, such as reactor grade plutonium. This physical fact thus causes ordinary non-weapons grade materials to become of concern in certain nuclear proliferation discussions and treaties.
Other fusion reactions produce much less energetic neutrons. D -- D fusion produces a 2.45 MeV neutron and helium - 3 half of the time, and produces tritium and a proton but no neutron the rest of the time. D -- He fusion produces no neutron.
A fission energy neutron that has slowed down but not yet reached thermal energies is called an epithermal neutron.
Cross sections for both capture and fission reactions often have multiple resonance peaks at specific energies in the epithermal energy range. These are of less significance in a fast neutron reactor, where most neutrons are absorbed before slowing down to this range, or in a well - moderated thermal reactor, where epithermal neutrons interact mostly with moderator nuclei, not with either fissile or fertile actinide nuclides. However, in a partially moderated reactor with more interactions of epithermal neutrons with heavy metal nuclei, there are greater possibilities for transient changes in reactivity that might make reactor control more difficult.
Ratios of capture reactions to fission reactions are also worse (more captures without fission) in most nuclear fuels such as plutonium - 239, making epithermal - spectrum reactors using these fuels less desirable, as captures not only waste the one neutron captured but also usually result in a nuclide that is not fissile with thermal or epithermal neutrons, though still fissionable with fast neutrons. The exception is uranium - 233 of the thorium cycle, which has good capture - fission ratios at all neutron energies.
High - energy neutrons have much more energy than fission energy neutrons and are generated as secondary particles by particle accelerators or in the atmosphere from cosmic rays. These high - energy neutrons are extremely efficient at ionization and far more likely to cause cell death than X-rays or protons.
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list of the last 10 super bowl winners | List of Super Bowl champions - wikipedia
The Super Bowl is the annual American football game that determines the champion of the National Football League (NFL). The game culminates a season that begins in the previous calendar year, and is the conclusion of the NFL playoffs. The contest is held in an American city, chosen three to four years beforehand, usually at warm - weather sites or domed stadiums. Since January 1971, the winner of the American Football Conference (AFC) Championship Game has faced the winner of the National Football Conference (NFC) Championship Game in the culmination of the NFL playoffs.
Before the 1970 merger between the American Football League (AFL) and the National Football League (NFL), the two leagues met in four such contests. The first two were marketed as the "AFL -- NFL World Championship Game '', but were also casually referred to as "the Super Bowl game '' during the television broadcast. Super Bowl III in January 1969 was the first such game that carried the "Super Bowl '' moniker in official marketing; the names "Super Bowl I '' and "Super Bowl II '' were retroactively applied to the first two games. The NFC / NFL leads in Super Bowl wins with 27, while the AFC / AFL has won 25. Twenty franchises, including teams that have relocated to another city, have won the Super Bowl.
The Pittsburgh Steelers (6 -- 2) have won the most Super Bowls with six championships, while the New England Patriots (5 -- 5), the Dallas Cowboys (5 -- 3), and the San Francisco 49ers (5 -- 1) have five wins. New England has the most Super Bowl appearances with ten, while the Buffalo Bills (0 -- 4) have the most consecutive appearances with four (all losses) from 1990 to 1993. The Miami Dolphins are the only other team to have at least three consecutive appearances: 1972 -- 1974. The Denver Broncos (3 -- 5) and Patriots have each lost a record five Super Bowls. The Minnesota Vikings (0 -- 4) and the Bills have lost four. The record for consecutive wins is two and is shared by seven franchises: the Green Bay Packers (1966 -- 1967), the Miami Dolphins (1972 -- 1973), the Pittsburgh Steelers (1974 -- 1975 and 1978 -- 1979, the only team to accomplish this feat twice), the San Francisco 49ers (1988 -- 1989), the Dallas Cowboys (1992 -- 1993), the Denver Broncos (1997 -- 1998), and the New England Patriots (2003 -- 2004). Among those, Dallas (1992 -- 1993; 1995) and New England (2001; 2003 -- 2004) are the only teams to win three out of four consecutive Super Bowls. The 1972 Dolphins capped off the only perfect season in NFL history with their victory in Super Bowl VII. The only team with multiple Super Bowl appearances and no losses is the Baltimore Ravens, who in winning Super Bowl XLVII defeated and replaced the 49ers in that position. Four current NFL teams have never appeared in a Super Bowl, including franchise relocations and renaming: the Cleveland Browns, Detroit Lions, Jacksonville Jaguars, and Houston Texans, though both the Browns (1964) and Lions (1957) had won NFL championship games prior to the creation of the Super Bowl.
Numbers in parentheses in the table are Super Bowl appearances as of the date of that Super Bowl and are used as follows:
Seven franchises have won consecutive Super Bowls, one of which (Pittsburgh) has accomplished it twice:
No franchise has yet won three Super Bowls in a row, although several have come close:
Three franchises have lost consecutive Super Bowls:
In the sortable table below, teams are ordered first by number of appearances, then by number of wins, and finally by number of years since last appearing in a Super Bowl. In the "Seasons '' column, bold years indicate winning seasons, and italic years indicate games not yet completed.
Four current teams have never reached the Super Bowl. Two of them held NFL league championships prior to Super Bowl I in the 1966 NFL season:
In addition, Detroit, Houston, and Jacksonville have hosted Super Bowls, making Cleveland the only current NFL city that has neither hosted nor had its team play in a Super Bowl.
Although Jacksonville and Houston have never appeared in a Super Bowl, there are teams whose most recent Super Bowl appearance is older than when Jacksonville and Houston joined the NFL (1995 and 2002, respectively), resulting in longer Super Bowl droughts than these teams for the following eight teams.
Two of these teams have not appeared in the Super Bowl since before the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970:
However, the Jets and the Chiefs are the only non-NFL teams to win the Super Bowl, both being members of the now - defunct AFL at the time.
The most recent Super Bowl appearance for the following teams was after the AFL -- NFL merger, but prior to the 1995 regular season:
Eight teams have appeared in the Super Bowl without ever winning. In descending order of number of appearances, they are:
The following teams have faced each other more than once in the Super Bowl:
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who sang i've been thinking about you | I 've Been Thinking About You - wikipedia
"I 've Been Thinking About You '' is a song by British - American band Londonbeat from their second studio album In the Blood (1990). It was released in October 1990 as the lead single from In the Blood. It hit number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 on April 13, 1991, having hit number two in the United Kingdom the previous year. The song also topped the singles charts in Canada, Spain, Sweden, Germany, Switzerland, Austria, the Netherlands, and Australia as well.
7 '' single
CD maxi
CD maxi -- US
CD single
12 '' maxi
12 '' maxi
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shipments figures based on certification alone
Londonbeat Official Website Facebook Page
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which indian painter awarded padma bhushan in 1991 | List of Padma Bhushan award recipients (1990 -- 1999) - wikipedia
The Padma Bhushan is the third - highest civilian award of the Republic of India. Instituted on 2 January 1954, the award is given for "distinguished service of a high order '', without distinction of race, occupation, position, or sex. The recipients receive a Sanad, a certificate signed by the President of India and a circular - shaped medallion with no monetary association. The recipients are announced every year on Republic Day (26 January) and registered in The Gazette of India -- a publication used for official government notices and released weekly by the Department of Publication, under the Ministry of Urban Development. The conferral of the award is not considered official without its publication in the Gazette. The name of recipient, whose award have been revoked or restored, both of which require the authority of the President, is archived and they are required to surrender their medal when their name is struck from the register; none of the conferments of Padma Bhushan during 1990 -- 1999 have been revoked or restored. The recommendations are received from all the state and the union territory governments, as well as from Ministries of the Government of India, the Bharat Ratna and the Padma Vibhushan awardees, the Institutes of Excellence, the Ministers, the Chief Ministers and the Governors of State, and the Members of Parliament including private individuals.
When instituted in 1954, the Padma Bhushan was classified as "Dusra Warg '' (Class II) under the three - tier Padma Vibhushan awards, which were preceded by the Bharat Ratna in hierarchy. On 15 January 1955, the Padma Vibhushan was reclassified into three different awards as the Padma Vibhushan, the Padma Bhushan and the Padma Shri. The criteria included "distinguished service of a high order in any field including service rendered by Government servants '', but excluded those working with the public sector undertakings with the exception of doctors and scientists. The 1954 statutes did not allow posthumous awards; this was subsequently modified in the January 1955 statute. The design was also changed to the form that is currently in use; it portrays a circular - shaped toned bronze medallion 1 ⁄ inches (44 mm) in diameter and ⁄ inch (3.2 mm) thick. The centrally placed pattern made of outer lines of a square of 1 ⁄ inches (30 mm) side is embossed with a knob carved within each of the outer angles of the pattern. A raised circular space of diameter 1 ⁄ inches (27 mm) is placed at the centre of the decoration. A centrally located lotus flower is embossed on the obverse side of the medal and the text "Padma '' is placed above and the text "Bhushan '' is placed below the lotus written in Devanagari script. The State Emblem of India is displayed in the centre of the reverse side, together with the national motto of India, "Satyameva Jayate '' (Truth alone triumphs) in Devanagari script, which is inscribed on the lower edge. The rim, the edges and all embossing on either side is of standard gold with the text "Padma Bhushan '' of gold gilt. The medal is suspended by a pink riband 1 ⁄ inches (32 mm) in width with a broad white stripe in the middle. It is ranked fifth in the order of precedence of wearing of medals and decorations of the Indian civilian and military awards.
In the 1990s, a total of 113 people were conferred with the award. Twenty - four awards were presented in both 1990 and 1991, followed by thirty - three in 1992. In February 1992, a writ petition was filed in the Kerala High Court questioning whether the civilian awards presented the Government of India were "titles '' as per the Article 18 (1) of the Constitution of India. The subject constitutional article states that "no title, not being a military or academic distinction, shall be conferred by the State ''. Similar petition was also filed in August 1992 in the Indore Bench of the Madhya Pradesh High Court and a notice was issued on 25 August that led to provisional suspension of all civilian awards. A Special Divisional Bench of the Supreme Court of India was set up with a panel of five judges that delivered the verdict on 15 December 1995 that the "Bharat Ratna and Padma awards are not titles within Article 18 of the Constitution of India ''. Later in 1998 when the presentation of the awards resumed, eighteen recipients received the award followed by fourteen in 1999. The Padma Bhushan in the 1990s was also conferred upon five foreign recipients -- two from the United Kingdom and one each from Japan, New Zealand, and the United States. Individuals from ten fields were honoured that included twenty - six artists, twenty - three from literature and education, eighteen from science and engineering, fifteen from medicine, eleven from public affairs, ten from social work, three sportspersons, three from trade and industry, and two from civil services and other fields each.
Journalist Nikhil Chakravarty declined the award in 1990 so as to "not be identified with the establishment ''. Historian Romila Thapar declined to accept the award in 1992, and later again in 2005, stating that she would accept awards only "from academic institutions or those associated with my professional work ''. Similar to Chakravarty, journalist and civil servant K. Subrahmanyam also refused the honour citing that "bureaucrats and journalists should not accept any award from the government because they are more liable to be favoured. ''
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who owns the reserve bank of new zealand | Reserve Bank of New Zealand - wikipedia
The Reserve Bank of New Zealand (RBNZ, Māori: Te Pūtea Matua) is the central bank of New Zealand. It was established in 1934 and is constituted under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1989. The Governor of the Reserve Bank is responsible for New Zealand 's currency and operating monetary policy. The Bank 's current Governor is Graeme Wheeler. Employees of the bank operate under the framework of a managerial hierarchy.
The Reserve Bank of New Zealand does not offer financial services to the public nor does it offer deposit insurance, and its website refers people to other financial institutions.
Unlike the United States Federal Reserve, the Reserve Bank does not have elements of private ownership; according to its website, "The Reserve Bank does not have shareholders. It is 100 % ' owned ' by the New Zealand Government, with any extra revenue that the Reserve Bank makes going back into the Crown accounts. The Central Bank is not a government department, but is a body corporate whose finances are included in the Crown accounts. ''
The Reserve Bank 's primary function, as defined by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1989 is to provide "stability in the general level of prices. ''
The Reserve Bank is responsible for independent management of monetary policy to maintain price stability. The degree of price stability is determined through a Policy Target Agreement with the Minister of Finance. Policy Target Agreements are public documents and hence a government can not secretly change the targets to gain a short term surge in economic growth.
The mechanism of this is the Official Cash Rate (a percentage) which affects short - term interest rates. The Bank will provide cash overnight at 0.50 % above the cash rate to Banks against good security with no limit. Furthermore, the bank will accept deposits from financial institutions with interest usually at the official cash rate.
Banks that offer loans at interest higher than the official cash rate will be undercut by Banks that offer cheaper loans, and banks that loan out lower than the official cash rate will make less compared to other banks which can simply deposit their money in the Reserve Bank with a higher rate of return. The Reserve Bank borrows and offers loans with no limit on volumes in order to ensure that the interest rate in the market remains at the Official Cash rate level.
Through controlling this, the Reserve Bank can then influence short term demand in the New Zealand Economy and use this to control prices.
Adjustments to the official cash rate are made eight times a year. It can make unscheduled adjustments but does not usually do so.
Like all modern monetary systems, the monetary system in New Zealand is based on fiat and fractional - reserve banking. In a fractional - reserve banking system, the largest portion of money created is not created by the Reserve Bank itself, 80 % or more is created by private sector commercial banks.
The Bank by virtue of the Reserve Bank Act has the sole right of issuing New Zealand legal tender notes and coins. The Reserve Bank controls the issuing of currency to banks and also replaces used and damaged money from circulation. In March 2005 the bank decided to remove the 5 cent coin from circulation (the following year), as well as reducing the size of 10, 20 and 50 cent coins.
The Reserve Bank accepts all New Zealand currency for payment at face value. This applies to all demonetised or withdrawn currency, however such currency need not be accepted by money changers as it is no longer legal tender. All decimal notes are legal tender except $1 and $2 notes as these have been withdrawn. Damaged notes are still worth something so long as they are recognisable. The Reserve Bank website notes that as a rule of thumb if there is more than half a bank note they will pay its full value. To receive payment people have to turn in the note to either the Reserve Bank in Wellington or any bank.
The Reserve Bank from time to time produces limited runs of legal tender coins for collectors and have a New Zealand theme and design. These coins do not circulate, but are legal tender. The Coins are sold for the Reserve Bank via New Zealand Post 's business unit.
The Reserve Bank also acts to supervise the New Zealand banking system to ensure that the system remains healthy, however it does not guarantee that a bank will not fail, or face problems.
As of February 2016 there are 25 registered banks.
All registered banks operating in New Zealand must issue a quarterly disclosure statement, and the Reserve Bank supervises these.
The purpose of these disclosure statements is to:
The summary comprises:
More information, see list of registered banks at the RBNZ website.
Under Part 5D of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1989 (the "Act ''), the RBNZ is charged with the enforcement of the credit rating and prudential requirements applying to non-bank deposit takers (NBDTs) in New Zealand. These functions were introduced by the enactment of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Amendment Act 2008. Further amendments to Act have been foreshadowed to complete the regulatory framework for the NBDT sector.
Under section 12 of the Insurance (Prudential Supervision) Act 2010, the RBNZ is charged with the prudential supervision of the New Zealand insurance industry. This includes the licensing of persons to carry on insurance business in New Zealand.
The Reserve Bank of New Zealand was established from 1 August 1934 by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1933. The Reserve Bank first issued banknotes in 1934, see New Zealand pound.
The following have served as governors of the Reserve Bank:
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when do i have to give my id to police | Stop and identify statutes - wikipedia
"Stop and identify '' statutes are statutory laws in the United States that authorize police to legally obtain the identification of someone whom they reasonably suspect of having committed a crime. If there is no reasonable suspicion that a crime has been committed, is being committed, or is about to be committed, an individual is not required to provide identification, even in "Stop and ID '' states. In the case of Utah v. Strieff (2016), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that an officer 's stop of Edward Strieff and his demand for identification from Strieff was unlawful under Utah state law, but that the evidence collected pursuant to the stop was admissible due to the determination that Strieff was subject to a pre-existing arrest warrant. Therefore, the pre-existing warrant "attenuated '' the unlawful stop - and - identify.
The Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures and requires any warrant to be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause. Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968) established that it is constitutionally permissible for police to temporarily detain a person based on an articulable reasonable suspicion that a crime has been committed, and to conduct a search for weapons based on a reasonable belief that the person is armed. The question whether it is constitutionally permissible for the police to demand that a detainee provide his or her name was considered by the U.S. Supreme Court in Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada, 542 U.S. 177 (2004), which held that the name disclosure did not violate the Fourth Amendment prohibition on unreasonable searches and seizures. The Hiibel Court also held that, because Hiibel had no reasonable belief that his name would be used to incriminate him, the name disclosure did not violate the Fifth Amendment right against self - incrimination; however, the Court left open the possibility that Fifth Amendment right might apply in situations where there was a reasonable belief that giving a name could be incriminating. The Court accepted the Nevada supreme court interpretation of the Nevada statute that a detained person could satisfy the Nevada law by simply stating his name. The Court did not rule on whether particular identification cards could be required, though it did mention one state law requiring "credible and reliable '' identification had been struck down for vagueness.
In the United States, interactions between police and citizens fall into three general categories: consensual ("contact '' or "conversation ''), detention (often called a Terry stop, after Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968)), or arrest. "Stop and identify '' laws pertain to detentions.
Different obligations apply to drivers of motor vehicles, who generally are required by state vehicle codes to present a driver 's license to police upon request.
At any time, police may approach a person and ask questions. The objective may simply be a friendly conversation; however, the police also may suspect involvement in a crime, but lack "specific and articulable facts '' that would justify a detention or arrest, and hope to obtain these facts from the questioning. The person approached is not required to identify himself or answer any other questions, and may leave at any time. Police are not usually required to tell a person that he is free to decline to answer questions and go about his business; however, a person can usually determine whether the interaction is consensual by asking, "Am I free to go? ''
A person is detained when circumstances are such that a reasonable person would believe he is not free to leave.
Police may briefly detain a person if they have reasonable suspicion that the person has committed, is committing, or is about to commit a crime. Many state laws explicitly grant this authority. In Terry v. Ohio, the U.S. Supreme Court established that police may conduct a limited search for weapons (known as a "frisk '') if they reasonably suspect that the person to be detained may be armed and dangerous.
Police may question a person detained in a Terry stop, but in general, the detainee is not required to answer. However, many states have "stop and identify '' laws that explicitly require a person detained under the conditions of Terry to identify himself to police, and in some cases, provide additional information.
Before Hiibel, it was unresolved whether a detainee could be arrested and prosecuted for refusing to disclose his name. Authority on this issue was split among the federal circuit courts of appeal, and the U.S. Supreme Court twice expressly refused to address the question. In Hiibel, the Court held, in a 5 -- 4 decision, that a Nevada "stop and identify '' law did not violate the United States Constitution. The Court opinion implied that a detainee was not required to produce written identification, but could satisfy the requirement merely by stating his name. Some "stop and identify '' laws do not require that a detainee identify himself, but allow refusal to do so to be considered along with other factors in determining whether there is probable cause to arrest. In some states, providing a false name is an offense.
As of February 2011, the Supreme Court has not addressed the validity of requirements that a detainee provide information other than his name, however some states such as Arizona have specifically codified that a detained person is not required to provide any information aside from their full name.
A detention requires only that police have reasonable suspicion that a person is involved in criminal activity. However, to make an arrest, an officer must have probable cause to believe that the person has committed a crime. Some states require police to inform the person of the intent to make the arrest and the cause for the arrest. But it is not always obvious when a detention becomes an arrest. After making an arrest, police may search a person, his or her belongings, and his or her immediate surroundings.
Whether an arrested person must identify himself may depend on the jurisdiction in which the arrest occurs. If a person is under arrest and police wish to question him, they are required to inform the person of his Fifth - Amendment right to remain silent by giving a Miranda warning. However, Miranda does not apply to biographical data necessary to complete booking. It is not clear whether a "stop and identify '' law could compel giving one 's name after being arrested, although some states have laws that specifically require an arrested person to give his name and other biographical information, and some state courts have held that refusal to give one 's name constitutes obstructing a public officer. As a practical matter, an arrested person who refused to give his name would have little chance of obtaining a prompt release.
States not listed do not have a requirement to show Identification to law enforcement officers. Some states listed have "Stop and ID '' laws which may or may not require someone to identify themselves during an investigative detention.
While Wisconsin statutes allow law enforcement officers to "demand '' ID, there is no statutory requirement to provide them ID nor is there a penalty for refusing to, hence Wisconsin is not a must ID state (Henes v. Morrissey). Annotations for Wisconsin § 968.24, however, state "The principles of Terry permit a state to require a suspect to disclose his or her name in the course of a Terry stop and allow imposing criminal penalties for failing to do so '', citing Hiibel as authority. Hiibel held that statutes requiring suspects to disclose their names during police investigations did not violate the Fourth Amendment if the statute first required reasonable and articulable suspicion of criminal involvement. The Wisconsin Supreme Court held in Henes v. Morrissey that "A crime is made up of two parts: proscribed conduct and a prescribed penalty. "The former without the latter is no crime... In this case no statute penalizes a refusal to identify oneself to a law enforcement officer, and no penalty is set forth in the statute for refusing to identify oneself. This statute is part of Chapter 968 entitled "Commencement of Criminal Proceedings. By its very terms sec. 968.24 empowers a law enforcement officer to stop and question "in the vicinity where the person was stopped. '' The statute does not authorize a law enforcement officer to make an arrest. '' Additionally Henes v. Morrissey held that a detained person not providing their name is n't on its own a violation of 946.41 Resisting or obstructing officer as the act of not identifying ones self is n't a false statement with intent to mislead the officer in the performance of his or her duty.
Neither is Illinois, since the Illinois Second District Appellate Court Decision in People v. Fernandez, 2011 IL App (2d) 100473, which specifically states that section 107 - 14 is found in the Code of Criminal Procedure of 1963, not the Criminal Code of 1961, and governs the conduct of police officers. The fact remains that there is no corresponding duty in the Criminal Code of 1961 for a suspect to identify himself or herself.
By contrast, in Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada, 542 U.S. 177, 181 (2004), a Nevada statute (Nev. Rev. Stat. § 171.123 (2003)) specifically required that a person subjected to a Terry stop "shall identify himself. '' The Supreme Court held that the statute was constitutional.
As of February 2011, there is no U.S. federal law requiring that an individual identify himself during a Terry stop, but Hiibel held that states may enact such laws, provided the law requires the officer to have reasonable and articulable suspicion of criminal involvement, and 24 states have done so. The opinion in Hiibel implied that persons detained by police in jurisdictions with constitutional "stop and identify '' laws listed are obligated to identify themselves, and that persons detained in other jurisdictions are not. The issue may not be that simple, however, for several reasons:
As of February 2011, the validity of a law requiring that a person detained provide anything more than stating his or her name has not come before the U.S. Supreme Court.
In states whose "stop and identify laws '' do not directly impose penalties, a lawful arrest must be for violation of some other law, such as one to the effect of "resisting, obstructing, or delaying a peace officer ''. For example, the Nevada "stop and identify '' law challenged in Hiibel did not impose a penalty on a person who refused to comply, but the Justice Court of Union Township, Nevada, determined that Hiibels refusal to identify himself constituted a violation of Nevada "obstructing '' law. A similar conclusion regarding the interaction between Utah "stop and identify '' and "obstructing '' laws was reached in Oliver v. Woods (10th Cir. 2000).
"Stop and identify '' laws in different states that appear to be nearly identical may be different in effect because of interpretations by state courts. For example, California "stop and identify '' law, Penal Code § 647 (e) had wording similar to the Nevada law upheld in Hiibel, but a California appellate court, in People v. Solomon (1973), 33 Cal. App. 3d 429 construed the law to require "credible and reliable '' identification that carries a "reasonable assurance '' of its authenticity. Using this construction, the U.S. Supreme Court held the law to be void for vagueness in Kolender v. Lawson, 461 U.S. 352 (1983).
Some courts have recognized a distinction authorizing police to demand identifying information and specifically imposing an obligation of a suspect to respond. Other courts have apparently interpreted demand to impose an obligation on the detainee to comply.
Wording and interpretation by state courts of "obstructing '' laws also varies; for example, New York "obstructing '' law apparently requires physical rather than simply verbal obstruction; likewise, a violation of the Colorado "obstructing '' law appears to require use or threat of use of physical force. However, the Colorado Supreme Court held in Dempsey v. People, No. 04SC362 (2005) (PDF) that refusing to provide identification was an element in the "totality of the circumstances '' that could constitute obstructing an officer, even when actual physical interference was not employed. Utah "obstructing '' law does not require a physical act, but merely a failure to follow a "lawful order... necessary to effect the... detention ''; a divided court in Oliver v. Woods concluded that failure to present identification constituted a violation of that law.
It is not universally agreed that, absent a "stop and identify law '', there is no obligation for a detainee to identify himself. For example, as the U.S. Supreme Court noted in Hiibel, California "stop and identify '' statute was voided in Kolender v. Lawson. But in People v. Long, decided four years after Kolender, a California appellate court found no constitutional impropriety in a police officer 's demand for written identification from a detainee. The issue before the Long court was a request for suppression of evidence uncovered in a search of the defendant 's wallet, so the issue of refusal to present identification was not directly addressed; however, the author of the Long opinion had apparently concluded in a 1980 case that failure to identify oneself did not provide a basis for arrest. Nonetheless, some cite Long in maintaining that refusal to present written identification constitutes obstructing an officer. Others disagree, and maintain that persons detained by police in California can not be compelled to identify themselves.
Some courts, e.g., State v. Flynn (Wis. 1979) and People v. Loudermilk (Calif. 1987) have held that police may perform a search for written identification if a suspect refuses to provide it; a later California decision, People v. Garcia (2006) strongly disagreed.
Some legal organizations, such as the National Lawyers Guild and the ACLU of Northern California, recommend to either remain silent or to identify oneself whether or not a jurisdiction has a "stop and identify '' law:
In a more recent pamphlet, the ACLU of Northern California elaborated on this further, recommending that a person detained by police should:
Many countries allow police to demand identification and arrest people who do not carry any. Normally these countries provide all residents with national identity cards, which have the identity information the police would want to know, including citizenship. Foreign visitors need to have their passport available to show at all times. In some cases national identity cards from certain other countries are accepted.
For example, in Portugal it is compulsory to carry the state ID card at all times. This card named Cartão de Cidadão - Citizen Card is an electronic card which includes biometric information, id number, social security number, fiscal information, place of birth, etc. Police can only ask for the ID card in public or a place open to public and only if there is a reasonable suspicion the person committed a crime. A certified copy of the ID card can be presented in such situations. If a citizen does not carry the ID card or its certified copy, the police will escort the person to the police department to remain detained until clear identification can be obtained.
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who led the first voyage to circumnavigate the globe | Ferdinand Magellan - wikipedia
Ferdinand Magellan (/ məˈɡɛlən / or / məˈdʒɛlən /; Portuguese: Fernão de Magalhães, IPA: (fɨɾˈnɐ̃w dɨ mɐɣɐˈʎɐ̃jʃ); Spanish: Fernando de Magallanes, IPA: (ferˈnando ðe maɣaˈʎanes); c. 1480 -- 27 April 1521) was a Portuguese explorer who organised the Spanish expedition to the East Indies from 1519 to 1522, resulting in the first circumnavigation of the Earth, completed by Juan Sebastián Elcano.
Born into a Portuguese noble family in around 1480, Magellan became a skilled sailor and naval officer and was eventually selected by King Charles I of Spain to search for a westward route to the Maluku Islands (the "Spice Islands ''). Commanding a fleet of five vessels, he headed south through the Atlantic Ocean to Patagonia, passing through the Strait of Magellan into a body of water he named the "peaceful sea '' (the modern Pacific Ocean). Despite a series of storms and mutinies, the expedition reached the Spice Islands in 1521 and returned home via the Indian Ocean to complete the first circuit of the globe. Magellan did not complete the entire voyage, as he was killed during the Battle of Mactan in the Philippines in 1521.
Magellan had already reached the Malay Archipelago in Southeast Asia on previous voyages traveling east (from 1505 to 1511 -- 1512). By visiting this area again but now travelling west, Magellan achieved a nearly complete personal circumnavigation of the globe for the first time in history.
The Magellanic penguin is named after him, as he was the first European to note it. Magellan 's navigational skills have also been acknowledged in the naming of objects associated with the stars, including the Magellanic Clouds, now known to be two nearby dwarf galaxies; the twin lunar craters of Magelhaens and Magelhaens A; and the Martian crater of Magelhaens.
Magellan was born in northern Portugal in around 1480, either at Vila Nova de Gaia, near Porto, in Douro Litoral Province, or at Sabrosa, near Vila Real, in Trás - os - Montes e Alto Douro Province. He was the son of Rodrigo de Magalhães, Alcaide - Mor of Aveiro (1433 -- 1500, son of Pedro Afonso de Magalhães and wife Quinta de Sousa) and wife Alda de Mesquita and brother of Leonor or Genebra de Magalhães, wife with issue of João Fernandes Barbosa.
In March 1505 at the age of 25, Magellan enlisted in the fleet of 22 ships sent to host D. Francisco de Almeida as the first viceroy of Portuguese India. Although his name does not appear in the chronicles, it is known that he remained there eight years, in Goa, Cochin and Quilon. He participated in several battles, including the battle of Cannanore in 1506, where he was wounded. In 1509 he fought in the battle of Diu. He later sailed under Diogo Lopes de Sequeira in the first Portuguese embassy to Malacca, with Francisco Serrão, his friend and possibly cousin. In September, after arriving at Malacca, the expedition fell victim to a conspiracy ending in retreat. Magellan had a crucial role, warning Sequeira and saving Francisco Serrão, who had landed.
In 1511, under the new governor Afonso de Albuquerque, Magellan and Serrão participated in the conquest of Malacca. After the conquest their ways parted: Magellan was promoted, with a rich plunder and, in the company of a Malay he had indentured and baptized, Enrique of Malacca, he returned to Portugal in 1512. Serrão departed in the first expedition sent to find the "Spice Islands '' in the Moluccas, where he remained. He married a woman from Amboina and became a military advisor to the Sultan of Ternate, Bayan Sirrullah. His letters to Magellan would prove decisive, giving information about the spice - producing territories.
After taking a leave without permission, Magellan fell out of favour. Serving in Morocco, he was wounded, resulting in a permanent limp. He was accused of trading illegally with the Moors. The accusations were proved false, but he received no further offers of employment after 15 May 1514. Later on in 1515, he got an employment offer as a crew member on a Portuguese ship, but rejected this. In 1517 after a quarrel with King Manuel I, who denied his persistent demands to lead an expedition to reach the spice islands from the east (i.e., while sailing westwards, seeking to avoid the need to sail around the tip of Africa), he left for Spain. In Seville he befriended his countryman Diogo Barbosa and soon married the daughter of Diogo 's second wife, María Caldera Beatriz Barbosa. They had two children: Rodrigo de Magalhães and Carlos de Magalhães, both of whom died at a young age. His wife died in Seville around 1521.
Meanwhile, Magellan devoted himself to studying the most recent charts, investigating, in partnership with cosmographer Rui Faleiro, a gateway from the Atlantic to the South Pacific and the possibility of the Moluccas being Spanish according to the demarcation of the Treaty of Tordesillas.
Christopher Columbus 's voyages to the West (1492 -- 1503) had the goal of reaching the Indies and to establish direct commercial relations between Spain and the Asian kingdoms. The Spanish soon realized that the lands of the Americas were not a part of Asia, but a new continent. The 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas reserved for Portugal the eastern routes that went around Africa, and Vasco da Gama and the Portuguese arrived in India in 1498.
Castile (Spain) urgently needed to find a new commercial route to Asia. After the Junta de Toro conference of 1505, the Spanish Crown commissioned expeditions to discover a route to the west. Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa reached the Pacific Ocean in 1513 after crossing the Isthmus of Panama, and Juan Díaz de Solís died in Río de la Plata in 1516 while exploring South America in the service of Spain.
In October 1517 in Seville, Magellan contacted Juan de Aranda, Factor of the Casa de Contratación. Following the arrival of his partner Rui Faleiro, and with the support of Aranda, they presented their project to the Spanish king, Charles I, future Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Magellan 's project, if successful, would realize Columbus ' plan of a spice route by sailing west without damaging relations with the Portuguese. The idea was in tune with the times and had already been discussed after Balboa 's discovery of the Pacific. On 22 March 1518 the king named Magellan and Faleiro captains so that they could travel in search of the Spice Islands in July. He raised them to the rank of Commander of the Order of Santiago. The king granted them:
The expedition was funded largely by the Spanish Crown, which provided ships carrying supplies for two years of travel. Expert cartographer Jorge Reinel and Diogo Ribeiro, a Portuguese who had started working for Charles V in 1518 as a cartographer at the Casa de Contratación, took part in the development of the maps to be used in the travel. Several problems arose during the preparation of the trip, including lack of money, the king of Portugal trying to stop them, Magellan and other Portuguese incurring suspicion from the Spanish, and the difficult nature of Faleiro. Finally, thanks to the tenacity of Magellan, the expedition was ready. Through the bishop Juan Rodríguez de Fonseca they obtained the participation of merchant Christopher de Haro, who provided a quarter of the funds and goods to barter.
The fleet provided by King Charles V included five ships:
The crew of about 270 included men from several nations, including Portugal, Spain, Italy, Germany, Belgium, Greece, England and France. Spanish authorities were wary of Magellan, so that they almost prevented him from sailing, switching his mostly Portuguese crew to mostly men of Spain. It included about 40 Portuguese, among them Magellan 's brother - in - law Duarte Barbosa, João Serrão, a relative of Francisco Serrão, Estêvão Gomes and Magellan 's indentured servant Enrique of Malacca. Faleiro, who had planned to accompany the voyage, withdrew prior to boarding. Juan Sebastián Elcano, a Spanish merchant ship captain settled at Seville, embarked seeking the king 's pardon for previous misdeeds. Antonio Pigafetta, a Venetian scholar and traveller, asked to be on the voyage, accepting the title of "supernumerary '' and a modest salary. He became a strict assistant of Magellan and kept an accurate journal. The only other sailor to report the voyage would be Francisco Albo, who kept a formal logbook. Juan de Cartagena was named Inspector General of the expedition, responsible for its financial and trading operations.
On 10 August 1519, the five ships under Magellan 's command left Seville and descended the Guadalquivir River to Sanlúcar de Barrameda, at the mouth of the river. There they remained more than five weeks. Finally they set sail on 20 September 1519 and left Spain.
King Manuel I ordered a Portuguese naval detachment to pursue Magellan, but the explorer evaded them. After stopping at the Canary Islands, Magellan arrived at Cape Verde, where he set course for Cape St. Augustine in Brazil. On 27 November the expedition crossed the equator; on 6 December the crew sighted South America.
On 13 December anchored near present - day Rio de Janeiro. There the crew was resupplied, but bad conditions caused them to delay. Afterwards, they continued to sail south along South America 's east coast, looking for the strait that Magellan believed would lead to the Spice Islands. The fleet reached Río de la Plata in early February, 1520.
For overwintering, Magellan established a temporary settlement called Puerto San Julian on March 30, 1520. On Easter (April 1 and 2), a mutiny broke out involving three of the five ship captains. Magellan took quick and decisive action. Luis de Mendoza, the captain of Victoria, was killed by a party sent by Magellan, and the ship was recovered. After Concepción 's anchor cable had been secretly cut by his forces, the ship drifted towards the well - armed Trinidad, and Concepcion 's captain de Quesada and his inner circle surrendered. Juan de Cartagena, the head of the mutineers on the San Antonio, subsequently gave up. Antonio Pigafetta reported that Gaspar Quesada, the captain of Concepción, and other mutineers were executed, while Juan de Cartagena, the captain of San Antonio, and a priest named Padre Sanchez de la Reina were marooned on the coast. Most of the men, including Juan Sebastián Elcano, were needed and forgiven. Reportedly those killed were drawn and quartered and impaled on the coast; years later, their bones were found by Sir Francis Drake.
The journey resumed. The help of Duarte Barbosa was crucial in facing the riot in Puerto San Julian; Magellan appointed him as captain of the Victoria. The Santiago was sent down the coast on a scouting expedition and was wrecked in a sudden storm. All of its crew survived and made it safely to shore. Two of them returned overland to inform Magellan of what had happened, and to bring rescue to their comrades. After this experience, Magellan decided to wait for a few weeks more before resuming the voyage with the four remaining ships.
At 52 ° S latitude on 21 October 1520, the fleet reached Cape Virgenes and concluded they had found the passage, because the waters were brine and deep inland. Four ships began an arduous trip through the 373 - mile (600 km) long passage that Magellan called the Estrecho (Canal) de Todos los Santos, ("All Saints ' Channel ''), because the fleet travelled through it on 1 November or All Saints ' Day. The strait is now named the Strait of Magellan. He first assigned Concepcion and San Antonio to explore the strait, but the latter, commanded by Gómez, deserted and headed back to Spain on 20 November. On 28 November, the three remaining ships entered the South Pacific. Magellan named the waters the Mar Pacifico (Pacific Ocean) because of its apparent stillness. Magellan and his crew were the first Europeans to reach Tierra del Fuego just east of the Pacific side of the strait.
Heading northwest, the crew reached the equator on 13 February 1521. On 6 March they reached the Marianas and Guam. Pigafetta described the "lateen sail '' used by the inhabitants of Guam, hence the name "Island of Sails '', but he also writes the inhabitants "entered the ships and stole whatever they could lay their hands on '', including "the small boat that was fastened to the poop of the flagship. '' "Those people are poor, but ingenious and very thievish, on account of which we called those three islands the islands of Ladroni. ''
On 16 March Magellan reached the island of Homonhon in the Philippines, with 150 crew left. Members of his expedition became the first Europeans to reach the Philippine archipelago.
Magellan relied on Enrique, his Malay servant and interpreter, to communicate with the native tribes. He had been indentured by Magellan in 1511 after the colonization of Malacca, and had accompanied him through later adventures. They traded gifts with Rajah Siaiu of Mazaua who guided them to Cebu on 7 April.
Rajah Humabon of Cebu was friendly towards Magellan and the Spaniards; both he and his queen Hara Amihan were baptized as Christians and were given the image of the Holy Child (later known as Santo Niño de Cebu) which along with a cross (Magellan 's Cross) symbolizes the Christianization of the Philippines. Afterward, Rajah Humabon and his ally Datu Zula convinced Magellan to kill their enemy, Datu Lapu - Lapu, on Mactan. Magellan wanted to convert Lapu - Lapu to Christianity, as he had Humabon, but Lapu - Lapu rejected that. On the morning of 27 April 1521, Magellan sailed to Mactan with a small attack force. During the resulting battle against Lapu - Lapu 's troops, Magellan was struck by a bamboo spear, and later surrounded and finished off with other weapons.
Pigafetta and Ginés de Mafra provided written documents of the events culminating in Magellan 's death:
When morning came, forty - nine of us leaped into the water up to our thighs, and walked through water for more than two cross-bow flights before we could reach the shore. The boats could not approach nearer because of certain rocks in the water. The other eleven men remained behind to guard the boats. When we reached land, (the natives) had formed in three divisions to the number of more than one thousand five hundred people. When they saw us, they charged down upon us with exceeding loud cries... The musketeers and crossbow - men shot from a distance for about a half - hour, but uselessly... Recognizing the captain, so many turned upon him that they knocked his helmet off his head twice... A native hurled a bamboo spear into the captain 's face, but the latter immediately killed him with his lance, which he left in the native 's body. Then, trying to lay hand on sword, he could draw it out but halfway, because he had been wounded in the arm with a bamboo spear. When the natives saw that, they all hurled themselves upon him. One of them wounded him on the left leg with a large cutlass, which resembles a scimitar, only being larger. That caused the captain to fall face downward, when immediately they rushed upon him with iron and bamboo spears and with their cutlasses, until they killed our mirror, our light, our comfort, and our true guide. When they wounded him, he turned back many times to see whether we were all in the boats. Thereupon, beholding him dead, we, wounded, retreated, as best we could, to the boats, which were already pulling off.
Magellan provided in his will that Enrique, his interpreter, was to be freed upon his death. But after the battle, the remaining ships ' masters refused to free the Malay. Enrique escaped his indenture on 1 May with the aid of Rajah Humabon, amid the deaths of almost 30 crewmen.
Pigafetta had been jotting down words in both Butuanon and Cebuano languages -- which he started at Mazaua on 29 March and his list grew to a total of 145 words. He continued communications with indigenous peoples during the rest of the voyage.
"Nothing of Magellan 's body survived, that afternoon the grieving rajah - king, hoping to recover his remains, offered Mactan 's victorious chief a handsome ransom of copper and iron for them but Datu Lapulapu refused. He intended to keep the body as a war trophy. Since his wife and child died in Seville before any member of the expedition could return to Spain, it seemed that every evidence of Ferdinand Magellan 's existence had vanished from the earth. ''
The casualties suffered in the Philippines left the expedition with too few men to sail all three of the remaining ships. Consequently, on 2 May they abandoned and burned Concepción. Reduced to Trinidad and Victoria, the expedition fled westward to Palawan. They left that island on 21 June and were guided to Brunei, Borneo, by Moro pilots, who could navigate the shallow seas. They anchored off the Brunei breakwater for 35 days, where Pigafetta, an Italian from Vicenza, recorded the splendour of Rajah Siripada 's court (gold, two pearls the size of hens ' eggs, porcelain from China, eyeglasses from Europe etc.). In addition, Brunei boasted tame elephants and an armament of 62 cannons, more than five times the armament of Magellan 's ships. Brunei people were not interested in the Spanish cargo of cloves, but these proved more valuable than gold upon the return to Spain.
When reaching the Maluku Islands (the Spice Islands) on 6 November, the total crew numbered 115. They traded with the Sultan of Tidore, a rival of the Sultan of Ternate, who was the ally of the Portuguese.
The two remaining ships, laden with valuable spices, tried to return to Spain by sailing westwards. However, as they left the Spice Islands, the Trinidad began to take on water. The crew tried to discover and repair the leak, but failed. They concluded that Trinidad would need to spend considerable time being overhauled, but the small Victoria was not large enough to accommodate all the surviving crew. As a result, Victoria with some of the crew sailed west for Spain. Several weeks later, Trinidad departed and tried to return to Spain via the Pacific route. This attempt failed. Trinidad was captured by the Portuguese and was eventually wrecked in a storm while at anchor under Portuguese control.
Victoria set sail via the Indian Ocean route home on 21 December, commanded by Juan Sebastián Elcano. By 6 May 1522 the Victoria rounded the Cape of Good Hope, with only rice for rations. Twenty crewmen died of starvation before Elcano put into Cape Verde, a Portuguese holding, where he abandoned 13 more crew on 9 July in fear of losing his cargo of 26 tons of spices (cloves and cinnamon). On 6 September 1522, Elcano and the remaining crew of Magellan 's voyage arrived in Spain aboard the Victoria, almost exactly three years after the fleet of five ships had departed. Magellan had not intended to circumnavigate the world, but rather had intended only to find a secure route through which the Spanish ships could navigate to the Spice Islands. After Magellan 's death, Elcano decided to push westward, thereby completing the first known voyage around the entire Earth.
Maximilianus Transylvanus interviewed some of the surviving members of the expedition when they presented themselves to the Spanish court at Valladolid in the autumn of 1522. He wrote the first account of the voyage, which was published in 1523. Pigafetta 's account was not published until 1525, and was not published in its entirety until 1800. This was the Italian transcription by Carlo Amoretti of what is now called the "Ambrosiana codex. '' The expedition eked out a small profit, but the crew was not paid full wages.
Four crewmen of the original 55 on Trinidad finally returned to Spain in 1522; 51 had died in war or from disease. In total, approximately 232 sailors of assorted nationalities died on the expedition around the world with Magellan.
When Victoria, the one surviving ship and the smallest carrack in the fleet, returned to the harbor of departure after completing the first circumnavigation of the Earth, only 18 men out of the original 237 men were on board. Among the survivors were two Italians, Antonio Pigafetta and Martino de Judicibus. Martino de Judicibus (Spanish: Martín de Judicibus) was a Genoese or Savonese Chief Steward. His history is preserved in the nominative registers at the Archivo General de Indias in Seville, Spain. The family name is referred to with the exact Latin patronymic, "de Judicibus ''. Martino de Judicibus, initially assigned to the caravel Concepción, one of five ships of the Spanish fleet of Magellan, had embarked on the expedition with the rank of captain.
Antonio Pigafetta 's journal is the main source for much of what is known about Magellan and Elcano 's voyage. The other direct report of the voyage was that of Francisco Albo, the last Victoria 's pilot, who kept a formal logbook. Europeans first learned of the circumnavigation through an account written by Maximilianus Transylvanus, a relative of sponsor Christopher de Haro, who interviewed survivors in 1522 and published his account in 1523.
Since there was not a set limit to the east, in 1524 both kingdoms had tried to find the exact location of the antimeridian of Tordesillas, which would divide the world into two equal hemispheres and to resolve the "Moluccas issue ''. A board met several times without reaching an agreement: the knowledge at that time was insufficient for an accurate calculation of longitude, and each gave the islands to their sovereign. An agreement was reached only with the Treaty of Zaragoza, signed on 1529 between Spain and Portugal. It assigned the Moluccas to Portugal and the Philippines to Spain. The course that Magellan charted was followed by other navigators, such as Sir Francis Drake. In 1565, Andrés de Urdaneta discovered the Manila - Acapulco route.
In 1525, soon after the return of Magellan 's expedition, Charles V sent an expedition led by García Jofre de Loaísa to occupy the Moluccas, claiming that they were in his zone of the Treaty of Tordesillas. This expedition included the most notable Spanish navigators: Juan Sebastián Elcano, who, along with many other sailors, died of malnutrition during the voyage, and the young Andrés de Urdaneta. They had difficulty reaching the Moluccas, docking at Tidore. The Portuguese were already established in nearby Ternate and the two nations had nearly a decade of skirmishing over the "possession. '' (occupied by indigenous peoples.)
Magellan 's expedition was the first to circumnavigate the globe and the first to navigate the strait in South America connecting the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. Magellan 's name for the Pacific was adopted by other Europeans.
Magellan 's crew observed several animals that were entirely new to European science, including a "camel without humps '', which was probably a guanaco, whose range extends to Tierra del Fuego. The llama, vicuña and alpaca natural ranges were in the Andes mountains. A black "goose '' that had to be skinned instead of plucked was a penguin.
The full extent of the globe was realized, since their voyage was 14,460 Spanish leagues (60,440 km or 37,560 mi). The global expedition showed the need for an International Date Line to be established. Upon returning the expedition found its date was a day behind, although they had faithfully maintained the ship 's log. They lost one day because they traveled west during their circumnavigation of the globe, opposite to Earth 's daily rotation. This caused great excitement at the time, and a special delegation was sent to the Pope to explain the oddity to him.
The Order of Magellan was established in 1902 to honour those who complete a circumnavigation and make other contributions to humanity.
Two of the closest galaxies, the Magellanic Clouds in the southern celestial hemisphere, were named for Magellan sometime after 1800. The Magellan probe, which mapped the planet Venus from 1990 to 1994, was named after Magellan. The Ferdinand Magellan train rail car (also known as U.S. Car. No. 1) is a former Pullman Company observation car that was re-built by the U.S. Government for presidential use from 1943 until 1958.
A replica of the Victoria, the only ship of Magellan 's to survive the entire voyage, can be visited in Puerto San Julian.
Three craters, two located on the Moon and one on Mars, have been named after Magellan using the spelling "Magelhaens ''. The names were adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1935 (Magelhaens on the Moon), 1976 (Magelhaens on Mars), and 2006 (Magelhaens A on the Moon). The asteroid 4055 Magellan, discovered in 1985, and the Magellan probe to Venus (1989 -- 1994) were also named after him.
The five hundredth anniversary of Magellan 's expedition and circumnavigation will be commemorated in a series of events organised by the municipal council of Sanlucar de Barrameda in Spain, and supported by philanthropic organisations.
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