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where does the last name tate come from | Tate (surname) - wikipedia
Tate is an English surname, and may refer to
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who plays roos mum martha in home and away | List of current Home and Away characters - wikipedia
Home and Away is a long - running Australian soap opera produced by the Seven Network. This list documents the current cast of actors and characters, recurring cast and characters, as well as new, returning and departing cast members. It is organised in order of the character 's first on - screen appearance. If a character has been portrayed by different actors, the most recent portrayer is listed first.
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who is the person responsible for creating the first paper negative | Henry Fox Talbot - wikipedia
William Henry Fox Talbot (/ ˈtɔːlbət, ˈtæl - /; 11 February 1800 -- 17 September 1877) was a British scientist, inventor and photography pioneer who invented the salted paper and calotype processes, precursors to photographic processes of the later 19th and 20th centuries. His work in the 1840s on photomechanical reproduction led to the creation of the photoglyphic engraving process, the precursor to photogravure. He was the holder of a controversial patent which affected the early development of commercial photography in Britain. He was also a noted photographer who contributed to the development of photography as an artistic medium. He published The Pencil of Nature (1844 -- 46), which was illustrated with original salted paper prints from his calotype negatives, and made some important early photographs of Oxford, Paris, Reading, and York.
A polymath, Talbot was elected to the Royal Society in 1831 for his work on the integral calculus, and researched in optics, chemistry, electricity and other subjects such as etymology and ancient history.
Talbot was the only child of William Davenport Talbot, of Lacock Abbey, near Chippenham, Wiltshire, and of Lady Elisabeth Fox Strangways, daughter of the 2nd Earl of Ilchester. His governess was Agnes Porter who had also educated his mother. Talbot was educated at Rottingdean, Harrow School and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was awarded the Porson Prize in Classics in 1820, and graduated as twelfth wrangler in 1821. From 1822 to 1872, he communicated papers to the Royal Society, many of them on mathematical subjects. At an early period, he began optical researches, which later bore fruit in connection with photography. To the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal in 1826 he contributed a paper on "Some Experiments on Coloured Flame ''; to the Quarterly Journal of Science in 1827 a paper on "Monochromatic Light ''; and to the Philosophical Magazine papers on chemical subjects, including one on "Chemical Changes of Colour. ''
Talbot invented a process for creating reasonably light - fast and permanent photographs that was the first made available to the public; however, his was neither the first such process invented nor the first one publicly announced.
Shortly after Louis Daguerre 's invention of the daguerreotype was announced in early January 1839, without details, Talbot asserted priority of invention based on experiments he had begun in early 1834. At a meeting of the Royal Institution on 25 January 1839, Talbot exhibited several paper photographs he had made in 1835. Within a fortnight, he communicated the general nature of his process to the Royal Society, followed by more complete details a few weeks later. Daguerre did not publicly reveal any useful details until mid-August, although by the spring it had become clear that his process and Talbot 's were very different.
Talbot 's early "salted paper '' or "photogenic drawing '' process used writing paper bathed in a weak solution of ordinary table salt (sodium chloride), dried, then brushed on one side with a strong solution of silver nitrate, which created a tenacious coating of very light - sensitive silver chloride that darkened where it was exposed to light. Whether used to create shadow image photograms by placing objects on it and setting it out in the sunlight, or to capture the dim images formed by a lens in a camera, it was a "printing out '' process, meaning that the exposure had to continue until the desired degree of darkening had been produced. In the case of camera images, that could require an exposure of an hour or two if something more than a silhouette of objects against a bright sky was wanted. Earlier experimenters such as Thomas Wedgwood and Nicéphore Niépce had captured shadows and camera images with silver salts years before, but they could find no way to prevent their photographs from fatally darkening all over when exposed to daylight. Talbot devised several ways of chemically stabilizing his results, making them sufficiently insensitive to further exposure that direct sunlight could be used to print the negative image produced in the camera onto another sheet of salted paper, creating a positive.
The "calotype '', or "talbotype '', was a "developing out '' process, Talbot 's improvement of his earlier photogenic drawing process by the use of a different silver salt (silver iodide instead of silver chloride) and a developing agent (gallic acid and silver nitrate) to bring out an invisibly slight "latent '' image on the exposed paper. This reduced the required exposure time in the camera to only a minute or two for subjects in bright sunlight. The translucent calotype negative made it possible to produce as many positive prints as desired by simple contact printing, whereas the daguerreotype was an opaque direct positive that could only be reproduced by copying it with a camera. On the other hand, the calotype, despite waxing of the negative to make the image clearer, still was not pin - sharp like the metallic daguerreotype, because the paper fibres blurred the printed image. The simpler salted paper process was normally used when making prints from calotype negatives.
Talbot announced his calotype process in 1841, and in August he licensed Henry Collen, the miniature painter, as the first professional calotypist. The most celebrated practitioners of the process were Hill & Adamson. Another notable calotypist was Levett Landon Boscawen Ibbetson. In 1842, Talbot received the Rumford Medal of the Royal Society for his photographic discoveries.
In 1852, Talbot discovered that gelatine treated with potassium dichromate, a sensitiser introduced by Mungo Ponton in 1839, is made less soluble by exposure to light. This later provided the basis for the important carbon printing process and related technologies. Dichromated gelatine is still used for some laser holography.
Talbot 's later photographic work was concentrated on photomechanical reproduction methods. In addition to making the mass reproduction of photographic images more practical and much less expensive, rendering a photograph into ink on paper, known to be permanent on a scale of hundreds if not thousands of years, was clearly one sure way to avoid the problems with fading that had soon become apparent in early types of silver image paper prints. Talbot created the photoglyphic (or "photoglyptic '') engraving process, later perfected by others as the photogravure process.
Daguerre 's work on his process had commenced at about the same time as Talbot 's earliest work on his salted paper process. In 1839, Daguerre 's agent applied for English and Scottish patents only a matter of days before France, having granted Daguerre a pension for it, declared his invention "free to the world ''. The United Kingdom and the British "Colonies and Plantations abroad '' therefore became the only places where a licence was legally required to make and sell daguerreotypes. This exception is now usually regarded as both an expression of old national animosities, still smouldering just 24 years after Waterloo, and a reaction to Talbot 's patent. Talbot never attempted to patent any part of his printed - out silver chloride "photogenic drawing '' process and his calotype patent was not registered in Scotland.
In February 1841, Talbot obtained an English patent for his developed - out calotype process. At first, he sold individual patent licences for £ 20 each; later, he lowered the fee for amateur use to £ 4. Professional photographers, however, had to pay up to £ 300 annually. In a business climate where many patent holders were attacked for enforcing their rights, and an academic world that viewed the patenting of new discoveries as a hindrance to scientific freedom and further progress, Talbot 's behaviour was widely criticised. On the other hand many scientists supported his patent and they gave expert evidence in later trials. In addition, the calotype method was free for scientific uses, an area which Talbot himself pioneered, such as photomicrography. One reason Talbot later gave for vigorously enforcing his rights was that he had spent, according to his own reckoning, about £ 5,000 on his various photographic endeavours over the years and wanted to at least recoup his expenses.
In 1844, Talbot helped set up an establishment in Baker Street, Reading, for mass - producing salted paper prints from his calotype negatives. The Reading Establishment, as it was known, also offered services to the public, making prints from others ' negatives, copying artwork and documents, and taking portraits at its studio. The enterprise was not a success.
In 1851, the year of Daguerre 's death, Frederick Scott Archer publicised the wet collodion process, which made it practical to use glass instead of paper as the support for making the camera negative. The lack of detail often criticised in prints made from calotype negatives was overcome, and sharp images, comparable in degree of detail to daguerreotypes, could at last be provided by convenient paper prints. The collodion process soon replaced the calotype in commercial use, and by the end of the decade the daguerreotype was virtually extinct as well.
Asserting a very broad interpretation of his patent rights, Talbot declared that anyone using the collodion process would still need to get a calotype licence.
In August 1852, The Times published an open letter by Lord Rosse, the president of the Royal Society, and Charles Lock Eastlake, the president of the Royal Academy, who called on Talbot to relieve the patent pressure that was perceived as stifling the development of photography. Talbot agreed to waive licensing fees for amateurs, but he continued to pursue professional portrait photographers, having filed several lawsuits.
In 1854, Talbot applied for an extension of the 14 - year patent. At that time, one of his lawsuits, against photographer Martin Laroche, was heard in court. The Talbot v. Laroche case proved to be pivotal. Laroche 's side argued that the patent was invalid, as a similar process had been invented earlier by Joseph Reade, and that using the collodion process did not infringe the calotype patent in any case, because of significant differences between the two processes. In the verdict, the jury upheld the calotype patent but agreed that Laroche was not infringing upon it by using the collodion process. Disappointed by the outcome, Talbot chose not to extend his patent.
Talbot was one of the earliest researchers into the field of spectral analysis. He showed that the spectrum of each of the chemical elements was unique and that it was possible to identify the chemical elements from their spectra. Such analysis was to become important in examining the light from distant stars, and hence inferring their atomic composition. He also investigated the polarization of light using tourmaline crystals and iceland spar or calcite crystals, and pioneered the design and use of the polarizing microscope, now widely used by geologists for examining thin rock sections to identify minerals within them.
Talbot allowed free use of the calotype process for scientific applications, and he himself published the first known photomicrograph of a mineral crystal. Another photomicrograph shows insect wings as seen in the "solar microscope '' he and others developed for projecting images onto a large screen of tiny objects using sunlight as light source. The large projections could then be photographed by exposure to sensitized paper. He studied the diffraction of light using gratings and discovered a new phenomenon, now known as the Talbot effect.
Talbot was very keen on applying the calotype method to recording natural phenomena, such as plants for example, as well as buildings and landscapes. The calotype technique was offered free by Talbot for scientific and amateur use. He was aware that the visible spectrum comprised a very small part of what we now know as electromagnetic radiation, and that powerful and invisible light beyond the violet was capable of inducing chemical effects, a type of radiation we now call ultra-violet radiation.
Talbot was active in politics, being a moderate Reformer who generally supported the Whig Ministers. He served as Member of Parliament for Chippenham between 1832 and 1835 when he retired from Parliament. He also held the office of High Sheriff of Wiltshire in 1840.
While engaged in his scientific researches, Talbot devoted much time to archaeology. He had a 20 - year involvement in the field of Assyriology, the study of the history, archaeology and culture of Mesopotamia (present - day Iraq). With Henry Rawlinson and Edward Hincks he shares the honour of having been one of the first decipherers of the cuneiform inscriptions of Nineveh. He published Hermes, or Classical and Antiquarian Researches (1838 -- 39), and Illustrations of the Antiquity of the Book of Genesis (1839). He was also the author of English Etymologies (1846).
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who was the editer of uttar pradesh first daily newspaper hindustan published in 1887 | Hindustan (newspaper) - Wikipedia
Hindustan Dainik or ' ' Hindustan ' ' is an Indian Hindi - language daily newspaper and the third - largest circulated newspaper in India. It is published by Hindustan Media Ventures Limited. Earlier it was part of HT Media Ltd group, which spun off its Hindi business into a separate company named Hindustan Media Ventures Limited in December 2009. It ranks as the second largest - read daily in the country. Hindustan has 21 editions across the Hindi belt. They are spread across Delhi, Haryana (Faridabad), Bihar (Patna, Muzaffarpur, Gaya, Bhagalpur and Purnea), Jharkhand (Ranchi, Jamshedpur and Dhanbad), Uttar Pradesh (Lucknow, Varanasi, Meerut, Agra, Allahabad, Gorakhpur, Bareilly, Moradabad, Aligarh, and Kanpur) and Uttarakhand (Dehradun, Haridwar, Haldwani). Apart from these, the paper is also available in key towns like Mathura, Saharanpur, Faizabad.
In Delhi plus NCR, Hindustan is an undisputed No. 2 and has a rapidly growing reader 's even as the market is declining. Hindustan readership has grown to 120 L readers in Q4 11. As per Total Readership, Hindustan is No 2 with 385 L readers.
Currently, the major editions of Hindustan are available online in epaper format.
Hindustan dominates in Bihar with an undisputed readership of about 5 million (as per the IRS 2011, Q4). It commands a massive 73 % share of the Hindi readership market of Bihar. On 24th April 2018, Hindustan launched it 's 5th edition in Purnea. Hindustan has been the No. 1 newspaper of Jharkhand, ever since readership surveys have been reported for the state. On 13 May 2016, a reporter was shot to death.
Hindustan is expanding rapidly in the state of Uttar Pradesh, which is the largest Hindi newspaper market, and where it is the fastest growing Hindi daily. Apart from a long - standing presence in Lucknow and Varanasi, Hindustan was launched in Meerut, Agra and Kanpur in 2006. In 2008, Hindustan launched in the cities of Mathura. In 2009, Hindustan launched in Allahabad and Bareilly. In 2010, Hindustan launched in Gorakhpur as well. In 2011, Hindustan launched in Aligarh, and in 2012 in Moradabad.
Hindustan has made an entry into Uttarakhand with a printing location in Dehradun, in May 2008. This edition covers key cities in Uttarakhand and West UP (like Dehradun, Hrishikesh, Haridwar, Roorkee and Saharanpur). In Jan 2009, Hindustan started its edition in Haldwani.It has the highest numbers of readers in Uttarakhand at present.
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who are all the winners on american idol | List of American Idol finalists - wikipedia
American Idol is an American talent reality television series that first aired in 2002. As of May 2015, there have been fourteen seasons. Each season, the final round of competition features ten to thirteen singers. A total of 178 contestants have reached the finals of their season. The show 's age requirements have varied year - to - year. Of the finalists, 55 of them were under the age of 20, including three winners and five runners - up. Season - one - winner Kelly Clarkson currently holds the record for the highest - selling album sales worldwide, with more than 25 million copies, while season - four - winner Carrie Underwood currently holds the record for the highest - selling album sales in the United States, with more than 13 million copies.
In season one, Jim Verraros, an openly gay contestant, was told by Fox to remove all mentions of his homosexuality from his online journal as producers "thought (he) was trying to gain more votes ''. During the second season, finalist Corey Clark was disqualified when it was revealed that he had been arrested and charged with resisting arrest, battery upon his sister, and criminal restraint. In season five, voters claimed that phone calls dialed for Chris Daughtry during the first few minutes of voting were misrouted to Katharine McPhee 's lines, when they heard her recorded message thanking them for voting for McPhee. In season seven, it was revealed that Carly Smithson held a prior label record deal with MCA Records. Reports suggested that MCA spent over $ 2 million promoting Smithson 's previous album which she made under the name Carly Hennessy. The album sold fewer than 400 copies. Smithson remained on the show, and placed sixth in her season. Jermaine Jones of season eleven was disqualified for having theft cases and outstanding warrants on Top 11 week.
Caleb Johnson, season thirteen winner))
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who wrote the pirates of the caribbean music | Pirates of the Caribbean: the Curse of the Black Pearl (soundtrack) - wikipedia
Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl soundtrack is the official soundtrack album from the eponymous film. The album was released on July 22 2003, by Walt Disney Records, and contains selections of music from the film score. The music of the film and this album are credited to composer Klaus Badelt and producer Hans Zimmer.
Despite its title, the cue underscores Jack Sparrow 's escape from James Norrington 's marines in Port Royal. The main theme appears elsewhere in the score, notably during "Will and Elizabeth ''.
Despite the name, this track underscores the duel between Jack Sparrow and William Turner in the Blacksmith shop.
Despite its name, taken from Pintel 's line concerning William "Bootstrap Bill '' Turner being tied to a cannon by his bootstraps, this cue is played during the battle of the Isla de Muerta between the Commodore Norrington and his soldiers of the Royal Navy against the Cursed crew, and the duel between Jack Sparrow and Hector Barbossa.
Composer Alan Silvestri was originally hired to write the score for The Curse of the Black Pearl. However, due to creative differences between the producer Jerry Bruckheimer and him, Silvestri left the project and Gore Verbinski asked Hans Zimmer, with whom he had worked on The Ring, to step in. Zimmer declined to do the bulk of the composing, as he was busy scoring The Last Samurai, a project during which he claimed he had promised not to take any other assignments. As a result, he referred Verbinski to Klaus Badelt, a relatively new composer who had been a part of Remote Control Productions (known as Media Ventures at the time) for three years.
Zimmer however ended up collaborating with Badelt to write most of the score 's primary themes. Zimmer said he wrote most of the tunes in the space of one night, and then recorded them in an all - synthesized demo credited to him. This demo presents three of the score 's themes and motifs, concluding with an early version of "He 's A Pirate '' which differs from the final cue and includes a development of a melody Zimmer wrote for the score to Drop Zone. Since the schedule was very tight and the music was needed for the film in three weeks, seven other composers -- Ramin Djawadi, James Dooley, Nick Glennie - Smith, Steve Jablonsky, Blake Neely, James McKee Smith, and Geoff Zanelli -- were called upon to help orchestrate the music and write additional cues. The resulting score was recorded with a group of musicians, credited as the Hollywood Studio Symphony, over the course of four days. The short time frame demanded the use of a different recording studio for each session. The Metro Voices, a male choir, was recorded in London and added to the finished recordings.
The soundtrack album, consisting of 43 minutes of the film 's score, was released with Klaus Badelt credited as the composer. The cues were edited for length, and minor changes to the mix were also made. For unknown reasons, the mixing of several cues are executed with gain levels so high that it causes distortion. This is noticeable particularly during the action cues and the reprise of the love theme in track 14, "One Last Shot ''. It is also noted that besides the first two cues, the tracks ' generic names were unrelated to their contents. According to the official website of composer Geoff Zanelli, this was because the production "schedule was so short that (they) had to decide on the track names for the album packaging before the score was even written! ''
Badelt was credited as the conductor on early batches of the disc, but it was actually conducted by Blake Neely.
For the most part, The Curse of the Black Pearl features simple orchestration. Counterpoint is rare; most of the louder music consists of melody, simple harmony, and rhythmic figures in the low brass and low strings. Sampled drum beats including tom - toms and various cymbals are used ubiquitously in such sections. A very low, rumbling bass line was also introduced into the mix to reinforce the cello and double basses. Quieter sections tend to rely either on the string section or on sound effects. Pan flute, possibly synthesized or sampled, and claves can be heard repeatedly in the eerier cues.
One of the defining characteristics of this score 's sound is the use of horn for melody. Nearly all of the score 's louder sections feature the horns on the melody, frequently doubled by various string instruments.
For the video game Kingdom Hearts II, which features a number of scenes based on the movie, composer Yoko Shimomura arranged a synthesized "He 's a Pirate '' to serve as the musical theme for all combat in the Port Royal world. This arrangement is identical in structure to the original cue, though a number of changes were made to the melody and chords.
The score received mixed reviews from critics. Christian Clemmensen of Filmtracks.com gave it one out of a possible five stars, criticizing its similarities to past Remote Control scores such as The Rock and Gladiator. He also criticized its lack of connections to the "swashbuckling '' genre, stating, "The most disgraceful part of the pounding and shouting score for The Curse of the Black Pearl is that there is really nothing swashbuckling about it. If you remove the tepid little thirty - second jig from the start of the opening cue, then this score could easily accompany a movie about alien attacks, police force raids, chases for nuclear weapons, or any other militaristic setting. ''
Conversely, Andrew Granade of Soundtrack.net gave the score a mostly positive review, giving it a 3.5 out of 5 rating and stating, "Pirates of the Caribbean is over the top in both movie and score, yet in a good - natured way. Badelt 's work here is pleasing without being too heavy and is fully melded with the onscreen action. ''
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why is it important for plant cells to have a cell wall | Cell wall - wikipedia
A cell wall is a structural layer surrounding some types of cells, situated outside the cell membrane. It can be tough, flexible, and sometimes rigid. It provides the cell with both structural support and protection, and also acts as a filtering mechanism. Cell walls are present in most prokaryotes (except mycoplasma bacteria), in algae, plants and fungi but rarely in other eukaryotes including animals. A major function is to act as pressure vessels, preventing over-expansion of the cell when water enters.
The composition of cell walls varies between species and may depend on cell type and developmental stage. The primary cell wall of land plants is composed of the polysaccharides cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin. Often, other polymers such as lignin, suberin or cutin are anchored to or embedded in plant cell walls. Algae possess cell walls made of glycoproteins and polysaccharides such as carrageenan and agar that are absent from land plants. In bacteria, the cell wall is composed of peptidoglycan. The cell walls of archaea have various compositions, and may be formed of glycoprotein S - layers, pseudopeptidoglycan, or polysaccharides. Fungi possess cell walls made of the glucosamine polymer chitin. Unusually, diatoms have a cell wall composed of biogenic silica.
A plant cell wall was first observed and named (simply as a "wall '') by Robert Hooke in 1665. However, "the dead excrusion product of the living protoplast '' was forgotten, for almost three centuries, being the subject of scientific interest mainly as a resource for industrial processing or in relation to animal or human health.
In 1804, Karl Rudolphi and J.H.F. Link proved that cells had independent cell walls. Before, it had been thought that cells shared walls and that fluid passed between them this way.
The mode of formation of the cell wall was controversial in the 19th century. Hugo von Mohl (1853, 1858) advocated the idea that the cell wall grows by apposition. Carl Nägeli (1858, 1862, 1863) believed that the growth of the wall in thickness and in area was due to a process termed intussusception. Each theory was improved in the following decades: the apposition (or lamination) theory by Eduard Strasburger (1882, 1889), and the intussusception theory by Julius Wiesner (1886).
In 1930, Ernst Münch coined the term apoplast in order to separate the "living '' symplast from the "dead '' plant region, the latter of which included the cell wall.
By the 1980s, some authors suggested replacing the term "cell wall '', particularly as it was used for plants, with the more precise term "extracellular matrix '', as used for animal cells, but others preferred the older term.
Cell walls serve similar purposes in those organisms that possess them. They may give cells rigidity and strength, offering protection against mechanical stress. In multicellular organisms, they permit the organism to build and hold a definite shape (morphogenesis). Cell walls also limit the entry of large molecules that may be toxic to the cell. They further permit the creation of stable osmotic environments by preventing osmotic lysis and helping to retain water. Their composition, properties, and form may change during the cell cycle and depend on growth conditions.
In most cells, the cell wall is flexible, meaning that it will bend rather than holding a fixed shape, but has considerable tensile strength. The apparent rigidity of primary plant tissues is enabled by cell walls, but is not due to the walls ' stiffness. Hydraulic turgor pressure creates this rigidity, along with the wall structure. The flexibility of the cell walls is seen when plants wilt, so that the stems and leaves begin to droop, or in seaweeds that bend in water currents. As John Howland explains:
Think of the cell wall as a wicker basket in which a balloon has been inflated so that it exerts pressure from the inside. Such a basket is very rigid and resistant to mechanical damage. Thus does the prokaryote cell (and eukaryotic cell that possesses a cell wall) gain strength from a flexible plasma membrane pressing against a rigid cell wall.
The apparent rigidity of the cell wall thus results from inflation of the cell contained within. This inflation is a result of the passive uptake of water.
In plants, a secondary cell wall is a thicker additional layer of cellulose which increases wall rigidity. Additional layers may be formed by lignin in xylem cell walls, or suberin in cork cell walls. These compounds are rigid and waterproof, making the secondary wall stiff. Both wood and bark cells of trees have secondary walls. Other parts of plants such as the leaf stalk may acquire similar reinforcement to resist the strain of physical forces.
The primary cell wall of most plant cells is freely permeable to small molecules including small proteins, with size exclusion estimated to be 30 - 60 kDa. The pH is an important factor governing the transport of molecules through cell walls.
Cell walls evolved independently in many groups, even in the photosynthetic eukaryotes. In these lineages, the cell wall is closely related to the evolution of multicellularity, terrestrialization and vascularization.
The walls of plant cells must have sufficient tensile strength to withstand internal osmotic pressures of several times atmospheric pressure that result from the difference in solute concentration between the cell interior and external solutions. Plant cell walls vary from 0.1 to several μm in thickness.
Up to three strata or layers may be found in plant cell walls:
In the primary (growing) plant cell wall, the major carbohydrates are cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin. The cellulose microfibrils are linked via hemicellulosic tethers to form the cellulose - hemicellulose network, which is embedded in the pectin matrix. The most common hemicellulose in the primary cell wall is xyloglucan. In grass cell walls, xyloglucan and pectin are reduced in abundance and partially replaced by glucuronarabinoxylan, another type of hemicellulose. Primary cell walls characteristically extend (grow) by a mechanism called acid growth, which involves turgor - driven movement of the strong cellulose microfibrils within the weaker hemicellulose / pectin matrix, catalyzed by expansin proteins. The outer part of the primary cell wall of the plant epidermis is usually impregnated with cutin and wax, forming a permeability barrier known as the plant cuticle.
Secondary cell walls contain a wide range of additional compounds that modify their mechanical properties and permeability. The major polymers that make up wood (largely secondary cell walls) include:
Additionally, structural proteins (1 - 5 %) are found in most plant cell walls; they are classified as hydroxyproline - rich glycoproteins (HRGP), arabinogalactan proteins (AGP), glycine - rich proteins (GRPs), and proline - rich proteins (PRPs). Each class of glycoprotein is defined by a characteristic, highly repetitive protein sequence. Most are glycosylated, contain hydroxyproline (Hyp) and become cross-linked in the cell wall. These proteins are often concentrated in specialized cells and in cell corners. Cell walls of the epidermis may contain cutin. The Casparian strip in the endodermis roots and cork cells of plant bark contain suberin. Both cutin and suberin are polyesters that function as permeability barriers to the movement of water. The relative composition of carbohydrates, secondary compounds and proteins varies between plants and between the cell type and age. Plant cells walls also contain numerous enzymes, such as hydrolases, esterases, peroxidases, and transglycosylases, that cut, trim and cross-link wall polymers.
Secondary walls - especially in grasses - may also contain microscopic silica crystals, which may strengthen the wall and protect it from herbivores.
Cell walls in some plant tissues also function as storage deposits for carbohydrates that can be broken down and resorbed to supply the metabolic and growth needs of the plant. For example, endosperm cell walls in the seeds of cereal grasses, nasturtium and other species, are rich in glucans and other polysaccharides that are readily digested by enzymes during seed germination to form simple sugars that nourish the growing embryo.
The middle lamella is laid down first, formed from the cell plate during cytokinesis, and the primary cell wall is then deposited inside the middle lamella. The actual structure of the cell wall is not clearly defined and several models exist - the covalently linked cross model, the tether model, the diffuse layer model and the stratified layer model. However, the primary cell wall, can be defined as composed of cellulose microfibrils aligned at all angles. Cellulose microfibrils are produced at the plasma membrane by the cellulose synthase complex, which is proposed to be made of a hexameric rosette that contains three cellulose synthase catalytic subunits for each of the six units. Microfibrils are held together by hydrogen bonds to provide a high tensile strength. The cells are held together and share the gelatinous membrane called the middle lamella, which contains magnesium and calcium pectates (salts of pectic acid). Cells interact though plasmodesmata, which are inter-connecting channels of cytoplasm that connect to the protoplasts of adjacent cells across the cell wall.
In some plants and cell types, after a maximum size or point in development has been reached, a secondary wall is constructed between the plasma membrane and primary wall. Unlike the primary wall, the cellulose microfibrils are aligned parallel in layers, the orientation changing slightly with each additional layer so that the structure becomes helicoidal. Cells with secondary cell walls can be rigid, as in the gritty sclereid cells in pear and quince fruit. Cell to cell communication is possible through pits in the secondary cell wall that allow plasmodesmata to connect cells through the secondary cell walls.
There are several groups of organisms that have been called "fungi ''. Some of these groups (Oomycete and Myxogastria) have been transferred out of the Kingdom Fungi, in part because of fundamental biochemical differences in the composition of the cell wall. Most true fungi have a cell wall consisting largely of chitin and other polysaccharides. True fungi do not have cellulose in their cell walls.
In fungi, the cell wall is the outer-most layer, external to the plasma membrane. The fungal cell wall is a matrix of three main components:
Like plants, algae have cell walls. Algal cell walls contain either polysaccharides (such as cellulose (a glucan)) or a variety of glycoproteins (Volvocales) or both. The inclusion of additional polysaccharides in algal cells walls is used as a feature for algal taxonomy.
Other compounds that may accumulate in algal cell walls include sporopollenin and calcium ions.
The group of algae known as the diatoms synthesize their cell walls (also known as frustules or valves) from silicic acid (specifically orthosilicic acid, H SiO). The acid is polymerised intra-cellularly, then the wall is extruded to protect the cell. Significantly, relative to the organic cell walls produced by other groups, silica frustules require less energy to synthesize (approximately 8 %), potentially a major saving on the overall cell energy budget and possibly an explanation for higher growth rates in diatoms.
In brown algae, phlorotannins may be a constituent of the cell walls.
The group Oomycetes, also known as water molds, are saprotrophic plant pathogens like fungi. Until recently they were widely believed to be fungi, but structural and molecular evidence has led to their reclassification as heterokonts, related to autotrophic brown algae and diatoms. Unlike fungi, oomycetes typically possess cell walls of cellulose and glucans rather than chitin, although some genera (such as Achlya and Saprolegnia) do have chitin in their walls. The fraction of cellulose in the walls is no more than 4 to 20 %, far less than the fraction of glucans. Oomycete cell walls also contain the amino acid hydroxyproline, which is not found in fungal cell walls.
The dictyostelids are another group formerly classified among the fungi. They are slime molds that feed as unicellular amoebae, but aggregate into a reproductive stalk and sporangium under certain conditions. Cells of the reproductive stalk, as well as the spores formed at the apex, possess a cellulose wall. The spore wall has been shown to possess three layers, the middle of which is composed primarily of cellulose, and the innermost is sensitive to cellulase and pronase.
Around the outside of the cell membrane is the bacterial cell wall. Bacterial cell walls are made of peptidoglycan (also called murein), which is made from polysaccharide chains cross-linked by unusual peptides containing D - amino acids. Bacterial cell walls are different from the cell walls of plants and fungi which are made of cellulose and chitin, respectively. The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea, which do not contain peptidoglycan. The cell wall is essential to the survival of many bacteria, although L - form bacteria can be produced in the laboratory that lack a cell wall. The antibiotic penicillin is able to kill bacteria by preventing the cross-linking of peptidoglycan and this causes the cell wall to weaken and lyse. The lysozyme enzyme can also damage bacterial cell walls.
There are broadly speaking two different types of cell wall in bacteria, called Gram - positive and Gram - negative. The names originate from the reaction of cells to the Gram stain, a test long - employed for the classification of bacterial species.
Gram - positive bacteria possess a thick cell wall containing many layers of peptidoglycan and teichoic acids. In contrast, Gram - negative bacteria have a relatively thin cell wall consisting of a few layers of peptidoglycan surrounded by a second lipid membrane containing lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins. Most bacteria have the Gram - negative cell wall and only the Firmicutes and Actinobacteria (previously known as the low G + C and high G + C Gram - positive bacteria, respectively) have the alternative Gram - positive arrangement. These differences in structure can produce differences in antibiotic susceptibility, for instance vancomycin can kill only Gram - positive bacteria and is ineffective against Gram - negative pathogens, such as Haemophilus influenzae or Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Although not truly unique, the cell walls of Archaea are unusual. Whereas peptidoglycan is a standard component of all bacterial cell walls, all archaeal cell walls lack peptidoglycan, with the exception of one group of methanogens. In that group, the peptidoglycan is a modified form very different from the kind found in bacteria. There are four types of cell wall currently known among the Archaea.
One type of archaeal cell wall is that composed of pseudopeptidoglycan (also called pseudomurein). This type of wall is found in some methanogens, such as Methanobacterium and Methanothermus. While the overall structure of archaeal pseudopeptidoglycan superficially resembles that of bacterial peptidoglycan, there are a number of significant chemical differences. Like the peptidoglycan found in bacterial cell walls, pseudopeptidoglycan consists of polymer chains of glycan cross-linked by short peptide connections. However, unlike peptidoglycan, the sugar N - acetylmuramic acid is replaced by N - acetyltalosaminuronic acid, and the two sugars are bonded with a β, 1 - 3 glycosidic linkage instead of β, 1 - 4. Additionally, the cross-linking peptides are L - amino acids rather than D - amino acids as they are in bacteria.
A second type of archaeal cell wall is found in Methanosarcina and Halococcus. This type of cell wall is composed entirely of a thick layer of polysaccharides, which may be sulfated in the case of Halococcus. Structure in this type of wall is complex and not fully investigated.
A third type of wall among the Archaea consists of glycoprotein, and occurs in the hyperthermophiles, Halobacterium, and some methanogens. In Halobacterium, the proteins in the wall have a high content of acidic amino acids, giving the wall an overall negative charge. The result is an unstable structure that is stabilized by the presence of large quantities of positive sodium ions that neutralize the charge. Consequently, Halobacterium thrives only under conditions with high salinity.
In other Archaea, such as Methanomicrobium and Desulfurococcus, the wall may be composed only of surface - layer proteins, known as an S - layer. S - layers are common in bacteria, where they serve as either the sole cell - wall component or an outer layer in conjunction with polysaccharides. Most Archaea are Gram - negative, though at least one Gram - positive member is known.
Many protists and bacteria produce other cell surface structures apart from cell walls, external (extracellular matrix) or internal. Many algae have a sheath or envelope of mucilage outside the cell made of exopolysaccharides. Diatoms build a frustule from silica extracted from the surrounding water; radiolarians, foraminiferans, testate amoebae and silicoflagellates also produce a skeleton from minerals, called test in some groups. Many green algae, such as Halimeda and the Dasycladales, and some red algae, the Corallinales, encase their cells in a secreted skeleton of calcium carbonate. In each case, the wall is rigid and essentially inorganic. It is the non-living component of cell. Some golden algae, ciliates and choanoflagellates produces a shell - like protective outer covering called lorica. Some dinoflagellates have a theca of cellulose plates, and coccolithophorids have coccoliths.
An extracellular matrix (ECM) is also present in metazoans. Its composition varies between cells, but collagens are the most abundant protein in the ECM.
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what is the british word for parking lot | Glossary of British terms not widely used in the United States - wikipedia
This is a list of British words not widely used in the United States. In Canada, New Zealand, India, South Africa, and Australia, some of the British terms listed are used, although another usage is often preferred.
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most preventable cause of death and disease in the united states | Preventable causes of death - Wikipedia
The World Health Organization has traditionally classified death according to the primary type of disease or injury. However, causes of death may also be classified in terms of preventable risk factors -- such as smoking, unhealthy diet, sexual behavior, and reckless driving -- which contribute to a number of different diseases. Such risk factors are usually not recorded directly on death certificates, although they are acknowledged in medical reports.
It is estimated that of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds -- 100,000 per day -- die of age - related causes because they have aged. In industrialized nations the proportion is much higher, reaching 90 %. Thus, albeit indirectly, biological aging (senescence) is by far the leading cause of death. Whether senescence as a biological process itself can be slowed down, halted, or even reversed is a subject of current scientific speculation and research.
Leading causes of preventable death worldwide as of the year 2001, according to researchers working with the Disease Control Priorities Network (DCPN) and the World Health Organization (WHO). (The WHO 's 2008 statistics show very similar trends.)
In 2001, on average 29,000 children died of preventable causes each day (that is, about 20 deaths per minute). The authors provide the context:
The three most common preventable causes of death in the population of the United States are smoking, high blood pressure, and being overweight.
Leading preventable causes of death in the United States in the year 2000. Note: This data is outdated and has been significantly revised, especially for obesity - related deaths.
Leading causes of accidental death in the United States by age group as of 2002.
Leading causes of accidental death in the United States as of 2002, as a percentage of deaths in each group.
Various injuries are the leading cause of death in children 9 -- 17 years of age. In 2008, the top five worldwide unintentional injuries in children are as follows:
260,000 per year
175,000 per year
96,000 per year
47,000 per year
45,000 per year
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what is the physical nature of the hydrogen bond | Hydrogen bond - wikipedia
A hydrogen bond is an electrostatic attraction between two polar groups that occurs when a hydrogen (H) atom covalently bound to a highly electronegative atom such as nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), or fluorine (F) experiences the electrostatic field of another highly electronegative atom nearby.
Hydrogen bonds can occur between molecules (intermolecular) or within different parts of a single molecule (intramolecular). Depending on the nature of the donor and acceptor atoms which constitute the bond, their geometry, and environment, the energy of a hydrogen bond can vary between 1 and 40 kcal / mol. This makes them somewhat stronger than a van der Waals interaction, and weaker than covalent or ionic bonds. This type of bond can occur in inorganic molecules such as water and in organic molecules like DNA and proteins.
Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is responsible for the high boiling point of water (100 ° C) compared to the other group 16 hydrides that have much weaker hydrogen bonds. Intramolecular hydrogen bonding is partly responsible for the secondary and tertiary structures of proteins and nucleic acids. It also plays an important role in the structure of polymers, both synthetic and natural.
In 2011, an IUPAC Task Group recommended a modern evidence - based definition of hydrogen bonding, which was published in the IUPAC journal Pure and Applied Chemistry. This definition specifies:
The hydrogen bond is an attractive interaction between a hydrogen atom from a molecule or a molecular fragment X -- H in which X is more electronegative than H, and an atom or a group of atoms in the same or a different molecule, in which there is evidence of bond formation.
An accompanying detailed technical report provides the rationale behind the new definition.
Recent work proves that the hydrogen bond (O: H-O) integrates both the inter-molecular O: H lone pair ": '' nonbond and the intra-molecular H-O polar - covelent bond associated with O-O repulsive coupling.
A hydrogen atom attached to a relatively electronegative atom will play the role of the hydrogen bond donor. This electronegative atom is usually fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen. A hydrogen attached to carbon can also participate in hydrogen bonding when the carbon atom is bound to electronegative atoms, as is the case in chloroform, CHCl. An example of a hydrogen bond donor is the hydrogen from the hydroxyl group of ethanol, which is bonded to an oxygen.
In a hydrogen bond, the electronegative atom not covalently attached to the hydrogen is named proton acceptor, whereas the one covalently bound to the hydrogen is named the proton donor.
In the donor molecule, the electronegative atom attracts the electron cloud from around the hydrogen nucleus of the donor, and, by decentralizing the cloud, leaves the atom with a positive partial charge. Because of the small size of hydrogen relative to other atoms and molecules, the resulting charge, though only partial, represents a large charge density. A hydrogen bond results when this strong positive charge density attracts a lone pair of electrons on another heteroatom, which then becomes the hydrogen - bond acceptor.
The hydrogen bond is often described as an electrostatic dipole - dipole interaction. However, it also has some features of covalent bonding: it is directional and strong, produces interatomic distances shorter than the sum of the van der Waals radii, and usually involves a limited number of interaction partners, which can be interpreted as a type of valence. These covalent features are more substantial when acceptors bind hydrogens from more electronegative donors.
The partially covalent nature of a hydrogen bond raises the following questions: "To which molecule or atom does the hydrogen nucleus belong? '' and "Which should be labeled ' donor ' and which ' acceptor '? '' Usually, this is simple to determine on the basis of interatomic distances in the X − H Y system, where the dots represent the hydrogen bond: the X − H distance is typically ≈ 110 pm, whereas the H Y distance is ≈ 160 to 200 pm. Liquids that display hydrogen bonding (such as water) are called associated liquids.
Hydrogen bonds can vary in strength from very weak (1 -- 2 kJ mol) to extremely strong (161.5 kJ mol in the ion HF − 2). Typical enthalpies in vapor include:
Quantum chemical calculations of the relevant interresidue potential constants (compliance constants) revealed large differences between individual H bonds of the same type. For example, the central interresidue N − H N hydrogen bond between guanine and cytosine is much stronger in comparison to the N − H N bond between the adenine - thymine pair.
The length of hydrogen bonds depends on bond strength, temperature, and pressure. The bond strength itself is dependent on temperature, pressure, bond angle, and environment (usually characterized by local dielectric constant). The typical length of a hydrogen bond in water is 197 pm. The ideal bond angle depends on the nature of the hydrogen bond donor. The following hydrogen bond angles between a hydrofluoric acid donor and various acceptors have been determined experimentally:
In the book The Nature of the Chemical Bond, Linus Pauling credits T.S. Moore and T.F. Winmill with the first mention of the hydrogen bond, in 1912. Moore and Winmill used the hydrogen bond to account for the fact that trimethylammonium hydroxide is a weaker base than tetramethylammonium hydroxide. The description of hydrogen bonding in its better - known setting, water, came some years later, in 1920, from Latimer and Rodebush. In that paper, Latimer and Rodebush cite work by a fellow scientist at their laboratory, Maurice Loyal Huggins, saying, "Mr. Huggins of this laboratory in some work as yet unpublished, has used the idea of a hydrogen kernel held between two atoms as a theory in regard to certain organic compounds. ''
The most ubiquitous and perhaps simplest example of a hydrogen bond is found between water molecules. In a discrete water molecule, there are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Two molecules of water can form a hydrogen bond between them; the simplest case, when only two molecules are present, is called the water dimer and is often used as a model system. When more molecules are present, as is the case with liquid water, more bonds are possible because the oxygen of one water molecule has two lone pairs of electrons, each of which can form a hydrogen bond with a hydrogen on another water molecule. This can repeat such that every water molecule is H - bonded with up to four other molecules, as shown in the figure (two through its two lone pairs, and two through its two hydrogen atoms). Hydrogen bonding strongly affects the crystal structure of ice, helping to create an open hexagonal lattice. The density of ice is less than the density of water at the same temperature; thus, the solid phase of water floats on the liquid, unlike most other substances.
Liquid water 's high boiling point is due to the high number of hydrogen bonds each molecule can form, relative to its low molecular mass. Owing to the difficulty of breaking these bonds, water has a very high boiling point, melting point, and viscosity compared to otherwise similar liquids not conjoined by hydrogen bonds. Water is unique because its oxygen atom has two lone pairs and two hydrogen atoms, meaning that the total number of bonds of a water molecule is up to four. For example, hydrogen fluoride -- which has three lone pairs on the F atom but only one H atom -- can form only two bonds; (ammonia has the opposite problem: three hydrogen atoms but only one lone pair).
The exact number of hydrogen bonds formed by a molecule of liquid water fluctuates with time and depends on the temperature. From TIP4P liquid water simulations at 25 ° C, it was estimated that each water molecule participates in an average of 3.59 hydrogen bonds. At 100 ° C, this number decreases to 3.24 due to the increased molecular motion and decreased density, while at 0 ° C, the average number of hydrogen bonds increases to 3.69. A more recent study found a much smaller number of hydrogen bonds: 2.357 at 25 ° C. The differences may be due to the use of a different method for defining and counting the hydrogen bonds.
Where the bond strengths are more equivalent, one might instead find the atoms of two interacting water molecules partitioned into two polyatomic ions of opposite charge, specifically hydroxide (OH) and hydronium (H O). (Hydronium ions are also known as "hydroxonium '' ions.)
Indeed, in pure water under conditions of standard temperature and pressure, this latter formulation is applicable only rarely; on average about one in every 5.5 × 10 molecules gives up a proton to another water molecule, in accordance with the value of the dissociation constant for water under such conditions. It is a crucial part of the uniqueness of water.
Because water may form hydrogen bonds with solute proton donors and acceptors, it may competitively inhibit the formation of solute intermolecular or intramolecular hydrogen bonds. Consequently, hydrogen bonds between or within solute molecules dissolved in water are almost always unfavorable relative to hydrogen bonds between water and the donors and acceptors for hydrogen bonds on those solutes. Hydrogen bonds between water molecules have an average lifetime of 10 seconds, or 10 picoseconds.
A single hydrogen atom can participate in two hydrogen bonds, rather than one. This type of bonding is called "bifurcated '' (split in two or "two - forked ''). It can exist, for instance, in complex natural or synthetic organic molecules. It has been suggested that a bifurcated hydrogen atom is an essential step in water reorientation. Acceptor - type hydrogen bonds (terminating on an oxygen 's lone pairs) are more likely to form bifurcation (it is called overcoordinated oxygen, OCO) than are donor - type hydrogen bonds, beginning on the same oxygen 's hydrogens.
Hydrogen bonding also plays an important role in determining the three - dimensional structures adopted by proteins and nucleic bases. In these macromolecules, bonding between parts of the same macromolecule cause it to fold into a specific shape, which helps determine the molecule 's physiological or biochemical role. For example, the double helical structure of DNA is due largely to hydrogen bonding between its base pairs (as well as pi stacking interactions), which link one complementary strand to the other and enable replication.
In the secondary structure of proteins, hydrogen bonds form between the backbone oxygens and amide hydrogens. When the spacing of the amino acid residues participating in a hydrogen bond occurs regularly between positions i and i + 4, an alpha helix is formed. When the spacing is less, between positions i and i + 3, then a 3 helix is formed. When two strands are joined by hydrogen bonds involving alternating residues on each participating strand, a beta sheet is formed. Hydrogen bonds also play a part in forming the tertiary structure of protein through interaction of R - groups. (See also protein folding).
The role of hydrogen bonds in protein folding has also been linked to osmolyte - induced protein stabilization. Protective osmolytes, such as trehalose and sorbitol, shift the protein folding equilibrium toward the folded state, in a concentration dependent manner. While the prevalent explanation for osmolyte action relies on excluded volume effects, that are entropic in nature, recent circular dichroism (CD) experiments have shown osmolyte to act through an enthalpic effect. The molecular mechanism for their role in protein stabilization is still not well established, though several mechanism have been proposed. Recently, computer molecular dynamics simulations suggested that osmolytes stabilize proteins by modifying the hydrogen bonds in the protein hydration layer.
Several studies have shown that hydrogen bonds play an important role for the stability between subunits in multimeric proteins. For example, a study of sorbitol dehydrogenase displayed an important hydrogen bonding network which stabilizes the tetrameric quaternary structure within the mammalian sorbitol dehydrogenase protein family.
A protein backbone hydrogen bond incompletely shielded from water attack is a dehydron. Dehydrons promote the removal of water through proteins or ligand binding. The exogenous dehydration enhances the electrostatic interaction between the amide and carbonyl groups by de-shielding their partial charges. Furthermore, the dehydration stabilizes the hydrogen bond by destabilizing the nonbonded state consisting of dehydrated isolated charges.
Many polymers are strengthened by hydrogen bonds in their main chains. Among the synthetic polymers, the best known example is nylon, where hydrogen bonds occur in the repeat unit and play a major role in crystallization of the material. The bonds occur between carbonyl and amine groups in the amide repeat unit. They effectively link adjacent chains to create crystals, which help reinforce the material. The effect is greatest in aramid fibre, where hydrogen bonds stabilize the linear chains laterally. The chain axes are aligned along the fibre axis, making the fibres extremely stiff and strong. Hydrogen bonds are also important in the structure of cellulose and derived polymers in its many different forms in nature, such as wood and natural fibres such as cotton and flax.
The hydrogen - bond networks make both natural and synthetic polymers sensitive to humidity levels in the atmosphere because water molecules can diffuse into the surface and disrupt the network. Some polymers are more sensitive than others. Thus nylons are more sensitive than aramids, and nylon 6 more sensitive than nylon - 11.
A symmetric hydrogen bond is a special type of hydrogen bond in which the proton is spaced exactly halfway between two identical atoms. The strength of the bond to each of those atoms is equal. It is an example of a three - center four - electron bond. This type of bond is much stronger than a "normal '' hydrogen bond. The effective bond order is 0.5, so its strength is comparable to a covalent bond. It is seen in ice at high pressure, and also in the solid phase of many anhydrous acids such as hydrofluoric acid and formic acid at high pressure. It is also seen in the bifluoride ion (F − H − F).
Symmetric hydrogen bonds have been observed recently spectroscopically in formic acid at high pressure (> GPa). Each hydrogen atom forms a partial covalent bond with two atoms rather than one. Symmetric hydrogen bonds have been postulated in ice at high pressure (Ice X). Low - barrier hydrogen bonds form when the distance between two heteroatoms is very small.
The hydrogen bond can be compared with the closely related dihydrogen bond, which is also an intermolecular bonding interaction involving hydrogen atoms. These structures have been known for some time, and well characterized by crystallography; however, an understanding of their relationship to the conventional hydrogen bond, ionic bond, and covalent bond remains unclear. Generally, the hydrogen bond is characterized by a proton acceptor that is a lone pair of electrons in nonmetallic atoms (most notably in the nitrogen, and chalcogen groups). In some cases, these proton acceptors may be pi - bonds or metal complexes. In the dihydrogen bond, however, a metal hydride serves as a proton acceptor, thus forming a hydrogen - hydrogen interaction. Neutron diffraction has shown that the molecular geometry of these complexes is similar to hydrogen bonds, in that the bond length is very adaptable to the metal complex / hydrogen donor system.
In 1999, Isaacs et al. showed from interpretations of the anisotropies in the Compton profile of ordinary ice that the hydrogen bond is partly covalent. However, this interpretation was challenged by Ghanty et al., who concluded that considering electrostatic forces alone could explain the experimental results. Some NMR data on hydrogen bonds in proteins also indicate covalent bonding.
Most generally, the hydrogen bond can be viewed as a metric - dependent electrostatic scalar field between two or more intermolecular bonds. This is slightly different from the intramolecular bound states of, for example, covalent or ionic bonds; however, hydrogen bonding is generally still a bound state phenomenon, since the interaction energy has a net negative sum. The initial theory of hydrogen bonding proposed by Linus Pauling suggested that the hydrogen bonds had a partial covalent nature. This remained a controversial conclusion until the late 1990s when NMR techniques were employed by F. Cordier et al. to transfer information between hydrogen - bonded nuclei, a feat that would only be possible if the hydrogen bond contained some covalent character. While much experimental data has been recovered for hydrogen bonds in water, for example, that provide good resolution on the scale of intermolecular distances and molecular thermodynamics, the kinetic and dynamical properties of the hydrogen bond in dynamic systems remain unchanged.
O: H-O bond cooperativity:
Since 2012, Sun et al proposed and intensively verified that the hydrogen bond (O: H-O) performs like an asymmetrical, short range, coupled oscillator pair. The O: H-O bond segmental disparity and the O-O repulsivity form the soul dictating the extraordinary adaptivity, cooperativity, recoverability, and sensitivity of water and ice.
Under external excitation, the oxygen anions dislocate in the same direction but by different amounts along the O: H-O with respect to the H+ as the coordination origin. The O: H always relaxes more than the H-O in length. This theory has enabled resolution of multiple mysteries of water and ice.
The dynamics of hydrogen bond structures in water can be probed by the IR spectrum of OH stretching vibration. In the hydrogen bonding network in protic organic ionic plastic crystals (POIPCs), which are a type of phase change material exhibiting solid - solid phase transitions prior to melting, variable - temperature infrared spectroscopy can reveal the temperature dependence of hydrogen bonds and the dynamics of both the anions and the cations. The sudden weakening of hydrogen bonds during the solid - solid phase transition seems to be coupled with the onset of orientational or rotational disorder of the ions.
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who played hyde's sister on that 70s show | List of that ' 70s show characters - Wikipedia
This is a list of characters appearing in the series That ' 70s Show.
Several characters on the series were written as recurring, but made only one appearance. Among them:
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meaning of song hit me baby one more time | ... Baby One More Time (song) - Wikipedia
"... Baby One More Time '' is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears from her debut studio album of the same title (1999). It was written by Max Martin and produced by Martin and Rami. After recording and sending a demo tape with an unused song from Toni Braxton, Spears signed a multi-album deal with Jive. "... Baby One More Time '' is a teen pop and dance - pop song that refers to a girl 's feelings after a break - up with her boyfriend.
"... Baby One More Time '' was released on October 23, 1998 through Jive Records. It reached number one in every country it charted in, including the United Kingdom, where it earned double - platinum certification from the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) and became the country 's best - selling song of 1999. The song is one of the best - selling singles of all time, with over 7 million copies sold. An accompanying music video, directed by Nigel Dick, portrays Spears as a student from a Catholic high school, who starts to daydream that she is singing and dancing around the school, while watching her love interest from afar. The music video was later referenced in the music video of "If U Seek Amy '' (2009), where Spears 's fictional daughter is dressed with a similar schoolgirl outfit while wearing pink ribbons in her hair. In 2010, the music video for "... Baby One More Time '' was voted the third most influential video in the history of pop music, in a poll held by Jam!. In 2011, "... Baby One More Time '' was voted the best music video of the 1990s. It has been featured on all of her greatest hits and other compilation albums.
Spears has performed "... Baby One More Time '' in a number of live appearances and during all of her concert tours. It was the encore of the... Baby One More Time Tour (1999) and Dream Within a Dream Tour (2001 -- 02); Spears also performed remixed versions of the song during the Oops!... I Did It Again Tour (2000 -- 01), The Onyx Hotel Tour (2004), The M + M 's Tour (2007), The Circus Starring Britney Spears (2009), the Femme Fatale Tour (2011), and her concert residency Britney: Piece of Me (2013 -- 17). "... Baby One More Time '' was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Performance at the 42nd Annual Grammy Awards (2000), and has been included in lists by Blender, Rolling Stone and VH1. It has been noted for redefining the sound of late 1990s music. Spears has named "... Baby One More Time '' as one of her favorite songs from her career. It was also the final song to be played on the BBC 's music programme Top of the Pops in the 1990s. In 2018, readers of German teen magazine Bravo (magazine) voted "... Baby One More Time '' to be the biggest hit since its first music compilation was released in 1992.
I had been in studio for about six months listening and recording material, but I had n't really heard a hit yet. When I started working with Max Martin in Sweden, he played the demo for ' Baby One More Time ' for me, and I knew from the start it (was one) of those songs you want to hear again and again. It just felt really right. I went into the studio and did my own thing with it, trying to give it a little more attitude than the demo. In 10 days, I never even saw Sweden. We were so busy.
In June 1997, Spears was in talks with manager Lou Pearlman to join female pop group Innosense. Lynne Spears asked family friend and entertainment lawyer Larry Rudolph for his opinion and submitted a tape of Spears singing over a Whitney Houston karaoke song along with some pictures. Rudolph decided he wanted to pitch her to record labels, therefore she needed a professional demo. He sent Spears an unused song from Toni Braxton; she rehearsed for a week and recorded her vocals in a studio with a sound engineer. Spears traveled to New York with the demo and met with executives from four labels, returning to Kentwood the same day. Three of the labels rejected her, arguing audiences wanted pop bands such as the Backstreet Boys and the Spice Girls, and "there was n't going to be another Madonna, another Debbie Gibson, or another Tiffany. '' Two weeks later, executives from JIVE Records returned calls to Rudolph. Senior vice president of A&R Jeff Fenster stated about Spears 's audition that "It 's very rare to hear someone that age who can deliver emotional content and commercial appeal. (...) For any artist, the motivation -- the ' eye of the tiger ' -- is extremely important. And Britney had that. '' They appointed her to work with producer Eric Foster White for a month, who reportedly shaped her voice from "lower and less poppy '' delivery to "distinctively, unmistakably Britney. '' After hearing the recorded material, president Clive Calder ordered a full album. Spears had originally envisioned "Sheryl Crow music, but younger more adult contemporary '' but felt all right with her label 's appointment of producers, since "It made more sense to go pop, because I can dance to it -- it 's more me. '' She flew to Cheiron Studios in Stockholm, Sweden, where half of the album was recorded from March to April 1998, with producers Max Martin, Denniz Pop and Rami Yacoub, among others.
Martin showed Spears and her management a track titled "Hit Me Baby One More Time '', which was originally written for American group Backstreet Boys and R&B group TLC; however, when the song was submitted to them, they rejected it. Spears later claimed that she felt excited when she heard it and knew it was going to be a hit record. "We at JIVE said, ' This is a... smash ', '' revealed the label 's A&R executive at the time Steven Lunt; however, other executives were concerned that the line "Hit Me '' would condone domestic violence, later being revised to "... Baby One More Time ''.
Spears recorded her vocals for the song on May 2 -- 3, 1998 at Cheiron Studios in Stockholm, Sweden. Spears revealed that she "did n't do well at all the first day in the studio (recording the song), I was just too nervous. So I went out that night and had some fun. The next day I was completely relaxed and nailed it. You got ta be relaxed singing '... Baby One More Time '. '' The song was produced by Denniz Pop, Martin and Rami, and was also mixed by Martin at Cheiron Studios. Thomas Lindberg played the guitar, while Johan Carlberg played the bass guitar. Background vocals were provided by Spears, Martin and Nana Hedin. Spears also recorded a track called "Autumn Goodbye '', written and produced by Eric Foster White, that was released as a b - side to "... Baby One More Time ''. The track was recorded in 1998 at 4MW East Studios in New Jersey.
"... Baby One More Time '' was released as Spears 's debut single on October 23, 1998, by Jive Records, when she was only sixteen years old. Spears has named "... Baby One More Time '' as one of her favorite songs from her entire career, naming "Toxic '' and "He About to Lose Me '' as the other two. Like TLC and Backstreet Boys, British boy band Five were almost considered to record the song, according to their former manager Simon Cowell, who would work with Spears in the second season of the American version of The X Factor in 2012, in his autobiography Sweet Revenge.
"... Baby One More Time '' is a teen pop and dance - pop song that lasts for three minutes and thirty seconds. The song is composed in the key of C minor and is set in the time signature of 4 / 4 common time with a moderate tempo of ninety - three beats per minute (Andante moderato). Songwriting and production is largely based on previous Cheiron productions, most notably Robyn Carlsson 's "Show Me Love '' which shows similar song scheme, drum patterns, wah guitars and piano hits. Spears 's vocal range spans over two octaves from E ♭ to the high - tone of G. The song begins with a three - note motif in the bass range of the piano, an opening that has been compared to many other songs, such as "We Will Rock You '' (1977), "Start Me Up '' (1981), "These Words '' (2004) and the theme song of the film Jaws due to the fact the track "makes its presence known in exactly one second ''. According to magazine Blender, "... Baby One More Time '' is composed by "wah - wah guitar lines and EKG - machine bass - slaps ''.
Claudia Mitchell and Jacqueline Reid - Walsh, authors of Girl Culture: Studying girl culture: a readers ' guide (2008), noted the lyrics of the song "gesture toward (Spears) longing for the return of an ex-boyfriend. '' Spears said "... Baby One More Time '' is a song "every girl can relate to. She regrets it. She wants him back. '' The lyrics, however, caused controversy in the United States, because the line "Hit me baby one more time '' supposedly has sadomasochistic connotations. As a response, the singer said the line "does n't mean physically hit me. (...) It means just give me a sign, basically. I think it 's kind of funny that people would actually think that 's what it meant. ''
Marc Oxoby, author of The 1990s (2003), noted the song "was derided as vapid by some critics, yet tapped into the same kind of audience to whom the Spice Girls music appealed, young teens and pre-teens. '' Amanda Murray of Sputnikmusic commented, "(''... Baby One More Time '' is) well - composed, tightly arranged, and even with Spears 's vocal limitations it goes straight for the proverbial pop jugular. '' She also said that the song was a highlight in the pop music genre and added, "There is little doubt that '... Baby One More Time ' will be long remembered as one of the cornerstones of pop music in general, and it is a strong front - runner as the prototype for the late 90s pop resurgence. '' Bill Lamb of About.com considered "... Baby One More Time '' as Spears 's best song, saying, "the song is full of hooks and a big mainstream pop sound. The accompanying schoolgirl video caused a sensation, and, when the single hit No. 1, Britney was assured of stardom. '' In a list compiled by Sara Anderson of AOL Radio, "... Baby One More Time '' was ranked sixth in a list of Spears 's best songs. She noted the singer "somehow made the school girl outfit and pink pom - pom hair - ties trendy again, worn by every tween in the succeeding years. ''
Beth Johnson of Entertainment Weekly called "... Baby One More Time '' a "candy - pop - with - a-funky - edge smash '', while Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said the song was "ingenious '', Brian Raftery of Blender called it "a perfectly fine, slickly conceived pop tune. (...) At the time, teen - pop was still a boys ' club, but while the guys were crooning about crushes, Spears was already planning the sleep - over party ''. Rolling Stone called it "some of the best radio pop of the past decade - plus ''. NME considered "... Baby One More Time '' "incredible '', commenting that "it 's a symphony of teenage lust as fully realised as anything Brian Wilson ever wrote -- a truly grand pop song that overwhelms any lingering undercurrent of Lolita paedo - creepiness through the sheer fanatical earnestness of its delivery. '' "... Baby One More Time '' won a Teen Choice Award for Single of the Year and an MTV Europe Music Award for Best Song.
The song was officially sent to the American radio stations on October 23, 1998. On November 21, 1998, "... Baby One More Time '' debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 17 and topped the chart two and a half months later for two consecutive weeks, replacing R&B - singer Brandy 's "Have You Ever? ''. Simultaneously, it climbed to number - one on the Canadian Singles Chart. The song reached the top spot of the Hot 100 Singles Sales and stayed there for four consecutive weeks. This eventually propelled the single to a platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America. Though not as strong as its sales tallies, "... Baby One More Time '' also experienced considerable airplay, becoming her first top ten hit on the Hot 100 Airplay, peaking at number eight. The single also became an all - around hit on Top 40 radio, going top ten on both the Top 40 Tracks and Rhythmic Top 40, and to number one for five weeks on the Mainstream Top 40. It spent 32 weeks on the Hot 100 and ended up at number five on Billboard magazine 's year - end chart. As of June 2012, "... Baby One More Time '' has sold 1,412,000 physical singles, with 511,000 paid digital downloads in the United States. It is Spears 's best - selling physical single in the country. "... Baby One More Time '' debuted at number 20 on the Australian Singles Chart, a month later reached number one and stayed there for nine consecutive weeks. The song eventually became the second highest - selling single of the year, only behind Lou Bega 's "Mambo # 5 '', and was certified three - times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for selling over 210,000 copies. In New Zealand, the single spent four non-consecutive weeks at the top of the charts and after shipping over 15,000 units to retailers the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand certified it platinum.
The track reached the top spot in every European country in which it charted. "... Baby One More Time '' spent two consecutive weeks at number - one on the French Singles Chart and was certified platinum by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique after selling over 500,000 units in the country. Additionally, the song topped the German Singles Chart for six consecutive weeks and sold over 750,000 copies, resulting in a three - times gold certification by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry In the United Kingdom, according to JIVE Records, the single "... Baby One More Time '' sold more than 250,000 copies in a mere three days. Spears broke a first - week sales record for a female act at the time when "... Baby One More Time '' sold a total of 460,000 copies in the United Kingdom. The single went on to sell over 1.5 million units, making it the highest - selling single of the year and the 32nd best - selling of all - time in Britain. Eventually, the British Phonographic Industry certified it two - times platinum on March 26, 1999. Additionally, "... Baby One More Time '' is the fifth best - selling single by a female artist in the country, just behind Cher 's "Believe '', Whitney Houston 's "I Will Always Love You '', Adele 's "Someone like You '' and Céline Dion 's "My Heart Will Go On ''. "... Baby One More Time '' is one of the best - selling singles of all time, with over 10 million copies sold worldwide.
The music video was directed by Nigel Dick. After being chosen, Dick received criticism from his colleagues about wanting to work with Spears. He responded saying, "It 's a great song. I do n't know anything about Britney. I never watched The Mickey Mouse Club. She seems like a great kid and she 's very enthusiastic, but I just love the song. It 's just a great song ''. The video 's original setup was in high contrast to what eventually became the final product. The plan was to have the video in a cartoon - like environment, in a likely attempt to attract the audience of younger children. Spears was unhappy with this, and argued that she wanted her video to reflect the lives of her fans and wanted to set the video in a school. Spears pitched this idea to Dick, and further explained she wanted the video to have dance scenes. The original setting was scrapped and replaced with Spears 's concept. Dick 's original idea for the wardrobe was jeans and a T - shirt, but during the wardrobe fitting Spears decided to change it for a schoolgirl outfit. Dick said that "Every piece of wardrobe in the video came from Kmart, and I was told at the time not one piece of clothing in the video cost more than $17. On that level, it 's real. That probably, in retrospect, is a part of its charm. '' The knotted shirt design was Spears 's idea, she recollects saying, "The outfits looked kind of dorky, so I was like, ' Let 's tie up our shirts and be cute ' ''. About the experience of shooting her first music video, Spears said, "It was a wonderful experience. All these people there, working for you. I had my own trailer. It was an amazing experience ''. The music video was shot at Venice High School, the same school used to film the movie Grease. The video premiered on MTV and other video stations in November 1998.
The video begins with Spears appearing bored in class at a Catholic high school. Her assistant Felicia Culotta played the role of Spears 's teacher. When the bell rings, Spears runs out into the hall and begins a choreographed dance in the corridor. After this, Spears is outside, now adorned in an pink athletic outfit, and seen in a car. Along with a couple of other students, she performs a number of gymnastic moves before heading back inside. She is then sitting on the bleachers in the gymnasium watching a basketball game, and she dances in the gymnasium. Her love interest is revealed sitting close to her, played by her real - life cousin Chad. After this short segment, Spears begins her final dance routine and the video ends shortly afterwards, and the bell rings and Spears leaves the gymnasium, revealing that the whole thing had actually just been Spears 's daydream. During the very beginning, Spears is seen with her sleeves down. Some people who see the music video may not recognize this, but when the bell rings, the sleeves of exactly the same gray - and - white shirt she is wearing are rolled up, even when she gets into singing.
The schoolgirl outfit is considered to be one of Spears 's iconic looks and is on display at the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas, Nevada. The ensemble caused controversy among parents associations for showing the midriff of a sixteen - year - old. Spears faced the criticism saying, "Me showing my belly? I 'm from the South; you 're stupid if you do n't wear a sports bra (when you) go to dance class, you 're going to be sweating your butt off. '' In 1999, "... Baby One More Time '' earned Spears her first three MTV Video Music Award nominations, in the categories of Best Pop Video, Best Choreography, and Best Female Video. In a list compiled by VH1 in 2001, it was listed at number ninety in the best videos of all time. The video was the first of fourteen of her videos to retire on MTV 's television series TRL. On its final episode, a three - hour special aired on November 16, 2008, "... Baby One More Time '' was number one in their final countdown as the most iconic music videos of all time and was the last video to be played on the show. Wesley Yang in his essay "Inside the Box '' in n + 1, compared the music video to Britny Fox 's "Girlschool '' because it featured "a classroom full of Catholic schoolgirls gyrating to the beat in defiance of a stern teacher. (...) But that was a sexist video by a horrible hair metal band that exploited women. Britney Spears was something else -- an inflection point in the culture ''. The music video is also referenced in the music video of Spears 's 2000 single, "Stronger '' where Spears sings, "My loneliness ai n't killing me no more '' - a reference to "... Baby One More Time '' where she sings, "My loneliness is killing me. '' The music video is also referenced in the 2009 single, "If U Seek Amy ''. After she comes out of the house dressed as a housewife, her daughter is dressed with a similar schoolgirl outfit while wearing pink ribbons in her hair. The video was ranked at number four on a list of the ten most controversial music videos in pop by AOL on September 29, 2011. In April 2014, the music video for "... Baby One More Time '' reached over 100 million views on VEVO becoming Spears ' 5th music video to do so and making it the first ' 90s video by a female singer to receive a certification.
The first ever live performance of the song was at the "Singapore Jazz Festival '' in Singapore, the May 16th 1998. At this show, she also performs for the first time ever, the song "Sometimes ''. Britney performed "... Baby One More Time '' on several occasions. She performed the song on July 6, 1999, during her appearance at the Woodstock 99 festival. Neil Strauss, from The New York Times, noted that "all the backing music was on tape, and most of the vocals were recorded, with Ms. Spears just reinforcing selected words in choruses and singing an occasional snippet of a verse ''. It was also performed at the 1999 MTV Video Music Awards; after a classroom roll call ended, Spears appeared on the stage and began performing the song. Halfway through, she was joined by Justin Timberlake and the members of NSYNC for a dance routine. Afterwards, the band performed their hit "Tearin ' Up My Heart ''. The song was also performed at the 1999 MTV Europe Music Awards, along with "(You Drive Me) Crazy '', the 1999 Billboard Music Awards, the 1999 Smash Hits Poll Winners Party, the Christmas Day edition of Top of the Pops and the Greenwich Millennium concert on 31 December 1999, she also performed it with broadcasters David Dimbleby and Michael Buerk on 2000 Today. Spears performed the song in a medley with "From the Bottom of My Broken Heart '' at the 42nd Grammy Awards. Spears was wearing a turtleneck and a full tulle skirt at the beginning of the performance, while dancers surrounded her with enormous hand fans. After singing a shortened version of the song, she then took a few moments to shuffle into a form - fitting red rhinestone outfit (with side cutouts) and emerged onto a stage to perform "... Baby One More Time. '' Spears was also criticized of lipsynching the song during her performance. Later, in 2003, Spears performed the song in a remixed form at Britney Spears: In the Zone, a concert special that aired in ABC on November 17, 2003. "... Baby One More Time '' was also performed at the 2003 NFL Kickoff Live on September 4, 2003, at the National Mall, in a medley with "I 'm a Slave 4 U '' (2001), which included pyrotechnics. She sported shoulder - length blond hair and was dressed in black football pants, a black - and - white referee halter top and boots from Reebok. Her outfit was later auctioned off to benefit the Britney Spears Foundation.
"... Baby One More Time '' has been performed in seven of Spears 's concert tours since its release. On... Baby One More Time Tour, the encore consisted of a performance of the song, in which Spears wore a black bra under pink halter, a pink sequined plaid mini-skirt, and black thigh - high stockings. On 2000s Oops!... I Did It Again World Tour, "... Baby One More Time '' was performed after a dance interlude in which the dancers showed their individual moves while their names appeared on the screens. Spears took the stage in a conservative schoolgirl outfit to perform the song. She ripped it off halfway through the song to reveal a cheerleader ensemble. The song was also the encore of 2001 's Dream Within a Dream Tour. It began with a giant projection of a hologram of Spears onto a water screen. The projection gradually shrunk until Spears rose from the stage while wearing a plastic cowboy hat, blue hip - huggers, and a matching bra top. She began performing "... Baby One More Time '' in a ballad version until reaching the end of the runway. Pyrotechnics surrounded the stage while the song changed to a more uptempo version with elements of techno.
On The Onyx Hotel Tour, after performing "Showdown '', a video interlude followed featuring Spears and her friends outside a club. While she was leaving, she noticed a woman dressed in 1930s fashion. She followed her and the woman asked Spears to enter the "Mystic Lounge ''. Spears reappeared wearing a corset to perform "... Baby One More Time '' along with "Oops!... I Did It Again '' and "(You Drive Me) Crazy ''. All of the three were reworked for the show with elements of jazz and blues. "... Baby One More Time '' was also performed on the promotional tour made on some House of Blues locations, called The M + M 's Tour. The show started with Spears singing a short version of the song dressed in a white go - go boots, a white miniskirt and a sparkling pink bikini top. On The Circus Starring Britney Spears, the song made into the Electro Circ act. It was the final song of the act, performed after "Toxic ''. The performance consisted on Spears and her dancers performing a remix of the song. On 2011 's Femme Fatale Tour, "... Baby One More Time '' was performed in a medley with the remix of Rihanna 's "S&M '' (2010). On Spears ' current residency show Britney: Piece of Me in Las Vegas, the song was included on its setlist.
"... Baby One More Time '' has been covered on numerous occasions. One of the earliest live covers of the song was by the Scottish band Travis, recorded during one of their concerts at "The Bay Tavern '' in Robin Hood 's Bay, North Yorkshire, England. The song was later included in the release of their 1999 single, "Turn ''. Lead singer Francis Healey said, "We did it for a laugh the first time. (...) And as we played it, the irony slipped from my smile. It 's a very well - crafted song. It (has) that magic thing. '' The Guardian said this cover showed a new and more "dark '' side of the band, commenting "slowed down to a mournful crawl, it was amazing how ominous the couplet "This loneliness is killing me / Hit me, baby, one more time '' sounded ". PopWreckoning.com called it "perhaps the most well done cover of Britney 's catalyst to eternal fame ''. Spears heard their version while shopping in a mall and said, "It was so weird. I liked it though, I thought it was cool. It was a very different vibe from what I did ''. In July 2005, The Dresden Dolls performed a cover during their summer concerts while opening for Panic! at the Disco. On July 18, 2006, frontman Brendon Urie joined the band to perform the song in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. PopWreckoning.com said the cover was "a strange twist to this pop ditty. It 's obviously darker and actually tortured as opposed to Britney 's school girl despair ''. The song was featured in a scene in Madonna 's directorial debut Filth and Wisdom. On November 29, 2008, the same day Spears performed "Womanizer '' on The X Factor, contestants JLS performed a cover of the song that was deemed "lame '' by judge Simon Cowell.
On July 13, 2009, Tori Amos covered the song live during her Sinful Attraction Tour at the Paramount Theatre in Oakland, California. On October 15, 2009, Kris Allen covered the song for the first time at a concert in Seton High School in Cincinnati, Ohio. His rendition received positive reviews. The song is heard, prominently but briefly, during the climactic fight - scene in the 2005 animated film Robots. Fender, while wearing a skirt, was busy fighting to the beat of the song. An excerpt was used in the comedy film, but was not included on the soundtrack album. Swedish humorist heavy metal band Black Ingvars covered the song for their 2000 album Kids Superhits. The same year, British death metal cover band Ten Masked Men included a rendition of the song on their Return of the Ten Masked Men album. A cover by Ahmet and Dweezil Zappa was featured in the soundtrack of the 2000 film Ready to Rumble. In 2003, the song was covered by American pop punk band Bowling for Soup for the soundtrack of the remake film Freaky Friday and commented that their version was "really, really, dark and really rock, (...) not the kind of ' pop ' - py stuff that we usually do. '' In 2005, power pop band Fountains of Wayne covered the song for their compilation album Out - of - State Plates. Robert Christgau of The Village Voice highlighted their rendition saying the song is "as redolent and fetching as any of (Fountains of Wayne) 's peaks ''. Japanese pop singer Shiori Takei covered the song of her 2005 album The Note of My Nineteen Years.
In 2006, a lounge music style cover of the song by Trombo Combo was included on their covers album Trombo Combo: Swedish Sound Deluxe. A hi - NRG - eurodance cover by Jayne Montgomery was released through Almighty Records. In the 2009 compilation Punk Goes Pop 2, a cover of the song by metalcore band August Burns Red was included along with a cover of "Toxic '' by A Static Lullaby. Music duo Doll Factory included a cover of the song as a bonus track on later printings of their album Weightless. Singer - songwriter Christopher Dallman released an EP titled Sad Britney that includes a cover of the song along with covers of "Toxic '', "Gimme More '' and "Radar ''. The song has also been covered by Brainshake, Intwine, Kevorkian, P.T. Grimm and the Dead Puppies, Jenny Owen Youngs, Neil Sahgal and Annie Bethancourt, among others. In the 2010 Glee episode "Britney / Brittany '', the character of Rachel Berry, played by Lea Michele, covered the song using similar outfits to the ones of the music video. Spears also made a cameo, taking the teacher 's role, previously played by Cullota. Darren Criss also of Glee performed a mash - up of "... Baby One More Time '' with "Für Elise '' on Sing Out, Raise Hope for The Trevor Project and the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation in December 2011. In 2012, British singer Ed Sheeran performed an acoustic version of the song NOW 100.5 FM. A year later he covered it on The Elvis Duran Z100 Morning Show and added a rap verse. The song is sung by actresses Selena Gomez, Vanessa Hudgens, Ashley Benson and Rachel Korine in Harmony Korine 's film Spring Breakers. Swedish singer Tove Styrke released a cover of the song on July 24, 2015. The song was also covered and used for a Frogz singing toy in 2005. Song is covered for Just Dance 3
"... Baby One More Time '' was listed at number twenty five in the greatest pop songs since 1963, in a list compiled by Rolling Stone and MTV in 2000. Blender listed it at number two in The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born. The song was also listed as the 2nd best song of the 1990s by VH1 and in a listing compiled in 2003, ranked at number one in 100 Best Songs of the Past 25 Years. Bill Lamb of About.com ranked "... Baby One More Time '' at number one on a compiled list with the Top 40 Pop Songs Of All Time. The music video was voted the third most influential promo in the history of pop music on a poll held by Jam!. "... Baby One More Time '' is also one of the best - selling singles of all time, with over 9 million copies sold, and also earned Spears 's first nomination for a Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. In April 2005, the British TV network ITV aired a short series called Hit Me, Baby, One More Time hosted by Vernon Kay. The show pitted one - hit wonders who generally had their moments of fame in the 1980s against each other to play their own hits and a currently popular cover song. The favorites were chosen by audience voting. The American version of the show also aired on NBC later in the year, and it was also hosted by Kay. In the 2012 poll created by The Official Chart Company and ITV to discover The Nation 's Favourite Number 1 Single of all - time, "... Baby One More Time '' was listed as the seventh favorite song by the United Kingdom. In 2018, readers of the iconic German teen magazine Bravo (magazine) voted "... Baby One More Time '' to be the biggest hit since its first music compilation was released in 1992.
Spears became an international pop culture icon immediately after launching her recording career. Rolling Stone magazine wrote: "One of the most controversial and successful female vocalists of the 21st century, '' she "spearheaded the rise of post-millennial teen pop... Spears early on cultivated a mixture of innocence and experience that broke the bank ''. Barbara Ellen of The Observer has reported: "Spears is famously one of the ' oldest ' teenagers pop has ever produced, almost middle aged in terms of focus and determination. Many 19 - year - olds have n't even started working by that age, whereas Britney, a former Mouseketeer, was that most unusual and volatile of American phenomena -- a child with a full - time career. While other little girls were putting posters on their walls, Britney was wanting to be the poster on the wall. Whereas other children develop at their own pace, Britney was developing at a pace set by the ferociously competitive American entertainment industry ''.
Scott Plagenhoef of Pitchfork noted "songs like Nirvana 's "Smells Like Teen Spirit '', Dr. Dre 's "Nothing But a G Thang '', and Britney Spears 's "... Baby One More Time '' altered the landscape of pop culture so quickly in large part because they were delivered to all corners of the U.S. simultaneously by MTV. (...) MTV 's ability to place a song and musician into the pop music conversation was unparalleled at the time, and by the end of the decade that meant absurd levels of both financial and creative commitment to music videos. '' PopMatters writer Evan Sawdey commented that Spears 's concept for the music video of the song was the one responsible for her immediate success, saying that, as a result, the singer "scored a massive No. 1 single, inadvertently started the late ' 90s teen pop boom, and created a public persona for herself that was simultaneously kid - friendly and pure male fantasy. Her videos got played on both MTV and the Disney Channel at the same time, showing just how well Spears (and her armies of PR handlers) managed to walk that fine line between family - friendly pop idol and unabashed sex object. ''
Credits for "... Baby One More Time '' and "Autumn Goodbye '' are taken from the single 's liner notes.
... Baby One More Time
Autumn Goodbye
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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lulu i'm a fool for you baby | Oh Me Oh My (I 'm a Fool for You Baby) - wikipedia
"Oh Me Oh My (I 'm a Fool for You Baby) '' is the title of a Top 30 hit single for Lulu which was recorded in September 1969 in the Muscle Shoals Sound Studio sessions for Lulu 's Atco Records album debut New Routes. The song has been most notably remade by Aretha Franklin, The Raes, Buster Poindexter, Tina Arena, and Ronnie Spector on English Heart (2016).
Lulu would later opine of the producers of her album New Routes: Atlantic Record honchos Jerry Wexler, Tom Dowd and Arif Mardin: "I do n't think they knew what to do with me, and the only big hit I got (off the album) was a song that I (brought in) with me '' - referring to "Oh Me Oh My... '' which had been written by Jim Doris who -- as Jimmy Doris -- had been vocalist - guitarist for the Stoics, a band which formed in Lulu 's native Glasgow in the late 1960s and whose membership had included Frankie Miller. (Doris helped contribute another song to New Routes: "After All (I Live My Life) '' - co-written with Miller - and his composition "Take Good Care of Yourself '' was featured on the follow - up album Melody Fair. Reportedly Doris subsequently went into A&R work before being sidelined by mental instability which factored into his being killed when run over by a bus in London in the late 1980s or early 1990s.)
Issued as advance single from New Routes in October 1969, "Oh Me Oh My... '' represented a radical change of direction for Lulu, who was coming off her best ever UK chart placing at # 2 with the Eurovision winner "Boom Bang - a-Bang '', the move to a more mature sound with "Oh Me Oh My... '' was unappreciated in the UK where the track barely reached the Top 50. In the US, "Oh Me Oh My... '' ranked as high as # 4 in Birmingham, Alabama in November 1969 but nationally charted only as a moderate Easy Listening hit at # 36. Several performances by Lulu on US television helped break "Oh Me Oh My... '' into the Billboard Hot 100 in December 1969 and then buoy the track as it gradually gained momentum to become Lulu 's first Top 30 hit since "To Sir With Love '' at the end of February 1970: "Oh Me Oh My... '' would peak at # 22 that March (Cash Box ranked the track with a # 18 peak).
In Australia the Go - Set Top 40 chart ranked "Oh Me Oh My... '' with a # 33 peak in January 1970. The RPM 100 chart for Canada ranked "Oh Me Oh My... '' as high as # 16 in March 1970. (1); that same month the New Zealand Listener Pop - o - meter chart ranked "Oh Me Oh My... '' as high as # 12.
Lulu recorded a translated version of "Oh Me Oh My... '' for release in Italy, entitled "Povera Me ''; the track was released in June 1970 to no apparent attention despite a promotional junket by Lulu that July.
Aretha Franklin cut a version of "Oh Me Oh My (I 'm a Fool For You Baby) '' for her 1972 Young, Gifted and Black album which like Lulu 's New Routes was produced by Arif Mardin, Jerry Wexler and Tom Dowd. Franklin 's first studio album of new material since Spirit in the Dark in 1970, Young, Gifted and Black demonstrated Franklin 's increasing penchant for covering pop songs and besides Lulu 's "Oh Me Oh My... '' Franklin gave R&B readings to songs made famous by Dusty Springfield and Dionne Warwick, specifically "A Brand New Me '' and "April Fools ''. "Oh Me Oh My... '' was used as the B - side for the album 's lead single "Rock Steady '', eventually receiving enough focus to reach # 9 on the R&B charts crossing over to # 73 Pop.
"Oh Me, Oh My '' was remade in 2008 by Tina Arena for her Songs of Love & Loss 2 album recorded at AIR Lyndhurst Hall in London accompanied by conductor Simon Hale and the London Studio Orchestra in July 2008. Arena 's version -- entitled "Oh Me, Oh My '' without the subtitle in parentheses -- was issued as the album 's single in digital format on November 8, 2008 by EMI Australia.
"Oh Me Oh My (I 'm a Fool For You Baby) '' has also been recorded by Oleta Adams, Beth Hart, Barbara Mason, Bill Medley, Buster Poindexter, Joe Tex, Irma Thomas and -- as "Oh Me Oh My '' -- by Ann Austin, Lloyd Terrell, Renee Geyer, Rod McKuen, Benny Mardones for his 1981 album "Too Much to Lose '', The Raes, B.J. Thomas and Lisa Hartman; the last named performed an abbreviated version of the song in the 1981 miniseries Jacqueline Susann 's Valley of the Dolls.
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who dominated southern politics in the antebellum era | History of the Southern United States - wikipedia
The history of the Southern United States reaches back hundreds of years and includes the Mississippian people, well known for their mound building. European history in the region began in the very earliest days of the exploration and colonization of North America. Spain, France, and England eventually explored and claimed parts of what is now the Southern United States, and the cultural influences of each can still be seen in the region today. In the centuries since, the history of the Southern United States has recorded a large number of important events, including the American Revolution, the American Civil War, the ending of slavery, and the American Civil Rights Movement.
In Pre-Columbian times, the only inhabitants of what is now the Southern United States were Native Americans. At the time of European contact much of the area was home to several regional variants of the Mississippian culture, an agrarian culture that flourished in the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States. The Mississippian way of life began to develop around the 10th century in the Mississippi River Valley (for which it is named).
Notable Native American nations that developed in the South after the Mississippians include what are known as "the Five Civilized Tribes '': the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole.
Spain made frequent exploratory trips to the New World after its discovery in 1492. Rumors of natives being decorated with gold and stories of a Fountain of Youth helped hold the interest of many Spanish explorers, and colonization eventually followed. Juan Ponce de León was the first European to come to the South when he landed in Florida in 1513.
Hernando de Soto, a Spanish explorer and conquistador led the first European expedition deep into the territory of the modern - day southern United States searching for gold, and a passage to China. De Sotos group were the first documented Europeans to cross the Mississippi River, on whose banks de Soto died in 1542. (Alonso Álvarez de Pineda was the first European to see the river, in 1519 when he sailed twenty miles up the river from the Gulf of Mexico).
A vast undertaking, de Soto 's North American expedition ranged across parts of the modern states of Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, Tennessee, and Texas.
Among the first European settlements in North America were Spanish settlements in what would later become the state of Florida; the earliest was Tristán de Luna y Arellano 's failed colony in what is now Pensacola in 1559. More successful was Pedro Menéndez de Avilés 's St. Augustine, founded in 1565; St. Augustine remains the oldest continuously inhabited European settlement in the continental United States. Spain also colonized parts of Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. Spain issued land grants in the South from Kentucky to Florida and into the southwestern areas of what is now the United States. There was also a Spanish colony location near King Powhatan 's ruling town in the Chesapeake Bay area of what is now Virginia and Maryland. It preceded Jamestown, the English colony, by as much as one hundred years.
The first French settlement in what is now the Southern United States was Fort Caroline, located in what is now Jacksonville, Florida, in 1562. It was established as a haven for the Huguenots and was founded under the leadership of René Goulaine de Laudonnière and Jean Ribault. It was destroyed by the Spanish from the nearby colony of St. Augustine in 1565.
Later French arrived from the north. Having established agricultural colonies in Canada and built a fur trading network with Indians in the Great Lakes area, they began to explore the Mississippi River. The French called their territory Louisiana, in honor of their King Louis. France claimed Texas and set up several short - lived forts there, such as the one in Red River County, built in 1718. In 1817 the French pirate Jean Lafitte settled on Galveston Island; his colony there grew to more than 1,000 persons by 1818 but was abandoned in 1820. The most important French settlements were established at New Orleans and Mobile (originally called Bienville). Only a few settlers came from France directly, with others arriving from Haiti and Acadia.
Just before they defeated the Spanish Armada, the English began exploring the New World. In 1585 an expedition organized by Walter Raleigh established the first English settlement in the New World, on Roanoke Island, North Carolina. The colony failed to prosper, however, and the colonists were retrieved the following year by English supply ships. In 1587, Raleigh again sent out a group of colonists to Roanoke. From this colony, the first recorded European birth in North America, a child named Virginia Dare, was reported. That group of colonists disappeared and is known as the "Lost Colony ''. Many people theorize that they were either killed or taken in by local tribes.
Like New England, the South was originally settled by English Protestants, later becoming a melting pot of religions as with other parts of the country. While the earlier attempt at colonization had failed on Roanoke Island, the English established their first permanent colony in America in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607, at the mouth of the James River, which in turn empties into Chesapeake Bay.
Settlement of Chesapeake Bay was driven by a desire to obtain precious metal resources, specifically gold. The colony was technically still within Spanish territorial claims, yet far enough from most Spanish settlements to avoid colonial clashes. As the "Anchor of the South '', the region includes the Delmarva Peninsula and much of coastal Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
Early in the history of the colony, it became clear that the claims of gold deposits were vastly exaggerated. Referred to as the "Starving Time '' of the Jamestown colony, the years from the time of landing in 1607 until 1609 were rife with famine and instability. However, Native American support, in addition to reinforcements from Britain, sustained the small colony. Due to continued political and economic instability, however, the charter of the Colony of Virginia was revoked in 1624. The primary cause of this revocation was the revelation that hundreds of settlers were dead or missing following an attack in 1622 by Native American tribes led by Opechancanough. A royal charter was established for Virginia, yet the House of Burgesses, formed in 1619, was allowed to continue as political leadership for the colony in conjunction with a royal governor.
A key figure in the Virginia Colony and Southern political and cultural development generally was William Berkeley, who served, with some interruptions, as governor of Virginia from 1645 until 1675. His desire for an elite immigration to Virginia led to the "Second Sons '' policy, in which younger sons of English aristocrats were recruited to emigrate to Virginia. Berkeley also emphasized the headright system, the offering of large tracts of land to those arriving in the colony. This early immigration by an elite contributed to the development of an aristocratic political and social structure in the South.
English colonists, especially young indentured servants, continued to arrive along the southern Atlantic coast. Virginia became a prosperous English colony. The area now known as Georgia was also settled. Its beginnings under James Oglethorpe were as a resettlement colony for imprisoned debtors.
From the introduction of tobacco in 1613, its cultivation began to form the basis of the early Southern economy. Cotton did not become a mainstay until much later, after technological developments, especially the Whitney cotton gin of 1794, greatly increased the profitability of cotton cultivation. Until that point, most cotton was farmed in large plantations in the Province of Carolina, and tobacco, which could be grown profitably in farms of smaller scale, was the dominant cash crop export of the South and the Middle Atlantic States.
In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of lifetime slavery when it sentenced John Punch to lifetime servitude under his master Hugh Gwyn for running away.
The first slavery law in the British colonies was enacted by Massachusetts to enslave the indigenous population in 1641.
During this period, life expectancy was often low, and indentured servants came from overpopulated European areas. With the lower price of servants compared to slaves, and the high mortality of the servants, planters often found it much more economical to use servants.
Because of this, slavery in the early colonial period differed greatly in the American colonies from that in the Caribbean. Often Caribbean slaves were worked literally to death on large sugar and rice plantations, while the American slave population had a higher life expectancy and was maintained through natural reproduction. This natural reproduction was important for the continuation of slavery after the prohibition on slave importation after about 1780.
Much of the slave trade was conducted as part of the "triangular trade '', a three - way exchange of slaves, rum, and sugar. Northern shippers purchased slaves using rum, made in New England from cane sugar, which was in turn grown in the Caribbean. This slave trade was generally able to fulfill labor needs in the South for the cultivation of tobacco after the decline of indentured servants. At approximately the point when tobacco labor needs began to increase, the mortality rate fell and all groups lived longer. By the late 17th century and early 18th century, slaves became economically viable sources of labor for the growing tobacco culture. Also, further south than the Mid-Atlantic, Southern settlers grew wealthy by raising and selling rice, indigo, and cotton. The plantations of South Carolina often were modeled on Caribbean plantations, albeit smaller in size.
For details on each specific colony, see Province of Georgia, Province of Maryland, Province of North Carolina, Province of South Carolina, and Colony of Virginia.
By the end of the 17th century, the number of colonists was growing. The large population centers were still in the northeastern and middle colonies, leaving the southern colonies of Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina a rural frontier land. The economies of these colonies were tied to agriculture. During this time the great plantations were formed by wealthy colonists who saw great opportunity in the new country. Tobacco and cotton were the main cash crops of the areas and were readily accepted by English buyers. Rice and indigo were also grown in the area and exported to Europe. The plantation owners built a vast aristocratic life and accumulated a great deal of wealth from their land. They supported slavery as a means of working their land.
On the other side of the agricultural coin were the small yeoman farmers. They did not have the capability or wealth to operate large plantations. Instead, they worked small tracts of land and developed a political activism in response to the growing oligarchy of the plantation owners. Many politicians from this era were yeoman farmers speaking out to protect their rights as free men.
Charleston became a booming trade town for the southern colonies. The abundance of pine trees in the area provided raw materials for shipyards to develop, and the harbor provided a safe port for English ships bringing in imported goods. The colonists exported tobacco, cotton and textiles and imported tea, sugar, and slaves. The fact that these colonies maintained an independent trade relation with England and the rest of Europe became a major factor later on as tension mounted leading up to the American Revolutionary War.
After the late 17th century, the economies of the North and the South began to diverge, especially in coastal areas. The Southern emphasis on export production contrasted with the Northern emphasis on food production.
By the mid-18th century, the colonies of Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia had been established. In the upper colonies, that is, Maryland, Virginia, and portions of North Carolina, the tobacco culture prevailed. However, in the lower colonies of South Carolina and Georgia, cultivation focused more on cotton and rice.
The southern colonies, led by Virginia, gave strong support for the Patriot cause in solidarity with Massachusetts. Georgia, the newest, smallest, most exposed and militarily most vulnerable colony, hesitated briefly before joining the other 12 colonies in Congress. As soon as news arrived of the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775, Patriot forces took control of every colony, using secret committees that had been organized in the previous two years. After the combat began, Governor Dunmore of Virginia was forced to flee to a British warship off the coast. In late 1775 he issued a proclamation offering freedom to slaves who escaped from Patriot owners and volunteer to fight for the British Army. Over 1,000 volunteered and served in British uniforms, chiefly in the Ethiopian Regiment. However, they were defeated in the Battle of Great Bridge, and most of them died of disease. The Royal Navy took Dunmore and other officials home in August 1776, and also carried to freedom 300 surviving former slaves.
After their defeat at Saratoga in 1777 and the entry of the French into the American Revolutionary War, the British turned their attention to the South. With fewer regular troops at their disposal, the British commanders developed a "southern strategy '' that relied heavily on volunteer soldiers and militia from the Loyalist element.
Beginning in late December 1778, the British captured Savannah and controlled the Georgia coastline. In 1780 they seized Charleston, capturing a large American army. A significant victory at the Battle of Camden meant that royal forces soon controlled most of Georgia and South Carolina. The British set up a network of forts inland, expecting the Loyalists would rally to the flag. Far too few Loyalists turned out, however, and the British had to fight their way north into North Carolina and Virginia with a severely weakened army. Behind them most of the territory they had already captured dissolved into a chaotic guerrilla war, fought predominantly between bands of Loyalist and Patriot militia, with the Patriots retaking the areas the British had previously gained.
The British army marched to Yorktown, Virginia, where they expected to be rescued by a British fleet. The fleet showed up but so did a larger French fleet, so the British fleet after the Battle of the Chesapeake returned to New York for reinforcements, leaving General Cornwallis trapped by the much larger American and French armies under Washington. He surrendered. The most prominent Loyalists, especially those who joined Loyalist regiments, were evacuated by the Royal Navy back to England, Canada, or other British colonies; they brought their slaves along, but lost their land. However, the great majority of Loyalists remained in the southern states and became American citizens.
After the upheaval of the American Revolution effectively came to an end at the Siege of Yorktown (1781), the South became a major political force in the development of the United States. With the ratification of the Articles of Confederation, the South found political stability and a minimum of federal interference in state affairs. However, with this stability came a weakness in its design, and the inability of the Confederation to maintain economic viability eventually forced the creation of the United States Constitution in Philadelphia in 1787.
Importantly, Southerners of 1861 often believed their secessionist efforts and the Civil War paralleled the American Revolution, as a military and ideological "replay '' of the latter.
Southern leaders were able to protect their sectional interests during the Constitutional Convention of 1787, preventing the insertion of any explicit anti-slavery position in the Constitution. Moreover, they were able to force the inclusion of the "fugitive slave clause '' and the "Three - Fifths Compromise ''. Nevertheless, Congress retained the power to regulate the slave trade. Twenty years after the ratification of the Constitution, the law - making body prohibited the importation of slaves, effective January 1, 1808. While North and South were able to find common ground in order to gain the benefits of a strong Union, the unity achieved in the Constitution masked deeply rooted differences in economic and political interests. After the 1787 convention, two discrete understandings of American republicanism emerged.
For the North, a Puritanical republicanism predominated, with leaders such as Alexander Hamilton and John Adams.
In the South, agrarian laissez - faire formed the basis of political culture. Led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, this agrarian position is characterized by the epitaph on the grave of Jefferson. While including his "condition bettering '' roles in the foundation of the University of Virginia, and the writing of the Declaration of Independence and the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, absent from the epitaph was his role as President of the United States. The development of Southern political thought thus focused on the ideal of the yeoman farmer; i.e., those who are tied to the land also have a vested interest in the stability and survival of the government.
In the North, where slaves were mostly household servants or farm laborers, every state eventually abolished slavery; New Jersey was the last to pass a law on this subject (in 1804), although many of these laws were gradual in nature. Slavery was also abolished in the Northwest Territory and its states. Therefore, by 1804 the Mason -- Dixon line (which separated free Pennsylvania and slave Maryland) became the dividing mark between "free '' and "slave '' states.
While about a third of white Southern families were slave owners, most were independent yeoman farmers. Nevertheless, the slave system represented the basis of the Southern social and economic system, and thus even non-slaveowners opposed any suggestions for terminating that system, whether through outright abolition or case - by - case manumission.
The southern plantation economy was dependent on foreign trade, and the success of this trade helps explain why southern elites and some white yeomen were so violently opposed to abolition. There is considerable debate among scholars about whether or not the slaveholding South was a capitalist society and economy.
Although slavery had yet to become a major issue, states ' rights would surface periodically in the early antebellum period, especially in the South. The election of Federalist member John Adams in the 1796 presidential election came in tandem with escalating tensions with France. In 1798, the XYZ Affair brought these tensions to the fore, and Adams became concerned about French power in America, fearing internal sabotage and malcontent that could be brought on by French agents. In response to these developments and to repeated attacks on Adams and the Federalists by Democratic - Republican publishers, Congress enacted the Alien and Sedition Acts. Enforcement of the acts resulted in the jailing of "seditious '' Democratic - Republican editors throughout the North and South, and prompted the adoption of the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1798 (authored by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison), by the legislatures of those states.
Thirty years later, during the Nullification Crisis, the "Principles of ' 98 '' embodied in these resolutions were cited by leaders in South Carolina as a justification for state legislatures ' asserting the power to nullify, or prevent the local application of, acts of the federal Congress that they deemed unconstitutional. The Nullification Crisis arose as a result of the Tariff of 1828, a set of high taxes on imports of manufactures, enacted by Congress as a protectionist measure to foster the development of domestic industry, primarily in the North. In 1832, the legislature of South Carolina nullified the entire "Tariff of Abominations '', as the Tariff of 1828 was known in the South, prompting a stand - off between the state and federal government. On May 1, 1833, President Andrew Jackson wrote, "the tariff was only a pretext, and disunion and southern confederacy the real object. The next pretext will be the negro, or slavery question. '' Although the crisis was resolved through a combination of the actions of the president, Congressional reduction of the tariff, and the Force Bill, it had lasting importance for the later development of secessionist thought. An additional factor that led to Southern sectionalism was the proliferation of cultural and literary magazines such as the Southern Literary Messenger and DeBow 's Review.
Another issue feeding sectionalism was slavery, and especially the issue of whether to permit slavery in western territories seeking admission to the Union as states. In the early 19th century, as the cotton boom took hold, slavery became more economically viable on a large scale, and more Northerners began to perceive it as an economic threat, even if they remained indifferent to its moral dimension. While relatively few Northerners favored outright abolition, many more opposed the expansion of slavery to new territories, as in their view the availability of slaves lowered wages for free labor.
At the same time, Southerners increasingly perceived the economic and population growth of the North as threatening to their interests. For several decades after the Union was formed, as new states were admitted, North and South were able to finesse their sectional differences and maintain political balance by agreeing to admit "slave '' and "free '' states in equal numbers. By means of this compromise approach, the balance of power in the Senate could be extended indefinitely. The House of Representatives, however, was a different matter. As the North industrialized and its population grew, aided by a major influx of European immigrants, the Northern majority in the House of Representatives also grew, making Southern political leaders increasingly uncomfortable. Southerners became concerned that they would soon find themselves at the mercy of a federal government in which they no longer had sufficient representation to protect their interests. By the late 1840s, Senator Jefferson Davis from Mississippi stated that the new Northern majority in the Congress would make the government of the United States "an engine of Northern aggrandizement '' and that Northern leaders had an agenda to "promote the industry of the United States at the expense of the people of the South. ''
With the Mexican War, which alarmed many Northerners by adding new territory on the Southern side of the free - slave boundary, the slavery - in - the - territories issue heated up dramatically. After a four - year sectional conflict, the Compromise of 1850 narrowly averted civil war with a complex deal in which California was admitted as a free state, including Southern California, thus preventing a separate slave territory there, while slavery was allowed in the New Mexico and Utah territories and a stronger Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was passed, requiring all citizens to assist in recapturing runaway slaves wherever found. Four years later, the peace bought with successive compromises finally came to an end. In the Kansas -- Nebraska Act, Congress left the issue of slavery to a vote in each territory, thereby provoking a breakdown of law and order as rival groups of pro - and anti-slavery immigrants competed to populate the newly settled region.
For many Southerners, the last straws were the raid on Harper 's Ferry in 1859 by fanatical abolitionist John Brown, immediately followed by a Northern Republican presidential victory in the election of 1860. Republican Abraham Lincoln was elected president with only 40 % of the popular vote and with hardly any popular support in the South.
Members of the South Carolina legislature had previously sworn to secede from the Union if Lincoln was elected, and the state declared its secession on December 20, 1860. In January and February, six other cotton states of the Deep South followed suit: Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. The other eight slave states postponed a decision, but the seven formed a new government in Montgomery, Alabama, in February: the Confederate States of America. Throughout the South, Confederates seized federal arsenals and forts, without resistance, and forced the surrender of all U.S. forces in Texas. The sitting President, James Buchanan, believed he had no constitutional power to act, and in the four months between Lincoln 's election and his inauguration, the South strengthened its military position.
In Washington, proposals for compromise and reunion went nowhere, as the Confederates demanded complete, total, permanent independence. When Lincoln dispatched a supply ship to federal - held Fort Sumter, in South Carolina, the Confederate government ordered an attack on the fort, which surrendered on April 13. President Lincoln called upon the states to supply 75,000 troops to serve for ninety days to recover federal property, and, forced to choose sides, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina promptly voted to secede. Kentucky declared its neutrality.
The seceded states, joined together as the Confederate States of America and only wanting to be independent, had no desire to conquer any state north of its border. After secession, no compromise was possible, because the Confederacy insisted on its independence and the Lincoln Administration refused to meet with President Davis 's commissioners. Instead of diplomacy, Lincoln ordered that a Navy fleet of warships and troop transports be sent to Charleston Harbor to reinforce and resupply Fort Sumter. Just before the fleet was about to enter the harbor, Confederates forced the Federal garrison holed up in the fort to surrender. That incident, although only a cannon duel that produced no deaths, allowed President Lincoln to proclaim that United States forces had been attacked and justified his calling up of troops to invade the seceded states. In response the Confederate military strategy was to hold its territory together, gain worldwide recognition, and inflict so much punishment on invaders that the Northerners would tire of an expensive war and negotiate a peace treaty that would recognize the independence of the CSA. Two Confederate counter-offensives into Maryland and southern Pennsylvania failed to influence Federal elections as hoped. The victory of Lincoln and his party in the 1864 elections made the Union 's military victory only a matter of time.
Both sides wanted the border states, but the Union military forces took control of all of them in 1861 -- 1862. Union victories in western Virginia allowed a Unionist government based in Wheeling to take control of western Virginia and, with Washington 's approval, create the new state of West Virginia. The Confederacy did recruit troops in the border states, but the enormous advantage of controlling them went to the Union.
The Union naval blockade, starting in May 1861, reduced exports by 95 %; only small, fast blockade runners -- mostly owned and operated by British interests -- could get through. The South 's vast cotton crops became nearly worthless.
In 1861 the rebels assumed that "King Cotton '' was so powerful that the threat of losing their supplies would induce Britain and France to enter the war as allies, and thereby frustrate Union efforts. Confederate leaders were ignorant of European conditions; Britain depended on the Union for its food supply, and would not benefit from an extremely expensive major war with the U.S. The Confederacy moved its capital from a defensible location in remote Montgomery, Alabama, to the more cosmopolitan city of Richmond, Virginia, only 100 miles (160 km) from Washington. Richmond had the heritage and facilities to match those of Washington, but its proximity to the Union forced the CSA to spend most of its war - making capability to defend Richmond.
The strength of the Confederacy included an unusually strong officer corps -- about a third of the officers of the U.S. Army had resigned and joined. But the political leadership was not very effective. A classic interpretation is that the Confederacy "died of states ' rights '', as governors of Texas, Georgia, and North Carolina refused Richmond 's request for troops.
The Confederacy decided not to have political parties. There was a strong sense that parties were divisive and would weaken the war effort. Historians, however, agree that the lack of parties weakened the political system. Instead of having a viable alternative to the current system, as expressed by a rival party, the people could only grumble and complain and lose faith.
Historians disparage the effectiveness of President Jefferson Davis, with a consensus holding that he was much less effective than Abraham Lincoln. As a former Army officer, senator, and Secretary of War, he possessed the stature and experience to be president, but certain character defects undercut his performance. He played favorites and was imperious, frosty, and quarrelsome. By dispensing with parties, he lost the chance to build a grass roots network that would provide critically needed support in dark hours. Instead, he took the brunt of the blame for all difficulties and disasters. Davis was animated by a profound vision of a powerful, opulent new nation, the Confederate States of America, premised on the right of its white citizens to self - government. However, in dramatic contrast to Lincoln, he was never able to articulate that vision or provide a coherent strategy to fight the war. He neglected the civilian needs of the Confederacy while spending too much time meddling in military details. Davis 's meddling in military strategy proved counterproductive. His explicit orders that Vicksburg be held no matter what sabotaged the only feasible defense and led directly to the fall of the city in 1863.
By 1862 most northern leaders realized that the mainstay of Southern secession, slavery, had to be attacked head - on. All the border states rejected President Lincoln 's proposal for compensated emancipation. However, by 1865 all had begun the abolition of slavery, except Kentucky and Delaware. The Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order issued by Lincoln on January 1, 1863. In a single stroke it changed the legal status, as recognized by the U.S. government, of 3 million slaves in designated areas of the Confederacy from "slave '' to "free ''. It had the practical effect that as soon as a slave escaped the control of the Confederate government, by running away or through advances of federal troops, the slave became legally and actually free. Plantation owners, realizing that emancipation would destroy their economic system, sometimes moved their slaves as far as possible out of reach of the Union Army. By June 1865, the Union Army controlled all of the Confederacy and liberated all of the designated slaves. The owners were never compensated. Nor were the slaves themselves. Many of the freedmen remained on the same plantation, others crowded into refugee camps operated by the Freedmen 's Bureau. The Bureau provided food, housing, clothing, medical care, church services, some schooling, legal support, and arranged for labor contracts.
The severe dislocations of war and Reconstruction affected the black population, with a large amount of sickness and death.
The Union had a 3 - 1 superiority in railroad mileage and (even more important) an overwhelming advantage in engineers and mechanics in the rolling mills, machine shops, factories, roundhouses and repair yards that produced and maintained rails, bridging equipage, locomotives, rolling stock, signaling gear, and telegraph equipment. In peacetime the South imported all its railroad gear from the North; the Union blockade completely cut off such imports. The lines in the South were mostly designed for short hauls, as from cotton areas to river or ocean ports; they were not designed for trips of more than 100 miles or so, and such trips involved numerous changes of trains and layovers. The South 's 8,500 miles (13,700 km) of track comprised enough of a railroad system to handle essential military traffic along some internal lines, assuming it could be defended and maintained. As the system deteriorated because of worn out equipment, accidents and sabotage, the South was unable to construct or even repair new locomotives, cars, signals or track. Little new equipment ever arrived, although rails in remote areas such as Florida were removed and put to more efficient use in the war zones. Realizing their enemy 's dilemma, Union cavalry raids routinely destroyed locomotives, cars, rails, roundhouses, trestles, bridges, and telegraph wires. By the end of the war, the southern railroad system was totally ruined. Meanwhile, the Union army rebuilt rail lines to supply its forces. A Union railroad through hostile territory, as from Nashville to Atlanta in 1864, was an essential but fragile lifeline -- it took a whole army to guard it, because each foot of track had to be secure. Large numbers of Union soldiers throughout the war were assigned to guard duty and, while always ready for action, seldom saw any fighting.
By 1864 the top Union generals Ulysses S. Grant and William T. Sherman realized the weakest point of the Confederate armies was the decrepitude of the southern infrastructure, so they escalated efforts to wear it down. Cavalry raids were the favorite device, with instructions to ruin railroads and bridges. Sherman 's insight was deeper. He focused on the trust the rebels had in their Confederacy as a living nation, and he set out to destroy that trust; he predicted his raid would "demonstrate the vulnerability of the South, and make its inhabitants feel that war and individual ruin are synonymous terms. '' Sherman 's "March to the Sea '' from Atlanta to Savannah in the fall of 1864 burned and ruined every part of the industrial, commercial, transportation and agricultural infrastructure it touched, but the actual damage was confined to a swath of territory totaling about 15 % of Georgia. Sherman struck at Georgia in October, just after the harvest, when the food supplies for the next year had been gathered and were exposed to destruction. In early 1865 Sherman 's army moved north through the Carolinas in a campaign even more devastating than the march through Georgia. More telling than the twisted rails, smoldering main streets, dead cattle, burning barns and ransacked houses was the bitter realization among civilians and soldiers throughout the remaining Confederacy that if they persisted, sooner or later their homes and communities would receive the same treatment.
Out - gunned, out - manned, and out - financed, defeat loomed after four years of fighting. When Lee surrendered to Grant in April 1865, the Confederacy fell. There was no insurgency, no treason trials, and only one war crimes trial.
Reconstruction began as soon as the Union Army took control of a state; the start and ending times varied by state, beginning in 1863 and ending in 1877. Slavery ended and the large slave - based plantations were mostly subdivided into tenant or sharecropper farms of 20 -- 40 acres (8.1 -- 16.2 ha). Many white farmers (and some blacks) owned their land. However sharecropping, along with tenant farming, became a dominant form in the cotton South from the 1870s to the 1950s, among both blacks and whites. By the 1960s both had largely disappeared. Sharecropping was a way for very poor farmers to earn a living from land owned by someone else. The landowner provided land, housing, tools and seed, and perhaps a mule, and a local merchant provided food and supplies on credit. At harvest time the sharecropper received a share of the crop (from one - third to one - half, with the landowner taking the rest). The cropper used his share to pay off his debt to the merchant. The system started with blacks when large plantations were subdivided. By the 1880s white farmers also became sharecroppers. The system was distinct from that of the tenant farmer, who rented the land, provided his own tools and mule, and received half the crop. Landowners provided more supervision to sharecroppers, and less or none to tenant farmers.
Reconstruction played out against a backdrop of a once prosperous economy that lay in ruins. According to Hesseltine (1936),
In Charleston, a journalist in September 1865 discovered "a city of ruins, of desolation, of vacant houses, of widowed women, of rotten wharves, of deserted warehouses, of weed - wild gardens, of miles of grass - grown streets, of acres of pitiful and voiceful barrenness. ''
Reports from Confederate officials show 94,000 killed in battle and another 164,000 who died of disease, with about 194,000 wounded. The Confederate official counts are too low; perhaps another 75,000 - 100,000 Confederate soldiers died because of the war.
The number of civilian deaths is unknown, but was highest among refugees and former slaves. Most of the war was fought in Virginia and Tennessee, but every Confederate state was affected, as well as Maryland, West Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, and Indian Territory; Pennsylvania was the only northerner state to be the scene of major action, during the Gettysburg Campaign. In the Confederacy there was little military action in Texas and Florida. Of 645 counties in 9 Confederate states (excluding Texas and Florida), there was Union military action in 56 % of them, containing 63 % of the whites and 64 % of the slaves in 1860; however, by the time the action took place some people had fled to safer areas, so the exact population exposed to war is unknown.
The Confederacy in 1861 had 297 towns and cities with 835,000 people; of these 162 with 681,000 people were at one point occupied by Union forces. Ten were destroyed or severely damaged by war action, including Atlanta (with an 1860 population of 9,600), Columbia, and Richmond (with prewar populations of 8,100 and 37,900, respectively), plus Charleston, much of which was destroyed in an accidental fire in 1861. These eleven contained 115,900 people in the 1860 census, or 14 % of the urban South. Historians have not estimated their population when they were invaded. The number of people who lived in the destroyed towns represented just over 1 % of the Confederacy 's population. In addition, 45 courthouses were burned (out of 830). The South 's agriculture was not highly mechanized. The value of farm implements and machinery in the 1860 Census was $81 million; by 1870, there was 40 % less, of $48 million worth. Many old tools had broken through heavy use and could not be replaced; even repairs were difficult.
The economic calamity suffered by the South during the war affected every family. Except for land, most assets and investments had vanished with slavery, but debts were left behind. Worst of all were the human deaths and amputations. Most farms were intact but most had lost their horses, mules and cattle; fences and barns were in disrepair. Prices for cotton had plunged. The rebuilding would take years and require outside investment because the devastation was so thorough. One historian has summarized the collapse of the transportation infrastructure needed for economic recovery:
"One of the greatest calamities which confronted Southerners was the havoc wrought on the transportation system. Roads were impassable or nonexistent, and bridges were destroyed or washed away. The important river traffic was at a standstill: levees were broken, channels were blocked, the few steamboats which had not been captured or destroyed were in a state of disrepair, wharves had decayed or were missing, and trained personnel were dead or dispersed. Horses, mules, oxen, carriages, wagons, and carts had nearly all fallen prey at one time or another to the contending armies. The railroads were paralyzed, with most of the companies bankrupt. These lines had been the special target of the enemy. On one stretch of 114 miles in Alabama, every bridge and trestle was destroyed, cross-ties rotten, buildings burned, water - tanks gone, ditches filled up, and tracks grown up in weeds and bushes... Communication centers like Columbia and Atlanta were in ruins; shops and foundries were wrecked or in disrepair. Even those areas bypassed by battle had been pirated for equipment needed on the battlefront, and the wear and tear of wartime usage without adequate repairs or replacements reduced all to a state of disintegration.
Railroad mileage was of course located mostly in rural areas. The war followed the rails, and over two - thirds of the South 's rails, bridges, rail yards, repair shops and rolling stock were in areas reached by Union armies, which systematically destroyed what it could. The South had 9,400 miles (15,100 km) of track, and 6,500 miles (10,500 km) were in areas reached by the Union armies. About 4,400 miles (7,100 km) were in areas where Sherman and other Union generals adopted a policy of systematic destruction of the rail system. Even in untouched areas, the lack of maintenance and repair, the absence of new equipment, the heavy over-use, and the deliberate movement of equipment by the Confederates from remote areas to the war zone guaranteed the system would be virtually ruined at war 's end.
Reconstruction was the process by which the states returned to full status. It took place in four stages, which varied by state. Tennessee and the border states were not affected. First came the governments appointed by President Andrew Johnson that lasted 1865 -- 66. The Freedmen 's Bureau was active, helping refugees, setting up employment contracts for Freedmen, and setting up courts and schools for the freedmen. Second came rule by the U.S. Army, which held elections that included all freedmen but excluded over 10,000 Confederate leaders. Third was "Radical Reconstruction '' or "Black Reconstruction '' in which a Republican coalition governed the state, comprising a coalition of freedmen, scalawags (native whites) and carpetbaggers (migrants from the North). Violent resistance by the Ku Klux Klan and related groups was suppressed by President Ulysses S. Grant and the vigorous use of federal courts and soldiers in 1868 -- 70. The Reconstruction governments spent large sums on railroad subsidies and schools, but quadrupled taxes and set off a tax revolt among conservatives. Stage four was reached by 1876 as the white conservative coalition, called Redeemers, had won political control of all the states except South Carolina, Florida and Louisiana. The disputed presidential election of 1876 hinged on those three violently contested states. The outcome was the Compromise of 1877, whereby the Republican Rutherford Hayes became president and all federal troops were withdrawn from the South, leading to the immediate collapse of the last Republican state governments.
The building of a new, modern rail system was widely seen as essential to the economic recovery of the South, and modernizers invested in a "Gospel of Prosperity ''. Northern money financed the rebuilding and dramatic expansion of railroads throughout the South; they were modernized in terms of rail gauge, equipment and standards of service. the Southern network expanded from 11,000 miles (18,000 km) in 1870 to 29,000 miles (47,000 km) in 1890. Railroads helped create a mechanically skilled group of craftsmen and broke the isolation of much of the region. Passengers were few, however, and apart from hauling the cotton crop when it was harvested, there was little freight traffic. The lines were owned and directed overwhelmingly by Northerners, who often had to pay heavy bribes to corrupt politicians for needed legislation.
The Panic of 1873 ended the expansion everywhere in the United States, leaving many Southern lines bankrupt or barely able to pay the interest on their bonds.
Reconstruction was a harsh time for many white Southerners who found themselves without many of the basic rights of citizenship (such as the ability to vote). Reconstruction was also a time when many African Americans began to secure these same rights. With the passage of the 13th Amendment to the Constitution (which outlawed slavery), the 14th Amendment (which granted full U.S. citizenship to African Americans) and the 15th Amendment (which extended the right to vote to black males), African Americans in the South began to enjoy more rights than they had ever had in the past.
A reaction to the defeat and changes in society began immediately, with vigilante groups such as the Ku Klux Klan arising in 1866 as the first line of insurgents. They attacked and killed both freedmen and their white allies. By the 1870s, more organized paramilitary groups, such as the White League and Red Shirts, took part in turning Republicans out of office and barring or intimidating blacks from voting.
The classic history was written by C. Vann Woodward, The Origins of the New South: 1877 -- 1913, which was published in 1951 by Louisiana State University Press. Sheldon Hackney explains:
After the Redeemers took control in the mid-1870s, Jim Crow laws were created to legally enforce racial segregation in public facilities and services. The phrase "separate but equal '', upheld in the 1896 Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson, came to represent the notion that whites and blacks should have access to physically separate but ostensibly equal facilities. It would not be until 1954 that Plessy was overturned in Brown v. Board of Education, and only in the late 1960s was segregation fully repealed by legislation passed following the Civil Rights Movement.
The most extreme white leader was Senator Ben Tillman of South Carolina, who proudly proclaimed in 1900, "We have done our level best (to prevent blacks from voting)... we have scratched our heads to find out how we could eliminate the last one of them. We stuffed ballot boxes. We shot them. We are not ashamed of it. '' With no voting rights and no voice in government, blacks in the South were subjected to a system of segregation and discrimination. Blacks and whites attended separate schools. Blacks could not serve on juries, which meant that they had little if any legal recourse. In Black Boy, an autobiographical account of life during this time, Richard Wright writes about being struck with a bottle and knocked from a moving truck for failing to call a white man "sir ''. Between 1889 and 1922, the NAACP calculates that lynchings reached their worst level in history, with almost 3,500 people, three - fourths of them black men, murdered.
African - Americans responded with two major reactions: the Great Migration and the Civil Rights Movement.
The Great Migration began during World War I, hitting its high point during World War II. During this migration, black people left the racism and lack of opportunities in the South and settled in northern cities like Chicago, where they found work in factories and other sectors of the economy. This migration produced a new sense of independence in the black community and contributed to the vibrant black urban culture seen in the emergence of jazz and the blues from New Orleans and its spread north to Memphis and Chicago.
The migration also empowered the growing Civil Rights Movement. While the Civil Rights Movement existed in all parts of the United States, its focus was against the Jim Crow laws in the South. Most of the major events in the movement occurred in the South, including the Montgomery bus boycott, the Mississippi Freedom Summer, the march on Selma, Alabama, and the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. In addition, some of the most important writings to come out of the movement were written in the South, such as King 's "Letter from Birmingham Jail ''.
As a result of the Civil Rights Laws of 1964 and 1965, all Jim Crow laws across the South were dropped. This change in the South 's racial climate combined with the new industrialization in the region to help usher in what is called the New South.
Agriculture 's share of the labor force by region, 1890:
The South remained heavily rural until World War II. There were only a few scattered cities; small courthouse towns served the farm population. Local politics revolved around the politicians and lawyers based at the courthouse. Mill towns, narrowly focused on textile production or cigarette manufacture, began opening in the Piedmont region, especially in the Carolinas. Racial segregation and outward signs of inequality were everywhere, and rarely were challenged. Blacks who violated the color line were liable to expulsion or lynching. Cotton became even more important than before, even though prices were much lower. White southerners showed a reluctance to move north, or to move to cities, so the number of small farms proliferated, and they became smaller and smaller as the population grew.
Many of the white farmers, and some of the blacks, were tenant farmers who owned their work animals and tools, and rented their land. Others were day laborers or impoverished sharecroppers, who worked under the supervision of the landowner. Sharecropping was a way for landless farmers (both black and white) to earn a living. The landowner provided land, housing, tools and seed, and perhaps a mule, and a local merchant loaned money for food and supplies. At harvest time the sharecropper received a share of the crop (from one - third to one - half), which paid off his debt to the merchant. By the late 1860s white farmers also became sharecroppers. The cropper system was a step below that of the tenant farmer, who rented the land, provided his own tools and mule, and received half the crop. Landowners provided more supervision to sharecroppers, and less or none to tenant farmers.
There was little cash in circulation, since most farmers operated on credit accounts from local merchants, and paid off their debts at cotton harvest time in the fall. Although there were small country churches everywhere, there were only a few dilapidated schools; high schools were available in the cities, which were few in number, but were hard to find in most rural areas. All the Southern high schools combined graduated 66,000 students in 1928. The school terms were shorter in the South, and total spending per student was much lower. Nationwide, the students in elementary and secondary schools attended 140 days of school in 1928, compared to 123 days for white children in the South and 95 for blacks. The national average in 1928 for school expenditures was $70,700 for every 1,000 children aged 5 -- 17. Only Florida reached that level; seven of the eleven Southern states spent under $31,000 per 1000 children. Conditions were marginally better in newer areas, especially in Texas and central Florida, with the deepest poverty in South Carolina, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Arkansas. Hookworm and other diseases sapped the vitality of a large fraction of Southerners.
In the decades after World War II, the old agrarian Southern economy evolved into the "New South '' -- a manufacturing region with strong roots in laissez - faire capitalism. As a result, high - rise buildings began to crowd the skylines of Atlanta, Birmingham, Charlotte, Raleigh - Durham, Houston, Dallas, Nashville, and Little Rock. King Cotton was dethroned. There were 1.5 million cotton farms in 1945, and only 18,600 remained in 2009. The Census stopped counting sharecroppers because they were so few.
The industrialization and modernization of the South picked up speed with the ending of racial segregation in the 1960s. Today, the economy of the South is a diverse mixture of agriculture, light and heavy industry, tourism, and high technology companies, and is becoming increasingly integrated into the global economy. State governments aggressively recruited northern business to the "Sun Belt '', promising more enjoyable weather and recreation, a lower cost of living, an increasingly skilled work force, minimal taxes, weak labor unions, and a business - friendly attitude. With the expansion of jobs in the South, there has been migration of northerners, increasing the population and political influence of southern states. The newcomers displaced the old rural political system built around courthouse cliques. The suburbs became the base of the emerging Republican Party, which became dominant in presidential elections by 1968, and in state politics by the 1990s.
The South urbanized as the cotton base collapsed, especially east of the Mississippi River. Farming was much less important (and the remaining farmers more often specialized in soybeans and cattle, or citrus in Florida). The need for cotton pickers ended with the utilization of picking machines after 1945, and nearly all of the black cotton farmers moved to urban areas, often in the North. Whites, who had been farmers, usually moved to nearby towns. Factories and service industries were opened in those towns for employment.
Millions of Northern retirees moved down for the mild winters. These well - to - do retirees often moved into expensive homes located near the ocean, which, over the years, resulted in increasingly expensive hurricane damages. Tourism became a major industry, especially in venues such as Williamsburg, Virginia, Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, Orlando, Florida, and Branson, Missouri.
Sociologists report that Southern collective identity stems from political, demographic and cultural distinctiveness. Studies have shown that Southerners are more conservative than non-Southerners in several areas including religion, morality, international relations and race relations. In the 21st century, the South remains demographically distinct with higher percentages of blacks, lower percentages of high school graduates, lower housing values, lower household incomes and higher percentages of people in poverty. That, combined with the fact that Southerners continue to maintain strong loyalty to family ties, has led some sociologists to label white Southerners a "quasi-ethnic regional group ''.
Apart from the still - distinctive climate, the living experience in the South increasingly resembles the rest of the nation. The arrival of millions of Northerners (especially in the suburbs and coastal areas) and millions of Hispanics means the introduction of cultural values and social norms not rooted in Southern traditions. Observers conclude that collective identity and Southern distinctiveness are thus declining, particularly when defined against "an earlier South that was somehow more authentic, real, more unified and distinct. '' The process has worked both ways, however, with aspects of Southern culture spreading throughout a greater portion of the rest of the United States in a process termed "Southernization ''.
The South has long been a center of political power in the United States, especially in regard to presidential elections. During the history of the United States, the South has supplied many of the 45 presidents. Virginia specifically was the birthplace of seven of the nation 's first twelve presidents (including four of the first five).
Presidents born in the South and identified with the region include:
One president was born in the South, and is identified both with the South and elsewhere:
Presidents born outside the South, but generally identified with the region:
Presidents born in Southern states, but not primarily identified with that region, include:
This list encompasses members of the Whig Party, Republican Party and the Democratic Party; in addition, Washington, while officially non-partisan, was generally associated with the Federalist Party.
They have also supplied Presidential losers:
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who won chris daughtry's american idol season | American Idol (season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of reality television singing competition American Idol began on January 17, 2006, and concluded on May 24, 2006. Randy Jackson, Paula Abdul and Simon Cowell returned to judge, and Ryan Seacrest returned to host. It is the most successful season to date ratings-wise, and resulted in 18 contestants (including all of the top 10 and a few semifinalists) getting record deals -- nine of them with major labels. It was the first season with a male winner (Taylor Hicks) and a female runner - up (Katharine McPhee), which happened again in seasons 9, 10, 11, 13 and 15. It was also the first season of the series to be aired in high definition.
Auditions were held in seven cities in the summer and fall of 2005. An audition was originally planned for Memphis, Tennessee but that was canceled due to the Hurricane Katrina relief effort that was taking place in the city, and replaced by Las Vegas, Nevada and Greensboro, North Carolina.
Unlike season four, no guest judges were involved during the auditions. The season used the same rules as season four.
One notable auditioner this season was Paula Goodspeed, a fervent fan of Paula Abdul, who auditioned in Austin. In 2008, Goodspeed made headlines when she committed suicide outside Abdul 's home. Abdul later claimed that she had objected beforehand to Goodspeed being at the audition because she knew Goodspeed and had been frightened by her past behavior, but the producers overrode her objection. The producers Ken Warwick and Nigel Lythgoe however denied being aware of her fears or that they would put her in danger.
In Las Vegas, an auditioner Tora Woloshin gained a golden ticket to Hollywood but was disqualified just before she was due to go to Hollywood for unspecified reasons. She later appeared on the first season of X-Factor.
The Hollywood semi-final rounds were held at the Orpheum Theatre in Los Angeles, California consisting of 175 contestants. The first round of semi-finals consisted of solo a cappella performance with each contestant choosing one song out of twelve that were given to each contestant two weeks in advance. Those who did not impress the judges were sent home the following day. After the singles round, the contestants were separated into four groups, with three groups going through (with 44 contestants chosen). In the Pasadena Civic Center, each were individually taken via elevator walking the infamous "mile '' to the judges station where the verdict if they would be chosen or not was announced. Twenty were cut and the final twenty - four (12 men and 12 woman) were selected.
The live show portion of the semifinals began on February 21, 2006, with the names announced on February 15, 2006. There were three live shows each week for the three weeks of the semifinals. There were no format changes from season four which featured 12 male singers and 12 female singers with two of each being eliminated each week.
The semifinalists were announced February 15, 2006. The following are semifinalists who did not reach the finals.
Taylor Hicks is from Birmingham, Alabama. He is gray - haired and performed "A Change Is Gonna Come '' by Sam Cooke at his original audition in Las Vegas. At the first audition, the judges were surprised by his appearance. He performed Bill Withers ' "Ai n't No Sunshine '' in the Hollywood round. He is one of the eight winners in American Idol history to never be in the bottom three. He won the competition on May 24. At 29 years 229 days at the time of the finale, he is the oldest winner in American Idol history.
Katharine McPhee is from Los Angeles, California. Her mother is a vocal coach. She auditioned in San Francisco with Billie Holiday 's "God Bless the Child '', and Randy Jackson said her audition was the best he 'd heard yet that season. In the Hollywood round she performed Dionne Warwick 's "I 'll Never Love This Way Again '', and "I Ca n't Help Myself '' for the group round, "My Funny Valentine '' for the last solo. At the end of the first semifinal round, Simon Cowell said that he had heard four very good singers that evening and that McPhee was the best among them. McPhee was the runner - up on American Idol as announced on the May 24 finale.
Elliott Yamin was born in Los Angeles, California, and grew up in Richmond, Virginia. He started singing at the age of five and did not have any formal training. He auditioned for American Idol in Boston. In the Hollywood week, he performed Rascal Flatts ' Bless the Broken Road for the first solo, The Shoop Shoop Song for the group round. After his first semifinal performance, Simon Cowell said that he was potentially the best male vocalist in American Idol history, reprising his praise on Top 6 week after Yamin 's "A Song for You '', calling it a vocal masterclass; also, in the second round of the semifinals, Randy Jackson gave Yamin a standing ovation after his rendition of "Moody 's Mood for Love ''. Yamin finished in third place in one of the closest outcomes in Idol history where less than 1 % separated the votes of all top three contestants.
Chris Daughtry is a former car service worker from McLeansville, North Carolina. During the audition round, he was profiled as a "Rocker Dad. '' He originally auditioned in Denver with Joe Cocker 's The Letter (originally by The Box Tops). During the Hollywood week, he performed Samantha Sang 's Emotion in the group round. He was eliminated at Top 4 in a surprise result.
Bucky Covington is from Rockingham, North Carolina. He auditioned in Greensboro. He has an identical twin brother named Rocky.
Lisa Tucker was 16 years old at the time of the show, and was the youngest finalist of this season. She is from Anaheim, California, and she auditioned in Denver with Whitney Houston 's One Moment in Time. Simon Cowell called her the "best 16 - year - old '' ever to audition on the show at the time of her original Denver audition. She was also a runner - up on Star Search but lost to Tiffany Evans.
Kevin Covais was 16 years old at the time of the show, and is from Levittown, New York. For his audition in Boston, he sang "You Raise Me Up ''. In the Hollywood round he performed Shai 's If I Ever Fall in Love in the solo. Viewers gave him the nickname "Chicken Little ''.
Melissa McGhee is from Tampa, Florida. She auditioned in Denver, Colorado. She sang "Ca n't Fight the Moonlight '' by LeAnn Rimes for her audition. She had not sung on camera until her first week in the top 24.
A new feature this year, the show now uses a special song to make a tribute to an eliminated contestant 's journey on the show, as opposed to before when various different melodic music compositions were played. This year, the song used for an eliminated contestant 's flashback tribute was "Bad Day '' by Daniel Powter.
On the finale, Carrie Underwood sang "Do n't Forget to Remember Me '' solo along with the song "Through the Rain '' with the 12 finalists. Also, the finalists performed two medleys: one medley was for the female finalists and the other for the male finalists. Several special guests performed with one of the top five Idols: Al Jarreau (Paris Bennett), Live (Chris Daughtry), Meat Loaf (Katharine McPhee), Mary J. Blige (Elliott Yamin) and Toni Braxton (Taylor Hicks). Clay Aiken performed with lookalike auditioner Michael Sandecki, who resembled Aiken c. his 2005 audition. Also, Prince performed without an Idol. Towards the end of the program, the finalists performed "That 's What Friends Are For '' with Dionne Warwick as well as other songs in the Burt Bacharach canon, with Burt Bacharach playing the piano. Several auditioners from the first round returned to accept "Golden Idol '' awards, and to sing. A parody of Brokeback Mountain (though there was no mention of homosexuality) called "Brokenote Mountain, '' featuring a group of three failed auditioners (Layne Johnson, Michael Evans, and Matthew Buckstein) was replayed from the Hollywood round. The trio "The Brokenote Cowboys '' then performed the Waylon Jennings & Willie Nelson song "Mammas Do n't Let Your Babies Grow Up to be Cowboys ''. In a pre-taped segment, finalist Kellie Pickler ate lunch with Wolfgang Puck at his brasserie as a way of making fun of Kellie 's admitted lack of culinary savvy. Finally, just before the results were announced, Hicks and McPhee performed "(I 've Had) The Time of My Life ''.
The chairman of TeleScope Inc., the company which manages the American Idol results, came at the end of the show with the result card. 578 million votes were cast for the season with 63.5 million votes in the finale, and Taylor Hicks was named the winner, the second American Idol winner from the city of Birmingham, Alabama (the first being Ruben Studdard), and the fourth finalist with close ties to the city.
Note: Bottom 2 indicates that the contestant was ' saved ' last. This may or may not indicate his or her actual vote rank.
DialIdol is both the name of a computer program for Microsoft Windows and its associated website that began tracking contestants during season four and sprang to prominence at the start of season five. The program allows users to automatically vote for the American Idol contestants of their choice using their PC 's phone modem. The program then reports back to the main website, which keeps track of the results based on the percentage of calls for each contestant that result in a busy signal. Based on the data received, the website then predicts which contestants may be eliminated or may be in danger of being eliminated. As of May 25, 2006, its predictions for season five were 87 % accurate.
This was the first season in which the free US public service website, Zabasearch.com, started to openly present voting results (starting with the top 12 and onward) that it claims are from Cingular and American Idol. It has experienced controversy over the fact that its results change throughout the day until (and often through) the results show.
American Idol was the top - rated show for the 2005 -- 06 TV season and occupied the top two positions. The number of viewers for its Tuesday episodes averaged 31.17 million and for the Wednesday episodes 30.16 million. It is still the most - watched of all seasons with an overall average number of viewers of 30.6 million per episode. Click on "show '' below to see the rating details.
This is the first season that a majority of finalists have major label recording contracts after Idol. Of them -- Taylor Hicks, Katharine McPhee, Elliott Yamin, Chris Daughtry, and Kellie Pickler are distributed by Sony BMG Music Entertainment; Bucky Covington by Universal Music Group; Ace Young and Mandisa by EMI. One other contestant that did not even make the top 24 (Brooke Barrettsmith) was also picked up by Sony BMG, and Universal also picked up Brianna Taylor who also did not make the top 24. Two finalists have a deal with an independent labels -- Paris Bennett and Lisa Tucker. The remaining two finalists are unsigned -- Kevin Covais, and Melissa McGhee. (Covais, however, has begun an acting career and McGhee has taken part in charity events for Idol Gives Back) Also, six semi-finalists have deals and albums with independent labels -- Ayla Brown, Gedeon McKinney, Heather Cox, Patrick Hall, Will Makar, Stevie Scott and David Radford. In addition, at least one contestant who was cut before the semifinals, Bobby Bullard, has also been signed and recorded with a small label.
Taylor Hicks first post-Idol single, "Do I Make You Proud '', would debut at number one and be certified gold. Hicks ' album, Taylor Hicks, has sold 703,000 copies. He later parted with Arista Records. His follow - up album, "The Distance, '' was released March 10, 2009 on his own record label Modern Whomp Records.
The fifth - season contestant with the most commercial success is fourth - place finisher Chris Daughtry, now lead singer of the band Daughtry. Their eponymous debut album has sold over 5 million copies to date -- surpassing former winners Studdard and Fantasia 's respective two - album totals -- and produced two top - ten singles. The album, which spent two weeks at number one in the US, is also the fastest - selling debut rock album in Soundscan history.
As of November 2008: Runner - up Katharine McPhee 's debut album has sold 374,000 copies; she has two Top 40 Billboard hits. Also notable: sixth - place finisher Kellie Pickler, whose Small Town Girl reached number one on the Billboard Top Country Albums chart and was certified gold. To date it has sold over 815,000 copies. Third - place finisher Elliott Yamin 's eponymous debut album was certified gold and produced a platinum - selling single. Eighth - place finisher Bucky Covington 's self - titled debut album has sold over 400,000 copies and generated a top 20 and two top 10 hits on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart. Ninth - place finisher Mandisa 's True Beauty album earned a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop / Contemporary Gospel Album in 2007.
Season five is the season from the first ten seasons of American Idol with the most number of finalists who have made it onto the Billboard charts.
The compilation album for this season was performed by the top twelve finalists.
In 2006, American Idol also became the most nominated unscripted show ever, and has several nominations in the 2006 Emmy Awards for season five:
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who does the director of the fbi report to | Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation - wikipedia
The Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation is the head of the FBI, the United States ' primary federal law enforcement agency, and is responsible for its day - to - day operations. The FBI Director is appointed for a single 10 - year term by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The FBI is an agency of the Department of Justice. Since the 1920s, the FBI has been supervised by the Department of Justice and the FBI Director has answered to the Attorney General. The Director briefed the President on any issues that arose from within the FBI until the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 was enacted following the September 11 attacks. Since then, the Director reports to the Director of National Intelligence, who in turn reports to the President.
The current Director is Christopher A. Wray, who assumed the role on August 2, 2017 after being confirmed by the U.S. Senate, taking over from acting Director Andrew McCabe after the dismissal of former Director James Comey by President Donald Trump.
The FBI Director is appointed by the President and, since 1972, subject to confirmation by the Senate. J. Edgar Hoover, appointed by President Calvin Coolidge to the predecessor office of Director of the Bureau of Investigation in 1924, was by far the longest - serving Director, holding the position from its establishment under the current title in 1935 until his death in 1972. In 1976, in response to Hoover 's lengthy tenure and during the Watergate era, by an amendment to the 1968 Omnibus Crime Control Act, Congress limited the term of future FBI directors to ten years, "an unusually long tenure that Congress established to insulate the director from political pressure. '' This rule was waived by the Senate for Robert Mueller on July 27, 2011 due to serious security concerns at that time. Since 1976, Directors serve a ten - year term unless they resign, die, or are removed, but in practice, since Hoover, none have served a full ten years, except Mueller who served twelve years with the leave of Congress.
The Director can be removed from office by the President. Since the Director serves "at the pleasure of the President '', the removal from office can be either with or without cause. After removal until a replacement is confirmed by the Senate, the Deputy Director automatically acts in the role. The appointment of the Deputy Director is not a presidential appointment and does not require Senate confirmation. The President can appoint an Interim Director pending Senate confirmation or nomination of permanent Director.
Along with the Deputy Director, the Director is responsible for ensuring that cases and operations are handled correctly. The Director also is in charge of staffing the leadership in any one of the FBI field offices with qualified agents.
When the Bureau of Investigation (BOI) was established in 1908, its head was called the Chief of the Bureau of Investigation. It was changed to the Director of the Bureau of Investigation in the term of William J. Flynn (1919 -- 1921), and to its current name when the BOI was renamed FBI in 1935.
The FBI became an independent service within the Department of Justice in 1935. In the same year, its name was officially changed to the present - day Federal Bureau of Investigation, or FBI, with J. Edgar Hoover receiving the current title of Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation.
* Senate confirmation of nominee was required after 1972.
The line of succession for the Director of the FBI is as follows:
Since the office 's inception, only two Directors have been dismissed: William S. Sessions by President Bill Clinton in 1993, and James Comey by President Donald Trump in 2017. It is accepted that the holder of this post serves at the pleasure of the President.
Just before Bill Clinton was inaugurated as the 42nd President of the United States on January 20, 1993, allegations of ethical improprieties were made against Sessions. A report by outgoing Attorney General William P. Barr presented to the Justice Department that month by the Office of Professional Responsibility included criticisms that he had used an FBI plane to travel to visit his daughter on several occasions, and had a security system installed in his home at government expense. Janet Reno, the 78th Attorney General of the United States, announced that Sessions had exhibited "serious deficiencies in judgment. ''
Although Sessions denied that he had acted improperly, he was pressured to resign in early July, with some suggesting that President Clinton was giving Sessions the chance to step down in a dignified manner. Sessions refused, saying that he had done nothing wrong, and insisted on staying in office until his successor was confirmed. As a result, President Clinton dismissed Sessions on July 19, 1993, five and a half years into a ten - year term. Clinton 's public explanation was that there had been a loss of confidence in Sessions ' leadership, and then - Attorney General Reno recommended the dismissal.
Ronald Kessler 's book, The FBI: Inside the World 's Most Powerful Law Enforcement Agency, led to the dismissal by President Clinton of Sessions as FBI director over his abuses. According to the Washington Post, "A Justice Department official... noted that the original charges against Sessions came not from FBI agents but from a journalist, Ronald Kessler (who uncovered the abuses while writing a book about the FBI, leading to Sessions ' dismissal by President Clinton)... '' The New York Times said Kessler 's FBI book "did indeed trigger bureau and Justice Department investigations into alleged travel and expense abuses (by FBI Director William Sessions, leading to his departure)...
Clinton nominated Louis Freeh to be FBI Director on July 20. Then -- FBI Deputy Director, Floyd I. Clarke, who Sessions suggested had led a coup to force his removal, served as Acting Director until September 1, 1993, when Freeh was sworn in.
On May 9, 2017, President Trump dismissed Comey after the recommendation of United States Attorney General Jeff Sessions and Deputy Attorney General Rod Rosenstein. Rosenstein 's memorandum to Sessions objected to Comey 's conduct in the investigation into Hillary Clinton 's emails. This was contradicted by multiple unnamed sources to news outlets, who said that Trump and high - level officials personally asked for Comey to be fired. Comey was fired after he asked for more money for the investigations into Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections. Many members of Congress, mostly Democrats, expressed concern over the firing and argued that it would put the integrity of the investigation into jeopardy.
Comey 's termination was immediately controversial, even being characterized as corrupt by news commentators. It was compared, by the aforementioned news outlets, to the Saturday Night Massacre, President Richard Nixon 's termination of special prosecutor Archibald Cox, who had been investigating the Watergate scandal, and to the firing of Acting Attorney General Sally Yates in January 2017.
In the dismissal letter Trump stated that Comey had asserted "on three separate occasions that I am not under investigation '' which was later confirmed by Comey to the Senate while under oath. This is disputed by reporting from multiple news agencies with multiple sources. According to the reporting, Trump had been openly talking about firing Mr. Comey for at least a week before his dismissal. Trump and democrat leaders had long questioned Comey 's loyalty and judgment. Moreover, Trump was angry that Comey would not support his claim that President Barack Obama had his campaign offices wiretapped, frustrated when Comey revealed in Senate testimony the breadth of the counterintelligence investigation into Russia 's effort to sway the 2016 U.S. presidential election and that Comey was giving too much attention to the Russia probe and not to internal leaks within the government. On May 8, 2017, he gave Attorney General Jeff Sessions and Deputy Attorney General Rosenstein a directive to explain in writing a case against Comey. That directive was forwarded to Trump as a recommendation to dismiss Comey the following day, which Trump did.
Comey first learned of his termination from television news reports that flashed on screen while he was delivering a speech to agents at the Los Angeles Field Office. Sources said he was surprised and caught off guard by the termination. Comey immediately departed for Washington, D.C., and was forced to cancel his scheduled speech that night at an FBI recruitment event at the Directors Guild of America in Hollywood, California.
In the absence of a Senate - confirmed FBI Director, Deputy Director Andrew McCabe automatically became the Acting Director.
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coca cola advert for the very first time | First Time (Robin Beck song) - wikipedia
"First Time '' is a song recorded by Robin Beck. Her first significant chart hit, it was released in 1988, and was originally recorded for a Coca - Cola commercial in 1987. It was initially released in the United States on January 31, 1988, and subsequently released as a single. The power ballad was released in the UK in October 1988 and climbed to No. 1 and spent three weeks there in November and December 1988, spending 14 weeks in total in the UK Singles Chart.
There were two (completely different) professionally filmed music videos for the single. One is almost exclusively performance footage of Beck and her band, shot in a style used by many hair metal acts of the late 1980s. The other version is a "concept '' video: At the beginning, Beck is seen in her bathroom, applying mascara and checking her hair, then makes a quick phone call. She goes through her apartment with scenes of her with her boyfriend. She looks out of a window before watching television (more scenes of her with her boyfriend). She flips through a magazine on the mantelpiece (more scenes), then makes another phone call. At the end of the video, the doorbell rings. Beck turns the television off and answers the door, but the person behind the door can not be seen.
shipments figures based on certification alone
At that time, in 1988, the song was covered in a Spanish version for the Latin American Coca - Cola campaign by Mexican singer Rocío Banquells, under the title Primera Vez, released on her album En El Alambre. This version became # 1 for several weeks in most of the Spanish language territories. In 1999, Polish singer Kasia Kowalska recorded her version of the song for the Polish Coca - Cola campaign, under the title Chcę zatrzymać ten czas.
In 2003, the song was covered by Unique which achieved minor success in Switzerland.
In 2006, Sunblock, an electronic music group from Sweden recorded a cover of the song with Robin Beck for their second single and it became their second Top 10 hit, charting at # 9 on the UK Singles Chart (see 2006 in British music).
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international covenant on civil and political rights of 1976 | International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights - Wikipedia
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is a multilateral treaty adopted by the United Nations General Assembly with resolution 2200A (XXI) on 16 December 1966, and in force from 23 March 1976 in accordance with Article 49 of the covenant. Article 49 allowed that the covenant will enter into force three months after the date of the deposit of the thirty - fifth instrument of ratification or accession. The covenant commits its parties to respect the civil and political rights of individuals, including the right to life, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, electoral rights and rights to due process and a fair trial. As of February 2017, the Covenant has 171 parties and six more signatories without ratification.
The ICCPR is part of the International Bill of Human Rights, along with the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR).
The ICCPR is monitored by the United Nations Human Rights Committee (a separate body to the United Nations Human Rights Council), which reviews regular reports of States parties on how the rights are being implemented. States must report initially one year after acceding to the Covenant and then whenever the Committee requests (usually every four years). The Committee normally meets in Geneva and normally holds three sessions per year.
The ICCPR has its roots in the same process that led to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. A "Declaration on the Essential Rights of Man '' had been proposed at the 1945 San Francisco Conference which led to the founding of the United Nations, and the Economic and Social Council was given the task of drafting it. Early on in the process, the document was split into a declaration setting forth general principles of human rights, and a convention or covenant containing binding commitments. The former evolved into the UDHR and was adopted on 10 December 1948.
The States Parties to the present Covenant, including those having responsibility for the administration of Non-Self - Governing and Trust Territories, shall promote the realization of the right of self - determination, and shall respect that right, in conformity with the provisions of the Charter of the United Nations.
Drafting continued on the convention, but there remained significant differences between UN members on the relative importance of negative Civil and Political versus positive Economic, Social and Cultural rights. These eventually caused the convention to be split into two separate covenants, "one to contain civil and political rights and the other to contain economic, social and cultural rights. '' The two covenants were to contain as many similar provisions as possible, and be opened for signature simultaneously. Each would also contain an article on the right of all peoples to self - determination.
The first document became the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the second the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The drafts were presented to the UN General Assembly for discussion in 1954, and adopted in 1966. As a result of diplomatic negotiations the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights was adopted shortly before the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Together, the UDHR and the two Covenants are considered to be the foundational human rights texts in the contemporary international system of human rights.
The Covenant follows the structure of the UDHR and ICESCR, with a preamble and fifty - three articles, divided into six parts.
Part 1 (Article 1) recognizes the right of all peoples to self - determination, including the right to "freely determine their political status '', pursue their economic, social and cultural goals, and manage and dispose of their own resources. It recognises a negative right of a people not to be deprived of its means of subsistence, and imposes an obligation on those parties still responsible for non-self governing and trust territories (colonies) to encourage and respect their self - determination.
Part 2 (Articles 2 -- 5) obliges parties to legislate where necessary to give effect to the rights recognised in the Covenant, and to provide an effective legal remedy for any violation of those rights. It also requires the rights be recognised "without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status, '' and to ensure that they are enjoyed equally by women. The rights can only be limited "in time of public emergency which threatens the life of the nation, '' and even then no derogation is permitted from the rights to life, freedom from torture and slavery, the freedom from retrospective law, the right to personhood, and freedom of thought, conscience and religion.
Part 3 (Articles 6 -- 27) lists the rights themselves. These include rights to:
Many of these rights include specific actions which must be undertaken to realise them.
Part 4 (Articles 28 -- 45) governs the establishment and operation of the Human Rights Committee and the reporting and monitoring of the Covenant. It also allows parties to recognise the competence of the Committee to resolve disputes between parties on the implementation of the Covenant (Articles 41 and 42).
Part 5 (Articles 46 -- 47) clarifies that the Covenant shall not be interpreted as interfering with the operation of the United Nations or "the inherent right of all peoples to enjoy and utilize fully and freely their natural wealth and resources ''.
Part 6 (Articles 48 -- 53) governs ratification, entry into force, and amendment of the Covenant.
Article 6 of the Covenant recognises the individual 's "inherent right to life '' and requires it to be protected by law. It is a "supreme right '' from which no derogation can be permitted, and must be interpreted widely. It therefore requires parties to take positive measures to reduce infant mortality and increase life expectancy, as well as forbidding arbitrary killings by security forces.
While Article 6 does not prohibit the death penalty, it restricts its application to the "most serious crimes '' and forbids it to be used on children and pregnant women or in a manner contrary to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. The UN Human Rights Committee interprets the Article as "strongly suggest (ing) that abolition is desirable '', and regards any progress towards abolition of the death penalty as advancing this right. The Second Optional Protocol commits its signatories to the abolition of the death penalty within their borders.
Article 7 prohibits torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment. As with Article 6, it can not be derogated from under any circumstances. The article is now interpreted to impose similar obligations to those required by the United Nations Convention Against Torture, including not just prohibition of torture, but active measures to prevent its use and a prohibition on refoulement. In response to Nazi human experimentation during WW2 this article explicitly includes a prohibition on medical and scientific experimentation without consent.
Article 8 prohibits slavery and enforced servitude in all situations. The article also prohibits forced labour, with exceptions for criminal punishment, military service and civil obligations.
Article 9 recognises the rights to liberty and security of the person. It prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, requires any deprivation of liberty to be according to law, and obliges parties to allow those deprived of their liberty to challenge their imprisonment through the courts. These provisions apply not just to those imprisoned as part of the criminal process, but also to those detained due to mental illness, drug addiction, or for educational or immigration purposes.
Articles 9.3 and 9.4 impose procedural safeguards around arrest, requiring anyone arrested to be promptly informed of the charges against them, and to be brought promptly before a judge. It also restricts the use of pre-trial detention, requiring that it not be ' the general rule '.
Article 10 requires anyone deprived of liberty to be treated with dignity and humanity. This applies not just to prisoners, but also to those detained for immigration purposes or psychiatric care. The right complements the Article 7 prohibition on torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment. The article also imposes specific obligations around criminal justice, requiring prisoners in pretrial detention to be separated from convicted prisoners, and children to be separated from adults. It requires prisons to be focused on reform and rehabilitation rather than punishment.
Article 11 prohibits the use of imprisonment as a punishment for breach of contract.
Article 14 recognizes and protects a right to justice and a fair trial. Article 14.1 establishes the ground rules: everyone must be equal before the courts, and any hearing must take place in open court before a competent, independent and impartial tribunal, with any judgment or ruling made public. Closed hearings are only permitted for reasons of privacy, justice, or national security, and judgments may only be suppressed in divorce cases or to protect the interests of children. These obligations apply to both criminal and civil hearings, and to all courts and tribunals.
The rest of the article imposes specific and detailed obligations around the process of criminal trials in order to protect the rights of the accused and the right to a fair trial. It establishes the Presumption of innocence and forbids double jeopardy. It requires that those convicted of a crime be allowed to appeal to a higher tribunal, and requires victims of a Miscarriage of justice to be compensated. It establishes rights to a speedy trial, to counsel, against self - incrimination, and for the accused to be present and call and examine witnesses.
Article 15 prohibits prosecutions under Ex post facto law and the imposition of retrospective criminal penalties, and requires the imposition of the lesser penalty where criminal sentences have changed between the offence and conviction. But except the criminal according to general principles of law recognized by international community. (jus cogens)
Article 16 requires states to recognize everyone as a person before the law.
Article 12 guarantees freedom of movement, including the right of persons to choose their residence, to leave and return to a country. These rights apply to legal aliens as well as citizens of a state, and can be restricted only where necessary to protect national security, public order or health, and the rights and freedoms of others. The article also recognises a right of people to enter their own country; the Right of return. The Human Rights Committee interprets this right broadly as applying not just to citizens, but also to those stripped of or denied their nationality. They also regard it as near - absolute; "there are few, if any, circumstances in which deprivation of the right to enter one 's own country could be reasonable ''.
Article 13 forbids the arbitrary expulsion of resident aliens and requires such decisions to be able to be appealed and reviewed.
Article 17 mandates the right of privacy. This provision, specifically article 17 (1), protects private adult consensual sexual activity, thereby nullifying prohibitions on homosexual behaviour, however, the wording of this covenant 's marriage right (Article 23) excludes the extrapolation of a same - sex marriage right from this provision. Article 17 also protects people against unlawful attacks to their honor and reputation. Article 17 (2) grants the protection of the Law against such attacks
Article 18 mandates freedom of religion or belief.
Article 19 mandates freedom of expression.
Article 20 mandates sanctions against inciting hatred.
Articles 21 and 22 mandate freedom of association. These provisions guarantee the right to freedom of association, the right to trade unions and also defines the International Labour Organisation.
Article 23 mandates the right of marriage. The wording of this provision neither requires nor prohibits same - sex marriage.
Article 24 mandates special protection, the right to a name, and the right to a nationality for every child.
Article 27 mandates the rights of ethnic, religious and linguistic minority to enjoy their own culture, to profess their own religion, and to use their own language.
Article 3 provides an accessory non-discrimination principle. Accessory in the way that it can not be used independently and can only be relied upon in relation to another right protected by the ICCPR.
In contrast, Article 26 contains a revolutionary norm by providing an autonomous equality principle which is not dependent upon another right under the convention being infringed. This has the effect of widening the scope of the non-discrimination principle beyond the scope of ICCPR.
There are two Optional Protocols to the Covenant. The First Optional Protocol establishes an individual complaints mechanism, allowing individuals to complain to the Human Rights Committee about violations of the Covenant. This has led to the creation of a complex jurisprudence on the interpretation and implementation of the Covenant. As of July 2013, the First Optional Protocol has 116 parties.
The Second Optional Protocol abolishes the death penalty; however, countries were permitted to make a reservation allowing for use of death penalty for the most serious crimes of a military nature, committed during wartime. As of December 2017, the Second Optional Protocol had 85 parties.
A number of parties have made reservations and interpretative declarations to their application of the Covenant.
Argentina will apply the fair trial rights guaranteed in its constitution to the prosecution of those accused of violating the general law of nations.
Australia reserves the right to progressively implement the prison standards of Article 10, to compensate for miscarriages of justice by administrative means rather than through the courts, and interprets the prohibition on racial incitement as being subject to the freedoms of expression, association and assembly. It also declares that its implementation will be effected at each level of its federal system.
Austria reserves the right to continue to exile members of the House of Habsburg, and limits the rights of the accused and the right to a fair trial to those already existing in its legal system.
Bahamas, due to problems with implementation, reserves the right not to compensate for miscarriages of justice.
Bahrain interprets Articles 3 (no sexual discrimination), 18 (freedom of religion) and 23 (family rights) within the context of Islamic Sharia law.
Bangladesh reserves the right to try people in absentia where they are fugitives from justice and declares that resource constraints mean that it can not necessarily segregate prisons or provide counsel for accused persons.
Barbados reserves the right not to provide free counsel for accused persons due to resource constraints.
Belgium interprets the freedoms of speech, assembly and association in a manner consistent with the European Convention on Human Rights. It does not consider itself obliged to ban war propaganda as required by Article 20, and interprets that article in light of the freedom of expression in the UDHR.
Belize reserves the right not to compensate for miscarriages of justice, due to problems with implementation, and does not plan to provide free legal counsel for the same reasons as above. It also refuses to ensure the right to free travel at any time, due to a law requiring those travelling abroad to provide tax clearance certificates.
Congo, as per the Congolese Code of Civil, Commercial, Administrative and Financial Procedure, in matters of private law, decisions or orders emanating from conciliation proceedings may be enforced through imprisonment for debt.
Denmark reserves the right to exclude the press and the public from trials as per its own laws. Reservation is further made to Article 20, paragraph 1. This reservation is in accordance with the vote cast by Denmark in the XVI General Assembly of the United Nations in 1961 when the Danish Delegation, referring to the preceding article concerning freedom of expression, voted against the prohibition against propaganda for war.
The Gambia, as per its constitution, will provide free legal assistance for accused persons charged with capital offences only.
Pakistan, has made several reservations to the articles in the Convention; "the provisions of Articles 3, 6, 7, 18 and 19 shall be so applied to the extent that they are not repugnant to the Provisions of the Constitution of Pakistan and the Sharia laws '', "the provisions of Article 12 shall be so applied as to be in conformity with the Provisions of the Constitution of Pakistan '', "With respect to Article 13, the Government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan reserves its right to apply its law relating to foreigners '', "the provisions of Article 25 shall be so applied to the extent that they are not repugnant to the Provisions of the Constitution of Pakistan '' and the Government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan "does not recognize the competence of the Committee provided for in Article 40 of the Covenant ''.
The United States has made reservations that none of the articles should restrict the right of free speech and association; that the US government may impose capital punishment on any person other than a pregnant woman, including persons below the age of 18; that "cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment or punishment '' refers to those treatments or punishments prohibited by one or more of the fifth, eighth, and fourteenth amendments to the US Constitution; that Paragraph 1, Article 15 will not apply; and that, notwithstanding paragraphs 2 (b) and 3 of Article 10 and paragraph 4 of Article 14, the US government may treat juveniles as adults, and accept volunteers to the military prior to the age of 18. The United States also submitted five "understandings '', and four "declarations ''.
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights has 167 states parties, 67 by signature and ratification, and the remainder by accession or succession. Another five states have signed but have yet to ratify the treaty.
The Covenant is not directly enforceable in Australia, but its provisions support a number of domestic laws, which confer enforceable rights on individuals. For example, Article 17 of the Convention has been implemented by the Australian Privacy Act 1988. Likewise, the Covenant 's equality and anti-discrimination provisions support the federal Disability Discrimination Act 1992. Finally, the Covenant is one of the major sources of ' human rights ' listed in the Human Rights (Parliamentary Scrutiny) Act 2011. This law requires most new legislation and administrative instruments (such as delegated / subordinate legislation) to be tabled in parliament with a statement outlining the proposed law 's compatibility with the listed human rights A Joint Committee on Human Rights scrutinises all new legislation and statements of compatibility. The findings of the Joint Committee are not legally binding.
Legislation also establishes the Australian Human Rights Commission which allows the Australian Human Rights Commission (AHRC) to examine enacted legislation (to suggest remedial enactments), its administration (to suggest avoidance of practices) and general compliance with the covenant which is scheduled to the AHRC legislation.
In Victoria and the Australian Capital Territory, the Convention can be used by a plaintiff or defendant who invokes those jurisdiction 's human rights charters. While the Convention can not be used to overturn a Victorian or ACT law, a Court can issue a ' declaration of incompatibility ' that requires the relevant Attorney - General to respond in Parliament within a set time period. Courts in Victoria and the ACT are also directed by the legislation to interpret the law in a way to give effect to a human right, and new legislation and subordinate legislation must be accompanied by a statement of compatibility. Efforts to implement a similar Charter at the national level have been frustrated and Australia 's Constitution may prevent conferring the ' declaration ' power on federal judges.
Ireland 's use of Special Criminal Courts where juries are replaced by judges and other special procedures apply has been found to not violate the treaty: "In the Committee 's view, trial before courts other than the ordinary courts is not necessarily, per se, a violation of the entitlement to a fair hearing and the facts of the present case do not show that there has been such a violation. ''
New Zealand took measures to give effect to many of the rights contained within it by passing the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act in 1990, and formally incorporated the status of protected person into law through the passing of the Immigration Act 2009.
The United States Senate ratified the ICCPR in 1992, with five reservations, five understandings, and four declarations. Some have noted that with so many reservations, its implementation has little domestic effect. Included in the Senate 's ratification was the declaration that "the provisions of Article 1 through 27 of the Covenant are not self - executing '', and in a Senate Executive Report stated that the declaration was meant to "clarify that the Covenant will not create a private cause of action in U.S. Courts. '' However, "expressed declarations '' do not affect treaties (Igartua - De Le Rosa v. US, 417 F. 3d 145, 190 - 191 (1st Cir. 2005)) Fleming v US (15 - 8425) establishes the ICCPR treaty IS SELF - Executing by legal definition of a self - executing treaty, US reports to UN, DOJ and US Ambassador Hamamoto.
Where a treaty or covenant is not self - executing, and where Congress has not acted to implement the agreement with legislation, no private right of action within the US judicial system is created by ratification. However, the US Federal Government has held that the ICCPR treaty was only ratified "after '' it was determined that all the necessary legislation was in place to provide for domestic effect of law, thereby making the ICCPR treaty self - executing by definition. See all four reports by US to UN regarding the ICCPR treaty. It is also important to emphasize that the "self - executing '' statement was a declaration and the Courts have held that declarations have no effect upon treaty law and the rights of citizens.
As a reservation that is "incompatible with the object and purpose '' of a treaty is void as a matter of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties and international law, there is some issue as to whether the non-self - execution declaration is even legal under domestic law.
Prominent critics in the human rights community, such as Prof. Louis Henkin (non-self - execution declaration incompatible with the Supremacy Clause) and Prof. Jordan Paust ("Rarely has a treaty been so abused '') have denounced the United States ' ratification subject to the non-self - execution declaration as a blatant fraud upon the international community, especially in light of its subsequent failure to conform domestic law to the minimum human rights standards as established in the Covenant and in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights over the last thirty years.
It has been argued that Article 20 (2) of the ICCPR, as well as Article 4 of the ICERD, may be unconstitutional according to Supreme Court precedent, which is the reason behind the Senate reservations.
In 1994, the United Nations ' Human Rights Committee expressed concerns with compliance:
Of particular concern are widely formulated reservations which essentially render ineffective all Covenant rights which would require any change in national law to ensure compliance with Covenant obligations. No real international rights or obligations have thus been accepted. And when there is an absence of provisions to ensure that Covenant rights may be sued on in domestic courts, and, further, a failure to allow individual complaints to be brought to the Committee under the first Optional Protocol, all the essential elements of the Covenant guarantees have been removed.
Indeed, the United States has not accepted a single international obligation required under the Covenant. It has not changed its domestic law to conform with the strictures of the Covenant. Its citizens are not permitted to sue to enforce their basic human rights under the Covenant. It has not ratified the Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture (OPCAT). As such, the Covenant has been rendered ineffective, with the bone of contention being United States officials ' insistence upon preserving a vast web of sovereign, judicial, prosecutorial, and executive branch immunities that often deprives its citizens of the "effective remedy '' under law the Covenant is intended to guarantee.
In 2006, the Human Rights Committee expressed concern over what it interprets as material non-compliance, exhorting the United States to take immediate corrective action:
The Committee notes with concern the restrictive interpretation made by the State party of its obligations under the Covenant, as a result in particular of (a) its position that the Covenant does not apply with respect to individuals under its jurisdiction but outside its territory, nor in time of war, despite the contrary opinions and established jurisprudence of the Committee and the International Court of Justice; (b) its failure to take fully into consideration its obligation under the Covenant not only to respect, but also to ensure the rights prescribed by the Covenant; and (c) its restrictive approach to some substantive provisions of the Covenant, which is not in conformity with the interpretation made by the Committee before and after the State party 's ratification of the Covenant.
The State party should review its approach and interpret the Covenant in good faith, in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to its terms in their context, including subsequent practice, and in the light of its object and purpose. The State party should in particular (a) acknowledge the applicability of the Covenant with respect to individuals under its jurisdiction but outside its territory, as well as its applicability in time of war; (b) take positive steps, when necessary, to ensure the full implementation of all rights prescribed by the Covenant; and (c) consider in good faith the interpretation of the Covenant provided by the Committee pursuant to its mandate.
As of February 2013, the United States is among States scheduled for examination in the 107th (11 -- 28 March 2013) and 109th (14 October -- 1 November 2013) sessions of the Committee.
There are a total of 171 parties to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
Most states in the world are parties to the ICCPR. The following 26 states have not become party to it, but six states have signed the Covenant but not ratified it.
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where did the d day landings sail from | Operation Overlord - wikipedia
Civilian deaths:
Operation Overlord was the codename for the Battle of Normandy, the Allied operation that launched the successful invasion of German - occupied Western Europe during World War II. The operation was launched on 6 June 1944 with the Normandy landings (Operation Neptune, commonly known as D - Day). A 1,200 - plane airborne assault preceded an amphibious assault involving more than 5,000 vessels. Nearly 160,000 troops crossed the English Channel on 6 June, and more than two million Allied troops were in France by the end of August.
The decision to undertake a cross-channel invasion in 1944 was taken at the Trident Conference in Washington in May 1943. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed commander of Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), and General Bernard Montgomery was named as commander of the 21st Army Group, which comprised all the land forces involved in the invasion. The coast of Normandy was chosen as the site of the invasion, with the Americans assigned to land at sectors codenamed Utah and Omaha, the British at Sword and Gold, and the Canadians at Juno. To meet the conditions expected on the Normandy beachhead, special technology was developed, including two artificial ports called Mulberry harbours and an array of specialised tanks nicknamed Hobart 's Funnies. In the months leading up to the invasion, the Allies conducted a substantial military deception, Operation Bodyguard, using both electronic and visual misinformation. This misled the Germans as to the date and location of the main Allied landings. Adolf Hitler placed German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in charge of developing fortifications all along the Atlantic Wall in anticipation of an invasion.
The Allies failed to accomplish their objectives for the first day, but gained a tenuous foothold that they gradually expanded when they captured the port at Cherbourg on 26 June and the city of Caen on 21 July. A failed counterattack by German forces on 8 August left 50,000 soldiers of the 7th Army trapped in the Falaise pocket. The Allies launched an invasion of southern France (code - named Operation Dragoon) on 15 August, and the Liberation of Paris followed on 25 August. German forces retreated across the Seine on 30 August 1944, marking the close of Operation Overlord.
In June 1940 Germany 's leader Adolf Hitler had triumphed in what he called "the most famous victory in history '' -- the fall of France. British craft evacuated to England over 338,000 Allied troops trapped along the northern coast of France (including much of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF)) in the Dunkirk evacuation (27 May to 4 June). British planners reported to Prime Minister Winston Churchill on 4 October that even with the help of other Commonwealth countries and the United States, it would not be possible to regain a foothold in continental Europe in the near future. After the Axis invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin began pressing for a second front in Western Europe. Churchill declined because he felt that even with American help the British did not have adequate forces for such a strike, and he wished to avoid costly frontal assaults such as those that had occurred at the Somme and Passchendaele in World War I. Two tentative plans code - named Operation Roundup and Operation Sledgehammer were put forward for 1942 -- 43, but neither was deemed by the British to be practical or likely to succeed. Instead, the Allies expanded their activity in the Mediterranean, launching the invasion of French North Africa in November 1942, the invasion of Sicily in July 1943, and invading Italy in September. These campaigns provided the troops with valuable experience in amphibious warfare.
Attendees at the Trident Conference in Washington in May 1943 took the decision to launch a cross-Channel invasion within the next year. Churchill favoured making the main Allied thrust into Germany from the Mediterranean theatre, but his American allies, who were providing the bulk of the men and equipment, over-ruled him. British Lieutenant - General Frederick E. Morgan was appointed Chief of Staff, Supreme Allied Commander (COSSAC), to begin detailed planning. The initial plans were constrained by the number of available landing - craft, most of which were already committed in the Mediterranean and in the Pacific. In part because of lessons learned in the Dieppe Raid of 19 August 1942, the Allies decided not to directly assault a heavily defended French seaport in their first landing. The failure at Dieppe also highlighted the need for adequate artillery and air support, particularly close air support, and specialised ships able to travel extremely close to shore. The short operating - range of British aircraft such as the Spitfire and Typhoon greatly limited the number of potential landing - sites, as comprehensive air - support depended upon having planes overhead for as long as possible. Morgan considered four sites for the landings: Brittany, the Cotentin Peninsula, Normandy, and the Pas de Calais. As Brittany and Cotentin are peninsulas, the Germans could have cut off the Allied advance at a relatively narrow isthmus, so these sites were rejected.
Pas de Calais, the closest point in continental Europe to Britain, was the location of launch sites for V - 1 and V - 2 rockets, then still under development. The Germans regarded it as the most likely initial landing zone, and accordingly made it the most heavily fortified region. It offered the Allies few opportunities for expansion, however, as the area is bounded by numerous rivers and canals, whereas landings on a broad front in Normandy would permit simultaneous threats against the port of Cherbourg, coastal ports further west in Brittany, and an overland attack towards Paris and eventually into Germany. Normandy was therefore chosen as the landing site. The most serious drawback of the Normandy coast -- the lack of port facilities -- would be overcome through the development of artificial harbours.
The COSSAC staff planned to begin the invasion on 1 May 1944. The initial draft of the plan was accepted at the Quebec Conference in August 1943. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed commander of SHAEF. General Bernard Montgomery was named commander of the 21st Army Group, which comprised all of the land forces involved in the invasion. On 31 December 1943, Eisenhower and Montgomery first saw the COSSAC plan, which proposed amphibious landings by three divisions, with two more divisions in support. The two generals immediately insisted on expanding the scale of the initial invasion to five divisions, with airborne descents by three additional divisions, to allow operations on a wider front and to speed up the capture of the port at Cherbourg. The need to acquire or produce extra landing craft for the expanded operation meant delaying the invasion until June 1944. Eventually the Allies committed 39 divisions to the Battle of Normandy: 22 American, 12 British, three Canadian, one Polish, and one French, totalling over a million troops all under overall British command.
"Overlord '' was the name assigned to the establishment of a large - scale lodgement on the Continent. The first phase, the amphibious invasion and establishment of a secure foothold, was code - named Operation Neptune. To gain the required air superiority needed to ensure a successful invasion, the Allies launched a bombing campaign (codenamed Operation Pointblank) to target German aircraft - production, fuel supplies, and airfields. Under the Transport Plan, communications infrastructure and road and rail links were bombed to cut off the north of France and to make it more difficult to bring up reinforcements. These attacks were widespread so as to avoid revealing the exact location of the invasion. Elaborate deceptions were planned to prevent the Germans from determining the timing and location of the invasion.
The coastline of Normandy was divided into seventeen sectors, with codenames using a spelling alphabet -- from Able, west of Omaha, to Roger on the east flank of Sword. Eight further sectors were added when the invasion was extended to include Utah on the Cotentin Peninsula. Sectors were further subdivided into beaches identified by the colours Green, Red, and White.
Allied planners envisaged preceding the sea - borne landings with airborne drops: near Caen on the eastern flank to secure the Orne River bridges, and north of Carentan on the western flank. The initial goal was to capture Carentan, Isigny, Bayeux, and Caen. The Americans, assigned to land at Utah and Omaha, were to cut off the Cotentin Peninsula and capture the port facilities at Cherbourg. The British at Sword and Gold, and the Canadians at Juno, were to capture Caen and form a front line from Caumont - l'Éventé to the south - east of Caen in order to protect the American flank, while establishing airfields near Caen. Possession of Caen and its surroundings would give the Anglo - Canadian forces a suitable staging area for a push south to capture the town of Falaise. A secure lodgement would be established and an attempt made to hold all territory captured north of the Avranches - Falaise line during the first three weeks. The Allied armies would then swing left to advance towards the River Seine.
The invasion fleet, led by Admiral Sir Bertram Ramsay, was split into the Western Naval Task Force (under Admiral Alan G Kirk) supporting the American sectors and the Eastern Naval Task Force (under Admiral Sir Philip Vian) in the British and Canadian sectors. The American forces of the First Army, led by Lieutenant General Omar Bradley, comprised VII Corps (Utah) and V Corps (Omaha). On the British side, Lieutenant - General Miles Dempsey commanded the Second Army, under which XXX Corps was assigned to Gold and I Corps to Juno and Sword. Land forces were under the overall command of Montgomery, and air command was assigned to Air Chief Marshal Sir Trafford Leigh - Mallory. The First Canadian Army included personnel and units from Poland, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Other Allied nations also participated.
The Allied Expeditionary Air Force undertook over 3,200 photo - reconnaissance sorties from April 1944 until the start of the invasion. Photos of the coastline were taken at extremely low altitude to show the invaders the terrain, obstacles on the beach, and defensive structures such as bunkers and gun emplacements. To avoid alerting the Germans as to the location of the invasion, this work had to be undertaken over the entire European coastline. Inland terrain, bridges, troop emplacements, and buildings were also photographed, in many cases from several angles, to give the Allies as much information as possible. Members of Combined Operations Pilotage Parties clandestinely prepared detailed harbour maps, including depth soundings.
An appeal for holiday pictures and postcards of Europe announced on the BBC produced over ten million items, some of which proved useful. Information collected by the French resistance helped provide details on Axis troop movements and on construction techniques used by the Germans for bunkers and other defensive installations.
Many German radio messages were encoded using the Enigma machine and other enciphering techniques and the codes were changed frequently. A team of code breakers stationed at Bletchley Park worked to break codes as quickly as possible to provide advance information on German plans and troop movements. British military intelligence code - named this information Ultra intelligence as it could only be provided to the top level of commanders. The Enigma code used by Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt, Oberbefehlshaber West (Supreme Commander West; OB West), commander of the Western Front, was broken by the end of March. German intelligence changed the Enigma codes right after the Allied landings of 6 June but by 17 June the Allies were again consistently able to read them.
In response to the lessons learned at the disastrous Dieppe raid, the Allies developed new technologies to help ensure the success of Overlord. To supplement the preliminary offshore bombardment and aerial assaults, some of the landing craft were equipped with artillery and anti-tank guns to provide close supporting fire. The Allies had decided not to immediately attack any of the heavily protected French ports and two artificial ports, called Mulberry harbours, were designed by COSSAC planners. Each assembly consisted of a floating outer breakwater, inner concrete caissons (called Phoenix breakwaters) and several floating piers. The Mulberry harbours were supplemented by blockship shelters (codenamed "Gooseberries ''). With the expectation that fuel would be difficult or impossible to obtain on the continent, the Allies built a "Pipe - Line Under The Ocean '' (PLUTO). Specially developed pipes 3 inches (7.6 cm) in diameter were to be laid under the Channel from the Isle of Wight to Cherbourg by D - Day plus 18. Technical problems and the delay in capturing Cherbourg meant the pipeline was not operational until 22 September. A second line was laid from Dungeness to Boulogne in late October.
The British military built a series of specialised tanks, nicknamed Hobart 's Funnies, to deal with conditions expected during the Normandy campaign. Developed under the supervision of Major - General Percy Hobart, these were specially modified M4 Sherman and Churchill tanks. Examples include the Sherman Crab tank (equipped with a mine flail), the Churchill Crocodile (a flame - throwing tank), and the Armoured Ramp Carrier, which other tanks could use as a bridge to scale sea - walls or to overcome other obstacles. In some areas, the beaches consisted of a soft clay that could not support the weight of tanks. The "bobbin '' tank would overcome this problem by deploying a roll of matting over the soft surface and leaving the material in place as a route for more conventional tanks. The Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers (AVREs) were modified for many tasks, including laying bridges and firing large charges into pillboxes. The Duplex - Drive tank (DD tank), another design developed by Hobart 's group, was a self - propelled amphibious tank kept afloat using a waterproof canvas screen inflated with compressed air. These tanks were easily swamped, and on D - Day many sank before reaching the shore, especially at Omaha.
In the months leading up to the invasion, the Allies conducted Operation Bodyguard, the overall strategy designed to mislead the Germans as to the date and location of the main Allied landings. Operation Fortitude included Fortitude North, a misinformation campaign using fake radio - traffic to lead the Germans into expecting an attack on Norway, and Fortitude South, a major deception designed to fool the Germans into believing that the landings would take place at Pas de Calais in July. A fictitious First U.S. Army Group was invented, supposedly located in Kent and Sussex under the command of Lieutenant General George S. Patton. The Allies constructed dummy tanks, trucks, and landing craft, and positioned them near the coast. Several military units, including II Canadian Corps and 2nd Canadian Division, moved into the area to bolster the illusion that a large force was gathering there. As well as the broadcast of fake radio - traffic, genuine radio messages from 21st Army Group were first routed to Kent via landline and then broadcast, to give the Germans the impression that most of the Allied troops were stationed there. Patton remained stationed in England until 6 July, thus continuing to deceive the Germans into believing a second attack would take place at Calais. Military and civilian personnel alike were aware of the need for secrecy, and the invasion troops were as much as possible kept isolated, especially in the period immediately before the invasion. One American general was sent back to the United States in disgrace after revealing the invasion date at a party.
The Germans thought they had an extensive network of spies operating in the UK, but in fact all their agents had been captured, and some had become double agents working for the Allies as part of the Double - Cross System. The double agent Juan Pujol García, a Spanish opponent of the Nazis known by the code name "Garbo '', developed over the two years leading up to D - Day a fake network of informants that the Germans believed were collecting intelligence on their behalf. In the months preceding D - Day, Pujol sent hundreds of messages to his superiors in Madrid, messages specially prepared by the British intelligence service to convince the Germans that the attack would come in July at Calais.
Many of the German radar stations on the French coast were destroyed by the RAF in preparation for the landings. On the night before the invasion, in Operation Taxable, No. 617 Squadron RAF dropped strips of "window '', metal foil that caused a radar return mistakenly interpreted by German radar operators as a naval convoy. The illusion was bolstered by a group of small vessels towing barrage balloons. No. 218 Squadron RAF also dropped "window '' near Boulogne - sur - Mer in Operation Glimmer. On the same night, a small group of Special Air Service (SAS) operators deployed dummy paratroopers over Le Havre and Isigny. These dummies led the Germans to believe an additional airborne assault had occurred.
Training exercises for the Overlord landings took place as early as July 1943. As the nearby beach resembled the planned Normandy landing - site, the town of Slapton in Devon, was evacuated in December 1943 and taken over by the armed forces as a site for training exercises that included the use of landing craft and the management of beach obstacles. Near Slapton on 28 April 1944 749 American soldiers and sailors died when German torpedo - boats surprised members of Assault Force "U '' conducting Exercise Tiger. Exercises with landing craft and live ammunition also took place at the Combined Training Centre in Inveraray in Scotland. Naval exercises took place in Northern Ireland, and medical teams in London and elsewhere rehearsed how they would handle the expected waves of casualties. Paratroopers conducted exercises, including a huge demonstration drop on 23 March 1944 observed by Churchill, Eisenhower, and other top officials.
Allied planners considered tactical surprise to be a necessary element of the plan for the landings. Information on the exact date and location of the landings was provided only to the topmost levels of the armed forces. Men were sealed into their marshalling areas at the end of May, with no further communication with the outside world. Troops were briefed using maps that were correct in every detail except for the place names, and most were not told their actual destination until they were already at sea. A news blackout in Britain increased the effectiveness of the deception operations. Travel to and from the Republic of Ireland was banned, and movement within several kilometres of the coast of England restricted.
The invasion planners specified a set of conditions regarding the timing of the invasion, deeming only a few days in each month suitable. A full moon was desirable, as it would provide illumination for aircraft pilots and have the highest tides. The Allies wanted to schedule the landings for shortly before dawn, midway between low and high tide, with the tide coming in. This would improve the visibility of obstacles the enemy had placed on the beach while minimising the amount of time the men had to spend exposed in the open. Specific criteria were also set for wind speed, visibility, and cloud cover. Eisenhower had tentatively selected 5 June as the date for the assault. However, on 4 June, conditions were clearly unsuitable for a landing; high winds and heavy seas made it impossible to launch landing craft, and low clouds would prevent aircraft from finding their targets.
By the evening of 4 June, the Allied meteorological team, headed by Group Captain James Stagg of the Royal Air Force, predicted that the weather would improve sufficiently so that the invasion could go ahead on 6 June. He met Eisenhower and other senior commanders at their headquarters at Southwick House in Hampshire to discuss the situation. General Montgomery and Major General Walter Bedell Smith, Eisenhower 's chief of staff, were eager to launch the invasion. Admiral Bertram Ramsay was prepared to commit his ships, while Air Chief Marshal Trafford Leigh - Mallory expressed concern that the conditions would be unfavourable for Allied aircraft. After much discussion, Eisenhower decided that the invasion should go ahead. Allied control of the Atlantic meant that German meteorologists did not have access to as much information as the Allies on incoming weather patterns. As the Luftwaffe meteorological centre in Paris predicted two weeks of stormy weather, many Wehrmacht commanders left their posts to attend war games in Rennes, and men in many units were given leave. Marshal Erwin Rommel returned to Germany for his wife 's birthday and to meet Hitler to try to get more Panzers.
Had Eisenhower postponed the invasion, the next available period with the right combination of tides (but without the desirable full moon) was two weeks later, from 18 to 20 June. As it happened, during this period the invaders would have encountered a major storm lasting four days, between 19 and 22 June, that would have made the initial landings impossible.
Nazi Germany had at its disposal 50 divisions in France and the Low Countries, with another 18 stationed in Denmark and Norway. Fifteen divisions were in the process of formation in Germany, but there was no strategic reserve. The Calais region was defended by the 15th Army under Generaloberst Hans von Salmuth, and Normandy by the 7th Army commanded by Generaloberst (colonel general) Friedrich Dollmann. Combat losses throughout the war, particularly on the Eastern Front, meant the Germans no longer had a pool of able young men from which to draw. German soldiers were now on average six years older than their Allied counterparts. Many in the Normandy area were Ostlegionen (eastern legions) -- conscripts and "volunteers '' from Turkestan, Russia, Mongolia, and elsewhere. The Wehrmacht had provided them mainly with unreliable captured equipment; they lacked motorised transport. Formations that arrived later, such as the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend, were for the most part younger and far better equipped and trained than the static troops stationed along the coast.
Alarmed by the raids on St Nazaire and Dieppe in 1942, Hitler ordered the construction of fortifications all along the Atlantic coast, from Spain to Norway, to protect against an expected Allied invasion. He envisioned 15,000 emplacements manned by 300,000 troops, but due to shortages, particularly of concrete and manpower, most of the strongpoints were never built. As the expected site of an Allied invasion, Pas de Calais was heavily defended. In the Normandy area the best fortifications were concentrated at the port facilities at Cherbourg and Saint - Malo.
A report by Rundstedt to Hitler in October 1943 regarding the weak defences in France led to the appointment of Rommel to oversee the construction of further fortifications along the expected invasion - front, which stretched from the Netherlands to Cherbourg. Rommel was given command of the newly re-formed Army Group B, which included the 7th Army, the 15th Army, and the forces guarding the Netherlands. Nazi Germany 's tangled command structure made it difficult for Rommel to achieve his task. He was not allowed to give orders to the Organisation Todt, which was commanded by armaments minister Albert Speer, so in some places he had to assign soldiers to do construction work.
Rommel believed that the Normandy coast could be a possible landing point for the invasion, so he ordered the construction of extensive defensive works along that shore. In addition to concrete gun - emplacements at strategic points along the coast, he ordered wooden stakes, metal tripods, mines, and large anti-tank obstacles to be placed on the beach to delay the approach of landing craft and to impede the movement of tanks. Expecting the Allies to land at high tide so that the infantry would spend less time exposed on the beach, he ordered many of these obstacles to be placed at the high - tide mark. Tangles of barbed wire, booby traps, and the removal of ground cover made the approach hazardous for infantry. On Rommel 's order, the number of mines along the coast was tripled. Given the Allied air supremacy (4,029 Allied aircraft assigned to operations in Normandy plus 5,514 aircraft assigned to bombing and defence, versus 570 Luftwaffe planes stationed in France and the Low Countries), booby - trapped stakes known as Rommelspargel (Rommel 's asparagus) were set up in meadows and fields to deter airborne landings.
Rommel, believing that the Germans ' best chance was to stop the invasion at the shore, requested that mobile reserves -- especially tanks -- be stationed as close to the coast as possible. Rundstedt, General Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg (commander of Panzer Group West), and other senior commanders believed that the invasion could not be stopped on the beaches. Geyr argued for a conventional doctrine: keeping the Panzer formations concentrated in a central position around Paris and Rouen and deploying them only when the main Allied beachhead had been identified. Geyr also noted that in the Italian Campaign the armour stationed near the coast had been damaged by naval bombardment. Rommel 's opinion was that because of the overwhelming Allied air superiority, large - scale movement of tanks would not be possible once the invasion was underway. Hitler made the final decision: he left three divisions under Geyr 's command and gave Rommel operational control of three tank - divisions as reserves. Hitler took personal control of four divisions as strategic reserves, not to be used without his direct orders.
You are about to embark upon the Great Crusade, toward which we have striven these many months. The eyes of the world are upon you. The hopes and prayers of liberty - loving people everywhere march with you. In company with our brave Allies and brothers - in - arms on other Fronts, you will bring about the destruction of the German war machine, the elimination of Nazi tyranny over the oppressed peoples of Europe, and security for ourselves in a free world.
By May 1944, 1.5 million American troops had arrived in the United Kingdom. Most were housed in temporary camps in the south - west of England, ready to move across the Channel to the western section of the landing zone. British and Canadian troops were billeted in accommodation further east, spread from Southampton to Newhaven, and even on the east coast for men who would be coming across in later waves. A complex system called Movement Control assured that the men and vehicles left on schedule from twenty departure points. Some men had to board their craft nearly a week before departure. The ships met at a rendezvous point (nicknamed "Piccadilly Circus '') south - east of the Isle of Wight to assemble into convoys to cross the Channel. Minesweepers began clearing lanes on the evening of 5 June, and a thousand bombers left before dawn to attack the coastal defences. Some 1,200 aircraft departed England just before midnight to transport three airborne divisions to their drop zones behind enemy lines several hours before the beach landings. The American 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions were assigned objectives on the Cotentin Peninsula west of Utah. The British 6th Airborne Division was assigned to capture intact the bridges over the Caen Canal and River Orne. The Free French 4th SAS battalion of 538 men was assigned objectives in Brittany (Operation Dingson, Operation Samwest). Some 132,000 men were transported by sea on D - Day, and a further 24,000 came by air. Preliminary naval bombardment commenced at 05: 45 and continued until 06: 25 from five battleships, twenty cruisers, sixty - five destroyers, and two monitors. Infantry began arriving on the beaches at around 06: 30.
The craft bearing the U.S. 4th Infantry Division assaulting Utah were pushed by the current to a spot about 1,800 metres (2,000 yd) south of their intended landing zone. The troops met light resistance, suffering fewer than 200 casualties. Their efforts to push inland fell far short of their targets for the first day, but they were able to advance about 4 miles (6.4 km), making contact with the 101st Airborne Division. The airborne landings west of Utah were not very successful, as only ten per cent of the paratroopers landed in their drop zones. Gathering the men together into fighting units was made difficult by a shortage of radios and by the terrain, with its hedgerows, stone walls and marshes. The 82nd Airborne Division captured its primary objective at Sainte - Mère - Église and worked to protect the western flank. Its failure to capture the river crossings at the River Merderet resulted in a delay in sealing off the Cotentin Peninsula. The 101st Airborne Division helped protect the southern flank and captured the lock on the River Douve at La Barquette, but did not capture the assigned nearby bridges on the first day.
At Pointe du Hoc, the task for the two hundred men of the 2nd Ranger Battalion, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel James Rudder, was to scale the 30 metres (98 ft) cliffs with ropes and ladders to destroy the gun battery located there. While under fire from above, the men scaled the cliff, only to discover that the guns had already been withdrawn. The Rangers located the weapons, unguarded but ready to use, in an orchard some 550 metres (600 yd) south of the point, and disabled them. Under attack, the men at the point became isolated, and some were captured. By dawn on D + 1, Rudder had only 90 men able to fight. Relief did not come until D + 2, when members of the 743rd Tank Battalion arrived.
Omaha, the most heavily defended sector, was assigned to the U.S. 1st Infantry Division, supplemented by troops from the U.S. 29th Infantry Division. They faced the 352nd Infantry Division, rather than the expected single regiment. Strong currents forced many landing craft east of their intended position or delayed them. Casualties were heavier than all the other landings combined, as the men were subjected to fire from the cliffs above. Problems clearing the beach of obstructions led to the beachmaster calling a halt to further landings of vehicles at 08: 30. A group of destroyers arrived around this time to offer supporting artillery fire. Exit from Omaha was possible only via five gullies, and by late morning barely six hundred men had reached the higher ground. By noon, as the artillery fire took its toll and the Germans started to run out of ammunition, the Americans were able to clear some lanes on the beaches. They also started clearing the draws of enemy defences so that vehicles could move off the beach. The tenuous beachhead was expanded over the following days, and the D - Day objectives were accomplished by D + 3.
At Gold, high winds made conditions difficult for the landing craft, and the amphibious DD tanks were landed close to shore or directly on the beach instead of further out as planned. Aerial attacks had failed to hit the Le Hamel strong point, and its 75 mm gun continued to do damage until 16: 00. On the western flank, the 1st Battalion, Hampshire Regiment captured Arromanches (future site of Mulberry "B ''), and contact was made on the eastern flank with the Canadian forces at Juno.
Landings of infantry at Juno were delayed because of rough seas, and the men arrived ahead of their supporting armour, suffering many casualties while disembarking. Most of the offshore bombardment had missed the German defences. In spite of these difficulties, the Canadians quickly cleared the beach and created two exits to the villages above. Delays in taking Bény - sur - Mer led to congestion on the beach, but by nightfall the contiguous Juno and Gold beachheads covered an area 12 miles (19 km) wide and 7 miles (10 km) deep. Casualties at Juno were 961 men.
On Sword, 21 of 25 DD tanks succeeded in getting safely ashore to provide cover for the infantry, who began disembarking at 07: 30. They quickly cleared the beach and created several exits for the tanks. In the windy conditions, the tide came in more quickly than expected, making manoeuvring the armour difficult. The 2nd Battalion, King 's Shropshire Light Infantry advanced on foot to within a few kilometres of Caen, but had to withdraw due to lack of armour support. At 16: 00, the German 21st Panzer Division mounted a counterattack between Sword and Juno and nearly succeeded in reaching the channel. They met stiff resistance from the British 3rd Infantry Division and were soon recalled to assist in the area between Caen and Bayeux.
The first components of the Mulberry harbours were brought across on D + 1 and the structures were in use for unloading by mid-June. One was constructed at Arromanches by the British, the other at Omaha by the Americans. Severe storms on 19 June interrupted the landing of supplies and destroyed the Omaha harbour. The repaired Arromanches harbour was able to receive around 6,000 tons of materiel daily and was in continuous use for the next ten months, but most shipments were brought in over the beaches until the port of Cherbourg was cleared of mines and obstructions on 16 July.
Allied casualties on the first day were at least 10,000, with 4,414 confirmed dead. The Germans lost 1,000 men. The Allied invasion plans had called for the capture of Carentan, St. Lô, Caen, and Bayeux on the first day, with all the beaches (other than Utah), linked with a front line 10 to 16 kilometres (6 to 10 mi) from the beaches; none of these objectives were achieved. The five bridgeheads were not connected until 12 June, by which time the Allies held a front around 97 kilometres (60 mi) long and 24 kilometres (15 mi) deep. Caen, a major objective, was still in German hands at the end of D - Day and would not be completely captured until 21 July. Nearly 160,000 troops crossed the English Channel on 6 June, and more than two million Allied troops were in France by the end of August.
In the western part of the lodgement, US troops were to occupy the Cotentin Peninsula, especially Cherbourg, which would provide the Allies with a deep water harbour. The terrain behind Utah and Omaha was characterised by bocage, with thorny hedgerows on embankments 3 to 4 feet (0.91 to 1.2 m) high with a ditch on either side. Many areas were additionally protected by rifle pits and machine - gun emplacements. Most of the roads were too narrow for tanks. The Germans had flooded the fields behind Utah with sea water for up to 2 miles (3.2 km) from the coast. German forces on the peninsula included the 91st Infantry Division and the 243rd and 709th Static Infantry Divisions. By D + 3 the Allied commanders realised that Cherbourg would not quickly be taken, and decided to cut off the peninsula to prevent any further reinforcements from being brought in. After failed attempts by the inexperienced 90th Infantry Division, Major General J. Lawton Collins, the VII Corps commander, assigned the veteran 9th Infantry Division to the task. They reached the west coast of the Cotentin on 17 June, cutting off Cherbourg. The 9th Division, joined by the 4th and 79th Infantry Divisions, took control of the peninsula in fierce fighting from 19 June; Cherbourg was captured on 26 June. By this time the Germans had destroyed the port facilities, which were not brought back into full operation until September.
Fighting in the Caen area versus the 21st Panzer, the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend and other units soon reached a stalemate. During Operation Perch, XXX Corps attempted to advance south towards Mont Pinçon but soon abandoned the direct approach in favour of a pincer attack to encircle Caen. XXX Corps made a flanking move from Tilly - sur - Seulles towards Villers - Bocage with part of the 7th Armoured Division, while I Corps tried to pass Caen to the east. The attack by I Corps ' attack was quickly halted and XXX Corps briefly captured Villers - Bocage. Advanced elements of the British force were ambushed, initiating a day - long Battle of Villers - Bocage and then the Battle of the Box. The British were forced to withdraw to Tilly - sur - Seulles. After a delay because of storms from 17 -- 23 June, Operation Epsom began on 26 June, an attempt by VIII Corps to swing around and attack Caen from the south - west and establish a bridgehead south of the Odon. Although the operation failed to take Caen, the Germans suffered many tank losses after committing every available Panzer unit to the operation. Rundstedt was dismissed on 1 July and replaced as OB West by Field Marshal Günther von Kluge after remarking that the war was now lost. The northern suburbs of Caen were bombed on the evening of 7 July and then occupied north of the River Orne in Operation Charnwood on 8 -- 9 July. Operation Atlantic and Operation Goodwood captured the rest of Caen and the high ground to the south from 18 -- 21 July by when the city was nearly destroyed. Hitler survived an assassination attempt on 20 July.
After securing territory in the Cotentin Peninsula south as far as Saint - Lô, the U.S. First Army launched Operation Cobra on 25 July and advanced further south to Avranches by 1 August. The British launched Operation Bluecoat on 30 July to secure Vire and the high ground of Mont Pinçon. Lieutenant General George S. Patton 's U.S. Third Army, activated on 1 August, quickly took most of Brittany and territory as far south as the Loire, while the First Army maintained pressure eastward toward Le Mans to protect their flank. By 3 August, Patton and the Third Army were able to leave a small force in Brittany and drive eastward towards the main concentration of German forces south of Caen. Over Kluge 's objections, on 4 August Hitler ordered a counter-offensive (Operation Lüttich) from Vire towards Avranches.
While II Canadian Corps pushed south from Caen toward Falaise in Operation Totalize on 8 August, Bradley and Montgomery realised that there was an opportunity for the bulk of the German forces to be trapped at Falaise. The Third Army continued the encirclement from the south, reaching Alençon on 11August. Although Hitler continued to insist until 14 August that his forces should counter-attack, Kluge and his officers began planning a retreat eastward. The German forces were severely hampered by Hitler 's insistence on making all major decisions himself, which left his forces without orders for periods as long as 24 hours while information was sent back and forth to the Führer 's residence at Obersalzberg in Bavaria. On the evening of 12 August, Patton asked Bradley if his forces should continue northward to close the gap and encircle the German forces. Bradley refused, because Montgomery had already assigned the First Canadian Army to take the territory from the north. The Canadians met heavy resistance and captured Falaise on 16 August. The gap was closed on 21 August, trapping 50,000 German troops but more than a third of the German 7th Army and the remnants of nine of the eleven Panzer divisions had escaped to the east. Montgomery 's decision - making regarding the Falaise Gap was criticised at the time by American commanders, especially Patton, although Bradley was more sympathetic and believed Patton would not have been able to close the gap. The issue has been the subject of much discussion among historians, criticism being levelled at American, British and Canadian forces. Hitler relieved Kluge of his command of OB West on 15 August and replaced him with Field Marshal Walter Model. Kluge committed suicide on 19 August after Hitler became aware of his involvement in the 20 July plot. An invasion in southern France (Operation Dragoon) was launched on 15 August.
The French Resistance in Paris rose against the Germans on 19 August. Eisenhower initially wanted to bypass the city to pursue other targets, but amid reports that the citizens were going hungry and Hitler 's stated intention to destroy it, de Gaulle insisted that it should be taken immediately. French forces of the 2nd Armoured Division under General Philippe Leclerc arrived from the west on 24 August, while the U.S. 4th Infantry Division pressed up from the south. Scattered fighting continued throughout the night, and by the morning of 25 August Paris was liberated.
Operations continued in the British and Canadian sectors until the end of the month. On 25 August, the U.S. 2nd Armored Division fought its way into Elbeuf, making contact with British and Canadian armoured divisions. The 2nd Canadian Infantry Division advanced into the Forêt de la Londe on the morning of 27 August. The area was strongly held; the 4th and 6th Canadian brigades suffered many casualties over the course of three days as the Germans fought a delaying action in terrain well suited to defence. The Germans pulled back on 29 August, withdrawing over the Seine the next day. On the afternoon of 30 August, the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division crossed the Seine near Elbeuf and entered Rouen to a jubilant welcome.
Eisenhower took direct command of all Allied ground forces on 1 September. Concerned about German counter-attacks and the limited materiel arriving in France, he decided to continue operations on a broad front rather than attempting narrow thrusts. The linkup of the Normandy forces with the Allied forces in southern France occurred on 12 September as part of the drive to the Siegfried Line. On 17 September, Montgomery launched Operation Market Garden, an unsuccessful attempt by Anglo - American airborne troops to capture bridges in the Netherlands to allow ground forces to cross the Rhine into Germany. The Allied advance slowed due to German resistance and the lack of supplies (especially fuel). On 16 December the Germans launched the Ardennes Offensive, also known as the Battle of the Bulge, their last major offensive of the war on the Western Front. A series of successful Soviet actions began with the Vistula -- Oder Offensive on 12 January. Hitler committed suicide on 30 April as Soviet troops neared his Führerbunker in Berlin, and Germany surrendered on 7 May 1945.
The Normandy landings were the largest seaborne invasion in history, with nearly 5,000 landing and assault craft, 289 escort vessels, and 277 minesweepers. They hastened the end of the war in Europe, drawing large forces away from the Eastern Front that might otherwise have slowed the Soviet advance. The opening of another front in western Europe was a tremendous psychological blow for Germany 's military, who feared a repetition of the two - front war of World War I. The Normandy landings also heralded the start of the "race for Europe '' between the Soviet forces and the Western powers, which some historians consider to be the start of the Cold War.
Victory in Normandy stemmed from several factors. German preparations along the Atlantic Wall were only partially finished; shortly before D - Day Rommel reported that construction was only 18 per cent complete in some areas as resources were diverted elsewhere. The deceptions undertaken in Operation Fortitude were successful, leaving the Germans obliged to defend a huge stretch of coastline. The Allies achieved and maintained air superiority, which meant that the Germans were unable to make observations of the preparations underway in Britain and were unable to interfere via bomber attacks. Transport infrastructure in France was severely disrupted by Allied bombers and the French Resistance, making it difficult for the Germans to bring up reinforcements and supplies. Much of the opening artillery barrage was off - target or not concentrated enough to have any impact, but the specialised armour worked well except on Omaha, providing close artillery support for the troops as they disembarked onto the beaches. The indecisiveness and overly complicated command structure of the German high command was also a factor in the Allied success.
From D - Day to 21 August, the Allies landed 2,052,299 men in northern France. The cost of the Normandy campaign was high for both sides. Between 6 June and the end of August, the American armies suffered 124,394 casualties, of whom 20,668 were killed. Casualties within the First Canadian and Second British Armies are placed at 83,045: 15,995 killed, 57,996 wounded, and 9,054 missing. Of these, Canadian losses amounted to 18,444, with 5,021 killed in action. The Allied air forces, having flown 480,317 sorties in support of the invasion, lost 4,101 aircraft and 16,714 airmen (8,536 members of the USAAF, and 8,178 flying under the command of the RAF). The Free French SAS paratroopers suffered 77 killed, with 197 wounded and missing. Allied tank losses have been estimated at around 4,000, with losses split evenly between the American and British / Canadian armies. Historians slightly differ on overall casualties during the campaign, with the lowest losses totaling 225,606 and the highest at 226,386.
German forces in France reported losses of 158,930 men between D - Day and 14 August, just before the start of Operation Dragoon in Southern France. In action at the Falaise pocket, 50,000 men were lost, of whom 10,000 were killed and 40,000 captured. Estimates of German losses for the Normandy campaign range from 400,000 (200,000 killed or wounded; 200,000 captured) to 500,000 (290,000 killed or wounded, 210,000 captured) to 530,000.
There are no exact figures regarding German tank losses in Normandy. Approximately 2,300 tanks and assault guns were committed to the battle, of which only 100 to 120 crossed the Seine at the end of the campaign. While German forces reported only 481 tanks destroyed between D - day and 31 July, research conducted by No. 2 Operational Research Section of 21st Army Group indicates that the Allies destroyed around 550 tanks in June and July and another 500 in August, for a total of 1,050 tanks destroyed by enemy action, including 100 destroyed by aircraft. Luftwaffe losses amounted to 2,127 aircraft. By the end of the Normandy campaign, 55 German divisions (42 infantry and 13 panzer) had been rendered combat ineffective; seven of these were disbanded. By September, OB West had only 13 infantry divisions, 3 panzer divisions, and 2 panzer brigades rated as combat effective.
During the liberation of Normandy, between 13,632 and 19,890 French civilians were killed, and more were seriously wounded. In addition to those who died during the campaign, 11,000 to 19,000 Normans are estimated to have been killed during pre-invasion bombing. A total of 70,000 French civilians were killed throughout the course of the war. Land mines and unexploded ordnance continued to inflict casualties upon the Norman population following the end of the campaign.
Prior to the invasion, SHAEF issued instructions (later the basis for the 1954 Hague Convention Protocol I) emphasising the need to limit the destruction to French heritage sites. These sites, named in the Official Civil Affairs Lists of Monuments, were not to be used by troops unless permission was received from the upper echelons of the chain of command. Nevertheless, church spires and other stone buildings throughout the area were damaged or destroyed to prevent them being used by the Germans. Efforts were made to prevent reconstruction workers from using rubble from important ruins to repair roads, and to search for artefacts. The Bayeux tapestry and other important cultural treasures had been stored at the Château de Sourches near Le Mans from the start of the war, and survived intact. The occupying German forces also kept a list of protected buildings, but their intent was to keep the facilities in good condition for use as accommodation by German troops.
Many cities and towns in Normandy were totally devastated by the fighting and bombings. By the end of the Battle of Caen there remained only 8,000 liveable quarters for a population of over 60,000. Of the 18 listed churches in Caen, four were seriously damaged and five were destroyed, along with 66 other listed monuments. In the Calvados department (location of the Normandy beachhead), 76,000 citizens were rendered homeless. Of Caen 's 210 pre-war Jewish population, only one survived the war.
Looting was a concern, with all sides taking part -- the retreating Germans, the invading Allies (for example British forces looting the Musée des Antiquaires in Caen and Château d'Audrieu near Bayeux), and the local French population. Looting was never condoned by Allied forces, and perpetrators were punished.
The beaches of Normandy are still known by their invasion code names. Significant places have plaques, memorials, or small museums, and guide books and maps are available. Some of the German strong points remain preserved; Pointe du Hoc in particular is little changed from 1944. The remains of Mulberry harbour B still sits in the sea at Arromanches. Several large cemeteries in the area serve as the final resting place for many of the Allied and German soldiers killed in the Normandy campaign.
Landing points (W → E):
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bach's brandenburg concerto is an example of | Brandenburg concertos - wikipedia
The Brandenburg Concertos by Johann Sebastian Bach (BWV 1046 -- 1051, original title: Six Concerts à plusieurs instruments) are a collection of six instrumental works presented by Bach to Christian Ludwig, Margrave of Brandenburg - Schwedt, in 1721 (though probably composed earlier). They are widely regarded as some of the best orchestral compositions of the Baroque era.
Bach wrote out the music himself for presentation to the Margrave rather than leaving it to a copyist. While he took the opportunity to revise the music, most likely, it was not freshly composed. He appears to have selected the six pieces from concertos he had composed over a number of years while Kapellmeister at Köthen, and possibly extending back to his employment at Weimar (1708 -- 17).
Bach 's dedication to the Margrave was dated 24 March 1721. Translated from the original French, the first sentence of Bach 's dedication reads:
As I had the good fortune a few years ago to be heard by Your Royal Highness, at Your Highness 's commands, and as I noticed then that Your Highness took some pleasure in the little talents which Heaven has given me for Music, and as in taking Leave of Your Royal Highness, Your Highness deigned to honour me with the command to send Your Highness some pieces of my Composition: I have in accordance with Your Highness 's most gracious orders taken the liberty of rendering my most humble duty to Your Royal Highness with the present Concertos, which I have adapted to several instruments; begging Your Highness most humbly not to judge their imperfection with the rigor of that discriminating and sensitive taste, which everyone knows Him to have for musical works, but rather to take into benign Consideration the profound respect and the most humble obedience which I thus attempt to show Him.
Bach 's reference to his scoring the concertos for "several instruments '' (Concerts avec plusieurs instruments) is an understatement. Bach used the "widest spectrum of orchestral instruments... in daring combinations, '' as Christoph Wolff has commented. "Every one of the six concertos set a precedent in scoring, and every one was to remain without parallel. '' Heinrich Besseler has noted that the overall forces required (leaving aside the first concerto, which was rewritten for a special occasion) tallies exactly with the 17 players Bach had at his disposal in Köthen.
Title on autograph score: Concerto 1 à 2 Corni di Caccia, 3 Hautb: è Bassono, Violino Piccolo concertato, 2 Violini, una Viola col Basso Continuo.
Instrumentation: two corni da caccia (natural horns), three oboes, bassoon, violino piccolo, two violins, viola, cello, basso continuo.
Duration: about 22 minutes
This concerto is the only one in the collection with four movements. The concerto also exists in an alternative version, Sinfonia BWV 1046a, which appears to have been composed during Bach 's years at Weimar. The Sinfonia, which lacks the third movement entirely, and the Polacca from the final movement, appears to have been intended as the opening of the cantata Was mir behagt, ist nur die muntre Jagd, BWV 208. This implies a date of composition possibly as early as the 1713 premiere of the cantata, although it could have been used for a subsequent revival.
The first movement can also be found as the sinfonia of a later cantata Falsche Welt, dir trau ich nicht, BWV 52, but in a version without the piccolo violin that is closer to Sinfonia BWV 1046a. The third movement was used as the opening chorus of the cantata Vereinigte Zwietracht der wechselnden Saiten, BWV 207, where the horns are replaced by trumpets.
Title on autograph score: Concerto 2 à 1 Tromba, 1 Flauto, 1 Hautbois, 1 Violino, concertati, è 2 Violini, 1 Viola è Violone in Ripieno col Violoncello è Basso per il Cembalo.
Concertino: clarino (natural trumpet) in F, recorder (or replaced by flute), oboe, violin
Ripieno: two violins, viola, violone, and basso continuo (including harpsichord)
Duration: about 13 minutes
The trumpet part is still considered one of the most difficult in the entire repertoire, and was originally written for a clarino specialist, almost certainly the court trumpeter in Köthen, Johann Ludwig Schreiber. After clarino skills were lost in the eighteenth century and before the rise of the historically informed performance movement of the late twentieth century, the part was usually played on the valved trumpet.
The clarino does not play in the second movement, as is common practice in baroque era concerti. This is due to its construction, which allows it to play only in major keys. Because concerti often move to a minor key in the second movement, concerti that include the instrument in their first movement and are from the period before the valved trumpet was commonly used usually exclude the trumpet from the second movement.
The first movement of this concerto was chosen as the first musical piece to be played on the Voyager Golden Record, a phonograph record containing a broad sample of Earth 's common sounds, languages, and music sent into outer space with the two Voyager probes. The third movement served as the theme for William F. Buckley, Jr. 's Firing Line.
Title on autograph score: Concerto 3 a tre Violini, tre Viole, è tre Violoncelli col Basso per il Cembalo.
Instrumentation: three violins, three violas, three cellos, and basso continuo (including harpsichord)
Duration: about 10 minutes
The second movement consists of a single measure with the two chords that make up a ' Phrygian half cadence ' and -- although there is no direct evidence to support it -- it was likely that these chords are meant to surround or follow a cadenza improvised by a harpsichord or violin player. Modern performance approaches range from simply playing the cadence with minimal ornamentation (treating it as a sort of "musical semicolon ''), to inserting movements from other works, to cadenzas varying in length from under a minute to over two minutes. Wendy Carlos 's three electronic performances (from Switched - On Bach, Switched - On Brandenburgs, and Switched - On Bach 2000) have second movements that are completely different from each other. Occasionally, the third movement from Bach 's Sonata for Violin and Continuo in G, BWV 1021 (marked Largo) is substituted for the second movement as it contains an identical ' Phrygian cadence ' as the closing chords. The Largo from the Sonata for Violin and Obbligato Harpsichord in G major, BWV 1019, has also been used.
The outer movements use the ritornello form found in many instrumental and vocal works of the time. The first movement can also be found in reworked form as the sinfonia of the cantata Ich liebe den Höchsten von ganzem Gemüte, BWV 174, with the addition of three oboes and two horns.
Title on autograph score: Concerto 4 à Violino Principale, due Fiauti d'Echo, due Violini, una Viola è Violone in Ripieno, Violoncello è Continuo.
Concertino: violin and two recorders (described in the original score as "fiauti d'echo '').
Ripieno: two violins, viola, cello, violone and basso continuo
Duration: about 16 minutes
The violin part in this concerto is extremely virtuosic in the first and third movements. In the second movement, the violin provides a bass when the concertino group plays unaccompanied.
It has been debated what instrument Bach had in mind for the "fiauti d'echo '' parts. Nowadays these are usually played on alto recorders, although traverse flutes are sometimes used instead: it is also theorized Bach 's original intent may have been the flageolet.
Bach adapted the 4th Brandenburg concerto as a harpsichord concerto, BWV 1057.
Title on autograph score: Concerto 5 à une Traversiere, une Violino principale, une Violino è una Viola in ripieno, Violoncello, Violone è Cembalo concertato.
Concertino: harpsichord, violin, flute
Ripieno: violin, viola, cello, violone, (harpsichord)
Duration: about 23 minutes
The harpsichord is both a concertino and a ripieno instrument: in the concertino passages the part is obbligato; in the ripieno passages it has a figured bass part and plays continuo.
This concerto makes use of a popular chamber music ensemble of the time (flute, violin, and harpsichord), which Bach used on its own for the middle movement. It is believed that it was written in 1719, to show off a new harpsichord by Michael Mietke which Bach had brought back from Berlin for the Köthen court. It is also thought that Bach wrote it for a competition at Dresden with the French composer and organist Louis Marchand; in the central movement, Bach uses one of Marchand 's themes. Marchand fled before the competition could take place, apparently scared off in the face of Bach 's great reputation for virtuosity and improvisation.
The concerto is well suited throughout to showing off the qualities of a fine harpsichord and the virtuosity of its player, but especially in the lengthy solo cadenza to the first movement. It seems almost certain that Bach, considered a great organ and harpsichord virtuoso, was the harpsichord soloist at the premiere. Scholars have seen in this work the origins of the solo keyboard concerto as it is the first example of a concerto with a solo keyboard part.
An earlier version, BWV 1050a, exists, and has many small differences from its later cousin, but no major difference in structure or instrumentation. It is dated ca. 1720 -- 21.
Title on autograph score: Concerto 6 à due Viole da Braccio, due Viole da Gamba, Violoncello, Violone e Cembalo.
Instrumentation: two viole da braccio, two viole da gamba, cello, violone, and harpsichord
Duration: about 16 minutes
The absence of violins is unusual. Viola da braccio means the normal viola, and is used here to distinguish it from the viola da gamba. When the work was written in 1721, the viola da gamba was already an old - fashioned instrument: the strong supposition that one viola da gamba part was taken by his employer, Prince Leopold, also points to a likely reason for the concerto 's composition -- Leopold wished to join his Kapellmeister playing music. Other theories speculate that, since the viola da braccio was typically played by a lower socioeconomic class (servants, for example), the work sought to upend the musical status quo by giving an important role to a "lesser '' instrument. This is supported by the knowledge that Bach wished to end his tenure under Prince Leopold. By upsetting the balance of the musical roles, he would be released from his servitude as Kapellmeister and allowed to seek employment elsewhere.
The two violas start the first movement with a vigorous subject in close canon, and as the movement progresses, the other instruments are gradually drawn into the seemingly uninterrupted steady flow of melodic invention which shows the composer 's mastery of polyphony. The two violas da gamba are silent in the second movement, leaving the texture of a trio sonata for two violas and continuo, although the cello has a decorated version of the continuo bass line. In the last movement, the spirit of the gigue underlies everything, as it did in the finale of the fifth concerto.
Because King Frederick William I of Prussia was not a significant patron of the arts, Christian Ludwig seems to have lacked the musicians in his Berlin ensemble to perform the concertos. The full score was left unused in the Margrave 's library until his death in 1734, when it was sold for 24 groschen (as of 2014, about US $24) of silver. The autograph manuscript of the concertos was only rediscovered in the archives of Brandenburg by Siegfried Wilhelm Dehn in 1849; the concertos were first published in the following year.
The manuscript was nearly lost in World War II, when being transported for safekeeping to Prussia by train in the care of a librarian. The train came under aerial bombardment, and the librarian escaped the train to the nearby forest, with the scores hidden under his coat.
In the modern era these works have been performed by orchestras with the string parts each played by a number of players, under the batons of, for example, Karl Richter and Herbert von Karajan. They have also been performed as chamber music, with one instrument per part, especially by (but not limited to) groups using baroque instruments and (sometimes more, sometimes less) historically informed techniques and practice. There is also an arrangement for four - hand piano duet by composer Max Reger.
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who was the founder of the christian church | Christian Church - wikipedia
The Christian Church is an ecclesiological term generally used by Protestants to refer to the whole group of people belonging to the Christianity throughout history. In this understanding, the "Christian Church '' does not refer to a particular Christian denomination but to the body of all believers. Some Christian traditions, however, believe that the term "Christian Church '' or "Church '' applies only to a specific historic Christian body or institution (e.g., the Catholic Church, the Orthodox Church, the Non-Chalcedonian Churches of Oriental Orthodoxy, or the Assyrian Church of the East). The Four Marks of the Church first expressed in the Nicene Creed are that the Church is One (a unified Body of Particular Churches in full Communion of doctrines and faith with each other), Holy (a sanctified and deified Body), Catholic (Universal and containing the fullness of Truth in itself), and Apostolic (its hierarchy, doctrines, and faith can be traced back to the Apostles).
Thus, the majority of Christians globally (particularly of the apostolic churches listed above, as well as some Anglo - Catholics) consider the Christian Church as a visible and institutional "societas perfecta '' enlivened with supernatural grace, while Protestants generally understand the Church to be an invisible reality not identifiable with any specific earthly institution, denomination, or network of affiliated churches. Others equate the Church with particular groups that share certain essential elements of doctrine and practice, though divided on other points of doctrine and government (such as the branch theory as taught by some Anglicans).
Most English translations of the New Testament generally use the word "church '' as a translation of the Ancient Greek term "ἐκκλησία '' (transliterated as "ecclesia '') found in the original Greek texts, which generally meant an "assembly ''. This term appears in two verses of the Gospel of Matthew, 24 verses of the Acts of the Apostles, 58 verses of the Pauline Epistles (including the earliest instances of its use in relation to a Christian body), two verses of the Letter to the Hebrews, one verse of the Epistle of James, three verses of the Third Epistle of John, and 19 verses of the Book of Revelation. In total, ἐκκλησία appears in the New Testament text 114 times, although not every instance is a technical reference to the church.
In the New Testament, the term ἐκκλησία is used for local communities as well as in a universal sense to mean all believers. Traditionally, only orthodox believers are considered part of the true church, but convictions of what is orthodox have long varied, as many churches (not only the ones officially using the term "Orthodox '' in their names) consider themselves to be orthodox and other Christians to be heterodox.
The Greek word ekklēsia, literally "called out '' or "called forth '' and commonly used to indicate a group of individuals called to gather for some function, in particular an assembly of the citizens of a city, as in Acts 19: 32 - 41, is the New Testament term referring to the Christian Church (either a particular local group or the whole body of the faithful). In the Septuagint, the Greek word "ἐκκλησία '' is used to translate the Hebrew "קהל '' (qahal). Most Romance and Celtic languages use derivations of this word, either inherited or borrowed from the Latin form ecclesia.
The English language word "church '' is from the Old English word cirice, derived from West Germanic * kirika, which in turn comes from the Greek κυριακή kuriakē, meaning "of the Lord '' (possessive form of κύριος kurios "ruler '' or "lord ''). Kuriakē in the sense of "church '' is most likely a shortening of κυριακὴ οἰκία kuriakē oikia ("house of the Lord '') or ἐκκλησία κυριακή ekklēsia kuriakē ("congregation of the Lord ''). Christian churches were sometimes called κυριακόν kuriakon (adjective meaning "of the Lord '') in Greek starting in the 4th century, but ekklēsia and βασιλική basilikē were more common.
The word is one of many direct Greek - to - Germanic loans of Christian terminology, via the Goths. The Slavic terms for "church '' (Old Church Slavonic црькꙑ (crĭky), Russian церковь (cerkov '), Slovenian cerkev) are via the Old High German cognate chirihha.
The Christian Church originated in Roman Judea in the first century AD, founded on the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, who first gathered disciples. Those disciples later became known as "Christians ''; according to Scripture, Jesus commanded them to spread his teachings to all the world. For most Christians, the holiday of Pentecost (an event that occurred after Jesus ' ascension to Heaven) represents the birthday of the Church, signified by the descent of the Holy Spirit on gathered disciples. The leadership of the Christian Church began with the apostles.
Springing out of Second Temple Judaism, from Christianity 's earliest days, Christians accepted non-Jews (Gentiles) without requiring them to fully adopt Jewish customs (such as circumcision). The parallels in the Jewish faith are the Proselytes, Godfearers, and Noahide Law, see also Biblical law in Christianity. Some think that conflict with Jewish religious authorities quickly led to the expulsion of the Christians from the synagogues in Jerusalem (see also Council of Jamnia and List of events in early Christianity).
The Church gradually spread throughout the Roman Empire and beyond, gaining major establishments in cities such as Jerusalem, Antioch, and Edessa. It also became a widely persecuted religion. It was condemned by the Jewish authorities as a heresy (see also Rejection of Jesus). The Roman authorities persecuted it because, like Judaism, its monotheistic teachings were fundamentally foreign to the polytheistic traditions of the ancient world and a challenge to the imperial cult. The Church grew rapidly until finally legalized and then promoted by Emperors Constantine and Theodosius I in the 4th century as the state church of the Roman Empire.
Already in the 2nd century, Christians denounced teachings that they saw as heresies, especially Gnosticism but also Montanism. Ignatius of Antioch at the beginning of that century and Irenaeus at the end saw union with the bishops as the test of correct Christian faith. After legalization of the Church in the 4th century, the debate between Arianism and Trinitarianism, with the emperors favouring now one side now the other, was a major controversy.
In using the word ἐκκλησία (ekklēsia), early Christians were employing a term that, while it designated the assembly of a Greek city - state, in which only citizens could participate, was traditionally used by Greek - speaking Jews to speak of Israel, the people of God, and that appeared in the Septuagint in the sense of an assembly gathered for religious reasons, often for a liturgy; in that translation ἐκκλησία stood for the Hebrew word קהל (qahal), which however it also rendered as συναγωγή (synagōgē, "synagogue ''), the two Greek words being largely synonymous until Christians distinguished them more clearly.
The term ἐκκλησία appears in only two verses of the Gospels, in both cases in the Gospel of Matthew. When Jesus says to Simon Peter, "You are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church '', the church is the community instituted by Christ, but in the other passage the church is the local community to which one belongs: "If he refuses to listen to them, tell it to the church. ''
The term is used much more frequently in other parts of the New Testament, designating, as in the Gospel of Matthew, either an individual local community or all of them collectively. Even passages that do not use the term ἐκκλησία may refer to the church with other expressions, as in the first 14 chapters of the Epistle to the Romans, in which ἐκκλησία is totally absent but which repeatedly uses the cognate word κλήτοι (klētoi, "called ''). The church may be referred to also through images traditionally employed in the Bible to speak of the people of God, such as the image of the vineyard used particularly in the Gospel of John.
The New Testament never uses the adjectives "catholic '' or "universal '' with reference to the church, but does indicate that the local communities are one church, that Christians must always seek to be in concord, that the Gospel must extend to the ends of the earth and to all nations, that the church is open to all peoples and must not be divided, etc.
The first recorded application of "catholic '' or "universal '' to the church is by Ignatius of Antioch in about 107 in his Epistle to the Smyrnaeans, chapter VIII. "Wherever the bishop appears, there let the people be; as wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church. ''
Church Fathers like Ignatius of Antioch, Irenaeus, Tertullian and Cyprian held to the view that the Christian Church was a visible entity, not an invisible body of believers.
On February 27, 380, the Roman Empire officially adopted the Trinitarian version of Christianity as the state church of the Roman Empire. Prior to this date, Constantius II (337 - 361) and Valens (364 - 378) had personally favored Arian or Semi-Arian forms of Christianity, but Valens ' successor Theodosius I supported the Trinitarian doctrine as expounded in the Nicene Creed from the 1st Council of Nicea.
On this date, Theodosius I decreed that only the followers of Trinitarian Christianity were entitled to be referred to as Catholic Christians, while all others were to be considered to be heretics, which was considered illegal. In 385, this new legal situation resulted, in the first case of many to come, in the capital punishment of a heretic, namely Priscillian, condemned to death, with several of his followers, by a civil tribunal for the crime of magic. In the centuries of state - sponsored Christianity that followed, pagans and "heretical '' Christians were routinely persecuted by the Empire and the many kingdoms and countries that later occupied the place of the Empire, but some Germanic tribes remained Arian well into the Middle Ages (see also Christendom).
The Church within the Roman Empire was organized under metropolitan sees, with five rising to particular prominence and forming the basis for the Pentarchy proposed by Justinian I. Of these five, one was in the West (Rome) and the rest in the East (Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria).
Even after the split of the Roman Empire the Church remained a relatively united institution (apart from Oriental Orthodoxy and some other groups which separated from the rest of the Church earlier). The Church came to be a central and defining institution of the Empire, especially in the East or Byzantine Empire, where Constantinople came to be seen as the center of the Christian world, owing in great part to its economic and political power.
Once the Western Empire fell to Germanic incursions in the 5th century, the (Roman) Church became for centuries the primary link to Roman civilization for medieval Western Europe and an important channel of influence in the West for the Eastern Roman, or Byzantine, emperors. While, in the West, the so - called orthodox Church competed against the Arian Christian and pagan faiths of the Germanic rulers and spread outside what had been the Empire to Ireland, Germany, Scandinavia, and the western Slavs, in the East Christianity spread to the Slavs in what is now Russia, south - central and eastern Europe. The reign of Charlemagne in Western Europe is particularly noted for bringing the last major Western Arian tribes into communion with Rome, in part through conquest and forced conversion.
Starting in the 7th century the Islamic Caliphates rose and gradually began to conquer larger and larger areas of the Christian world. Excepting North Africa and most of Spain, northern and western Europe escaped largely unscathed by Islamic expansion, in great part because richer Constantinople and its empire acted as a magnet for the onslaught. The challenge presented by the Muslims would help to solidify the religious identity of eastern Christians even as it gradually weakened the Eastern Empire. Even in the Muslim World, the Church survived (e.g., the modern Copts, Maronites, and others) albeit at times with great difficulty.
Although there had long been frictions between the Bishop of Rome (e.g. the patriarch of the Catholic Church proper) and the eastern patriarchs within the Byzantine Empire, Rome 's changing allegiance from Constantinople to the Frankish king Charlemagne set the Church on a course towards separation. The political and theological divisions would grow until Rome and the East excommunicated each other in the 11th century, ultimately leading to the division of the Church into the Western (Catholic) and Eastern (Eastern Orthodox) Churches. In 1448, not long before the Byzantine Empire collapsed, the Russian Church gained independence from the Patriarch of Constantinople.
As a result of the redevelopment of Western Europe, and the gradual fall of the Eastern Roman Empire to the Arabs and Turks (helped by warfare against Eastern Christians), the final Fall of Constantinople in 1453 resulted in Eastern scholars fleeing the Moslem hordes bringing ancient manuscripts to the West, which was a factor in the beginning of the period of the Western Renaissance there. Rome was seen by the Western Church as Christianity 's heartland. Some Eastern churches even broke with Eastern Orthodoxy and entered into communion with Rome (the "Uniate '' Eastern Catholic Churches).
The changes brought on by the Renaissance eventually led to the Protestant Reformation during which the Protestant Lutheran and the Reformed followers of Calvin, Hus, Zwingli, Melancthon, Knox, and others split from the Catholic Church. At this time, a series of non-theological disputes also led to the English Reformation which led to the independence of the Church of England. Then, during the Age of Exploration and the Age of Imperialism, Western Europe spread the Catholic Church and the Protestant and Reformed churches around the world, especially in the Americas. These developments in turn have led to Christianity being the largest religion in the world today.
The Catholic Church teaches in its doctrine that it is the original church founded by Christ on the Apostles in the 1st century AD. The papal encyclical Mystici corporis (Pope Pius XII, 1943), expresses the dogmatic ecclesiology of the Catholic Church thus: "If we would define and describe this true Church of Jesus Christ -- which is the One, Holy, Catholic, Apostolic, Roman Church -- we shall find no expression more noble, more sublime, or more divine, than the phrase which calls it ' the Mystical Body of Jesus Christ '. '' The Second Vatican Council 's dogmatic constitution, Lumen gentium (1964), further declares that "the one Church of Christ which in the Creed is professed as one, holy, catholic and apostolic,... constituted and organized in the world as a society, subsists in the Catholic Church, which is governed by the successor of Peter and by the Bishops in communion with him ''. Likewise, the encyclical of Pope Pius IX, Singulari Quidem, states in a similar vein, "There is only one true, holy, Catholic Church, which is the Apostolic Roman Church. There is only one See founded on Peter by the word of the Lord... Outside of the Church, no one can hope for life or salvation unless he is excused through ignorance beyond his control. '' It is also a common theme in Catholic devotional and catechetical literature: "The Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church is the only flock of which Jesus Christ, the Son of God, is the only Shepherd. '' (Catholic Book of Prayers, Pg. 236, "One Flock, One Shepherd '')
A 2007 declaration of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith clarified that, in this passage, "' subsistence ' means this perduring, historical continuity and the permanence of all the elements instituted by Christ in the Catholic Church, in which the Church of Christ is concretely found on this earth '', and acknowledged that grace can be operative within religious communities separated from the Catholic Church due to some "elements of sanctification and truth '' within them, but also added "Nevertheless, the word ' subsists ' can only be attributed to the Catholic Church alone precisely because it refers to the mark of unity that we profess in the symbols of the faith (I believe... in the ' one ' Church); and this ' one ' Church subsists in the Catholic Church. ''
The Catholic Church teaches that only corporate bodies of Christians led by bishops with valid holy orders can be recognized as "churches '' in the proper sense. In Catholic documents, communities without such bishops are formally called ecclesial communities.
The term orthodox is generally used to distinguish the faith or beliefs of the "true Church '' from other doctrines which disagree, traditionally referred to as heresy.
The Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodox Church each claim to be the original Christian Church. The Eastern Orthodox Church bases its claim primarily on its assertion that it holds to traditions and beliefs of the original Christian Church. It also states that four out of the five sees of the Pentarchy (excluding Rome) are still a part of it. The Oriental Orthodox churches ' claims are similar to those of the Eastern Orthodox Church. They never adopted the theory of the Nature of God, which was formulated later than the break that followed the Council of Chalcedon.
This concept of "orthodoxy '' began to take on particular significance during the reign of the Roman Emperor Constantine I, the first to actively promote Christianity. Constantine convened the first Ecumenical Council, the Council of Nicea, which attempted to provide the first universal creed of the Christian faith.
The major issue of this and other councils during the 4th century was the christological debate between Arianism and Trinitarianism. Trinitarianism is the official doctrine of the Catholic Church and is strongly associated with the term "orthodoxy '', although some modern non-trinitarian churches dispute this usage.
Since the Protestant Reformation, most Protestant denominations interpret "catholic '', especially in its creedal context, as referring to the Protestant concept of an eternal and invisible church of Christ and the Elect as referenced in the Bible in phrases such as "body of Christ '' and "great cloud of witnesses ''. This Protestant interpretation of the words "one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church '' in the Nicene Creed identifies exclusively with the Church Triumphant -- the church that exists "in heaven '' or in eternity as opposed to the Church Militant -- the communion of the faithful here on Earth. They view this understanding of "catholic '' -- often but not always written with a lower - case "c '' -- as necessarily distinct from any concrete expression in an institutional church.
Anglicans generally understand their tradition as a branch of the historical "Catholic Church '' and as a via media ("middle way '') between traditions. The initial use of the phrase was by John Henry Newman in the 19th century, placing Anglicanism as a via media between Rome and Reform - between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism, although Newman later converted to the Catholic Church.
The term "orthodoxy '' or "orthodox faith '', with a lower - case O and thus distinguished from the term Orthodox Church, have been used to distinguish the "true church '' from supposedly heretical groups. The term became especially prominent in referring to the doctrine of the Nicene Creed and, in historical contexts, is often still used to distinguish this first "official '' doctrine from others.
The "Body of Christ '' (cf. 1Cor 12: 27) and "Bride of Christ '' (cf. Rev 21: 9; Eph 5: 22 - 33). These terms are used to refer to the whole community of Christians seen as interdependent in a single entity headed by Jesus Christ.
The terms "Churches Militant, Penitent, and Triumphant '' (Latin: Ecclesia Militans and Ecclesia Triumphans), taken together, are used to express the concept of a united Church that extends beyond the earthly realm into Heaven. The term Church Militant comprises all living Christians while Church Triumphant comprises those in Heaven. Related is the "Church Suffering '' or "Church Expectant '', a Catholic concept encompassing those Christians in Purgatory, no longer part of the Church Militant and not yet part of the Church Triumphant.
The communion of saints (Latin: communio sanctorum) is the spiritual union of the members of the Christian Church, living and the dead. It is a union in faith and prayer that binds all Christians regardless of geographical distance or separation by death. In Catholic theology, this union encompasses the Church Militant, the Church Triumphant, and the Church Suffering.
"Apostolic succession '' is a doctrine of the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Churches, the Oriental Orthodox churches, the Anglican Communion, and others. The doctrine asserts that the bishops of the "true Church '' enjoy the favor or grace of God as a result of legitimate and unbroken sacramental succession from Jesus ' apostles. According to this doctrine, modern bishops, therefore, must be viewed as part of an unbroken line of leadership in succession from the original apostles: though they do not have the authority and powers granted uniquely to the apostles, they are the apostles ' successors in governing the Church.
Protestants too see the authority given to the apostles as unique, proper to the apostles alone, to the extent that they generally reject the idea of a succession of bishops to the apostles in governing the Church. Their view of ecclesiastical authority is accordingly different.
The phrase "One, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church '' appears in the Nicene Creed (μίαν, ἁγίαν, καθολικὴν καὶ ἀποστολικὴν Ἐκκλησίαν) and, in part, in the Apostles ' Creed ("the holy catholic church '', sanctam Ecclesiam catholicam, which in Greek would be: ἁγίαν καθολικὴν Ἐκκλησίαν). The phrase is intended to set forth the four marks, or identifying signs, of the Christian Church -- unity, holiness, universality, and apostolicity -- and is based on the premise that all true Christians form a single united group founded by the apostles.
The word "catholic '' is derived from the Greek adjective καθολικός pronounced katholikos, which means "general '' or "universal ''. Applied to the Church, it implies a calling to spread the faith throughout the whole world and to all ages. It is also thought of as implying that the Church is endowed with all the means of salvation for its members. In this sense the Church is taken by Christian theology to refer to the single, universal community of faithful. Baptism and communion signifies membership of the Church.
Excommunication is expulsion from the visible community of the Church, and is a remedial denial of the sacraments to a baptized Christian that does not invalidate that Christian 's baptism. This can be traced back to the New Testament and to Jesus himself: Matthew 18: 15 - 18, Matthew 16: 18 - 19, Acts 8: 18 - 24, Galatians 1: 6 - 9, 2 Thessalonians 3: 6 - 15, 1 Corinthians 5, 2 Corinthians 2: 5 - 8, 1 Timothy 1: 18 - 20, Titus 3: 10, 3 John 9 - 11, Jude 8 - 23, John 15: 6, 1 Corinthians 5: 5.
Saint Ignatius of Antioch, the earliest known writer to use the phrase "the catholic church '', excluded from the Church heterodox groups whose teaching and practice conflicted with those of the bishops of the Church, and considered that they were not really Christians. In keeping with this idea, many churches and communions consider that those whom they judge to be in a state of heresy or schism from their church or communion are not part of the catholic Church. This is the view of the Catholic, Oriental Orthodox, and Eastern Orthodox churches.
The Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Church, and the Catholic Church each regard themselves as the one true and unique church of Christ, and claim to be not just a Christian church but the original church founded by Christ, preserving unbroken the original teaching and sacraments. The Catholic Church teaches that "the one Church of Christ, as a society constituted and organized in the world, subsists in the Catholic Church, governed by the Successor of Peter and the bishops in communion with him. Only through this Church can one obtain the fullness of the means of salvation since the Lord has entrusted all the blessings of the New Covenant to the apostolic college alone whose head is Peter. ''
Similarly, the Eastern Orthodox Church believes it is "the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, founded by Jesus Christ and His apostles. It is organically and historically the same Church that came fully into being at Pentecost. '' They see the members of other churches as linked in only an imperfect way with the one true Church, recognising Protestants not as churches but as ecclesial or specific faith believing communities.
Many other Christian groups take the view that all denominations are part of a symbolic and global Christian church which is a body bound by a common faith if not a common administration or tradition. Like the Catholic Church, the Orthodox Church, and some others have always referred to themselves as the Catholic church. Oriental Orthodoxy shares this view, seeing the Churches of the Oriental Orthodox communion as constituting the one true Church. In the West the term Catholic has come to be most commonly associated with the Catholic Church because of its size and influence in the West, and because that is historically its name (although in formal contexts most other churches still reject this naming, because the title "Catholic Church '' is so linked with the notion of being the one true church).
Many Protestants believe that the Christian Church, as described in the Bible, has a twofold character that can be described as the visible and invisible church.
In this view, the church invisible consists of all those from every time and place who are vitally united to Christ through regeneration and salvation and who will be eternally united to Jesus Christ in eternal life. The universal, invisible church refers to the "invisible '' body of the elect who are known only to God, and contrasts with the "visible church '' -- that is, the institutional body on earth which preaches the gospel and administers the sacraments. Every member of the invisible church is considered saved, while the visible church contains some individuals who are saved and others who are unsaved. This concept has been attributed to St Augustine of Hippo as part of his refutation of the Donatist sect, but others question whether Augustine really held to some form of an "invisible true Church '' concept. Catholics and Eastern Orthodox see this dual ecclesiology as semi-Donatism and a deviation from historic teaching.
The church visible, in this same view, consists of all those who visibly join themselves to a profession of faith and gathering together to know and serve the head of the church, Jesus Christ. It exists globally in all who identify themselves as Christians and locally in particular places where believers gather for the worship of God. The visible church may also refer to an association of particular churches from multiple locations who unite themselves under a common charter and set of governmental principles. The church in the visible sense is often governed by office - bearers carrying titles such as minister, pastor, teacher, elder, and deacon.
For the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, making a real distinction between "the heavenly and invisible Church, alone true and absolute '' and "the earthly Church (or rather "the churches ''), imperfect and relative '' is a "Nestorian ecclesiology '' and is thus deemed by both as heretical.
Catholic theology reacted against the Protestant concept of a "purely '' invisible church by stressing the visible aspect of the church founded by Christ; but in the 20th century the Catholic Church has placed more stress on the interior life of the church as a supernatural organism. In an encyclical, Pope Pius XII stated that the Catholic Church is the "Mystical Body of Christ ''. This encyclical rejected two extreme views of the church:
Although the juridical principles, on which the Church rests and is established, derive from the divine constitution given to it by Christ and contribute to the attaining of its supernatural end, nevertheless that which lifts the Society of Christians far above the whole natural order is the Spirit of our Redeemer who penetrates and fills every part of the Church.
Major forms of church government include episcopal governance (Anglican, Catholic, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy), presbyterian governance, and congregational governance (Baptist, some Pentecostal, Congregationalist, charismatic, and other Protestant denominations). Before the Protestant Reformation, church leaders (the bishops) were universally understood to gain their authority through apostolic succession via the Sacrament of Ordination.
Christian scriptures use a wide range of metaphors to describe the Church. These include:
Today there is a wide diversity of Christian groups, with a variety of different doctrines and traditions. These controversies between the various branches of Christianity naturally include significant differences in their respective ecclesiologies.
A denomination in Christianity is a generic term for a distinct religious body identified by traits such as a common name, structure, leadership, or doctrine. Individual bodies, however, may use alternative terms to describe themselves, such as "church '' or "fellowship ''. Divisions between one group and another are defined by doctrine and church authority; issues such as the nature of Jesus, the authority of apostolic succession, eschatology, and papal primacy often separate one denomination from another. Groups of denominations often sharing broadly similar beliefs, practices, and historical ties are known as branches of Christianity.
Individual Christian groups vary widely in the degree to which they recognize one another. Several groups claim to be the direct and sole authentic successor the church founded by Jesus Christ in the 1st century AD. Others, however, believe in denominationalism, where some or all Christian groups are legitimate churches of the same religion regardless of their distinguishing labels, beliefs, and practices. Because of this concept, some Christian bodies reject the term "denomination '' to describe themselves, to avoid implying equivalency with other churches or denominations.
The Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church believe that the term one in the Nicene Creed describes and prescribes a visible institutional and doctrinal unity, not only geographically throughout the world, but also historically throughout history. They see unity as one of the four marks that the Creed attributes to the genuine Church, and the essence of a mark is to be visible. A church whose identity and belief varied from country to country and from age to age would not be "one '' in their estimation. As such they see themselves not as a denomination, but as pre-denominational; not as one of many faith communities, but the original and sole true Church.
Many Baptist and Congregationalist theologians accept the local sense as the only valid application of the term church. They strongly reject the notion of a universal (catholic) church. These denominations argue that all uses of the Greek word ekklesia in the New Testament are speaking of either a particular local group or of the notion of "church '' in the abstract, and never of a single, worldwide church.
Many Anglicans, Lutherans, Old Catholics, and Independent Catholics view unity as a mark of catholicity, but see the institutional unity of the Catholic Church as manifested in the shared apostolic succession of their episcopacies, rather than a shared episcopal hierarchy or rites.
Reformed Christians hold that every person justified by faith in the Gospel committed to the Apostles is a member of "One, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church ''. From this perspective, the real unity and holiness of the whole church established through the Apostles is yet to be revealed; and meanwhile, the extent and peace of the church on earth is imperfectly realized in a visible way.
The Lutheran Church -- Missouri Synod declares that only believers in the doctrine of justification are members of the Christian Church, excluding all others, even if those others are in external communion with the Church and even if they hold a teaching office in it.
A number of historians have noted a twentieth - century "global shift '' in Christianity, from a religion largely found in Europe and the Americas to one which is found in the global south. Described as "World Christianity '' or "Global Christianity, '' this term attempts to convey the global nature of the Christian religion. However, the term often focuses on "non-Western Christianity '' which "comprises (usually the exotic) instances of Christian faith in ' the global South ', in Asia, Africa and Latin America. '' It also includes indigenous or diasporic forms in Western Europe and North America.
Other debates include the following:
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where did the name ruth's chris come from | Ruth 's Chris Steak House - Wikipedia
Ruth 's Chris Steak House is a chain of over 100 steakhouses across the United States, Canada and Mexico. The restaurant is regarded as an upscale fine dining establishment, marking a gradual elevation in its status since its founding in the 1960s. Ruth 's Chris is currently the largest luxury steakhouse company in number of locations, operating income, and overall profit, larger than The Palm and Morton 's. On May 22, 2008, the company underwent rebranding and became part of Ruth 's Hospitality Group after its acquisition of Mitchell 's Fish Market. Its slogan is "Better Ingredients. Better Steak. Ruth Chris ''. The group has its headquarters in Winter Park, Florida.
Chris Steak House was founded on February 27, 1927 by New Orleans entrepreneur Chris Matulich. It was located at 1100 North Broad Street near the New Orleans Fairgrounds Racetrack, seated 60 people, and had no parking lot. During Matulich 's 38 - year management, the business was sold six times, failing each time, and enabling him to buy the restaurant back cheaply from the purchasers.
Ruth Fertel was a divorced single mother who needed money to send her teenage sons to college. Ignoring the advice of her banker, lawyer, and friends, Ruth purchased the restaurant in 1965. She used her brother 's restaurant, Sig 's Antique Restaurant in Port Sulphur, Louisiana, along with family recipes to lay the foundation for her restaurant. She initially planned to raise just $18,000 to cover the purchase price, until it was pointed out to her that she would need an additional $4,000 to cover the cost of renovations and food. On her first day, May 24, 1965, she sold 35 steaks at $5 each.
Fertel personally took a hand in every part of the business. She had to teach herself how to butcher steak, and despite being just five - foot - two and 110 - pounds, would saw up 30 - pound short loins by hand until she could afford an electric band saw. She staffed her restaurant with single mothers, saying that they were hard workers and reliable. For many years, Chris Steak House was the only upscale restaurant in New Orleans with an all - female wait staff.
From the beginning, her restaurant attracted local politicians as well as athletes, businessmen and reporters. Political reporter Rosemary James noted that she "would not have missed a Friday before a major election at Ruth 's Chris Steak House. That was the place to be if you wanted to get some scoops. '' Local celebrities like Fats Domino were regulars.
In early 1976, shortly after Fertel signed a new ten - year lease on the restaurant, a fire destroyed the building. Fertel had recently acquired a second property nearby to rent out as party space. Within seven days, she had relocated the restaurant to its new location a few blocks away at 711 North Broad Street and re-opened it, expanding to 160 seats in the process. The sales agreement with Matulich prevented her from using the original name at any other address, so she named the new restaurant Ruth 's Chris Steak House in order to keep some continuity with the previous location. She admitted later to Fortune Magazine that "I 've always hated the name, but we 've always managed to work around it. ''
The first franchised restaurant was opened in 1977 by a loyal customer, Thomas J. "T.J. '' Moran (c. 1931 -- 2015), in Baton Rouge, who went on to open several more franchised Ruth 's Chris locations, TJ Ribs, and Ruffino 's restaurants through his company T.J. Moran Associates. Fertel noted, "All our franchisees were people who had eaten at one time or another in one of our restaurants. We never looked for franchisees. They came to us. '' The chain expanded rapidly over the next two decades, with 66 locations in the U.S. and overseas by mid-1998, and achieving over $200 million in annual revenues. This success earned Fertel a number of accolades as an entrepreneur, and the epithet The First Lady of American Restaurants or The Empress of Steak.
In 1999, Fertel, then 72, developed lung cancer. She sold a 79.3 percent interest in the chain in August 1999 to investment company Madison Dearborn Partners of Chicago, remaining as a shareholder until her death in 2002.
In that period, the chain expanded to 86 restaurants, including 10 overseas locations. Revenues fell to $167.8 million in 2003, before rising again to $192.2 million in 2004.
On August 9, 2005, under President & CEO Craig Miller, Ruth 's Chris Steak House became a public company following a successful IPO valuing the company at $235 million and an increase of 15 percent in first - day trading.
In late August 2005 Hurricane Katrina devastated Greater New Orleans (see: Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans), and the chain moved its corporate headquarters to Heathrow, Florida. Like most businesses in the city, two of the chain 's locations in the New Orleans area were forced to close because of the storm. The Metairie location has since reopened. Members of the Fertel family, particularly Ruth 's son Randy, were bitterly opposed to the move. Amid much criticism by local officials and media, and on the heels of the announcement by Morton 's that it would reopen its own New Orleans branch, the corporate offices announced that, due to extensive damage, the old flagship location on Broad Street would be permanently closed and donated to charity. Tulane University was the recipient of the gift, remodeling and reopening the site in 2012 as the Ruth U. Fertel / Tulane Community Health Center. In May 2008, Ruth 's Chris reopened in New Orleans and is centrally located downtown in Harrah 's Hotel at 525 Fulton Street.
In 2011, the corporate headquarters was relocated to its current location in Winter Park, Florida.
In February 2008, the company purchased the Mitchell 's Fish Restaurant and Columbus Fish Market brands from Cameron Mitchell Restaurants for $92 million. As the recession began to bite, the acquisition was not initially successful. The stock price fell from $22 in 2006 to under $5 and company debts rose to $185 million. CFO Tom Pennison resigned, and CEO Craig Miller was ousted by the board to be replaced by Mike O'Donnell. O'Donnell restructured and rebranded the company, creating Ruth 's Hospitality Group (RHGI) as the parent entity in May 2008, allowing each of the individual restaurant brands to have their own identity within the group. The current President and COO is Kevin Toomy, formerly owner and president of the award - winning Goldcoast Seafood Grill in South Florida.
In February 2013, RHGI reported that fourth quarter sales at Ruth 's Chris restaurants were up by 7.0 percent on the previous year, representing the 11th consecutive quarterly increase in sales.
Ruth 's Chris continues to add new restaurants, most recently in Harrah 's casino in Las Vegas in January 2013, after the previous Las Vegas location on Flamingo closed in 2009. The company has announced plans for 2013 that include an expansion into China, a new restaurant in Denver, Colorado, and four or five new franchised locations. In 2015, it was announced that the restaurant was expanding into Albuquerque, New Mexico. In 2016, Ruth 's Chris opened its newest restaurant in Odenton, Maryland.
Most restaurants are open for dinner only, although some locations also offer lunch. The dress code is usually a range from business / dressy to business casual. Most locations have private dining facilities and offer business communications via satellite. The company also offers outside catering and a wedding service through the Ruth 's Weddings brand.
The restaurant 's signature is serving USDA prime steaks that are seared at 1800 ° Fahrenheit (approximately 980 ° C) and served on ceramic plates heated to 500 ° Fahrenheit (260 ° C). Half an ounce (1 Tbsp) of butter is added just before the plates leave the kitchen in order to create the signature ' sizzle '. Fertel firmly believed that the success of her steaks was due as much to the sound and smell of the ' sizzle ' as well as the taste. "You hear that sizzle, and you think, ' I wonder if that 's my steak ' '', she commented in an interview shortly before her death.
In addition to steaks, the restaurant also serves entrees of chicken, lamb, fish, shrimp and lobster.
Portions generally are large enough to serve two or more diners. Family style side dishes include au gratin potatoes, topped with a bechamel sauce and Cheddar cheese. Some recipes, such as the BBQ shrimp, New Orleans style creamed spinach or the sweet potato casserole, are traditional 19th century Louisiana recipes that originate with Ruth Fertel 's family, particularly her great - uncle Martin, a Louisiana Delta farmer from a French - Alsatian family. Some of these recipes have been made publicly available by the family and by the company.
Also available are dessert selections, with the restaurant 's signature creme brulee being a staple item throughout the chain.
In 2009, Ruth 's Chris introduced their "Ruth 's Classics '' menu of prix fixe meals where guests choose a three - course meal; starter, entree and side, and dessert. This menu is updated seasonally every three months.
The wine list includes over 200 wines, primarily from leading Californian vineyards such as Mondavi, Beringer and Stag 's Leap. Twenty - five or more wines are available by the glass, depending on location.
The seasonal "vintage - inspired '' cocktail selection, introduced in 2011 by Beverage Director Helen Mackey, includes both classic and contemporary "hand - crafted '' cocktails.
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britain prime minister and viceroy during quit india movement | Quit India movement - Wikipedia
The Quit India Movement or the India August Movement, was a movement launched at the Bombay session of the All - India Congress Committee by Mahatma Gandhi on 8 August 1942, during World War II, demanding an end to British Rule of India. The Cripps Mission had failed, and on 8 August 1942, Gandhi made a call to Do or Die in his Quit India speech delivered in Bombay at the Gowalia Tank Maidan. The All - India Congress Committee launched a mass protest demanding what Gandhi called "An Orderly British Withdrawal '' from India. Even though it was wartime, the British were prepared to act. Almost the entire leadership of the INC was imprisoned without trial within hours of Gandhi 's speech. Most spent the rest of the war in prison and out of contact with the masses. The British had the support of the Viceroy 's Council (which had a majority of Indians), of the All India Muslim League, the princely states, the Indian Imperial Police, the British Indian Army and the Indian Civil Service. Many Indian businessmen profiting from heavy wartime spending did not support Quit India Movement. Many students paid more attention to Subhas Chandra Bose, who was in exile and supporting the Axis Powers. The only outside support came from the Americans, as President Franklin D. Roosevelt pressured Prime Minister Winston Churchill to give in to some of the Indian demands. The Quit India campaign was effectively crushed. The British refused to grant immediate independence, saying it could happen only after the war had ended.
Sporadic small - scale violence took place around the country and the British arrested tens thousands of leaders, keeping them imprisoned until 1945. In terms of immediate objectives Quit India failed because of heavy - handed suppression, weak co-ordination and the lack of a clear - cut programme of action. However, the British government realized that India was ungovernable in the long run due to the cost of World War II, and the question for postwar became how to exit gracefully and peacefully.
In 1992 Reserve Bank of India issued an one Rupee commemorative coin to mark the Golden Jubilee of the Quit India Movement.
In 1939, Indian nationalists were angry that British Governor - General of India, Lord Linlithgow, had without consultation with them brought India into the war. The Muslim League supported the war, but Congress was divided.
At the outbreak of war, the Congress Party had passed a resolution during the Wardha meeting of the working - committee in September 1939, conditionally supporting the fight against fascism, but were rebuffed when they asked for independence in return. Gandhi had not supported this initiative, as he could not reconcile an endorsement for war (he was a committed believer in non-violent resistance, used in the Indian Independence Movement and proposed even against Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, and Hideki Tojo). However, at the height of the Battle of Britain, Gandhi had stated his support for the fight against racism and of the British war effort, stating he did not seek to raise an independent India from the ashes of Britain. However, opinions remained divided.
After the onset of the war, only a group led by Subhas Chandra Bose took any decisive action. Bose organised the Indian Legion in Germany and reorganised the Indian National Army with Japanese assistance, and, soliciting help from the Axis Powers, conducted a guerrilla war against the British authorities.
Stafford Cripps, on the March 1942, faced with an increasingly dissatisfied sub-continent only reluctantly participating in the war and deterioration in the war situation in Europe and with growing dissatisfaction among Indian troops -- especially in Africa -- and among the civilian population in the sub-continent, the British government sent a delegation to India under Stafford Cripps, the Leader of the House of Commons, in what came to be known as the Cripps mission. The purpose of the mission was to negotiate with the Indian National Congress a deal to obtain total co-operation during the war, in return for progressive devolution and distribution of power from the crown and the Viceroy to an elected Indian legislature. The talks failed, as they did not address the key demand of a timetable of self - government and of definition of the powers to be relinquished, essentially making an offer of limited dominion - status that was wholly unacceptable to the Indian movement.
In 1939, with the outbreak of war between Germany and Britain, India was announced to be a party to the war for being a constituent component of the British Empire. Following this declaration, the Congress Working Committee at its meeting on 10 October 1939, passed a resolution condemning the aggressive activities of the Germans. At the same time the resolution also stated that India could not associate herself with war unless it was consulted first. Responding to this declaration, the Viceroy issued a statement on 17 October wherein he claimed that Britain is waging a war driven by the motif to strengthen peace in the world. He also stated that after the war, the government would initiate modifications in the Act of 1935, in accordance to the desires of the Indians.
Gandhi 's reaction to this statement was; "the old policy of divide and rule is to continue. The Congress has asked for bread and it has got stone. '' According to the instructions issued by High Command, the Congress ministers were directed to resign immediately. Congress ministers from eight provinces resigned following the instructions. The resignation of the ministers was an occasion of great joy and rejoicing for leader of the Muslim League, Mohammad Ali Jinnah. He called the day of 22 December 1939 ' The Day of Deliverance '. Gandhi urged Jinnah against the celebration of this day, however, it was futile. At the Muslim League Lahore Session held in March 1940, Jinnah declared in his presidential address that the Muslims of the country wanted a separate homeland, Pakistan.
In the meanwhile, crucial political events took place in England. Chamberlain was succeeded by Churchill as the Prime Minister and the Conservatives, who assumed power in England, did not have a sympathetic stance towards the claims made by the Congress. In order to pacify the Indians in the circumstance of worsening war situation, the Conservatives were forced to concede some of the demands made by the Indians. On 8 August, the Viceroy issued a statement that has come to be referred as the "August Offer ''. However, the Congress rejected the offer followed by the Muslim League.
In the context of widespread dissatisfaction that prevailed over the rejection of the demands made by the Congress, Gandhi at the meeting of the Congress Working Committee in Wardha revealed his plan to launch Individual Civil Disobedience. Once again, the weapon of satyagraha found popular acceptance as the best means to wage a crusade against the British. It was widely used as a mark of protest against the unwavering stance assumed by the British. Vinoba Bhave, a follower of Gandhi, was selected by him to initiate the movement. Anti war speeches ricocheted in all corners of the country, with the satyagrahis earnestly appealing to the people of the nation not to support the Government in its war endeavors. The consequence of this satyagrahi campaign was the arrest of almost fourteen thousand satyagrahis. On 3 December 1941, the Viceroy ordered the acquittal of all the satyagrahis. In Europe the war situation became more critical with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the Congress realised the necessity for appraising their program. Subsequently, the movement was withdrawn.
The Cripps ' Mission and its failure also played an important role in Gandhi 's call for The Quit India Movement. In order to end the deadlock, the British government on 22 March 1942, sent Sir Stafford Cripps to talk terms with the Indian political parties and secure their support in Britain 's war efforts. A Draft Declaration of the British Government was presented, which included terms like establishment of Dominion, establishment of a Constituent Assembly and right of the Provinces to make separate constitutions. These would be, however, granted after the cessation of the Second World War. According to the Congress this Declaration only offered India a promise that was to be fulfilled in the future. Commenting on this Gandhi said; "It is a post dated cheque on a crashing bank. '' Other factors that contributed were the threat of Japanese invasion of India and realisation of the national leaders of the incapacity of the British to defend India.
The Congress Working Committee meeting at Wardha (14 July 1942) passed a resolution demanding complete independence from the British government. The draft proposed massive civil disobedience if the British did not accede to the demands.
However, it proved to be controversial within the party. A prominent Congress national leader Chakravarti Rajgopalachari quit the Congress over this decision, and so did some local and regional level organisers. Jawaharlal Nehru and Maulana Azad were apprehensive and critical of the call, but backed it and stuck with Gandhi 's leadership until the end. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad and Anugrah Narayan Sinha openly and enthusiastically supported such a disobedience movement, as did many veteran Gandhians and socialists like Asoka Mehta and Jayaprakash Narayan.
Allama Mashriqi (head of the Khaksar Tehrik) was called by Jawaharlal Nehru to join the Quit India Movement. Mashriqi was apprehensive of its outcome and did not agree with the Congress Working Committee 's resolution. On 28 July 1942, Allama Mashriqi sent the following telegram to Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Mahatma Gandhi, C. Rajagopalachari, Jawaharlal Nehru, Rajendra Prasad and Pattabhi Sitaramayya. He also sent a copy to Bulusu Sambamurti (former Speaker of the Madras Assembly). The telegram was published in the press, and it stated:
I am in receipt of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru 's letter of 8 July. My honest opinion is that Civil Disobedience Movement is a little pre-mature. The Congress should first concede openheartedly and with handshake to Muslim League the theoretical Pakistan, and thereafter all parties unitedly make demand of Quit India. If the British refuse, start total disobedience.
The resolution said:
The committee, therefore, resolves to sanction for the vindication of India 's inalienable right to freedom and independence, the starting of a mass struggle on non-violent lines on the widest possible scale, so that the country might utilise all the non-violent strength it has gathered during the last 22 years of peaceful struggle... they (the people) must remember that non-violence is the basis of the movement.
Several political groups active during the Indian Independence Movement were opposed to the Quit India Movement. These included the Muslim League, the Hindu Mahasabha, the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, the Communist Party of India and the princely states as below:
The Muslim League opposed the Quit India Movement as it was of the view that if the British left India in its current state, Muslims as a minority would be oppressed by the Hindu majority. Muhammad Ali Jinnah 's opposition to Gandhi 's call led to large numbers of Muslims cooperating with the British, and enlisting in the army. The Muslim League gained large numbers of new members. Congress members heeding Gandhi 's call resigned from provincial legislatures, enabling the Muslim League, in alliance with the Hindu Mahasabha, to take control in Sindh, Bengal and Northwest Frontier.
Hindu nationalist parties like the Hindu Mahasabha openly opposed the call for the Quit India Movement and boycotted it officially. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, the president of the Hindu Mahasabha at that time, even went to the extent of writing a letter titled "Stick to your Posts '', in which he instructed Hindu Sabhaites who happened to be "members of municipalities, local bodies, legislatures or those serving in the army... to stick to their posts '' across the country, and not to join the Quit India Movement at any cost.
Following the Hindu Mahasabha 's official decision to boycott the Quit India movement, Syama Prasad Mukherjee, leader of the Hindu Mahasabha in Bengal, (which was a part of the ruling coalition in Bengal led by Krishak Praja Party of Fazlul Haq), wrote a letter to the British Government as to how they should respond, if the Congress gave a call to the British rulers to Quit India. In this letter, dated July 26, 1942 he wrote:
"Let me now refer to the situation that may be created in the province as a result of any widespread movement launched by the Congress. Anybody, who during the war, plans to stir up mass feeling, resulting internal disturbances or insecurity, must be resisted by any Government that may function for the time being ''
Mookerjee in this letter reiterated that the Fazlul Haq led Bengal Government, along with its alliance partner Hindu Mahasabha would make every possible effort to defeat the Quit India Movement in the province of Bengal and made a concrete proposal as regards this:
"The question is how to combat this movement (Quit India) in Bengal? The administration of the province should be carried on in such a manner that in spite of the best efforts of the Congress, this movement will fail to take root in the province. It should be possible for us, especially responsible Ministers, to be able to tell the public that the freedom for which the Congress has started the movement, already belongs to the representatives of the people. In some spheres it might be limited during the emergency. Indian have to trust the British, not for the sake for Britain, not for any advantage that the British might gain, but for the maintenance of the defense and freedom of the province itself. You, as Governor, will function as the constitutional head of the province and will be guided entirely on the advice of your Minister.
Even the Indian historian R.C. Majumdar noted this fact and states:
"Shyam Prasad ended the letter with a discussion of the mass movement organised by the Congress. He expressed the apprehension that the movement would create internal disorder and will endanger internal security during the war by exciting popular feeling and he opined that any government in power has to suppress it, but that according to him could not be done only by persecution... In that letter he mentioned item wise the steps to be taken for dealing with the situation... ''
The Communist Party of India was banned at that time by the British government. In order to get the ban lifted, as well as to assist the Soviet Union in its war against Nazi Germany, it supported the British war effort, despite support for Quit India by many industrial workers. In response the British lifted the ban on the party.
The movement had less support in the princely states, as the princes were strongly opposed and funded the opposition.
The Indian nationalists had very little international support. They knew that the United States strongly supported Indian independence, in principle, and believed the U.S. was an ally. However, after Churchill threatened to resign if pushed too hard, the U.S. quietly supported him while bombarding Indians with propaganda designed to strengthen public support of the war effort. The poorly run American operation annoyed both the British and the Indians.
Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) kept aloof from the Congress - led anti-British Indian independence movement since its founding by K.B. Hedgewar in 1925. In 1942, the RSS, under M.S. Golwalkar refused to join in the Quit India Movement. The Bombay government appreciated the RSS position by noting that,
"the Sangh has scrupulously kept itself within the law, and in particular, has refrained from taking part in the disturbances that broke out in August 1942 ''. ".
The British Government also asserted that at Sangh meetings organized during the times of anti-British movements started and fought by the Indian National Congress,
"speakers urged the Sangh members to keep aloof from the congress movement and these instructions were generally observed ''.
The RSS head (sarsanghchalak) during that time, M.S. Golwalkar later stated that the RSS did not support the Quit India Movement. Such a non-committal attitude during the Indian freedom movement also led to the Sangh being viewed with distrust and anger, both by the general Indian public, as well as certain members of the organization itself. In Golwalkar 's own words,
"In 1942 also, there was a strong sentiment in the hearts of many. At that time too, the routine work of the Sangh continued. Sangh decided not to do anything directly. ' Sangh is the organization of inactive people, their talks have no substance ' was the opinion uttered not only by outsiders but also our own swayamsevaks '' ''
The British Government stated that the RSS was not at all supporting any civil disobedience against them, and as such their other political activities could be overlooked. The Home Department was thereby of the opinion that the RSS did not constitute a menace to law and order in British India. The Bombay government reported that the RSS had not, in any way, infringed upon government orders and had always shown a willingness to comply with the law. The same Bombay Government report further noted that in December 1940, orders had been issued to the provincial RSS leaders to desist from any activities that the British Government considered objectionable, and the RSS, in turn, had assured the British authorities that "it had no intentions of offending against the orders of the Government ''.
According to John F. Riddick, from 9 August 1942 to 21 September 1942, the Quit India movement:
At the national level the lack of leadership meant the ability to galvanise rebellion was limited. The movement had a local impact in some areas. especially at Satara in Maharashtra, Talcher in Odisha, and Midnapore. In Tamluk and Contai subdivisions of Midnapore, the local populace were successful in establishing parallel governments, which continued to function, until Gandhi personally requested the leaders to disband in 1944. A minor uprising took place in Ballia, now the easternmost district of Uttar Pradesh. People overthrew the district administration, broke open the jail, released the arrested Congress leaders and established their own independent rule. It took weeks before the British could reestablish their writ in the district. Of special importance in Saurashtra (in western Gujarat) was the role of the region 's ' baharvatiya ' tradition (i.e. going outside the law) which abetted the sabotage activities of the movement there. In rural west Bengal, the Quit India Movement was fueled by peasants ' resentment against the new war taxes and the forced rice exports. There was open resistance to the point of rebellion in 1942 until the great famine of 1943 suspended the movement.
One of the important achievements of the movement was to keep the Congress party united through all the trials and tribulations that followed. The British, already alarmed by the advance of the Japanese army to the India - Burma border, responded by imprisoning Gandhi. All the members of the Party 's Working Committee (national leadership) were imprisoned as well. Due to the arrest of major leaders, a young and till then relatively unknown Aruna Asaf Ali presided over the AICC session on 9 August and hoisted the flag; later the Congress party was banned. These actions only created sympathy for the cause among the population. Despite lack of direct leadership, large protests and demonstrations were held all over the country. Workers remained absent en masse and strikes were called. Not all demonstrations were peaceful, at some places bombs exploded, government buildings were set on fire, electricity was cut and transport and communication lines were severed.
The British swiftly responded with mass detentions. Over 100,000 arrests were made, mass fines were levied and demonstrators were subjected to public flogging. Hundreds of civilians were killed in violence many shot by the police army. Many national leaders went underground and continued their struggle by broadcasting messages over clandestine radio stations, distributing pamphlets and establishing parallel governments. The British sense of crisis was strong enough that a battleship was specifically set aside to take Gandhi and the Congress leaders out of India, possibly to South Africa or Yemen but ultimately did not take that step out of fear of intensifying the revolt.
The Congress leadership was cut off from the rest of the world for over three years. Gandhi 's wife Kasturbai Gandhi and his personal secretary Mahadev Desai died in months and Gandhi 's health was failing, despite this Gandhi went on a 21 - day fast and maintained his resolve to continuous resistance. Although the British released Gandhi on account of his health in 1944, Gandhi kept up the resistance, demanding the release of the Congress leadership.
By early 1944, India was mostly peaceful again, while the Congress leadership was still incarcerated. A sense that the movement had failed depressed many nationalists, while Jinnah and the Muslim League, as well as Congress opponents like the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and the Hindu Mahasabha sought to gain political mileage, criticizing Gandhi and the Congress Party.
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how to system link xbox 360 to xbox 360 | List of Xbox 360 system link games - wikipedia
This is a list of Xbox 360 games that are compatible with the System Link feature, both released and unreleased, organized alphabetically by name. A system link connects two or more 360 consoles together without an internet connection. For a more visual example of this page click on the external links hyperlink at the bottom of this page: (Multiplayer features in Xbox 360 games). For original Xbox games, please see List of Xbox System Link games.
NOTE: This game does NOT SUPPORT Splitscreen at all, Activision confirms this.
Click footnote for connection help
Anniversary Map Pack and Halo Reach cross-compatibility
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what does eieio mean in old macdonald song | Old MacDonald had a farm - wikipedia
"Old MacDonald Had a Farm '' is a children 's song and nursery rhyme about a farmer named MacDonald (sometimes known as "McDonald '' or "Macdonald '') and the various animals he keeps on his farm. Each verse of the song changes the name of the animal and its respective noise. In many versions, the song is cumulative, with the animal sounds from all the earlier verses added to each subsequent verse. For example, the verse uses a cow as an animal and "moo '' as the animal 's sound. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 745.
Old MacDonald had a farm E-I-E-I-O And on this farm he had a cow E-I-E-I-O With a moo - moo here And a moo - moo there Here a moo, there a moo Everywhere a moo - moo Old MacDonald had a farm E-I-E-I-O
In the 1917 book Tommy 's Tunes, a collection of World War I era songs by F. T. Nettleingham, the song "Ohio '' has quite similar lyrics -- though with a slightly different farmer 's name and refrain:
This version lists seven species of animal: some dogs (bow - wow), some hens (cluck cluck), some ducks (quack quack), some cows (moo moo), some pigs (oink oink), some cats (meow meow), and a donkey (hee - haw).
The Traditional Ballad Index consider the Tommy 's Tunes version to be the earliest known version of "Old Macdonald Had a Farm '', though it cites numerous variants, some of them much older.
Two of these variants were published in Vance Randolph 's Ozark Folksongs in 1980. One was "Old Missouri '', sung by a Mr. H.F. Walker of Missouri in 1922, a version that names different parts of the mule rather than different animals:
A British version of the song, called "The Farmyard, or The Merry Green Fields, '' was collected in 1908 from a 74 - year - old Mrs. Goodey at Marylebone Workhouse, London, and published in Cecil Sharp 's Collection of English Folk Songs.
Perhaps the earliest recorded member of this family of songs is a number from an opera called The Kingdom of the Birds, published in 1719 - 1720 in Thomas D'Urfey 's Wit and Mirth, or Pills to Purge Melancholy:
The lyrics have been translated from English into other languages and modified slightly to fit rhythmic and cultural requirements. In most languages below, it is still sung as a children 's song to the same tune.
The oldest version listed in The Traditional Ballad Index is the Sam Patterson Trio 's "Old MacDonald Had a Farm, '' released on the Edison label in 1925. There have been versions by such well - known artists as Frank Sinatra (Capitol, 1960), Elvis Presley (in his movie Double Trouble), Nat King Cole, and Ella Fitzgerald (on her 1967 Verve album Whisper Not). Bing Crosby included the song in a medley on his album Join Bing and Sing Along (1959) A variant was used in a 1952 campaign ad for Adlai Stevenson II 's unsuccessful campaign for President with slightly altered lyrics promoting the Stevenson campaign 's appeal to farmers. The song is played (with some cast participation) in the 1951 movie The Lavender Hill Mob.
As of September 2018, an animated video containing the song, which was created by ChuChu TV, has received over 1.0 billion views on YouTube.
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i was drunk the day my momma got out of prison | You Never Even Called Me by My Name - wikipedia
"You Never Even Called Me by My Name '' is a song written and recorded by Steve Goodman and John Prine; and recorded by country music singer David Allan Coe. It was the third single release of Coe 's career, included on his album Once Upon a Rhyme. The song was Coe 's first Top Ten hit, reaching a peak of number eight on the Billboard country singles charts. The song, over five minutes long, is known for its humorous self - description as "the perfect country and western song. ''
The song is a satirical response and kiss - off to the country music industry on Music Row in Nashville. Coe was an ideal choice to convey Steve Goodman 's message to the country music industry due to his non-conformist ("outlaw '') style; Coe had little admiration for the Nashville industry.
The country music industry of the era blatantly refused to acknowledge the writers ' and artist 's fringe style; Goodman, despite success penning the folk - pop crossover "City of New Orleans, '' was still considered an outsider and neophyte. Coe 's and Goodman 's response to Nashville was not to sell out; the song name - drops Waylon Jennings, Charley Pride and Merle Haggard (as well as his song "The Fightin ' Side of Me ''); Coe also uses loose impersonations of each artist in doing so, and also makes reference to Faron Young 's "Hello Walls '' in the background vocals, noting that "you '' (industry executives) "do n't have to call me '' any of those names anymore. In the third verse, Coe notes "the only time I know I 'll hear David Allan Coe is when Jesus has his final Judgment Day, '' noting that he never expected the industry to recognize him by his individual merits.
In a spoken epilogue preceding the song 's iconic closing verse, Coe relates a correspondence he had with songwriter Steve Goodman, who stated the song he had written was the "perfect country and western song. '' Coe wrote back stating that no song could fit that description without mentioning a laundry list of clichés: "mama, or trains, or trucks, or prison, or getting drunk. '' Goodman 's equally facetious response was an additional verse that incorporated all five of Coe 's requirements, and upon receiving it, Coe acknowledged the finished product was indeed the "perfect country and western song '' and included the last verse on the record:
I was drunk the day my mom got out of prison And I went to pick ' er up in the rain But before I could get to the station in my pickup truck She got runned over by a damned ol ' train
Goodman and Prine 's versions had a different list in the final verse.
"You Never Even Called Me by My Name '' is accompanied mainly by resonator guitar, pedal steel guitar and electric guitar.
"You Never Even Called Me by My Name '' by David Allan Coe spent seventeen weeks on the Billboard country singles charts, peaking at number eight.
In 1994, Doug Supernaw recorded included a new version of the song on his second studio album, Deep Thoughts from a Shallow Mind. Supernaw 's rendition features a guest vocal from Coe himself, as well as guest appearances by Waylon Jennings, Merle Haggard and Charley Pride, all of whom are mentioned in the original song 's second verse. It was the second single release from Supernaw 's album.
Alanna Nash of Entertainment Weekly considered Supernaw 's remake the "most interesting '' cut on the album, but thought that it was in too high of a key for the guest vocalists involved.
This version spent seven weeks on the Billboard country charts, peaking at number 60. Only Supernaw was credited for it on the charts.
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who won season 11 of the amazing race | The Amazing Race 11 - Wikipedia
The Amazing Race 11 (also known as The Amazing Race: All - Stars) is the 11th installment of the US reality television show The Amazing Race. The Amazing Race 11 featured eleven teams of two -- ten returning teams from previous editions, and a dating couple who had met and competed against each other on a previous season -- in a race around the world.
The eleventh season premiered on February 18, 2007 at 8: 00 p.m. EST, 7: 00 p.m. CST, for one hour, and the season finale was on May 6, 2007.
Dating couple Eric Sanchez and Danielle Turner, who had competed on opposing teams on The Amazing Race 9, won this edition of the race. They were the first team to win a season without finishing first in a non-final leg of the race. They were also the first team to win without using a Fast Forward or Yield.
A DVD was released on May 1, 2013, courtesy of Amazon 's CreateSpace program.
As early as 2004, there had been talk about an all - star edition, with speculation that it would occur during the eighth season, as with Survivor. These rumors were fueled by reports that season 4 winner Reichen Lehmkuhl had been invited to appear in a future all - star race. Speculation continued for the next few years, particularly after CBS aired all - star editions of their two other reality competition series, Survivor and Big Brother. On September 28, 2006, CBS ordered an 11th season of The Amazing Race; in November 2006, the network officially acknowledged that an all - star edition was in production. Host Phil Keoghan was originally skeptical that an all - star edition was feasible. Over time, Keoghan felt that "as we got more and more really good teams, it (All - Stars) just seemed like it had to happen. ''
This season travelled a little over 45,000 miles (72,000 km), across 30 cities and six continents.
This season was the second (after season 5) to visit every continent except Antarctica. The new locales visited in this season were Ecuador, Mozambique, Poland, Macau, and Guam. This was the last season in the US series to feature the Yield. This is also the last season that did not either start or finish in the Greater Los Angeles Area until The Amazing Race 30.
Six legs of this race were won by all - female teams (four by Dustin & Kandice and two by Charla & Mirna) setting a record which would later be matched in season 17.
The 11 teams were selected from past contestants among the first ten seasons. Keoghan personally submitted a list of 15 teams that he thought should return. Ten of them were chosen. The team he did n't choose was Eric & Danielle, who did not previously race together. Keoghan said, "I did n't think of that new combination, which actually is a really good one. '' He also added that the production team 's goal for the race "was n't to pick the best racers '', but "to pick the teams that have earned the most attention over the last 10 seasons ''. Despite the "All - Stars '' title, only one team, Uchenna & Joyce, had won a previous season. Some former racers were angered by their omission from All - Stars, most notably Chip and Kim McAllister (Season 5), and BJ Averell and Tyler MacNiven (Season 9), who publicly criticized CBS ' casting process.
The full list of returning teams (and their prior race placements) are:
This season introduced the Elimination Station, featured on the official website. A series of 13 web episodes presented the eliminated contestants living together in a common house in their sequester location in Acapulco, Mexico. The series was viewable only in the United States and was available on the Innertube video streaming service on the CBS website, with a new episode debuting immediately following the airing of each new Amazing Race episode in the Pacific time zone.
The following teams participated in the race, each listed along with their placements in each leg and relationships as identified by the program. Note that this table is not necessarily reflective of all content broadcast on television, owing to the inclusion or exclusion of some data. Placements are listed in finishing order:
Episode titles are often taken from quotes made by the racers.
Unless otherwise noted, prizes were awarded to the first team to check in for each leg. All trips were provided by Travelocity. The prizes were:
The first five teams eliminated were sequestered at a villa in Acapulco, Mexico to await the finale. Subsequently, eliminated teams telephoned the villa to inform those teams at the villa of their elimination, but continued to run the race as decoys to throw off spoilers to the final outcome of the race. The sequestered teams met with the decoy teams in the final destination city to cheer on the final three teams as they crossed the finish line.
CBS posted short videos on its website after each episode aired in the Pacific time zone to show the eliminated teams interacting at the villa.
Airdate: February 18, 2007
The first Detour was a choice between Wrangle It or Recover It. In Wrangle It, teams had to help local cowboys lasso, tie down, and groom one wild horse (which had grown hooves too long to walk properly). Team members had to use traditional tools to clip its hooves to a safe length and to trim its mane and tail. When the horse was released, they would receive their next clue. In Recover It, one team member had to put on an historical military uniform. Then, the team must search the field for three items missing from the uniform: an epaulette, a button, and a sword. Once these were found, a general would give them the next clue.
Airdate: February 25, 2007
In the first Roadblock, one team member had to enter the ground floor of the corporate headquarters of Codelco and search the boardroom for letters of the alphabet that were on display. Teams needed to figure out that the majority of the letters, when unscrambled, would spell one of the ten destinations inscribed on the plaques hanging on the wall. When they believed they had the solution, which was "Chuquicamata '', they had to show their answer to the security guard. If they were correct, he would hand them their next clue.
The Detour was a choice of By Hand or By Machine. In By Hand, teams had to choose a two - ton tire and, by properly aligning the bolts and washers, finish securing it to a dump truck. When the work was complete, a foreman would hand them the next clue. In By Machine, each team member had to take a turn driving a huge front loader, transferring gravel. When they moved enough gravel to cover a marked yellow line on a stick, a foreman would hand them the next clue.
Airdate: March 4, 2007
In this leg 's Roadblock, one team member had to choose an 1,800 - US - gallon (6,800 l; 1,500 imp gal) fish - breeding tank, jump in, and catch and transfer all 80 flounder from the breeding tank to a holding tank at the other end of the farm. Once finished, their clue would be revealed at the bottom of the tank.
The Detour was a choice between Vertical Limit or River Wild. In Vertical Limit, teams had to walk 200 yards (183 m) to a cliff where both team members needed to complete a 40 - foot (12 m) rock climb. Each team member would grab half of their clue at the top. In River Wild, teams had to backtrack two miles (3.2 km) to the banks of Rio Petrohué, where they would complete a two - and - a-half mile (4 km) whitewater - rafting course, through level 3 and 4 rapids. After completing the course, they had to hike back to get their next clue.
Airdate: March 11, 2007
The Detour was a choice between Navigate It or Sign It. In Navigate It, teams had to use a map of Punta Arenas to find the Plaza Muñoz Gamero, where a sailor would hand them a compass. Then, using the compass, the teams needed to walk directly south to the Nautilus Building, a deep - sea salvage business, where a provider would give their next clue. In Sign It, teams had to choose a pole and building supplies and carry them up a flight of stairs to Ferdinand Magellan 's map. Using this map as a reference, teams needed to determine his expedition 's circumnavigation of the world began and ended in Seville. They then had to build a traditional local signpost listing in order the fourteen ports - of - call on his voyage. While the signs did n't have to point in the right direction, all the cities had to be spelled correctly. When they completed the signpost, they would receive their next clue.
In this leg 's Roadblock, one team member was to search through 1,600 pieces of mail from a mailbag to find one of two letters addressed to their team (written by one of the other teams from their season). The team member then had to read the message inside the letter to their partner, after which they received their next clue.
Airdate: March 18, 2007
In this leg 's Roadblock, one team member had to guide a rat to find a race marker above a deactivated landmine. Once their rat gave the signal that it found something, an Apopo Mine Technician would search the area. When the Race marker was found, the team would receive their next clue.
The Detour was a choice of Pamper or Porter. In Pamper, teams had to travel a half - mile (800 m) to the Maputo Central Market, choose a nail - polish kit, and convince people to pay them to paint their nails (which in Maputo is a job usually performed by men). Teams needed to earn at least 30 MT (about US $1) to receive their next clue. In Porter, teams made their way two miles (3.2 km) to Mercado Janet, where they would use their bare hands to fill ten 45 - pound (20 kg) bags with coal and sew them shut. Then, teams had to carry one of the bags to a specified address where the owner would hand them their next clue.
Airdate: March 25, 2007
The Detour was a choice between Solve It or Schlep It. In Solve It, teams had to make their way one - third of a mile (500 m) to the Beyt al Chai hotel, where they would put together a 62 - piece puzzle. Once the puzzle was correctly solved, and recreated an image from the tinga tinga style of local artwork, teams would receive their next clue. In Schlep It, teams made their way one - mile (1.6 km) to the Kijangwani Lumber Yard. Once there, they had to choose a local handcart, load two 50 - pound (23 kg) logs, then take them more than a mile (1.6 km) to a dhow shipyard. When they delivered the logs, teams would receive their next clue.
In this leg 's Roadblock, one team member must learn how to use a traditional Maasai wooden weapon called a rungu. They threw the weapon 65 feet (20 m) at clay targets, one of which had their next clue hidden inside.
Airdate: April 1, 2007
The Detour was a choice between Perfect Pitch or Perfect Angle. In Perfect Pitch, teams had to make their way three - quarters of a mile (1 km) to the Prymas Palace and choose a grand piano. Then, they must use the provided tools to tune one key of the keyboard. Once the concert pianist played a piece of Chopin 's music and determined that their piano was in tune, he would hand them their next clue. In Perfect Angle, teams made their way approximately half - a-mile (800 m) to the Escada Boutique, obtained a mannequin, and carried it another 400 yards (400 m) to the Panoramik Laboratory. Once there, teams had to use an x-ray machine to locate a clue embedded inside their mannequin; it needed to be positioned at a very specific angle for the image to show the name of their next destination (this task commemorated Marie Curie).
An unaired Roadblock involved teams having to row a boat out onto the reflecting pool from the park to the palace (further details are unknown).
Airdate: April 1, 2007
There was an Intersection in Kraków, where teams had to work together in pairs to make decisions and complete tasks until further notice. In a Fast Forward, one pair of newly joined teams had to climb a set of stairs up two different towers (the "fire guard '' tower of St. Mary 's Basilica and the Town Hall Tower located in the Main Market Square). They had to count how many stairs there were, add these numbers together, and present the total number to a guard. If they had the correct answer, both teams would win the Fast Forward award.
Otherwise, the teams had to complete the Detour, a choice between Eat It Up or Roll It Out. In Eat It Up, the intersected teams would make their way one - and - a-half miles (2.4 km) to an old market. Once there, each team member had to use traditional methods to make a three - inch (7.6 cm) length of Polish kiełbasa (sausage). The teams would then be served 8 feet (2.4 m) of cooked kiełbasa. Once each person ate 2 feet (0.61 m) of sausage, the teams would receive their next clue. In Roll It Out, the intersected teams would make their way one - and - a-half miles (2.4 km) to the J. Mazurek bakery in the city 's Kazimierz, the Old Jewish Quarter, and properly roll out twenty bagels. When finished, they would carry a delivery of fresh bagels one - quarter mile (400 m) to Klezmer Hois, and receive their next clue.
In this leg 's Roadblock, one team member had to don a full suit of authentic medieval armor, then lead a horse a half - mile (800 m) through the forest to the castle gates. Once at the castle, they had to deliver the horse to the stable boy, enter the courtyard, and search for the Pit Stop.
Airdate: April 8, 2007
In this leg 's Detour, the choice was between Artistic Expression or Cookie Confection. In Artistic Expression, teams needed to travel one - third of a mile (500 m) on foot to Dewan Lama. Once there, they had to use a traditional technique known as batik to exactly duplicate one of three patterns onto a 45 - square - foot (4 m) piece of cloth. Then they had to dye the cloth to the satisfaction of the artisan, who would give them the next clue. In Cookie Confection, teams made their way on foot a half - mile (800 m) to Chow Kit Bomba, located a marked stall, and searched through 600 boxes of traditional Malaysian festive cookies. They had to search by biting into the cookies, to find one with a black licorice center. The cookie vendor would then give them the next clue.
In this leg 's Roadblock, one team member was to nod to Malaysia 's eco-friendly practice of paper recycling. Team members had to choose a bicycle with an attached side cart, then scour the neighborhood for residents willing to give them their used newspapers. Once they had collected enough newspaper to make a stack approximately six feet (1.8 m) high, they would receive their next clue.
Airdate: April 15, 2007
The Fast Forward required one team to travel 5 miles (8 km) to a film set located at the former Kai Tak Airport, where a high - speed stunt was being filmed for an action movie. They had to get in a car with a stunt driver and complete a stunt course, which involved sharp turns and the car flipping - over. After completing the stunt course, the team would win the Fast Forward award.
Otherwise, teams had to do the Detour, a choice between Kung Fu Fighting or Lost in Translation. In Kung Fu Fighting, teams had to travel 5 miles (8 km) to Tonkin Street and find the former Cheung Sha Wan Police Quarters. Once there, they had to climb an 11 - story bamboo scaffold, while avoiding a mock battle between kung fu stuntmen, to reach the top and retrieve their next clue. In Lost in Translation, teams needed to make their way 4 miles (6.4 km) to Kowloon City and find Nga Tsin Wai Road. Once there, they had to search among hundreds of similar - looking Chinese characters store signs for the specific one "滿 玉 時裝 晚裝 '' shown in the clue. When they found the matching store, the owner would hand them their next clue.
In this leg 's Roadblock, one team member had to kick down doors in the old building of the former Kennedy Town Police Headquarters, and search the rooms for their next clue.
Airdate: April 22, 2007
During the Pit Stop, all teams were moved to Conrad Hong Kong and set off Leg 11 from the hotel. Teams encountered a Yield sign before the Roadblock. The Roadblock had one team member perform the world 's tallest skyjump: walking around the outer rim of the observation deck, using a permanent ascender, then taking a tethered jump off the Macau Tower to fall 660 feet (200 m) to the ground. When they landed, they received their next clue.
The Detour was a choice between Noodle or Dragon. In Noodle, teams had travel to the factory of Fábrica de Sopa de Fita Weng Kei inside Edificio Fabril Veng Kin, choose a noodle making station, and use traditional methods to flatten and cut dough into two bundles of Chinese noodles. Teams must do it properly to receive their next clue. In Dragon, teams had to travel to a warehouse, obtain a dragon head and drum, and carry them three - quarters of a mile (1.2 km) to the harbor at Nam Van Lake. There, they had to attach the dragon head to a matching dragon boat and deliver the drum to the boat 's master to receive their next clue.
Airdate: April 29, 2007
The U.S. Air Force - inspired Detour was a choice between Care Package or Engine Care. In Care Package, teams made their way to a warehouse, chose a loading station, and filled 500 - pound (230 kg) packages with various humanitarian aid items for a neighboring island. Once complete, the teams must then board a C - 17 Globemaster and participate in an airdrop training exercise. Though easier, the mission would take at least a half - hour. When they landed, the load master would hand them their next clue. In Engine Care, teams had to clean an engine pod on a B - 52 bomber, and scour the associated flap section on the wing. When the sergeant was satisfied with their work, a maintenance officer would hand them their next clue.
In this leg 's Roadblock, one team member had to perform a search and rescue mission. Using a handheld GPS receiver, they had to navigate through the jungle. Team members had to find one of four training officers, who provided co-ordinates directing them to the landing zone. Then they used a radio and smoke grenade to signal a rescue helicopter to pick them up. The helicopter brought them back to the naval base, where they received their next clue.
Airdate: May 6, 2007
The final Detour was a choice between Under or Over. In Under, teams had to swim into an underwater cave and retrieve a clue anchored to the cave 's floor. In Over, teams had to use a paddle board, and paddle together to reach a buoy that had their next clue.
There was a Roadblock that was shown at the photos on the official CBS website, suggesting it involved jumping off a cliff into the water (Mirna and Danielle were shown doing this). Footage of Charla & Mirna approaching jeeps with the clue inside each jeep, after their helicopter landed in Lanai, suggest that the location of the Roadblock was most likely in Hawaii before the Detour, though the exact location is unknown. However, this Roadblock was unaired.
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did kareem abdul jabbar scored 100 points in a game | List of Basketball players who have scored 100 points in a single game - wikipedia
In basketball, points are the sum of the score accumulated through field goals (two or three points) and free throws (one point). It is a rare achievement for an individual player to score 100 points in a single game. What follows is an incomplete list of all of the verified occurrences of players scoring 100 points or more. Each individual instance of the achievement may have had different circumstances surrounding it, such as game length, opponent skill level and the league in which it occurred.
Internationally, the highest single player total between national teams is 116 points, scored by the Philippines ' Luis "Lou '' Salvador in May 1923 against China. It happened during the 1923 Far Eastern Games. The highest single game total in worldwide organized basketball history, irrespective of gender, age or competition level, is 272 points, scored by a 13 - year - old boy named Mats Wermelin of Sweden. He recorded every single point in his team 's 272 -- 0 win on February 5, 1974, during a regional boys ' tournament held in Stockholm. The highest total by a female basketball player worldwide is 136, scored by Anat Draigor of Israel. It happened on April 5, 2006, in a 158 -- 41 win. Draigor was 46 years old playing in an Israel Division III League playoff game, which also makes her the oldest player in history to score 100 points. Only one player, other than the United States ' Bevo Francis and Jack Taylor, has recorded multiple 100 - point games in organized competition. Croatia 's Marin Ferenčević scored 101 and 178 points in April and May 2006, respectively, during Under - 14 Croatian League matches.
In the United States, 100 - point games have occurred at least once at most levels of education. At the middle school level, 13 - year - old 8th grader Bob Harrison scored all 139 of his team 's points in a 139 -- 8 win on February 3, 1941. In high school, there have been 24 verified occurrences, 19 by male players and 5 by female players. The first recorded instance was in 1913, when Herman Saygar of Culver High School (Indiana) scored 113 points against Winamac High School. The first female to score 100 points at the high school level was Denise Long of Union - Whitten High School (Iowa), who scored 111 points during a state playoff game in the spring of 1968 against Dows High School. That season, Long 's senior year of 1967 -- 68, she averaged a still - standing national record 68.2 points per game. Her single game total stood as the high school female record for 38 years until Epiphanny Prince scored 113 for Murry Bergtraum High School (New York) on February 2, 2006. The boys ' high school record is 135 points, scored by Danny Heater on January 26, 1960. Playing for Burnsville High School (West Virginia) against Widen High School, Heater made 53 of 70 field goals and 29 of 41 free throws. His 135 - point outburst is still the highest total for the high school level worldwide.
At the college level, there have been six 100 - point games, two of which were recorded by Clarence "Bevo '' Francis of Rio Grande College and two by Jack Taylor of Grinnell College. Francis scored 116 points against Ashland College on January 9, 1953, but the opponent was not a four - year institution, so the total did not count as the official college record. One year later, on February 2, 1954, Francis scored 113 against Hillsdale College, which had been the recognized highest total in United States college basketball history for 59 years; Grinnell 's Taylor scored 138 points on November 20, 2012 to set the new all - time NCAA all - divisions mark. He again recorded 100 + points on November 17, 2013 when he scored 109 against Crossroads College. Frank Selvy of Furman University is the only player to score 100 points at the Division I level. Selvy recorded exactly 100 points on February 13, 1954 -- less than two weeks after Francis scored 113 -- against Newberry College. He scored his 99th and 100th points on a 40 - foot shot as the final buzzer sounded.
Professionally, there have been a number of occurrences of 100 - point games worldwide. It has only happened once in the United States, however. Wilt Chamberlain of the National Basketball Association 's Philadelphia Warriors scored 100 points on March 2, 1962 against the New York Knicks during a game played at Hersheypark Arena in Hershey, Pennsylvania. He made 36 - of - 63 field goals and 28 - of - 32 free throws, the latter being a particularly boggling statistic considering Chamberlain was a 51.1 % free throw shooter for his career.
Most of the players ' exact statistics can not be found, but whatever information was able to be verified is included. When a dash (--) appears in the three - point field goal statistic, it indicates that three - pointers had yet to be implemented as a rule and were therefore not an applicable statistic.
According to Guinness World Records, Wermelin, a 13 - year - old boy, scored all 272 points in the shutout win in Stockholm during a regional boys tournament.
He scored 100 points 3 minutes before end of 2nd quarter. The game was a local U-14 Polish league match.
He also grabbed 22 rebounds and had 16 steals in the contest. The game was a local U-14 Croatian league match. His scoring by quarter went: 34, 61, 55, 28.
Kunter scored 81 points in the first half and 72 in the second half and set the Turkish Basketball League record.
Scored in a Greek Basket League game.
Scored in the first round of the 1985 -- 86 FIBA Korać Cup. It only took 26 minutes (of the 40 - minute game) for Babić to score 113 points.
Draigor 's total is recognized by Guinness World Records as the highest single game point total in women 's professional basketball history. When she accomplished the feat, she was a 46 - year - old mother and playing in an Israel Division III League playoff game. She scored 61 first - half points and 75 second - half points.
Scored during a III Liga (3rd division) game. Doliński was a former Polish National Team player. Record in Polish senior leagues.
Scored in a Rio de Janeiro State Championship game.
During local academic league game.
Scored at the British high school level.
The game was played at São Paulo State College, which was the location of a city tournament.
Set a new Philippine high school record during the Freego Tiong Lian Basketball Association Tournament.
Achieved in the gold medal game at the 1923 Far Eastern Games and still remains the highest single game total in international competition.
Scored during a game in Germany.
This was the first 100 - point performance in any official game of any league in a FIBA Asia member country. El Akkari had only been averaging 7.6 points per game until this game.
Scored in a Yugoslav First League game.
He set the Canadian high school single game record. Brown scored 51 first half points and 41 in the third quarter alone.
Matej was a 21 - year - old playing in the Croatian A2 League and fell two points shy of breaking Dražen Petrović 's record of 112. He thought he had broken the record and substituted out with 90 seconds remaining, but officials later revealed he had "only '' scored 111.
Highest total in Kosovar basketball history.
Set a Nicaraguan national scoring record.
Harris broke Michael Hackett 's seven - year - old Philippine Basketball Association record, which still stands to this day.
Set a then - Philippine high school record (later broken in October 2013).
Set a then - Philippine Basketball Association record.
Scored during a Liga Leumit (Division 2) game towards the beginning of the 1993 -- 94 season. Previously, in college, Bradshaw set the NCAA Division I single game scoring record with 72 points.
Scored during an Israeli Basketball Super League (Division 1) game. Due to financing issues, Beitar Ramat Gan played with youth players all season long, allowing several records, including this, to be set against them.
Ferenčević, 13 at the time, is the son of ex-basketball player Branko Ferenčević.
Scored during an Icelandic Division I game.
Set during Spar pokal. Petranović was 43 years old and played only three quarters.
He played 32 minutes. The game was a local U-20 Polish league match.
Set during the Philippines Stock Exchange Basketball Tournament semi-finals. He later repeated the feat in 1997 Class of ' 83 vs. Class of ' 82 at the St. Jude Catholic School Alumni Tournament semi-finals.
Chamberlain is the only NBA player to score 100 points in a single game. He also grabbed 25 rebounds in the performance.
Taylor set the NCAA all - division scoring record in the fast - paced Grinnell offense.
Initially recognized by both the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) as a college record, public uproar eventually forced NCAA to throw out the record because it did not occur in a game against a four - year institution. He had 61 points in the first half and scored all of his team 's points, a total of 55, in the fourth quarter.
Francis also set college records for field goals made and free throws made.
Occurred in the second game of the season. Scored 71 in the game before.
Similar to Bevo Francis 's games, this is not officially recognized by the NCAA due to it being played against a junior college.
The only occurrence of a 100 - point game at the NCAA Division I level. He scored his 99th and 100th points on a 40 - foot shot as the final buzzer sounded.
Since 1913, 19 male and six female players have scored 100 points or more in United States high school basketball games.
Heater set the world record for high school - level single game scoring, not just the United States ' record. He scored 85 points in the second half alone, including 55 in the final 10 minutes. Heater also collected 32 rebounds and 7 assists during the game.
Cimino scored all 69 of his team 's second half points.
Long averaged a still - standing national record 68.2 points per game during her senior year and finished her career with 6,250 points, a then - national record for girls ' high school basketball.
Robinson scored 62 points in the second half.
Johnson scored 71 first half points.
Leslie scored all 101 points in the first half alone; she scored 49 points in the first quarter and 52 in the second quarter. The opponent forfeited the game at halftime.
Hensley coincidentally scored 101 points on the same night as Dajuan Wagner scored 100 (listed below).
Coward scored 80 points in the second half.
Lorenzen scored a national prep record (boys or girls) of 6,736 points during her four - year career. Her 100 - point game was during six - on - six competition.
Wagner set the New Jersey state prep single game scoring record en route to setting the state career scoring mark of 3,462 points. He also substituted out of the game with four minutes remaining once he reached 100.
Harrison was a 5 ft 9 in (1.75 m), 13 - year old 8th grader from Toledo, Ohio. This game was played in eight - minute quarters on a regulation basketball court.
According to the Harvey Pollack NBA Statistical Yearbook, this occurred during an amateur league game.
It is believed to set a new organized street basketball scoring record, surpassing Fly Williams ' previous record of 100 set back in 1978. Played at Watson Gleason Playground in the Bronx, New York City, Fisher scored 72 points by the end of the third quarter and shot 23 - for - 28 from three - point range.
Set a then - record for organized street basketball during an IS8 League game in Jamaica, Queens, New York City.
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where is the image detector placed during an x-ray | X-ray detector - wikipedia
X-ray detectors are devices used to measure the flux, spatial distribution, spectrum, and / or other properties of X-rays.
Detectors can be divided into two major categories: imaging detectors (such as photographic plates and X-ray film (photographic film), now mostly replaced by various digitizing devices like image plates or flat panel detectors) and dose measurement devices (such as ionization chambers, Geiger counters, and dosimeters used to measure the local radiation exposure, dose, and / or dose rate, for example, for verifying that radiation protection equipment and procedures are effective on an ongoing basis).
To obtain an image with any type of image detector the part of the patient to be X-rayed is placed between the X-ray source and the image receptor to produce a shadow of the internal structure of that particular part of the body. X-rays are partially blocked ("attenuated '') by dense tissues such as bone, and pass more easily through soft tissues. Areas where the X-rays strike darken when developed, causing bones to appear lighter than the surrounding soft tissue.
Contrast compounds containing barium or iodine, which are radiopaque, can be ingested in the gastrointestinal tract (barium) or injected in the artery or veins to highlight these vessels. The contrast compounds have high atomic numbered elements in them that (like bone) essentially block the X-rays and hence the once hollow organ or vessel can be more readily seen. In the pursuit of nontoxic contrast materials, many types of high atomic number elements were evaluated. Unfortunately, some elements chosen proved to be harmful -- for example, thorium was once used as a contrast medium (Thorotrast) -- which turned out to be toxic, causing a very high incidence of cancer decades after use. Modern contrast material has improved and, while there is no way to determine who may have a sensitivity to the contrast, the incidence of serious allergic reactions is low.
Typical x-ray film contains silver halide crystal "grains '', typically primarily silver bromide. Grain size and composition can be adjusted to affect the film properties, for example to improve resolution in the developed image. When the film is exposed to radiation the halide is ionised and free electrons are trapped in crystal defects (forming a latent image). Silver ions are attracted to these defects and reduced, creating clusters of transparent silver atoms. In the developing process these are converted to opaque silver atoms which form the viewable image, darkest where the most radiation was detected. Further developing steps stabilise the sensitised grains and remove unsensitised grains to prevent further exposure (e.g. from visible light).
The first radiographs (X-ray images) were made by the action of X-rays on sensitized glass photographic plates. X-ray film (photographic film) soon replaced the glass plates, and film has been used for decades to acquire (and display) medical and industrial images. Gradually, digital computers gained the ability to store and display enough data to make digital imaging possible. Since the 1990s, computerized radiography and digital radiography have been replacing photographic film in medical and dental applications, though film technology remains in widespread use in industrial radiography processes (e.g. to inspect welded seams). The metal silver (formerly necessary to the radiographic & photographic industries) is a non-renewable resource although silver can easily be reclaimed from spent X-ray film. Where X-ray films required wet processing facilities, newer digital technologies do not. Digital archiving of images also saves physical storage space.
Because photographic plates are sensitive to X-rays, they provide a means of recording the image, but they also require much X-ray exposure (to the patient). The addition of a fluorescent intensifying screen (or screens) in close contact with the film allows a lower dose to the patient, because the screen (s) improve the efficiency of x-ray detection, making more activation of the film from the same amount of x-rays, or the same activation of the film from a smaller amount of x-rays.
Phosphor plate radiography is a method of recording X-rays using photostimulated luminescence (PSL), pioneered by Fuji in the 1980s. A photostimulable phosphor plate (PSP) is used in place of the photographic plate. After the plate is X-rayed, excited electrons in the phosphor material remain ' trapped ' in ' colour centres ' in the crystal lattice until stimulated by a laser beam passed over the plate surface. The light given off during laser stimulation is collected by a photomultiplier tube, and the resulting signal is converted into a digital image by computer technology. The PSP plate can be reused, and existing X-ray equipment requires no modification to use them. The technique may also be known as computed radiography (CR).
X-rays are also used in "real - time '' procedures such as angiography or contrast studies of the hollow organs (e.g. barium enema of the small or large intestine) using fluoroscopy. Angioplasty, medical interventions of the arterial system, rely heavily on X-ray - sensitive contrast to identify potentially treatable lesions.
Solid state detectors use semiconductors to detect x-rays. Direct digital detectors are so - called because they directly convert x-ray photons to electrical charge and thus a digital image. Indirect systems may have intervening steps for example first converting x-ray photons to visible light, and then an electronic signal. Both systems typically use thin film transistors to read out and convert the electronic signal to a digital image. Unlike film or CR no manual scanning or development step is required to obtain a digital image, and so in this sense both systems are "direct ''. Both types of system have considerably higher quantum efficiency than CR.
Since the 1970s, silicon or germanium doped with lithium (Si (Li) or Ge (Li)) semiconductor detectors have been developed. X-ray photons are converted to electron - hole pairs in the semiconductor and are collected to detect the X-rays. When the temperature is low enough (the detector is cooled by Peltier effect or even cooler liquid nitrogen), it is possible to directly determine the X-ray energy spectrum; this method is called energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX or EDS); it is often used in small X-ray fluorescence spectrometers. Silicon drift detectors (SDDs), produced by conventional semiconductor fabrication, now provide a cost - effective and high resolving power radiation measurement. Unlike conventional X-ray detectors, such as Si (Li), they do not need to be cooled with liquid nitrogen. These detectors are rarely used for imaging and are only efficient at low energies.
Practical application in medical imaging started in the early 2000s. Amorphous selenium is used in commercial large area flat panel X-ray detectors for mammography and general radiography due to its high spatial resolution and x-ray absorbing properties. However Selenium 's low atomic number means a thick layer is required to achieve sufficient sensitivity.
Cadmium telluride (Cd Te), and its alloy with zinc, cadmium zinc telluride, is considered one of the most promising semiconductor materials for x-ray detection due to its wide band - gap and high quantum number resulting in room temperature operation with high efficiency. Current applications include bone densitometry and SPECT but flat panel detectors suitable for radiographic imaging are not yet in production. Current research and development is focused around energy resolving pixel detectors, such as CERN 's Medipix detector and Science and Technology Facilities Council 's HEXITEC detector.
A common semiconductor diode, such as a 1N4001, will produce a small amount of current when placed in an X-ray beam. A test device once used by medical imaging service personnel was a small project box that contained several diodes of this type connected in series, which could be connected to an oscilloscope as a quick diagnostic.
Indirect detectors are made up of a scintillator to convert x-rays to visible light and a phosphor to convert the light to electrons, which is read by a TFT array. This can provide sensitivity advantages over current (amorphous selenium) direct detectors, albeit with a potential tradeoff in sensitivity. Indirect flat panel detectors (FPDs) are in widespread use today in medical, dental, veterinary, and industrial applications.
The TFT array consists of a sheet of glass covered with a thin layer of silicon that is in an amorphous or disordered state. At a microscopic scale, the silicon has been imprinted with millions of transistors arranged in a highly ordered array, like the grid on a sheet of graph paper. Each of these thin - film transistors (TFTs) is attached to a light - absorbing photodiode making up an individual pixel (picture element). Photons striking the photodiode are converted into two carriers of electrical charge, called electron - hole pairs. Since the number of charge carriers produced will vary with the intensity of incoming light photons, an electrical pattern is created that can be swiftly converted to a voltage and then a digital signal, which is interpreted by a computer to produce a digital image. Although silicon has outstanding electronic properties, it is not a particularly good absorber of X-ray photons. For this reason, X-rays first impinge upon scintillators made from such materials as gadolinium oxysulfide or caesium iodide. The scintillator absorbs the X-rays and converts them into visible light photons that then pass onto the photodiode array.
X-rays going through a gas will ionize it, producing positive ions and free electrons. An incoming photon will create a number of such ion pairs proportional to its energy. If there is an electric field in the gas chamber ions and electrons will move in different directions and thereby cause a detectable current. The behaviour of the gas will depend on the applied voltage and the geometry of the chamber. This gives rise to a few different types of gas detectors described below.
Ionization chambers use a relatively low electric field of about 100 V / cm to extract all ions and electrons before they recombine. This gives a steady current proportional to the dose rate the gas is exposed to. Ion chambers are widely used as hand held radiation survey meters to check radiation dose levels.
Proportional counters use a geometry with a thin positively charged anode wire in the center of a cylindrical chamber. Most of the gas volume will act as an ionization chamber, but in the region closest to the wire the electric field is high enough to make the electrons ionize gas molecules. This will create an avalanche effect greatly increasing the output signal. Since every electron cause an avalanche of approximately the same size the collected charge is proportional to the number of ion pairs created by the absorbed x-ray. This makes it possible to measure the energy of each incoming photon.
Geiger -- Müller counters use an even higher electric field so that UV - photons are created. These start new avalanches, eventually resulting in a total ionization of the gas around the anode wire. This makes the signal very strong, but causes a dead time after each event and makes it impossible to measure the X-ray energies.
Gas detectors are usually single pixel detectors measuring only the average dose rate over the gas volume or the number of interacting photons as explained above, but they can be made spatially resolving by having many crossed wires in a wire chamber.
It was demonstrated in the 1960s that silicon PN solar cells are suitable for detection of all forms of ionizing radiation including extreme UV, soft X-rays, and hard X-rays. This form of detection operates via photoionization, a process where ionizing radiation strikes an atom and releases a free electron. This type of broadband ionizing radiation sensor requires a solar cell, an ammeter, and a visible light filter on top of the solar cell that allows the ionizing radiation to hit the solar cell while blocking unwanted wavelengths.
Self - developing radiochromic film can provide very high resolution measurements, for dosimetry and profiling purposes, particularly in radiotherapy physics.
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who is the father of kate's baby in lost | Kate Austen - wikipedia
Katherine Anne "Kate '' Austen is a fictional character on the ABC television series Lost, played by Canadian actress Evangeline Lilly. Before the pilot was shot during the writing phase, Kate was to emerge as the leader for the survivors, motivating them to build shelter and begin considering life as permanent residents of the island, however when it was decided Jack should survive, she was a second - in - command. In this original description for Kate, she was a slightly older woman separated from her husband, who went to the bathroom in the tail - section of the plane. However, that idea ended up being used for Rose Henderson (L. Scott Caldwell) and her husband Bernard Nadler (Sam Anderson). Kate is involved in a love triangle with Jack and Sawyer (Josh Holloway) and is seen as very protective of Claire (Emilie de Ravin) and her baby Aaron.
Born in 1977 and raised in Iowa, Kate is the daughter of diner worker Diane (Beth Broderick), and Sam (Lindsey Ginter), a U.S. Army Ranger and Gulf War Veteran. At an early age Kate 's parents divorced, and Diane married an abusive alcoholic named Wayne Janssen (James Horan). As an adult, Kate killed Wayne, which she confessed to her mother before disappearing. Wayne had always been abusive to her mother, but Kate decided to kill him upon learning that he was her biological father. Diane called the authorities; thereafter Kate is pursued and ultimately arrested by Edward Mars (Fredric Lehne).
Kate fled to Miami under the alias "Monica '', where she dated and soon married a police officer named Kevin Callis (Nathan Fillion). After a pregnancy scare and Kevin 's purchase of two Oceanic tickets to Costa Rica for their honeymoon, Kate confessed her fugitive past and laced his drink with a sedative before disappearing. After months of traveling around the country under numerous aliases, Kate learned that Diane was dying of cancer, and decided to visit her. She reunited with her high - school sweetheart, Dr. Tom Brennan (Mackenzie Astin), who arranged a meeting between Kate and Diane. As Kate tried to apologize to her, Diane started screaming for help, prompting Kate to flee the hospital with Tom. A policeman opened fire on their getaway car, killing Tom and forcing Kate to flee the scene of the accident.
Months later Kate staged a robbery in New Mexico with several criminals to infiltrate a bank 's safe deposit box. Tom 's toy airplane was being stored in box 815, the same number as the crashed flight number. She fled to Australia where, while sleeping in a barn, she was discovered by a farmer, Ray Mullens (Nick Tate). Posing as a Canadian hiker, Kate worked on the farm for three months. When the farmer caught her attempting to sneak away, he offered her a ride into town the next morning. During the journey however, Kate discovered that the farmer had found out her true identity and notified Edward Mars of her whereabouts. Kate grabbed the wheel and crashed the truck into a field but instead of running, she helped the unconscious farmer from his vehicle, giving Mars time to pursue and arrest her. Escorting her to the airport in handcuffs, Mars briefed local security officers on Kate 's fugitive past and revealed his locked carry - on case containing four firearms (and a fifth in an ankle holster). As the plane was bombarded with escalating turbulence, Mars was knocked unconscious by luggage from the overhead compartment. Kate stole the keys to the handcuffs and attached an oxygen mask to Mars and for herself, as the plane splintered and crashed onto the island.
Having survived the crash, Jack Shephard noticed Kate walking out of the jungle and asked her to stitch his wound, to which she agreed reluctantly. During their second day on the Island - Jack, Kate and Charlie Pace (Dominic Monaghan) went to retrieve the cockpit 's transceiver from the plane debris. They tried to rescue the injured Pilot, but the Smoke Monster attacked them. When they returned; Kate, Sayid Jarrah (Naveen Andrews) and several other survivors hiked to higher ground of the Island to transmit a distress signal on the transceiver.
Back at the camp, Kate visited the injured Marshal where he attempted to strangle her. Kate told Jack that he should euthanize the dying man, but Jack questioned her true motives when he learned about her criminal record. She went on a mission to triangulate the distress signal, and helped an injured Michael Dawson back to the camp. Jack suggested that the survivors move to the caves that he had discovered, but Kate refused because she was afraid of "digging in '' and settling down.
When Kate discovered the Marshal 's case; she and Sawyer had several fights to gain it in their possession. Eventually - Kate asked Jack for his help; he retrieved the case and decided that he should open it with Kate. Inside the case was Tom 's toy plane. Jack questioned her about the toy, and she admitted the plane belonged to the man that she loved and killed.
Maintaining a helpful attitude; Kate - along with Jack - attempted to track down Claire and Charlie when they were kidnapped by Ethan. They were able to find and revive a hanging Charlie; and later, she helped to capture Ethan. Kate was forced to deliver Claire 's baby by herself when Jack was trying to save Boone 's life.
Kate tried to gain a place on Michael 's raft by attempting to steal Sawyer and Jin 's places. She convinced Jin 's wife, Sun to poison his water to ensure that he would not be able to travel on the raft. In preparation for the trip, Kate stole a dead woman 's passport to assume her identity. However - Michael accused Sawyer of Michael 's poisoning, which led to Sawyer revealing her fugitive status to the other survivors.
After Rousseau arrived on the beach to warn the camp of the Others ' imminent arrival; she directed Kate, Jack, Locke, and Hurley to the Black Rock - where they attempted to carry dynamite to the hatch that was discovered in the jungle.
Kate and Locke descend into the hatch, Kate entering first. Once inside, she is locked up by Desmond. Kate arrives in a room with a computer, where she overpowers Desmond after Jack arrives. She accidentally damages the computer in the crossfire, causing Desmond to panic and flee. Kate is placed on a rotation to enter a certain set of numbers every 108 minutes into the computer, supposedly saving the world.
While picking fruit Kate sees a black horse from her past. When she returns to the hatch she hallucinates that Wayne is channeled through unconscious injured Sawyer and Kate freaks out. Jack finds her alone in the jungle and tries to comfort her. Kate kisses Jack on impulse, then runs away once she realizes what she 's done. She eventually returns to the Hatch to tend Sawyer. They venture outside and both witness the black horse lingering nearby. When Michael runs off in search of his son, Kate follows him, but is kidnapped. After Jack refuses Tom 's demands to hand over the guns, Kate is brought out and held at gunpoint to force the men to give up their guns.
When Claire 's baby falls ill, Kate joins her on a trek into the jungle to seek Rousseau 's help. The three head inland, where they discover the Staff station. Later, Kate and Jack discover a mysterious and unnoticed food drop in the jungle. They return to the hatch, where hostage "Henry Gale '' is exposed as an impostor. Later, Kate joins Jack on a trek back to where they encountered the Others. The two make camp and Kate apologizes for kissing him in the jungle. Jack tells her that he is not sorry that she kissed him and they are about to kiss again when an exhausted Michael stumbles out of the bushes. Michael invites her to follow him to the Others ' camp when he recovers. The next day, Kate, Jack, Sawyer and Hurley join Michael Dawson as they head for the Others ' camp. They are ambushed, gagged, tied up and taken to a pier.
Kate is placed in a cage opposite Sawyer to work for the Others, under the eye of Pickett. Sawyer discovers they are actually on another island, and tries to keep the information from Kate so as to give her hope. When Jack contacts her via Pickett 's radio, informing her that she has a head - start to escape, she and Sawyer run towards the beach. They encounter Alex, who gives them her boat
When arriving on the beach, she scolds Sayid and Locke for not bothering to rescue Jack. They head into the jungle and find Rousseau, who agrees to help them after learning of Alex 's status. The four trek into the jungle, where they discover the Flame station. There they confront the Other Mikhail and take him hostage. The four resume their hike, eventually arriving at the Others ' barracks, and see Jack socializing with the Others. That evening, Kate approaches Jack, but the Others capture Sayid and her. When they are alone, Jack explains to Kate that he has made a deal with The Others. In exchange for saving Ben 's life, Jack will be allowed to return home. He promises Kate that he will come back for her and the rest of their friends. But Locke blows up the Other 's submarine before Jack can leave. The following day, Kate is gassed by the Others and wakes up in the jungle, handcuffed to Juliet. They eventually return to the beach with Jack and Sayid.
Upon returning, Kate is still wary of Juliet, and becomes especially jealous of Juliet 's developing relationship with Jack. Later, she learns of Naomi 's arrival. Kate is then shown Jack and Juliet 's plan to deal with the Others ' imminent attack while the majority travels to the radio tower. En route, Sawyer tells Kate that he 's turning back to help the survivors on the beach. Kate wants to go with him, but Sawyer wo n't let her, and Jack defends Sawyer 's actions, knowing that Sawyer is trying to protect Kate. When Kate asks why he is sticking up for Sawyer because she knows Sawyer would never stick up for Jack, Jack replies that it 's because he (Jack) loves her. They eventually encounter Ben and Alex in the jungle, at which point Ben is taken hostage.
Kate follows a trail of Naomi 's blood until being attacked by Naomi, who suddenly dies. After a confrontation between Jack and Locke, Kate decides to stay with Jack, but questions Sawyer when he decides to go with Locke. Later, they come across Daniel Faraday, whom they believe has arrived to rescue them. After finding Miles, Kate and Jack find themselves at gunpoint until she takes them to Naomi 's body.
Later, they team up with Frank, who managed to arrive on the island with the helicopter. Upon learning of the location of the final team member, Charlotte Staples Lewis, Kate accompanies Sayid and Miles to the barracks. They are eventually captured by Locke. Kate decides to remain at the barracks, in an attempt to extract information from Miles. She arranges for him to speak to Ben, but is caught by Locke. She spends the night with Sawyer (although they did not have sex) and tells him that she is not pregnant. They argue over his exaggerated show of relief. Sawyer accuses her of bouncing back and forth between him and Jack. Kate slaps him on the face and then heads back to the beach. When Sawyer returns with Miles and Aaron, she also takes over as Aaron 's primary caretaker when Sawyer reveals that Claire has gone missing. Later, Sayid and Kate follow Jack and Sawyer to avoid them being attacked by the boat 's soldiers. They meet up with the remaining Others and join forces to defeat the boat 's soldiers. They all board Lapidus ' helicopter, but as they travel back to the freighter a fuel leak is discovered, and after all the excess weight is thrown out, Sawyer kisses Kate, then asks her to do a favor for him back home and jumps out.
In "Eggtown '', Kate goes on trial for her father 's murder. Jack testifies on her behalf as a character witness. He lies under oath and tells the court that it was Kate that saved him and the other survivors. Under cross-examination, he is asked whether he loves the defendant and he replies "Not anymore. '' Kate looks crestfallen and demands that Jack 's testimony cease. Kate 's mother, the prosecution 's star witness, tries to reconcile with Kate, and then decides not to testify. She is consequently released on ten years probation, provided that she does not leave California. Kate meets ups with Jack after she is released and he confesses to her that he lied on the stand (about no longer loving her) and Kate is delighted. She invites him to come home with her, but he hesitates because he is not ready to see Aaron (his nephew) again. In "Something Nice Back Home '', Kate is seen living in an established relationship with Jack, who is also acting as a surrogate father for his nephew Aaron. Later, Jack asks Kate to marry him, which she happily accepts. Jack later confronts Kate about her "errands '', which involved her meeting with Sawyer 's daughter; Clementine and his ex-girlfriend Cassidy. Kate refuses to tell Jack any details about this, as she knows Sawyer would not want anybody else to know. Jack is angered by her secrecy and raises his voice, waking Aaron up. Kate rushes to comfort him then Jack leaves, paranoid, ending their relationship.
In "Through the Looking Glass '', Jack informs her of John Locke 's funeral. Jack then tells her that they need to return to the island, but Kate grows furious and leaves.
Kate is surprisingly confronted by Dan Norton, a lawyer who is asking for a blood sample from both her and Aaron to determine their biological relationship. Norton refuses to tell Kate who his client is, and Kate refuses to give him a blood sample. Kate visits Sun, who convinces her to go see Norton and try to get him to reveal who his client is. Kate leaves Aaron in Sun 's care while visiting Norton 's firm, but can not get a name out of him. Kate and Jack follow Norton to his clients house, who turns out to be Claire 's mother. Jack goes in to talk to her and then realizes that she is n't the client they were looking for. When approached by Ben later, Kate discovers that he was the one who was trying to get a blood sample from her.
Kate realizes that she is not supposed to raise Aaron and leaves him in the care of Claire 's mother. She goes to Jack 's apartment and they spend the night together. She returns to the island with the other survivors on flight 316. Sawyer explains that the year is 1977 and secretly gets her, Jack and Hurley to join the Dharma Initiative. Sayid shoots a young Ben Linus and Kate and Sawyer save his life by bringing him to Richard Alpert. After refusing to aid Jack in his plans to detonate the hydrogen bomb, Kate returns to the Dharma Initiative, to then be put on the Dharma sub with Sawyer and Juliet. However, she insists that the three leave the submarine to prevent Jack from detonating the bomb. When the three return to the island, they eventually reunite with Jack, Jin, Sayid and Hurley. Although Sawyer tries to persuade Jack not to use the bomb, his efforts are in vain and they fight. Kate tells Jack that if he really believes that detonating the bomb is the best thing, then she will help him, while Sawyer reluctantly agrees to go along with the plan after Juliet also takes Jack 's side. Kate assists Jack in getting the bomb to the required location, but when he drops it down a tunnel, it does not go off, despite the fact that it is supposed to explode on impact. Jack, Kate, Sawyer and Juliet are shocked, but immediately, the Dharma drill that had been drilling deep into the pocket of magnetic energy that Jack was trying to contain went too far, and Juliet is ultimately dragged down the tunnel, into the source of the energy. Kate and Sawyer try to get her out but the strength of the magnetism is too much and she is pulled into the tunnel. Kate attempts to remove a distressed Sawyer from the scene along with Jack, unaware that Juliet remains conscious for now and desperately attempts to detonate the bomb, eventually succeeding.
Kate continues her mission to reunite Claire with Aaron. When she eventually finds her, she discovers that a dark side has grown in Claire, who has become unstable due to many years of living alone, in the belief that the others are holding her son hostage in a Temple. Sawyer escapes from the Temple and Kate follows him to apologize for the loss of Juliet and to ask him to help her find Claire. Sawyer assures Kate she is not to blame, and reveals his intention to propose to Juliet. Kate breaks down, and ultimately returns to the Temple to get Claire. When Kate joins the Man in Black 's camp, after Claire learns that it was Kate who took Aaron and attempts to murder Kate by throwing her to the ground and pulling a knife on her. Kate is saved by ' Locke ' and seeing that Kate is upset by the loss of Claire 's friendship, warns her that Claire should not be reunited with Aaron as she is now ' crazy '. Claire later tearfully apologises for her actions and thanks Kate for keeping her son safe.
Kate, (who has since grouped up with ' Locke ') plans a breakout from the Man in Black 's party, Kate wants to bring Claire but Sawyer refuses, saying she is no longer the friend they once knew following her attack on Kate. When Claire sees them leaving her behind again she gives chase and holds them at gunpoint just as they attempt to board a boat to escape. Kate talks Claire around, convincing her to come with them so she can finally go home to her son.
The group try to leave on Widmore 's sub, and Kate is shot through the right collarbone. Once on board, while Jack is tending to Kate 's wound, they discover that the Man in Black has placed a C4 explosive on board. Sawyer inadvertently causes the timer to count down faster and Sayid, Jin and Sun are killed in the resulting explosion. Jack asks Hurley to take care of Kate and make sure that he takes her to safety off the sinking vessel. On the shore, Kate races over to Jack and is relieved to find him safe. Kate, Jack and Hurley mourn the loss of their friends while Sawyer remains unconscious.
As the Man in Black starts to destroy the Island, Kate helps Jack kill him by shooting him. Jack is wounded in the fight with ' Locke ' and he and Kate part for the final time due to their different destinies. Jack and Kate share a passionate kiss and declare their love for each other one last time before Jack leaves with Hurley to save the Island, and Kate goes to fulfill her promise to find Claire before departing on the Ajira plane, piloted by Frank. Along the way, they find Claire, who is scared to leave the island as she feels she is no longer a fit mother. Kate convinces her that her worries are normal and promises to help her. Kate escapes the island on the plane with Claire, Sawyer, Miles, Frank and Richard - Kate hand in hand with Claire.
In the Sideways, Kate remembers her life when she helps deliver Aaron at the concert. Kate waits at the concert so she can reunite with Jack. She finds him and tells him "I 've missed you so much '', a reference that she probably lived a long life after leaving the Island and missed Jack profoundly. Jack eventually awakens and remembers Kate and his friends. Together with Jack at her side, they move on together.
Around 75 women of different shapes, sizes, ethnicities and ages auditioned to be Kate, including Yunjin Kim, who later played the role of Sun - Hwa Kwon. In the initial plans, Jack was going to die midway through the first episode and then Kate would emerge as the leader. She was not going to be a fugitive, instead her husband was going to go to the bathroom shortly before the plane split in mid-air and she would remain adamant on the Island that he was alive. This ended up being used for Rose 's character. The producers were impressed with Canadian Evangeline Lilly 's audition, as she displayed the confidence with vulnerability that they were looking for. As this was Lilly 's first role, she had difficulty obtaining a visa to work in the United States. She was supposed to start on the first day of filming, but the schedule was rearranged to give her more time and, in the meantime, the producers began auditioning again in case the visa did not come through. However, during one of the auditions, they got an email confirming that she had obtained her visa and could start work on the show. Executive producer Damon Lindelof told about Lilly 's casting:
Robert Bianco of USA Today said Lilly 's performance in the season four episode "Eggtown '' was worthy of a Primetime Emmy Award nomination. Alan Sepinwall of The Star - Ledger did not find Kate to be "nearly as compelling a central character as Sayid or Hurley (or some of the freighter people, for that matter). '' Lilly 's performance in "Whatever Happened, Happened '' also received praise from TV critics and fans of the show alike. Lilly got a Golden Globe nomination for best dramatic actress in a lead role for her work in season 3.
In 2007, the character was voted # 1 Sexiest Woman on Television by TV Guide and made FHM 's Top Sexiest. Lifestyle website Beliefnet named her among the Top 10 Most Empowering Women on TV Today.
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how many mass shootings in australia before gun control | List of massacres in Australia - Wikipedia
The following is a list of massacres and mass murders that have occurred in Australia and its predecessors (numbers may be approximate).
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who made rock around the clock (used in the tv show happy days) popular in the 1950s | Rock Around the Clock - wikipedia
"Rock Around the Clock '' is a rock and roll song in the 12 - bar blues format written by Max C. Freedman and James E. Myers (the latter under the pseudonym "Jimmy De Knight '') in 1952. The best - known and most successful rendition was recorded by Bill Haley & His Comets in 1954 for American Decca. It was a number one single on both the United States and United Kingdom charts and also re-entered the UK Singles Chart in the 1960s and 1970s.
It was not the first rock and roll record, nor was it the first successful record of the genre (Bill Haley had American chart success with "Crazy Man, Crazy '' in 1953, and in 1954, "Shake, Rattle and Roll '' sung by Big Joe Turner reached No. 1 on the Billboard R&B chart). Haley 's recording nevertheless became an anthem for rebellious 1950s youth and is widely considered to be the song that, more than any other, brought rock and roll into mainstream culture around the world. The song is ranked No. 158 on the Rolling Stone magazine 's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.
Although first recorded by Italian - American band Sonny Dae and His Knights on March 20, 1954, Myers claimed the song had been written specifically for Haley but, for various reasons, Haley was unable to record it himself until April 12, 1954.
The original full title of the song was "We 're Gonna Rock Around the Clock Tonight! ''. This was later shortened to "(We 're Gonna) Rock Around the Clock '', though this form is generally only used on releases of the 1954 Bill Haley Decca Records recording; most other recordings of this song by Haley and others (including Sonny Dae) shorten this title further to "Rock Around the Clock ''.
In 2018, it was selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or artistically significant. ''
There are sources that indicate that "Rock Around the Clock '' was written in 1953, but documents uncovered by historian Jim Dawson indicate it was in fact written in late 1952. The original arrangement of the song bore little resemblance to the version recorded by Haley, and was in fact closer to a popular instrumental of the day called "The Syncopated Clock '' (written by Leroy Anderson).
The song was credited to Myers (as "Jimmy DeKnight '') and Max C. Freedman when copyrighted on March 31, 1953, although its exact authorship is disputed, with many speculating that Freedman wrote the song on his own. There were several earlier songs of the title "Rock Around the Clock '' (by Hal Singer and Wally Mercer), but they are unrelated to the Freedman / Myers song. In addition, it is sometimes erroneously stated that "Rock Around the Clock '' is copied from a late - 1940s Big Joe Turner recording, "Around the Clock Blues ''. Aside from title similarity, however, the two songs bear little resemblance. There are many blues songs with the theme of partying or making love "round the clock '', with various actions specified at various hours.
However, the verse melody of "Rock Around the Clock '' does bear a very close similarity to that of Hank Williams ' first hit, "Move It On Over '', from 1947. Williams ' song was very similar to Charley Patton 's "Going to Move to Alabama '', recorded in 1929 -- which itself was at least partly derived from Jim Jackson 's "Kansas City Blues '' from 1927. The song also uses phrases from Count Basie 's "Red Wagon '', first recorded in 1939.
According to the Haley biographies Bill Haley by John Swenson and Rock Around the Clock by Dawson, the song was offered to Haley by Jimmy Myers in the wake of his first national success "Crazy Man, Crazy '' in 1953, after being copyrighted with the U.S. Library of Congress on March 31. Haley and his Comets began performing the song on stage (Comets bass player Marshall Lytle and drummer Dick Richards say the first performances were in Wildwood, New Jersey at Phil and Eddie 's Surf Club), but Dave Miller, his producer, refused to allow Haley to record it for his Essex Records label (Swenson suggests a feud existed between Myers and Miller).
Haley himself claimed to have taken the sheet music into the recording studio at least twice, with Miller ripping up the music each time. Nonetheless, rumors of a 1953 demo recording by Haley persist to this day, although surviving members of the Comets deny this, as did Haley himself (quoted in the Swenson biography); a late - 1960s bootleg single of the DECCA Records version of "Rock Around the Clock '', with "Crazy Man, Crazy '' on the B - side and carrying the Essex label, occasionally turns up for sale with the claim that it is the demo version.
Myers next offered the song to and organized the recording by Sonny Dae & His Knights, a novelty all - white musical group led by Italian - American Paschal Vennitti. The group 's subsequent recording, on the Arcade Records label (owned by Haley 's manager, Jack Howard), was a regional success, although it sounded very different from what Haley would later record.
After leaving Essex Records in the spring of 1954, Bill Haley signed with Decca Records, and the band 's first recording session was set for April 12, 1954 at the Pythian Temple studios in New York City. The recording session almost failed to take place because the band was traveling on a ferry that got stuck on a sandbar en route to New York from Philadelphia. Once at the studio, producer Milt Gabler (Uncle of actor Billy Crystal, who had produced Louis Jordan as well as Billie Holiday), insisted the band work on a song entitled "Thirteen Women (and Only One Man in Town) '' (previously written and recorded by Dickie Thompson), which Gabler wanted to promote as the A-side of the group 's first single for Decca.
Near the end of the session, the band finally recorded a take of "Rock Around the Clock, '' but Haley 's vocals were drowned out by the band. A second take was quickly made with minimal accompaniment while Sammy Davis, Jr. waited outside the studio for his turn behind the microphone. Decca engineers later combined the two versions into one version. (Comets piano player Johnny Grande tells a slightly different version, claiming that the only reason a second take was recorded was that the drummer made an error.)
Many musicians have claimed that they performed on the recording session for "Rock Around the Clock. '' Song co-writer Myers once claimed he had played drums on the piece, although he also claimed to have been advising the sound mixer in the recording booth. According to the official record sheet from the session, however, the musicians on the famous recording are:
Dick Richards, Haley 's drummer at the time, confirmed in a 2016 interview with Dutch journalist Gerbren Deves, that it was not him, but Gussak playing drums on the recording. Despite not being members of Bill Haley and His Comets, Gussak and Cedrone were trusted session players that Haley had used before. Cedrone 's guitar solo was one that he used before on Bill Haley And The Saddlemen 's version of "Rock the Joint '' in 1952, and is considered one of the classic rock and roll guitar solos of all time. (Cedrone died in a fall down a stairway on June 17, 1954 and never lived to see his contribution become famous and legendary.) The second instrumental break recreates a popular rhythm and blues "out chorus '' with tenor sax and guitar emulating the rhythm section.
The version of "Rock Around the Clock '' that was used in the movie Blackboard Jungle differs from the hit single version. The difference is in the two solo breaks. The record has the guitar solo taking the first break and the sax solo taking the second break. The movie version is just the opposite with the sax solo coming first.
In a 2005 retrospective on his uncle Milt Gabler 's work (The Milt Gabler Story), Billy Crystal identifies Haley 's 1954 recording of "Rock Around the Clock '' as the single most important song Gabler ever produced. Gabler had previously been responsible for the highly successful string of R&B and jump blues recordings by Louis Jordan in the late 1940s, which were characterised by their strong beat, clearly enunciated lyrics and high production values, all features which Gabler sought to repeat in Haley 's recordings. Also significantly, "Rock Around The Clock '' was recorded in the very same month that Atlantic Records issued Big Joe Turner 's "Shake, Rattle and Roll ''. In relation to "Rock Around The Clock '', Gabler said: "I was aware that rock was starting. I knew what was happening in the Philadelphia area, and "Crazy Man, Crazy '' had been a hit about a year before that. It already was starting and I wanted to take it from there. ''
As Gabler intended, "Rock Around the Clock '' was first issued in May 1954 as a B - side to "Thirteen Women (and Only One Man in Town). '' While the song did make the American Cashbox music charts (contrary to popular opinion that it was a flop), it was considered a commercial disappointment. It was not until 1955, when "Rock Around the Clock '' was used under the opening credits of the film Blackboard Jungle, that the song truly took off.
Many versions of the story behind how "Rock Around the Clock '' was chosen for Blackboard Jungle circulated over the years. Recent research, however, reveals that the song was chosen from the collection of young Peter Ford, the son of Blackboard Jungle star Glenn Ford and dancer Eleanor Powell. The producers were looking for a song to represent the type of music the youth of 1955 was listening to, and the elder Ford borrowed several records from his son 's collection, one of which was Haley 's "Rock Around the Clock '' and this was the song chosen. In 2004 the song finished at # 50 in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs survey of top tunes in American cinema.
On July 9, 1955 "Rock Around the Clock '' became the first rock and roll recording to hit the top of Billboard 's Pop charts, a feat it repeated on charts around the world. The song stayed at this place for eight weeks. The record was also no. 1 for seven weeks on the Cashbox pop singles chart in 1955. The Bill Haley version also hit number three on the R&B charts. Billboard ranked it as the No. 2 song for 1955.
In the UK, Haley 's "Rock Around the Clock '' was released on Brunswick Records (and Germany as well), reaching number 17 on the UK Singles Chart in January 1955, four months before it first entered the US pop charts. (Coincidentally, it reached the same position as was reached by The Beatles ' first single, "Love Me Do '', in 1962). The song re-entered the UK chart to reach number one in November 1955 for three weeks, and after a three - week break returned there for a further two weeks in January 1956. It re-entered the charts again in September 1956, reaching number 5. The song was re-issued in 1968, when it made number 20, and again in 1974, when it reached number 12. The song 's original release saw it become the UK 's first million selling single and it went on to sell over 1.4 million copies in total.
The band performed the song on the May 31, 1955 episode of the Texaco Star Theater hosted by Milton Berle in an a cappella and lip - synched versions. On Sunday, August 7, 1955, the band performed the song on the Ed Sullivan Show or Toast of the Town hosted by Ed Sullivan.
On the heels of the song breaking into the Top 20 in the UK in 1968, Decca began plugging the single in the US, where it briefly re-entered the Billboard charts in June 1968, peaking at # 118.
"Rock Around the Clock '' became wildly popular with teenagers around the world. The single, released by independent label Festival Records in Australia, was the biggest - selling recording in the country at the time. Columbia Pictures cashed in on the new craze by hiring Haley and his band to star in two quickie movies, Rock Around the Clock (1956) and Do n't Knock the Rock (1957). In 1957, Haley toured Europe, bringing rock ' n ' roll to that continent for the first time.
' It 's very hard to tell what made me first decide to play the guitar. Rock Around the Clock by Bill Haley came out when I was ten, and that probably had something to do with it. '
In 1964, Bill Haley and His Comets recorded a sequel song entitled "Dance Around the Clock ''. Haley actually recorded this song on five occasions (a Spanish - language version for Orfeón of Mexico City and an English version for the US label Newtown Records (both in 1964), two live versions for Buddah Records recorded in New York in 1969 (neither of which were released for 25 years), and once more in Nashville, Tennessee for the Swedish Sonet Records label in 1970). Despite these efforts, the song was not a commercial success.
Haley would re-record "Rock Around the Clock '' many times over the years (even scoring a substantial hit with a version recorded for Sonet Records in 1968), but never recaptured the magic. In 1974, the original version of the song returned to the American charts when it was used as the theme for the movie American Graffiti and a re-recorded version by Haley was used as the opening theme for the TV series Happy Days during its first two seasons. In the UK, the song again reached the top 20 and as of 2013 remains the only non-Christmas single to have done so on five separate occasions. The original version was also featured in the 1978 film Superman, heard playing on a car radio just prior to Glenn Ford 's final scene in the film; Ford, as noted earlier, had starred in Blackboard Jungle.
During the 1970s Haley shortened his performances of "Rock Around the Clock '', dropping one verse and the second instrumental break from most performances. However, his last known recorded performance of the song, at a November 1979 command performance for Queen Elizabeth II, was a complete version.
Following Haley 's death in February 1981, a number of major tributes involving "Rock Around the Clock '' occurred. That fall, a TV special marking the 30th anniversary of American Bandstand saw an all - star "supergroup '' perform the song (accompanied by 1950s - era footage of Haley and the Comets). In 1982, Haley 's original recording was given the Grammy Hall of Fame Award. An excerpt from the recording was included in "Haley 's Golden Medley '', a hastily compiled single in the "Stars on 45 '' mold which made the UK record charts in 1982, reaching number 50. In 1989, Haley 's original Decca recording was incorporated into the "dance mix '' single "Swing The Mood '', credited to Jive Bunny and the Mastermixers, but legal considerations forced the album version to substitute a patchwork of re-recordings from the 1950s and 1960s (in Haley 's case, a 1968 version of "Rock Around the Clock '' recorded for Sonet Records). Since "Swing the Mood '' was still on the sales charts going into 1990, it meant that Haley 's "Rock Around the Clock '', in one way or another, appeared on UK or US sales charts in five consecutive decades.
"Rock Around the Clock '' is often cited as the biggest - selling vinyl rock and roll single of all time. The exact number of copies sold has never been audited; however, a figure of at least 25 million was cited by the Guinness Book of World Records in its category "Phonograph records: Biggest Sellers '' from the early 1970s until the 1990s, when the advent of compact discs led to Guinness discontinuing the category. Guinness consistently listed "Rock Around the Clock '' as having the highest claim of any pop music recording, coming second in sales only to Bing Crosby 's 1942 recording of "White Christmas '', which was also listed as having sold 25 million copies with a further estimated 100 million copies sold in other versions. Sales figures as high as 35 to 40 million have been cited in various reference books and by media, as have lower numbers in the 15 -- 22 million range, whilst a "more than 30 million copies '' figure was quoted by Star, as early as 1983, on back cover page of Swenson 's book. A frequently used piece of promotion regarding the song is that it is said to be playing somewhere in the world every minute of the day.
Although originally released to vinyl at a running time of 2 minutes and 8 seconds, most digital / CD releases of the original 1954 recording, starting with the "From The Original Master Tapes '' compilation of Bill 's work with Decca Records, mastered by Steve Hoffman and released in 1985, clock in at 2: 10. This is due to the inclusion of a "count - in '' by one of the Comets (saying, "One... two '') at the very start of the song. This was never included in the original single or album releases of the song. (All of Haley 's subsequent studio rerecordings of the song run longer than 2: 10 with the exception of the abbreviated version recorded for Happy Days). Versions of Haley 's song that run longer than 2: 10 will lack the electric guitar sound of Danny Cedrone and the double bass lines of Marshall Lytle. Any version recorded after the 1950s will also feature an electric bass player, such versions being included in most general rock compilations.
In tribute to the influence of the song and the movie that launched its popularity, the March 29, 2005 50th anniversary of the opening of Blackboard Jungle was marked by several large celebrations in the United States organized by promoter Martin Lewis under the blanket title "Rock Is Fifty ''. Rock Is Fifty also hosted additional celebrations in Los Angeles in July, 2005, as part of a "Rock Around the Clock - a-Thon '' to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the date the song reached the No. 1 spot on the American charts, as well as to observe what would have been Haley 's 80th birthday. These events included numerous appearances and performances by surviving members of the original Comets, including the band 's induction into the Rock Walk hall of fame, a performance at the Viper Room club on the Sunset Strip, and a special performance for employees of NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena to celebrate the success of the Deep Impact space probe. A special video of "Rock Around the Clock '' was created to mark the occasion and was featured on NASA 's website during July and August 2005. The anniversary was also marked by the publication of a book entirely devoted to the history of the song, Rock Around the Clock: The Record That Started the Rock Revolution, by Jim Dawson.
The United States House of Representatives also recognized the 40th anniversary of the composing of "Rock Around the Clock '' with a special statement by Rep. Robert A. Borski of Pennsylvania, which was read into the Congressional Record on March 31, 1993.
A band from Belgium named Telex covered it in 1978. They performed the song on Top of the Pops.
Haley 's version appears in a 2017 TV commercial for Subway 's Reuben sandwich promotion.
As Bill Haley 's best - known recording, there have been dozens of compilation album releases over the years entitled Rock Around the Clock. The most notable of these compilations was the 1955 Decca Records album Rock Around the Clock (Decca DL 8225) which contained most of the tracks Haley recorded as singles for the label in 1954 and 1955.
Another notable album release entitled Rock Around the Clock was the 1970 Hallmark Records UK release Rock Around the Clock (SHM 668) which was the first British release of a 1968 album entitled Bill Haley 's Biggest Hits which had been released in Sweden by Sonet Records. The album consisted of newly recorded renderings of Haley classics from the 1950s, along with some previously unrecorded songs.
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who was the conflict between in the strife of bleeding kansas | Bleeding Kansas - wikipedia
Bleeding Kansas, Bloody Kansas or the Border War was a series of violent political confrontations in the United States between 1854 and 1861 involving anti-slavery "Free - Staters '' and pro-slavery "Border Ruffian '', or "southern '' elements in Kansas. At the heart of the conflict was the question of whether Kansas would allow or outlaw slavery, and thus enter the Union as a slave state or a free state. The Kansas -- Nebraska Act of 1854 called for "popular sovereignty '' -- that is, the decision about slavery was to be made by the settlers (rather than outsiders). It would be decided by votes -- or more exactly which side had more votes counted by officials. Pro-slavery forces said every settler had the right to bring his own property, including slaves, into the territory. Anti-slavery "free soil '' forces said the rich slaveholders would buy up all the good farmland and work it with black slaves, leaving little or no opportunity for non-slaveholders. As such, Bleeding Kansas was a conflict between anti-slavery forces in the North and pro-slavery forces from the South over the issue of slavery in the United States, and its violence indicated that compromise was unlikely, and thus it presaged the Civil War.
The term "Bleeding Kansas '' was coined by Republican Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune.
Through the Missouri Compromise of 1820, Congress kept a tenuous balance of political power between North and South. In May 1854, the Kansas -- Nebraska Act, created from unorganized Indian lands and territories of Kansas and Nebraska, permitted residency by U.S. citizens, who were to determine their state 's slavery status and seek admission to the Union. Immigrants supporting both sides of the question arrived in Kansas to establish residency and gain the right to vote. However, Kansas Territory officials were appointed (1854) by the pro-slavery administration of President Franklin Pierce (in office 1853 -- 1857), and thousands of non-resident pro-slavery Missourians entered Kansas with the goal of winning elections. They captured territorial elections, sometimes by fraud and intimidation. In response, Northern abolitionist elements flooded Kansas with "free - soilers. '' Anti-slavery Kansas residents wrote the first Kansas Constitution (1855) and elected the Free State legislature in Topeka; this stood in opposition to the pro-slavery government in Lecompton. The two Territorial governments increased as well as symbolized the strife of Bleeding Kansas.
Among the first immigrants to Kansas Territory were citizens of slave states, notably neighboring Missouri, who came to secure the expansion of slavery. Pro-slavery forces settled towns including Leavenworth and Atchison. At the same time, citizens of the North, many aided by the New England Emigrant Aid Company, moved to Kansas to make it a free state and settled towns including Lawrence, Topeka and Manhattan.
It was rumored in the South that thousands of Northerners were arriving in Kansas. Believing these rumors, in November 1854, thousands of armed pro-slavery men known as "Border Ruffians '' or "southern yankees '', mostly from Missouri, poured into the Kansas Territory and swayed the vote in the election for a non-voting delegate to Congress in favor of pro-slavery candidate John Whitfield. The following year a Congressional committee investigating the election reported that 1729 fraudulent votes were cast compared to 1114 legal votes. In one location only 20 of the 604 voters were residents of the Kansas Territory. In another 35 were residents and 226 non-residents.
On March 30, 1855, Kansas Territory held the election for its first Territorial Legislature. Crucially, this legislature would decide whether Kansas Territory would allow slavery. Just as had happened in the election of November 1854, "Border Ruffians '' from Missouri again streamed into the territory to vote, and proslavery delegates were elected to 37 of the 39 seats -- Martin F. Conway and Samuel D. Houston from Riley County were the only Free - Staters elected. Due to questions about electoral fraud, Territorial Governor Andrew Reeder invalidated the results in five voting districts, and a special election was held on May 22, 1855, to elect replacements. Eight of the eleven delegates elected in the special election were Free - State, but this still left the proslavery camp with an overwhelming 29 -- 10 advantage.
To help countermand the voting fraud, by the summer of 1855 around 1,200 New England Yankees had emigrated to Kansas Territory. The abolitionist Henry Ward Beecher armed many of them with Sharps rifles, which, it is alleged, became known as "Beecher 's Bibles '' for their shipment in wooden crates so labeled.
In response to the disputed votes and rising tension, Congress sent a special committee to Kansas Territory in 1856. The committee report concluded that if the election on March 30, 1855, had been limited to "actual settlers '' it would have elected a Free - State legislature. The report also stated that the legislature actually seated "was an illegally constituted body, and had no power to pass valid laws. ''
Nevertheless, the pro-slavery territorial legislature convened in the newly created Territorial Capital in Pawnee on July 2, 1855. The legislature immediately invalidated the results from the special election in May and seated the pro-slavery delegates elected in March. After only one week in Pawnee, the legislature moved the territorial capital to the Shawnee Mission on the Missouri border, where it reconvened and passed laws favorable to slavery.
In August 1855, antislavery residents met to formally reject the pro-slavery laws. This led to the election of Free State delegates, and the writing of the Topeka Constitution. However, in a message to Congress on January 24, 1856, President Pierce declared the Free - State Topeka government insurrectionist in its stand against pro-slavery Territorial officials.
In October 1855, John Brown came to the Kansas Territory to fight slavery. On November 21, 1855 the so - called "Wakarusa War '' began when a Free - Stater named Charles Dow was shot by a pro-slavery settler. The war had one fatality, when the free stater Thomas Barber was shot and killed near Lawrence on December 6. On May 21, 1856, Missourians invaded Lawrence and burned the Free State Hotel, destroyed two newspaper offices, and ransacked homes and stores.
In May 1856, Republican Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts took to the floor to denounce the threat of slavery in Kansas and humiliate its supporters. He had devoted his enormous energies to the destruction of what Republicans called the Slave Power, that is the efforts of slave owners to take control of the federal government and ensure the survival and expansion of slavery. In the speech (called "The Crime against Kansas '') Sumner ridiculed the honor of elderly South Carolina Senator Andrew Butler, portraying Butler 's pro-slavery agenda towards Kansas with the raping of a virgin and characterizing his affection for it in sexual and revolting terms. The next day Butler 's cousin, the South Carolina Congressman Preston Brooks, nearly killed Sumner on the Senate floor with a heavy cane. The action electrified the nation, brought violence to the floor of the Senate, and deepened the North - South split.
The violence continued to increase. John Brown led his sons and other followers to plan the murder of settlers who spoke in favor of slavery. At a proslavery settlement at Pottawatomie Creek on the night of May 24, the group seized five pro-slavery men from their homes and hacked them to death with broadswords. Brown and his men escaped and began plotting a full - scale slave insurrection to take place at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, with financial support from Boston abolitionists.
The pro-slavery Territorial government, serving under President Pierce, had been relocated to Lecompton. In April 1856, a Congressional committee arrived there to investigate voting fraud. The committee found the elections improperly elected by non-residents. President Pierce refused recognition of its findings and continued to authorize the pro-slavery legislature, which the Free State people called the "Bogus Legislature. ''
On the Fourth of July in 1856, proclamations of President Pierce led to nearly 500 U.S. Army troops arriving in Topeka from Ft. Leavenworth and Ft. Riley. With their cannons pointed at Constitution Hall, and the long fuses lit, Colonel E.V. Sumner, cousin to the senator of the same name beaten on the Senate floor, ordered the dispersal of the Free State Legislature.
In August 1856, thousands of pro-slavery men formed into armies and marched into Kansas. That same month, Brown and several of his followers engaged 400 pro-slavery soldiers in the "Battle of Osawatomie ''. The hostilities raged for another two months until Brown departed the Kansas Territory, and a new territorial governor, John W. Geary, took office and managed to prevail upon both sides for peace. This was followed by a fragile peace broken by intermittent violent outbreaks for two more years. The last major outbreak of violence was touched off by the Marais des Cygnes massacre in 1858, in which Border Ruffians killed five Free State men. In all, approximately 56 people died in Bleeding Kansas by the time the violence ended in 1859. Following the commencement of the American Civil War in 1861, additional guerrilla violence erupted on the border between Kansas and Missouri.
A major confrontation of the Bleeding Kansas era was in the writing of constitutions that would govern the state of Kansas. The first of four such documents was the 1855 Topeka Constitution, written by antislavery forces unified under the Free State Party. This was the basis for the Free State Territorial government that resisted the illegitimate, but federally authorized government elected by non-resident, and thus unqualified Missourians.
In 1857, the second constitutional convention drafted the "Lecompton Constitution '', a pro-slavery document. The Lecompton Constitution was promoted by President James Buchanan. Congress instead ordered another election because of voting irregularities uncovered. On Aug. 2, 1858, Kansas voters rejected the document by 11,812 to 1,926.
While the Lecompton Constitution was pending before Congress, a third document, the Leavenworth Constitution, was written and passed by Free State delegates. It was more radical than other Free State proposals in that it would have extended suffrage to "every male citizen '', regardless of race. Participation in this ballot on May 18, 1858 was a fraction of the previous and there was some opposition by Free State Democrats. The proposed constitution was forwarded to the U.S. Senate on January 6, 1859 where it was met with a tepid reception and left to die in committee.
The Wyandotte Constitution drafted in 1859 represented the Free State view of the future of Kansas. It was approved in a referendum by a vote of 10,421 to 5,530 on October 4, 1859. With southern states still in control of the Senate, Kansas awaited admission to the Union until January 29, 1861.
In 2006, federal legislation defined a new Freedom 's Frontier National Heritage Area (FFNHA) and was approved by Congress. A task of the heritage area is to interpret Bleeding Kansas stories, which are also called stories of the Missouri / Kansas border war. A theme of the heritage area is the enduring struggle for freedom. FFNHA includes 41 counties, 29 of which are in eastern Kansas and 12 in western Missouri.
The issue of "Bleeding Kansas '' is dramatically rendered in Wildwood Boys (William Morrow, New York; 2000), a biographical novel of Bloody Bill Anderson by James Carlos Blake.
The November 8, 2014, episode of Hell on Wheels, titled "Bleeding Kansas '', depicted one occurrence of a white family being slain for having slaves, who were then freed, in the name of religion.
Other mentions include:
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who long has the simpsons been on tv | The Simpsons - Wikipedia
The Simpsons is an American animated sitcom created by Matt Groening for the Fox Broadcasting Company. The series is a satirical depiction of working - class life, epitomized by the Simpson family, which consists of Homer, Marge, Bart, Lisa, and Maggie. The show is set in the fictional town of Springfield and parodies American culture and society, television, and the human condition.
The family was conceived by Groening shortly before a solicitation for a series of animated shorts with producer James L. Brooks. Groening created a dysfunctional family and named the characters after members of his own family, substituting Bart for his own name. The shorts became a part of The Tracey Ullman Show on April 19, 1987. After a three - season run, the sketch was developed into a half - hour prime time show and became an early hit for Fox, becoming the network 's first series to land in the Top 30 ratings in a season (1989 -- 90).
Since its debut on December 17, 1989, 639 episodes of The Simpsons have been broadcast. Its 29th season began on October 1, 2017. It is the longest - running American sitcom and the longest - running American animated program, and, in 2009, it surpassed Gunsmoke as the longest - running American scripted primetime television series in terms of seasons and surpassed the Western in terms of episodes in 2018. The Simpsons Movie, a feature - length film, was released in theaters worldwide on July 27, 2007, and grossed over $527 million. On November 4, 2016, the series was renewed for a twenty - ninth and thirtieth season, extending the show to May 2019.
The Simpsons received widespread critical acclaim throughout its first nine or ten seasons, which are generally considered its "Golden Age ''. Time named it the 20th century 's best television series, and Erik Adams of The A.V. Club named it "television 's crowning achievement regardless of format ''. On January 14, 2000, the Simpson family was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. It has won dozens of awards since it debuted as a series, including 31 Primetime Emmy Awards, 30 Annie Awards, and a Peabody Award. Homer 's exclamatory catchphrase "D'oh! '' has been adopted into the English language, while The Simpsons has influenced many other later adult - oriented animated sitcoms. Despite this, the show has also been criticized for what many perceive as a decline in quality over the years, generally since about the late 1990s.
The Simpsons are a family who live in a fictional "Middle America '' town of Springfield. Homer, the father, works as a safety inspector at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant, a position at odds with his careless, buffoonish personality. He is married to Marge, a stereotypical American housewife and mother. They have three children: Bart, a ten - year - old troublemaker; Lisa, a precocious eight - year - old activist; and Maggie, the baby of the family who rarely speaks, but communicates by sucking on a pacifier. Although the family is dysfunctional, many episodes examine their relationships and bonds with each other and they are often shown to care about one another. The family owns a dog, Santa 's Little Helper, and a cat, Snowball V, renamed Snowball II in "I, (Annoyed Grunt) - Bot ''. Both pets have had starring roles in several episodes.
The show includes an array of quirky supporting characters: co-workers, teachers, family friends, extended relatives, townspeople and local celebrities. The creators originally intended many of these characters as one - time jokes or for fulfilling needed functions in the town. A number of them have gained expanded roles and subsequently starred in their own episodes. According to Matt Groening, the show adopted the concept of a large supporting cast from the comedy show SCTV.
Despite the depiction of yearly milestones such as holidays or birthdays passing, the characters do not age between episodes (either physically or in stated age), and generally appear just as they did when the series began. The series uses a floating timeline in which episodes generally take place in the year the episode is produced even though the characters do not age. Flashbacks / forwards do occasionally depict the characters at other points in their lives, with the timeline of these depictions also generally floating relative to the year the episode is produced. In a nod to the non-aging aspect of the show, when asked during the episode "The Simpsons Guy '' how long Nelson Muntz has been bullying him, Bart replies "24 years. ''
The Simpsons takes place in the fictional American town of Springfield in an unknown and impossible - to - determine U.S. state. The show is intentionally evasive in regard to Springfield 's location. Springfield 's geography, and that of its surroundings, contains coastlines, deserts, vast farmland, tall mountains, or whatever the story or joke requires. Groening has said that Springfield has much in common with Portland, Oregon, the city where he grew up. The name "Springfield '' is a common one in America and appears in 22 states. Groening has said that he named it after Springfield, Oregon, and the fictitious Springfield which was the setting of the series Father Knows Best. He "figured out that Springfield was one of the most common names for a city in the U.S. In anticipation of the success of the show, I thought, ' This will be cool; everyone will think it 's their Springfield. ' And they do. '' An astronomer and fan of the show, Phil Plait, humorously noticed that The Simpsons could be set in Australia, because the moon in Springfield faces the wrong way to be an American location.
When producer James L. Brooks was working on the television variety show The Tracey Ullman Show, he decided to include small animated sketches before and after the commercial breaks. Having seen one of cartoonist Matt Groening 's Life in Hell comic strips, Brooks asked Groening to pitch an idea for a series of animated shorts. Groening initially intended to present an animated version of his Life in Hell series. However, Groening later realized that animating Life in Hell would require the rescinding of publication rights for his life 's work. He therefore chose another approach while waiting in the lobby of Brooks 's office for the pitch meeting, hurriedly formulating his version of a dysfunctional family that became the Simpsons. He named the characters after his own family members, substituting "Bart '' for his own name, adopting an anagram of the word "brat ''.
The Simpson family first appeared as shorts in The Tracey Ullman Show on April 19, 1987. Groening submitted only basic sketches to the animators and assumed that the figures would be cleaned up in production. However, the animators merely re-traced his drawings, which led to the crude appearance of the characters in the initial shorts. The animation was produced domestically at Klasky Csupo, with Wes Archer, David Silverman, and Bill Kopp being animators for the first season. Colorist Gyorgyi Peluce was the person who decided to make the characters yellow.
In 1989, a team of production companies adapted The Simpsons into a half - hour series for the Fox Broadcasting Company. The team included the Klasky Csupo animation house. Brooks negotiated a provision in the contract with the Fox network that prevented Fox from interfering with the show 's content. Groening said his goal in creating the show was to offer the audience an alternative to what he called "the mainstream trash '' that they were watching. The half - hour series premiered on December 17, 1989, with "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire ''. "Some Enchanted Evening '' was the first full - length episode produced, but it did not broadcast until May 1990, as the last episode of the first season, because of animation problems. In 1992, Tracey Ullman filed a lawsuit against Fox, claiming that her show was the source of the series ' success. The suit said she should receive a share of the profits of The Simpsons -- a claim rejected by the courts.
List of showrunners throughout the series ' run:
Matt Groening and James L. Brooks have served as executive producers during the show 's entire history, and also function as creative consultants. Sam Simon, described by former Simpsons director Brad Bird as "the unsung hero '' of the show, served as creative supervisor for the first four seasons. He was constantly at odds with Groening, Brooks and the show 's production company Gracie Films and left in 1993. Before leaving, he negotiated a deal that sees him receive a share of the profits every year, and an executive producer credit despite not having worked on the show since 1993, at least until his passing in 2015. A more involved position on the show is the showrunner, who acts as head writer and manages the show 's production for an entire season.
The first team of writers, assembled by Sam Simon, consisted of John Swartzwelder, Jon Vitti, George Meyer, Jeff Martin, Al Jean, Mike Reiss, Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky. Newer Simpsons ' writing teams typically consist of sixteen writers who propose episode ideas at the beginning of each December. The main writer of each episode writes the first draft. Group rewriting sessions develop final scripts by adding or removing jokes, inserting scenes, and calling for re-readings of lines by the show 's vocal performers. Until 2004, George Meyer, who had developed the show since the first season, was active in these sessions. According to long - time writer Jon Vitti, Meyer usually invented the best lines in a given episode, even though other writers may receive script credits. Each episode takes six months to produce so the show rarely comments on current events.
Credited with sixty episodes, John Swartzwelder is the most prolific writer on The Simpsons. One of the best - known former writers is Conan O'Brien, who contributed to several episodes in the early 1990s before replacing David Letterman as host of the talk show Late Night. English comedian Ricky Gervais wrote the episode "Homer Simpson, This Is Your Wife '', becoming the first celebrity to both write and guest star in an episode. Seth Rogen and Evan Goldberg, writers of the film Superbad, wrote the episode "Homer the Whopper '', with Rogen voicing a character in it.
At the end of 2007, the writers of The Simpsons went on strike together with the other members of the Writers Guild of America, East. The show 's writers had joined the guild in 1998.
The Simpsons has six main cast members: Dan Castellaneta, Julie Kavner, Nancy Cartwright, Yeardley Smith, Hank Azaria and Harry Shearer. Castellaneta voices Homer Simpson, Grampa Simpson, Krusty the Clown, Groundskeeper Willie, Mayor Quimby, Barney Gumble and other adult, male characters. Julie Kavner voices Marge Simpson and Patty and Selma, as well as several minor characters. Castellaneta and Kavner had been a part of The Tracey Ullman Show cast and were given the parts so that new actors would not be needed. Cartwright voices Bart Simpson, Nelson Muntz, Ralph Wiggum and other children. Smith, the voice of Lisa Simpson, is the only cast member who regularly voices only one character, although she occasionally plays other episodic characters. The producers decided to hold casting for the roles of Bart and Lisa. Smith had initially been asked to audition for the role of Bart, but casting director Bonita Pietila believed her voice was too high, so she was given the role of Lisa instead. Cartwright was originally brought in to voice Lisa, but upon arriving at the audition, she found that Lisa was simply described as the "middle child '' and at the time did not have much personality. Cartwright became more interested in the role of Bart, who was described as "devious, underachieving, school - hating, irreverent, (and) clever ''. Groening let her try out for the part instead, and upon hearing her read, gave her the job on the spot. Cartwright is the only one of the six main Simpsons cast members who had been professionally trained in voice acting prior to working on the show. Azaria and Shearer do not voice members of the title family, but play a majority of the male townspeople. Azaria, who has been a part of the Simpsons regular voice cast since the second season, voices recurring characters such as Moe Szyslak, Chief Wiggum, Apu Nahasapeemapetilon and Professor Frink. Shearer provides voices for Mr. Burns, Mr. Smithers, Principal Skinner, Ned Flanders, Reverend Lovejoy and Dr. Hibbert. Every main cast member has won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice - Over Performance.
With one exception, episode credits list only the voice actors, and not the characters they voice. Both Fox and the production crew wanted to keep their identities secret during the early seasons and, therefore, closed most of the recording sessions while refusing to publish photos of the recording artists. However, the network eventually revealed which roles each actor performed in the episode "Old Money '', because the producers said the voice actors should receive credit for their work. In 2003, the cast appeared in an episode of Inside the Actors Studio, doing live performances of their characters ' voices.
The six main actors were paid $ 30,000 per episode until 1998, when they were involved in a pay dispute with Fox. The company threatened to replace them with new actors, even going as far as preparing for casting of new voices, but series creator Groening supported the actors in their action. The issue was soon resolved and, from 1998 to 2004, they were paid $125,000 per episode. The show 's revenue continued to rise through syndication and DVD sales, and in April 2004 the main cast stopped appearing for script readings, demanding they be paid $360,000 per episode. The strike was resolved a month later and their salaries were increased to something between $250,000 and $360,000 per episode. In 2008, production for the twentieth season was put on hold due to new contract negotiations with the voice actors, who wanted a "healthy bump '' in salary to an amount close to $500,000 per episode. The negotiations were soon completed, and the actors ' salary was raised to $400,000 per episode. Three years later, with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut, the cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut, down to just over $300,000 per episode.
In addition to the main cast, Pamela Hayden, Tress MacNeille, Marcia Wallace, Maggie Roswell, and Russi Taylor voice supporting characters. From 1999 to 2002, Roswell 's characters were voiced by Marcia Mitzman Gaven. Karl Wiedergott has also appeared in minor roles, but does not voice any recurring characters. Wiedergott left the show in 2010, and since then Chris Edgerly has appeared regularly to voice minor characters. Repeat "special guest '' cast members include Albert Brooks, Phil Hartman, Jon Lovitz, Joe Mantegna, Maurice LaMarche, and Kelsey Grammer. Following Hartman 's death in 1998, the characters he voiced (Troy McClure and Lionel Hutz) were retired; Wallace 's character of Edna Krabappel was retired as well after her death in 2013.
Episodes will quite often feature guest voices from a wide range of professions, including actors, athletes, authors, bands, musicians and scientists. In the earlier seasons, most of the guest stars voiced characters, but eventually more started appearing as themselves. Tony Bennett was the first guest star to appear as himself, appearing briefly in the season two episode "Dancin ' Homer ''. The Simpsons holds the world record for "Most Guest Stars Featured in a Television Series ''.
The Simpsons has been dubbed into several other languages, including Japanese, German, Spanish, and Portuguese. It is also one of the few programs dubbed in both standard French and Quebec French. The show has been broadcast in Arabic, but due to Islamic customs, numerous aspects of the show have been changed. For example, Homer drinks soda instead of beer and eats Egyptian beef sausages instead of hot dogs. Because of such changes, the Arabized version of the series met with a negative reaction from the lifelong Simpsons fans in the area.
Several different U.S. and international studios animate The Simpsons. Throughout the run of the animated shorts on The Tracey Ullman Show, the animation was produced domestically at Klasky Csupo. With the debut of the series, because of an increased workload, Fox subcontracted production to several local and foreign studios. These are AKOM, Anivision, Rough Draft Studios, USAnimation, and Toonzone Entertainment.
For the first three seasons, Klasky Csupo animated The Simpsons in the United States. In 1992, the show 's production company, Gracie Films, switched domestic production to Film Roman, who continued to animate the show until 2016. In Season 14, production switched from traditional cel animation to digital ink and paint. The first episode to experiment with digital coloring was "Radioactive Man '' in 1995. Animators used digital ink and paint during production of the season 12 episode "Tennis the Menace '', but Gracie Films delayed the regular use of digital ink and paint until two seasons later. The already completed "Tennis the Menace '' was broadcast as made.
The production staff at the U.S. animation studio, Film Roman, draws storyboards, designs new characters, backgrounds, props and draws character and background layouts, which in turn become animatics to be screened for the writers at Gracie Films for any changes to be made before the work is shipped overseas. The overseas studios then draw the inbetweens, ink and paint, and render the animation to tape before it is shipped back to the United States to be delivered to Fox three to four months later.
The series began high - definition production in Season 20; the first episode, "Take My Life, Please '', aired February 15, 2009. The move to HDTV included a new opening sequence. Matt Groening called it a complicated change because it affected the timing and composition of animation.
The Simpsons uses the standard setup of a situational comedy, or sitcom, as its premise. The series centers on a family and their life in a typical American town, serving as a satirical parody of a middle class American lifestyle. However, because of its animated nature, The Simpsons ' scope is larger than that of a regular sitcom. The town of Springfield acts as a complete universe in which characters can explore the issues faced by modern society. By having Homer work in a nuclear power plant, the show can comment on the state of the environment. Through Bart and Lisa 's days at Springfield Elementary School, the show 's writers illustrate pressing or controversial issues in the field of education. The town features a vast array of media channels -- from kids ' television programming to local news, which enables the producers to make jokes about themselves and the entertainment industry.
Some commentators say the show is political in nature and susceptible to a left - wing bias. Al Jean acknowledged in an interview that "We (the show) are of liberal bent. '' The writers often evince an appreciation for liberal ideals, but the show makes jokes across the political spectrum. The show portrays government and large corporations as callous entities that take advantage of the common worker. Thus, the writers often portray authority figures in an unflattering or negative light. In The Simpsons, politicians are corrupt, ministers such as Reverend Lovejoy are indifferent to churchgoers, and the local police force is incompetent. Religion also figures as a recurring theme. In times of crisis, the family often turns to God, and the show has dealt with most of the major religions.
The Simpsons ' opening sequence is one of the show 's most memorable hallmarks. The standard opening has gone through three iterations (a replacement of some shots at the start of the second season, and a brand new sequence when the show switched to high - definition in 2009).
Each has the same basic sequence of events: The camera zooms through cumulus clouds, through the show 's title towards the town of Springfield. The camera then follows the members of the family on their way home. Upon entering their house, the Simpsons settle down on their couch to watch television. The original opening was created by David Silverman, and was the first task he did when production began on the show. The series ' distinctive theme song was composed by musician Danny Elfman in 1989, after Groening approached him requesting a retro style piece. This piece has been noted by Elfman as the most popular of his career.
One of the most distinctive aspects of the opening is that three of its elements change from episode to episode: Bart writes different things on the school chalkboard, Lisa plays different solos on her saxophone and different gags accompany the family as they enter their living room to sit on the couch.
The special Halloween episode has become an annual tradition. "Treehouse of Horror '' first broadcast in 1990 as part of season two and established the pattern of three separate, self - contained stories in each Halloween episode. These pieces usually involve the family in some horror, science fiction, or supernatural setting and often parody or pay homage to a famous piece of work in those genres. They always take place outside the normal continuity of the show. Although the Treehouse series is meant to be seen on Halloween, this changed by the 2000s, when new installments have premiered after Halloween due to Fox 's current contract with Major League Baseball 's World Series, however, since 2011, every Treehouse of Horror episode has aired during the month of October.
The show 's humor turns on cultural references that cover a wide spectrum of society so that viewers from all generations can enjoy the show. Such references, for example, come from movies, television, music, literature, science, and history. The animators also regularly add jokes or sight gags into the show 's background via humorous or incongruous bits of text in signs, newspapers, billboards, and elsewhere. The audience may often not notice the visual jokes in a single viewing. Some are so fleeting that they become apparent only by pausing a video recording of the show. Kristin Thompson argues that The Simpsons uses a "flurry of cultural references, intentionally inconsistent characterization, and considerable self - reflexivity about television conventions and the status of the programme as a television show. ''
One of Bart 's early hallmarks was his prank calls to Moe 's Tavern owner Moe Szyslak in which Bart calls Moe and asks for a gag name. Moe tries to find that person in the bar, but soon realizes it is a prank call and angrily threatens Bart. These calls were apparently based on a series of prank calls known as the Tube Bar recordings, though Groening has denied any causal connection. Moe was based partly on Tube Bar owner Louis "Red '' Deutsch, whose often profane responses inspired Moe 's violent side. As the series progressed, it became more difficult for the writers to come up with a fake name and to write Moe 's angry response, and the pranks were dropped as a regular joke during the fourth season. The Simpsons also often includes self - referential humor. The most common form is jokes about Fox Broadcasting. For example, the episode "She Used to Be My Girl '' included a scene in which a Fox News Channel van drove down the street while displaying a large "Bush Cheney 2004 '' banner and playing Queen 's "We Are the Champions '', in reference to the 2004 U.S. presidential election and claims of conservative bias in Fox News.
The show uses catchphrases, and most of the primary and secondary characters have at least one each. Notable expressions include Homer 's annoyed grunt "D'oh! '', Mr. Burns ' "Excellent '' and Nelson Muntz 's "Ha - ha! '' Some of Bart 's catchphrases, such as "¡ Ay, caramba! '', "Do n't have a cow, man! '' and "Eat my shorts! '' appeared on T - shirts in the show 's early days. However, Bart rarely used the latter two phrases until after they became popular through the merchandising. The use of many of these catchphrases has declined in recent seasons. The episode "Bart Gets Famous '' mocks catchphrase - based humor, as Bart achieves fame on the Krusty the Clown Show solely for saying "I did n't do it. ''
The Simpsons has gained notoriety for including jokes that would later become reality. Perhaps the most famous example comes from the episode "Bart to the Future '', which mentions billionaire Donald Trump having been President of the United States at one time and leaving the nation broke. The episode first aired in 2000, sixteen years before Trump would successfully run for the position. Another episode, "When You Dish Upon a Star '', lampooned 20th Century Fox as a division of The Walt Disney Company. Nineteen years later, Disney indeed made a deal to purchase the studio from Rupert Murdoch. Other examples of The Simpsons predicting the future with accuracy include the introduction of the Smartwatch and autocorrection technology, and even Lady Gaga 's acrobatic performance at the Super Bowl LI halftime show.
The most referenced and widely used example is 9 / 11. The segment is in the Season 9 episode "The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson '', in which Lisa holds up a magazine advertising bus travel to New York City for only $9, and in the background of the ad are the Twin Towers, forming the numbers 9 and 11. This episode was aired nearly four years before the attacks took place.
A number of neologisms that originated on The Simpsons have entered popular vernacular. Mark Liberman, director of the Linguistic Data Consortium, remarked, "The Simpsons has apparently taken over from Shakespeare and the Bible as our culture 's greatest source of idioms, catchphrases and sundry other textual allusions. '' The most famous catchphrase is Homer 's annoyed grunt: "D'oh! '' So ubiquitous is the expression that it is now listed in the Oxford English Dictionary, but without the apostrophe. Dan Castellaneta says he borrowed the phrase from James Finlayson, an actor in many Laurel and Hardy comedies, who pronounced it in a more elongated and whining tone. The staff of The Simpsons told Castellaneta to shorten the noise, and it went on to become the well - known exclamation in the television series.
Groundskeeper Willie 's description of the French as "cheese - eating surrender monkeys '' was used by National Review columnist Jonah Goldberg in 2003, after France 's opposition to the proposed invasion of Iraq. The phrase quickly spread to other journalists. "Cromulent '' and "embiggen '', words used in "Lisa the Iconoclast '', have since appeared in the Dictionary.com 's 21st Century Lexicon, and scientific journals respectively. "Kwyjibo '', a fake Scrabble word invented by Bart in "Bart the Genius '', was used as one of the aliases of the creator of the Melissa worm. "I, for one, welcome our new insect overlords '', was used by Kent Brockman in "Deep Space Homer '' and has become a common phrase. Variants of Brockman 's utterance are used to express obsequious submission. It has been used in media, such as New Scientist magazine. The dismissive term "Meh '', believed to have been popularized by the show, entered the Collins English Dictionary in 2008. Other words credited as stemming from the show include "yoink '' and "craptacular ''.
The Oxford Dictionary of Modern Quotations includes several quotations from the show. As well as "cheese - eating surrender monkeys '', Homer 's lines, "Kids, you tried your best and you failed miserably. The lesson is never try '', from "Burns ' Heir '' (season five, 1994) as well as "Kids are the best, Apu. You can teach them to hate the things you hate. And they practically raise themselves, what with the Internet and all '', from "Eight Misbehavin ' '' (season 11, 1999), entered the dictionary in August 2007.
The Simpsons was the first successful animated program in American prime time since Wait Till Your Father Gets Home in the 1970s. During most of the 1980s, US pundits considered animated shows as appropriate only for children, and animating a show was too expensive to achieve a quality suitable for prime - time television. The Simpsons changed this perception, initially leading to a short period where networks attempted to recreate prime - time cartoon success with shows like Capitol Critters, Fish Police, and Family Dog, which were expensive and unsuccessful. The Simpsons ' use of Korean animation studios for tweening, coloring, and filming made the episodes cheaper. The success of The Simpsons and the lower production cost prompted US television networks to take chances on other adult animated series. This development led US producers to a 1990s boom in new, animated prime - time shows for adults, such as South Park, Family Guy, King of the Hill, Futurama and The Critic. For Family Guy creator Seth MacFarlane, "The Simpsons created an audience for prime - time animation that had not been there for many, many years... As far as I 'm concerned, they basically re-invented the wheel. They created what is in many ways -- you could classify it as -- a wholly new medium. ''
The Simpsons has had crossovers with four other shows. In the episode "A Star Is Burns '', Marge invites Jay Sherman, the main character of The Critic, to be a judge for a film festival in Springfield. Matt Groening had his name removed from the episode since he had no involvement with The Critic. South Park later paid homage to The Simpsons with the episode "Simpsons Already Did It ''. In "Simpsorama '', the Planet Express crew from Futurama come to Springfield in the present to prevent the Simpsons from destroying the future. In the Family Guy episode "The Simpsons Guy '', the Griffins visit Springfield and meet the Simpsons.
The Simpsons has also influenced live - action shows like Malcolm in the Middle, which featured the use of sight gags and did not use a laugh track unlike most sitcoms. Malcolm in the Middle debuted January 9, 2000, in the time slot after The Simpsons. Ricky Gervais called The Simpsons an influence on The Office, and fellow British sitcom Spaced was, according to its director Edgar Wright, "an attempt to do a live - action The Simpsons. '' In Georgia, the animated television sitcom The Samsonadzes, launched in November 2009, has been noted for its very strong resemblance with The Simpsons, which its creator Shalva Ramishvili has acknowledged.
The Simpsons was the Fox network 's first television series to rank among a season 's top 30 highest - rated shows. In 1990, Bart quickly became one of the most popular characters on television in what was termed "Bartmania ''. He became the most prevalent Simpsons character on memorabilia, such as T - shirts. In the early 1990s, millions of T - shirts featuring Bart were sold; as many as one million were sold on some days. Believing Bart to be a bad role model, several American public schools banned T - shirts featuring Bart next to captions such as "I 'm Bart Simpson. Who the hell are you? '' and "Underachiever (' And proud of it, man! ') ''. The Simpsons merchandise sold well and generated $2 billion in revenue during the first 14 months of sales. Because of his popularity, Bart was often the most promoted member of the Simpson family in advertisements for the show, even for episodes in which he was not involved in the main plot.
Due to the show 's success, over the summer of 1990 the Fox Network decided to switch The Simpsons ' time slot so that it would move from 8: 00 p.m. ET on Sunday night to the same time on Thursday, where it would compete with The Cosby Show on NBC, the number one show at the time. Through the summer, several news outlets published stories about the supposed "Bill vs. Bart '' rivalry. "Bart Gets an F '' (season two, 1990) was the first episode to air against The Cosby Show, and it received a lower Nielsen ratings, tying for eighth behind The Cosby Show, which had an 18.5 rating. The rating is based on the number of household televisions that were tuned into the show, but Nielsen Media Research estimated that 33.6 million viewers watched the episode, making it the number one show in terms of actual viewers that week. At the time, it was the most watched episode in the history of the Fox Network, and it is still the highest rated episode in the history of The Simpsons. The show moved back to its Sunday slot in 1994 and has remained there ever since.
The Simpsons has been praised by many critics, being described as "the most irreverent and unapologetic show on the air. '' In a 1990 review of the show, Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly described it as "the American family at its most complicated, drawn as simple cartoons. It 's this neat paradox that makes millions of people turn away from the three big networks on Sunday nights to concentrate on The Simpsons. '' Tucker would also describe the show as a "pop - cultural phenomenon, a prime - time cartoon show that appeals to the entire family. ''
On February 9, 1997, The Simpsons surpassed The Flintstones with the episode "The Itchy & Scratchy & Poochie Show '' as the longest - running prime - time animated series in the United States. In 2004, The Simpsons replaced The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet (1952 to 1966) as the longest - running sitcom (animated or live action) in the United States. In 2009, The Simpsons surpassed The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet 's record of 435 episodes and is now recognized by Guinness World Records as the world 's longest running sitcom (in terms of episode count). In October 2004, Scooby - Doo briefly overtook The Simpsons as the American animated show with the highest number of episodes. However, network executives in April 2005 again cancelled Scooby - Doo, which finished with 371 episodes, and The Simpsons reclaimed the title with 378 episodes at the end of their seventeenth season. In May 2007, The Simpsons reached their 400th episode at the end of the eighteenth season. While The Simpsons has the record for the number of episodes by an American animated show, other animated series have surpassed The Simpsons. For example, the Japanese anime series Sazae - san has over 7,000 episodes to its credit.
In 2009, Fox began a year - long celebration of the show titled "Best. 20 Years. Ever. '' to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the premiere of The Simpsons. One of the first parts of the celebration is the "Unleash Your Yellow '' contest in which entrants must design a poster for the show. The celebration ended on January 10, 2010 (almost 20 years after "Bart the Genius '' aired on January 14, 1990), with The Simpsons 20th Anniversary Special -- In 3 - D! On Ice!, a documentary special by documentary filmmaker Morgan Spurlock that examines the "cultural phenomenon of The Simpsons ''.
As of the twenty - first season (2009 -- 2010), The Simpsons became the longest - running American scripted primetime television series, having surpassed Gunsmoke. On April 29, 2018, The Simpsons also surpassed Gunsmoke 's 635 - episode count with the episode "Forgive and Regret. ''
The Simpsons has won dozens of awards since it debuted as a series, including 31 Primetime Emmy Awards, 30 Annie Awards and a Peabody Award. In a 1999 issue celebrating the 20th century 's greatest achievements in arts and entertainment, Time magazine named The Simpsons the century 's best television series. In that same issue, Time included Bart Simpson in the Time 100, the publication 's list of the century 's 100 most influential people. Bart was the only fictional character on the list. On January 14, 2000, the Simpsons were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Also in 2000, Entertainment Weekly magazine TV critic Ken Tucker named The Simpsons the greatest television show of the 1990s. Furthermore, viewers of the UK television channel Channel 4 have voted The Simpsons at the top of two polls: 2001 's 100 Greatest Kids ' TV shows, and 2005 's The 100 Greatest Cartoons, with Homer Simpson voted into first place in 2001 's 100 Greatest TV Characters. Homer would also place ninth on Entertainment Weekly 's list of the "50 Greatest TV icons ''. In 2002, The Simpsons ranked # 8 on TV Guide 's 50 Greatest TV Shows of All Time, and in 2007 it was included in Time 's list of the "100 Best TV Shows of All Time ''. In 2008 the show was placed in first on Entertainment Weekly 's "Top 100 Shows of the Past 25 Years ''. Empire named it the greatest TV show of all time. In 2010, Entertainment Weekly named Homer "the greatest character of the last 20 years '', while in 2013 the Writers Guild of America listed The Simpsons as the 11th "best written '' series in television history. In 2013, TV Guide ranked The Simpsons as the greatest TV cartoon of all time and the tenth greatest show of all time. Television critics Alan Sepinwall and Matt Zoller Seitz ranked The Simpsons as the greatest American TV series of all time in their 2016 book TV (The Book).
Bart 's rebellious, bad boy nature, which underlies his misbehavior and rarely leads to any punishment, led some people to characterize him as a poor role model for children. In schools, educators claimed that Bart was a "threat to learning '' because of his "underachiever and proud of it '' attitude and negative attitude regarding his education. Others described him as "egotistical, aggressive and mean - spirited ''. In a 1991 interview, Bill Cosby described Bart as a bad role model for children, calling him "angry, confused, frustrated ''. In response, Matt Groening said, "That sums up Bart, all right. Most people are in a struggle to be normal (and) he thinks normal is very boring, and does things that others just wished they dare do. '' On January 27, 1992, then - President George H.W. Bush said, "We are going to keep on trying to strengthen the American family, to make American families a lot more like the Waltons and a lot less like the Simpsons. '' The writers rushed out a tongue - in - cheek reply in the form of a short segment which aired three days later before a rerun of "Stark Raving Dad '' in which Bart replied, "Hey, we 're just like the Waltons. We 're praying for an end to the Depression, too. ''
Various episodes of the show have generated controversy. The Simpsons visit Australia in "Bart vs. Australia '' (season six, 1995) and Brazil in "Blame It on Lisa '' (season 13, 2002) and both episodes generated controversy and negative reaction in the visited countries. In the latter case, Rio de Janeiro 's tourist board -- which claimed that the city was portrayed as having rampant street crime, kidnappings, slums, and monkey and rat infestations -- went so far as to threaten Fox with legal action. Groening was a fierce and vocal critic of the episode "A Star Is Burns '' (season six, 1995) which featured a crossover with The Critic. He felt that it was just an advertisement for The Critic, and that people would incorrectly associate the show with him. When he was unsuccessful in getting the episode pulled, he had his name removed from the credits and went public with his concerns, openly criticizing James L. Brooks and saying the episode "violates the Simpsons ' universe. '' In response, Brooks said, "I am furious with Matt,... he 's allowed his opinion, but airing this publicly in the press is going too far... his behavior right now is rotten. ''
"The Principal and the Pauper '' (season nine, 1997) is one of the most controversial episodes of The Simpsons. Many fans and critics reacted negatively to the revelation that Seymour Skinner, a recurring character since the first season, was an impostor. The episode has been criticized by Groening and by Harry Shearer, who provides the voice of Skinner. In a 2001 interview, Shearer recalled that after reading the script, he told the writers, "That 's so wrong. You 're taking something that an audience has built eight years or nine years of investment in and just tossed it in the trash can for no good reason, for a story we 've done before with other characters. It 's so arbitrary and gratuitous, and it 's disrespectful to the audience. ''
The show has reportedly been taken off the air in several countries. China banned it from prime - time television in August 2006, "in an effort to protect China 's struggling animation studios. '' In 2008, Venezuela barred the show from airing on morning television as it was deemed "unsuitable for children ''. The same year, several Russian Pentecostal churches demanded that The Simpsons, South Park and some other Western cartoons be removed from broadcast schedules "for propaganda of various vices '' and the broadcaster 's license to be revoked. However, the court decision later dismissed this request.
Critics ' reviews of early Simpsons episodes praised the show for its sassy humor, wit, realism, and intelligence. However, in the late 1990s, around the airing of season 10, the tone and emphasis of the show began to change. Some critics started calling the show "tired ''. By 2000, some long - term fans had become disillusioned with the show, and pointed to its shift from character - driven plots to what they perceived as an overemphasis on zany antics. Jim Schembri of The Sydney Morning Herald attributed the decline in quality to an abandonment of character - driven storylines in favor of and overuse of celebrity cameo appearances and references to popular culture. Schembri wrote: "The central tragedy of The Simpsons is that it has gone from commanding attention to merely being attention - seeking. It began by proving that cartoon characters do n't have to be caricatures; they can be invested with real emotions. Now the show has in essence fermented into a limp parody of itself. Memorable story arcs have been sacrificed for the sake of celebrity walk - ons and punchline - hungry dialogue. ''
In 2010, the BBC noted "the common consensus is that The Simpsons ' golden era ended after season nine '', and Todd Leopold of CNN, in an article looking at its perceived decline, stated "for many fans... the glory days are long past. '' Similarly, Tyler Wilson of Coeur d'Alene Press has referred to seasons one to nine as the show 's "golden age '', and Ian Nathan of Empire described the show 's classic era as being "say, the first ten seasons. '' Jon Heacock of LucidWorks stated that "for the first ten years (seasons), the show was consistently at the top of its game '', with "so many moments, quotations, and references -- both epic and obscure -- that helped turn the Simpson family into the cultural icons that they remain to this day. ''
Mike Scully, who was showrunner during seasons nine through twelve, has been the subject of criticism. Chris Suellentrop of Slate wrote that "under Scully 's tenure, The Simpsons became, well, a cartoon... Episodes that once would have ended with Homer and Marge bicycling into the sunset now end with Homer blowing a tranquilizer dart into Marge 's neck. The show 's still funny, but it has n't been touching in years. '' When asked in 2007 how the series ' longevity is sustained, Scully joked: "Lower your quality standards. Once you 've done that you can go on forever. ''
Al Jean, showrunner since season thirteen, has also been the subject of criticism, with some arguing that the show has continued to decline in quality under his tenure. Former writers have complained that under Jean, the show is "on auto - pilot '', "too sentimental '', and the episodes are "just being cranked out. '' Some critics believe that the show has "entered a steady decline under Jean and is no longer really funny. '' John Ortved, author of The Simpsons: An Uncensored, Unauthorized History, characterized the Jean era as "toothless '', and criticized what he perceived as the show 's increase in social and political commentary. Jean responded: "Well, it 's possible that we 've declined. But honestly, I 've been here the whole time and I do remember in season two people saying, ' It 's gone downhill. ' If we 'd listened to that then we would have stopped after episode 13. I 'm glad we did n't. ''
In 2004, Harry Shearer criticized what he perceived as the show 's declining quality: "I rate the last three seasons as among the worst, so season four looks very good to me now. '' Dan Castellaneta responded: "I do n't agree,... I think Harry 's issue is that the show is n't as grounded as it was in the first three or four seasons, that it 's gotten crazy or a little more madcap. I think it organically changes to stay fresh. '' Also in 2004 author Douglas Coupland described claims of declining quality in the series as "hogwash '', saying "The Simpsons has n't fumbled the ball in fourteen years, it 's hardly likely to fumble it now. '' In an April 2006 interview, Groening said: "I honestly do n't see any end in sight. I think it 's possible that the show will become too financially cumbersome... but right now, the show is creatively, I think, as good or better than it 's ever been. The animation is incredibly detailed and imaginative, and the stories do things that we have n't done before. So creatively there 's no reason to quit. ''
In 2016, popular culture writer Anna Leszkiewicz suggested that even though The Simpsons still holds cultural relevance, contemporary appeal is only for the first ten seasons, with recent episodes only garnering mainstream attention when a favorite character from the golden era is killed off, or when new information and shock twists are given for old characters. The series ' ratings have also declined; while the first season enjoyed an average of 13.4 million viewing households per episode in the U.S., the twenty - first season had an average of 7.2 million viewers.
Alan Sepinwall and Matt Zoller Seitz argued in their 2016 book titled TV (The Book) that the peak of The Simpsons are "roughly seasons (three through twelve) '', and that despite the decline, episodes from the later seasons such as "Eternal Moonshine of the Simpson Mind '' and "Holidays of Future Passed '' could be considered on par with the earlier classic episodes, further stating that "even if you want to call the show today a thin shadow of its former self, think about how mind - boggingly great its former self had to be for so - diminished a version to be watchable at all. ''
In late 2017 / early 2018 a controversy arose about the stereotyping of one of the title characters in the show, Apu Nahasapeemapetilon. It came about from a documentary, The Problem with Apu by Indian - American actor / podcast host, Hari Kondabolu, declaring that the character was a racist stereotyping of Indian people, despite the fact that Apu has been a significant character on the show since his first appearance, and had n't been targeted before. Arguments came against the attackers stating that the show is built on comical stereotypes, and the creator of the show, Matt Groening saying to the attackers, "I 'm proud of what we do on the show '', as well as "And I think it 's a time in our culture where people love to pretend they 're offended ''. As a result of the attacks, Apu 's voice actor, Hank Azaria, stated that he is willing to step aside from his role as Apu.
The attacks were also referenced in the Season 29 episode "No Good Read Goes Unpunished '', when Lisa breaks the fourth wall and addresses the audience with "Something that started decades ago and was applauded and inoffensive is now politically incorrect. What can you do? '' to which Marge replies, "Some things will be addressed at a later date. '' Lisa adds, "If at all. '' This reference was clarified by the fact that there was a framed photo of Apu with the caption on the photo saying "Do n't have a cow, Apu '', this is a pun on both the fact that Indians do n't kill / eat cows as they are sacred, and that one of Bart 's many catchphrases is "Do n't have a cow, man ''.
Numerous Simpson - related comic books have been released over the years. So far, nine comic book series have been published by Bongo Comics since 1993. The first comic strips based on The Simpsons appeared in 1991 in the magazine Simpsons Illustrated, which was a companion magazine to the show. The comic strips were popular and a one - shot comic book titled Simpsons Comics and Stories, containing four different stories, was released in 1993 for the fans. The book was a success and due to this, the creator of The Simpsons, Matt Groening, and his companions Bill Morrison, Mike Rote, Steve Vance and Cindy Vance created the publishing company Bongo Comics. Issues of Simpsons Comics, Bart Simpson 's Treehouse of Horror and Bart Simpson have been collected and reprinted in trade paperbacks in the United States by HarperCollins.
20th Century Fox, Gracie Films, and Film Roman produced The Simpsons Movie, an animated film that was released on July 27, 2007. The film was directed by long - time Simpsons producer David Silverman and written by a team of Simpsons writers comprising Matt Groening, James L. Brooks, Al Jean, George Meyer, Mike Reiss, John Swartzwelder, Jon Vitti, David Mirkin, Mike Scully, Matt Selman, and Ian Maxtone - Graham. Production of the film occurred alongside continued writing of the series despite long - time claims by those involved in the show that a film would enter production only after the series had concluded. There had been talk of a possible feature - length Simpsons film ever since the early seasons of the series. James L. Brooks originally thought that the story of the episode "Kamp Krusty '' was suitable for a film, but he encountered difficulties in trying to expand the script to feature - length. For a long time, difficulties such as lack of a suitable story and an already fully engaged crew of writers delayed the project.
Collections of original music featured in the series have been released on the albums Songs in the Key of Springfield, Go Simpsonic with The Simpsons and The Simpsons: Testify. Several songs have been recorded with the purpose of a single or album release and have not been featured on the show. The album The Simpsons Sing the Blues was released in September 1990 and was a success, peaking at # 3 on the Billboard 200 and becoming certified 2 × platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. The first single from the album was the pop rap song "Do the Bartman '', performed by Nancy Cartwright and released on November 20, 1990. The song was written by Michael Jackson, although he did not receive any credit. The Yellow Album was released in 1998, but received poor reception and did not chart in any country.
In 2007, it was officially announced that The Simpsons Ride, a simulator ride, would be implemented into the Universal Studios Orlando and Universal Studios Hollywood. It officially opened May 15, 2008 in Florida and May 19, 2008, in Hollywood. In the ride, patrons are introduced to a cartoon theme park called Krustyland built by Krusty the Clown. However, Sideshow Bob is loose from prison to get revenge on Krusty and the Simpson family. It features more than 24 regular characters from The Simpsons and features the voices of the regular cast members, as well as Pamela Hayden, Russi Taylor and Kelsey Grammer. Harry Shearer did not participate in the ride, so none of his characters have vocal parts.
Numerous video games based on the show have been produced. Some of the early games include Konami 's arcade game The Simpsons (1991) and Acclaim Entertainment 's The Simpsons: Bart vs. the Space Mutants (1991). More modern games include The Simpsons: Road Rage (2001), The Simpsons: Hit & Run (2003) and The Simpsons Game (2007). Electronic Arts, which produced The Simpsons Game, has owned the exclusive rights to create video games based on the show since 2005. In 2010, they released a game called The Simpsons Arcade for iOS. Another EA - produced mobile game, Tapped Out, was released in 2012 for iOS users, then in 2013 for Android and Kindle users. Two Simpsons pinball machines have been produced: one that was available briefly after the first season, and another in 2007, both out of production.
The cable television network FXX has exclusive cable and digital syndication rights for The Simpsons. Original contracts had previously stated that syndication rights for The Simpsons would not be sold to cable until the series conclusion, at a time when cable syndication deals were highly rare. The series has been syndicated to local broadcast stations in nearly all markets throughout the United States since September 1993.
FXX premiered The Simpsons on their network on August 21, 2014 by starting a twelve - day marathon which featured the first 552 episodes (every single episode that had already been released at the time) aired chronologically, including The Simpsons Movie, which FX Networks had already owned the rights to air. It was the longest continuous marathon in the history of television (until VH1 Classic aired a 433 - hour, nineteen - day, marathon of Saturday Night Live in 2015; celebrating that program 's 40th anniversary). The first day of the marathon was the highest rated broadcast day in the history of the network so far, the ratings more than tripled that those of regular prime time programming for FXX. Ratings during the first six nights of the marathon grew night after night, with the network ranking within the top 5 networks in basic cable each night.
On October 21, 2014, a digital service courtesy of the FXNOW app, called Simpsons World, launched. Simpsons World has every episode of the series accessible to authenticated FX subscribers, and is available on game consoles such as Xbox One, streaming devices such as Roku and Apple TV, and online via web browser. There was early criticism of both wrong aspect ratios for earlier episodes and the length of commercial breaks on the streaming service, but there are now fewer commercial breaks during individual episodes. Later it was announced that Simpsons World would now let users watch all of the SD episodes in their original format.
In July 2017, all episodes were made available for purchase on the iTunes Store, in the United States.
The popularity of The Simpsons has made it a billion - dollar merchandising industry. The title family and supporting characters appear on everything from T - shirts to posters. The Simpsons has been used as a theme for special editions of well - known board games, including Clue, Scrabble, Monopoly, Operation, and The Game of Life, as well as the trivia games What Would Homer Do? and Simpsons Jeopardy!. Several card games such as trump cards and The Simpsons Trading Card Game have also been released. Many official or unofficial Simpsons books such as episode guides have been published. Many episodes of the show have been released on DVD and VHS over the years. When the first season DVD was released in 2001, it quickly became the best - selling television DVD in history, although it was later overtaken by the first season of Chappelle 's Show. In particular, seasons one through seventeen have been released on DVD in the U.S. (Region 1), Europe (Region 2) and Australia / New Zealand / Latin America (Region 4). However, on April 19, 2015, Al Jean announced that the Season 17 DVD would be the last one ever produced, leaving the collection from Season 1 to 17, Season 20 (released out of schedule in 2009), with Seasons 18, 19, and 21 onwards unreleased. Jean also stated that the deleted scenes and commentary would try to be released to the Simpsons World app, and that they were pushing for Simpsons World to be expanded outside of the U.S. Two years later, however, on July 22, 2017, it was announced that Season 18 would be released on December 5, 2017 on DVD.
In 2003, about 500 companies around the world were licensed to use Simpsons characters in their advertising. As a promotion for The Simpsons Movie, twelve 7 - Eleven stores were transformed into Kwik - E-Marts and sold The Simpsons related products. These included "Buzz Cola '', "Krusty - O '' cereal, pink doughnuts with sprinkles, and "Squishees ''.
In 2008 consumers around the world spent $750 million on merchandise related to The Simpsons, with half of the amount originating from the United States. By 2009, 20th Century Fox had greatly increased merchandising efforts. On April 9, 2009, the United States Postal Service unveiled a series of five 44 - cent stamps featuring Homer, Marge, Bart, Lisa and Maggie, to commemorate the show 's twentieth anniversary. The Simpsons is the first television series still in production to receive this recognition. The stamps, designed by Matt Groening, were made available for purchase on May 7, 2009. Approximately one billion were printed, but only 318 million were sold, costing the Postal Service $1.2 million.
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who received the jawaharlal nehru award of international understanding for the year 2009 | Jawaharlal Nehru award - Wikipedia
The Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding is an international award presented by the Government of India in honour of Jawaharlal Nehru, the country 's first prime minister.
It was established in 1965 and is administered by the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) to people "for their outstanding contribution to the promotion of international understanding, goodwill and friendship among people of the world ''. The money constituent of this award is 2.5 million rupees.
The following people have received this award. No prize was awarded in 1986 and between 1995 and 2003; the last award was in 2009.
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how many chromatids in metaphase 1 of meiosis | Sister chromatids - wikipedia
A sister chromatid refers to the identical copies (chromatids) formed by the replication of a chromosome, with both copies joined together by a common centromere. In other words, a sister chromatid may also be said to be ' one - half ' of the duplicated chromosome. A full set of sister chromatids is created during the synthesis (S) phase of interphase, when all the chromosomes in a cell are replicated. The two sister chromatids are separated from each other into two different cells during mitosis or during the second division of meiosis.
Compare sister chromatids to homologous chromosomes, which are the two different copies of a chromosome that diploid organisms (like humans) inherit, one from each parent. Sister chromatids are by and large identical (since they carry the same alleles, also called variants or versions, of genes) because they derive from one original chromosome. An exception is towards the end of meiosis, after crossing over has occurred, because sections of each sister chromatid may have been exchanged with corresponding sections of the homologous chromatids with which they are paired during meiosis. Homologous chromosomes might or might not be the same as each other because they derive from different parents.
There is evidence that, in some species, sister chromatids are the preferred template for DNA repair. Sister chromatid cohesion is essential for the correct distribution of genetic information between daughter cells and the repair of damaged chromosomes. Defects in this process may lead to aneuploidy and cancer, especially when checkpoints fail to detect DNA damage or when incorrectly attached mitotic spindles do n't function properly.
Mitotic recombination is primarily a result of DNA repair processes responding to spontaneous or induced damages. (Also reviewed in Bernstein and Bernstein, pp 220 -- 221). Homologous recombinational repair during mitosis is largely limited to interaction between nearby sister chromatids that are present in a cell subsequent to DNA replication but prior to cell division. Due to the special nearby relationship they share, sister chromatids are not only preferred over distant homologous chromatids as substrates for recominational repair, but have the capacity to repair more DNA damage than do homologs.
Studies with the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae indicate that inter-sister recombination occurs frequently during meiosis, and up to one - third of all recombination events occur between sister chromatids.
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who has hit the farthest home run ever | Home run - wikipedia
In baseball, a home run (abbreviated HR) is scored when the ball is hit in such a way that the batter is able to circle the bases and reach home safely in one play without any errors being committed by the defensive team in the process. In modern baseball, the feat is typically achieved by hitting the ball over the outfield fence between the foul poles (or making contact with either foul pole) without first touching the ground, resulting in an automatic home run. There is also the "inside - the - park '' home run where the batter reaches home safely while the baseball is in play on the field.
When a home run is scored, the batter is also credited with a hit and a run scored, and an RBI for each runner that scores, including himself. Likewise, the pitcher is recorded as having given up a hit, and a run for each runner that scores including the batter.
Home runs are among the most popular aspects of baseball and, as a result, prolific home run hitters are usually the most popular among fans and consequently the highest paid by teams -- hence the old saying, variously attributed to slugger Ralph Kiner, or to a teammate talking about Kiner, "Home run hitters drive Cadillacs, and singles hitters drive Fords. ''
In modern times a home run is most often scored when the ball is hit over the outfield wall between the foul poles (in fair territory) before it touches the ground (in flight), and without being caught or deflected back onto the field by a fielder. A batted ball is also a home run if it touches either foul pole or its attached screen before touching the ground, as the foul poles are by definition in fair territory. Additionally, many major - league ballparks have ground rules stating that a batted ball in flight that strikes a specified location or fixed object is a home run; this usually applies to objects that are beyond the outfield wall but are located such that it may be difficult for an umpire to judge.
A batted ball that goes over the outfield wall after touching the ground is not a home run, but an automatic double for the batter (often colloquially called a "ground rule double '').
A fielder is allowed to reach over the wall to attempt to catch the ball as long as his feet are on or over the field during the attempt, and if the fielder successfully catches the ball while it is in flight the batter is out, even if the ball had already passed the vertical plane of the wall. However, since the fielder is not part of the field, a ball that bounces off a fielder (including his glove) and over the wall without touching the ground is still a home run. A fielder may not deliberately throw his glove, cap, or any other equipment or apparel to stop or deflect a fair ball, and an umpire may award a home run to the batter if a fielder does so on a ball that, in the umpire 's judgment, would have otherwise been a home run (this is rare in modern professional baseball).
A home run accomplished in any of the above manners is an automatic home run. The ball is dead, even if it rebounds back onto the field (e.g., from striking a foul pole), and the batter and any preceding runners can not be put out at any time while running the bases. However, if one or more runners fail to touch a base or one runner passes another before reaching home plate, that runner or runners can be called out on appeal, though in the case of not touching a base a runner can go back and touch it if doing so wo n't cause them to be passed by another preceding runner and they have not yet touched the next base (or home plate in the case of missing third base). This stipulation is in Approved Ruling (2) of Rule 7.10 (b).
An inside - the - park home run occurs when a batter hits the ball into play and is able to circle the bases before the fielders can put him out. Unlike with an outside - the - park home run, the batter - runner and all preceding runners are liable to be put out by the defensive team at any time while running the bases. This can only happen if the ball does not leave the ballfield.
In the early days of baseball, outfields were relatively much more spacious, reducing the likelihood of an over-the - fence home run, while increasing the likelihood of an inside - the - park home run, as a ball getting past an outfielder had more distance that it could roll before a fielder could track it down.
Modern outfields are much less spacious and more uniformly designed than in the game 's early days, therefore inside - the - park home runs are now a rarity. They usually occur when a fast runner hits the ball deep into the outfield and the ball bounces in an unexpected direction away from the nearest outfielder (e.g., off a divot in the grass or off the outfield wall), or an outfielder misjudges the flight of the ball in a way that he can not quickly recover from the mistake (e.g., by diving and missing). The speed of the runner is crucial as even triples are relatively rare in most modern ballparks.
If any defensive play on an inside - the - park home run is labeled an error by the official scorer, a home run is not scored; instead, it is scored as a single, double, or triple, and the batter - runner and any applicable preceding runners are said to have taken all additional bases on error. All runs scored on such a play, however, still count.
An example of an unexpected bounce occurred during the 2007 Major League Baseball All - Star Game at AT&T Park in San Francisco on July 10, 2007. Ichiro Suzuki of the American League team hit a fly ball off the right - center field wall, which caromed in the opposite direction from where National League right fielder Ken Griffey, Jr. was expecting it to go. By the time the ball was relayed, Ichiro had already crossed the plate standing up. This was the first inside - the - park home run in All - Star Game history, and led to Suzuki being named the game 's Most Valuable Player.
Home runs are often characterized by the number of runners on base at the time. A home run hit with the bases empty is seldom called a "one - run homer '', but rather a solo home run, solo homer, or "solo shot ''. With one runner on base, two runs are scored (the baserunner and the batter) and thus the home run is often called a two - run homer or two - run shot. Similarly, a home runs with two runners on base is a three - run homer or three - run shot.
The term "four - run homer '' is seldom used; instead, it is nearly always called a "grand slam ''. Hitting a grand slam is the best possible result for the batter 's turn at bat and the worst possible result for the pitcher and his team.
A grand slam occurs when the bases are "loaded '' (that is, there are base runners standing at first, second, and third base) and the batter hits a home run. According to The Dickson Baseball Dictionary, the term originated in the card game of contract bridge. An inside - the - park grand slam is a grand slam that is also an inside - the - park home run, a home run without the ball leaving the field, and it is very rare, due to the relative rarity of loading the bases along with the significant rarity (nowadays) of inside - the - park home runs.
On July 25, 1956, Roberto Clemente became the only MLB player to have ever scored a walk - off inside - the - park grand slam in a 9 -- 8 Pittsburgh Pirates win over the Chicago Cubs, at Forbes Field.
On April 23, 1999, Fernando Tatís made history by hitting two grand slams in one inning, both against Chan Ho Park of the Los Angeles Dodgers. With this feat, Tatís also set a Major League record with 8 RBI in one inning.
On July 29, 2003 against the Texas Rangers, Bill Mueller of the Boston Red Sox became the only player in major league history to hit two grand slams in one game from opposite sides of the plate. In fact, he hit three home runs in that game, and his two grand slams were in consecutive at - bats.
On August 25, 2011 the New York Yankees became the first team to hit three grand slams in one game vs the Oakland A 's. The Yankees eventually went on to win the game 22 -- 9, after trailing 7 -- 1.
These types of home runs are characterized by the specific game situation in which they occur, and can theoretically occur on either an outside - the - park or inside - the - park home run.
A walk - off home run is a home run hit by the home team in the bottom of the ninth inning, any extra inning, or other scheduled final inning, which gives the home team the lead and thereby ends the game. The term is attributed to Hall of Fame relief pitcher Dennis Eckersley, so named because after the run is scored, the losing team has to "walk off '' the field.
Two World Series have ended via the "walk - off '' home run. The first was the 1960 World Series when Bill Mazeroski of the Pittsburgh Pirates hit a 9th inning solo home run in the 7th game of the series off New York Yankees pitcher Ralph Terry to give the Pirates the World Championship. The second time was the 1993 World Series when Joe Carter of the Toronto Blue Jays hit a 9th inning 3 - run home run off Philadelphia Phillies pitcher Mitch Williams in Game 6 of the series, to help the Toronto Blue Jays capture their second World Series Championship in a row.
Such a home run can also be called a "sudden death '' or "sudden victory '' home run. That usage has lessened as "walk - off home run '' has gained favor. Along with Mazeroski 's 1960 shot, the most famous walk - off or sudden - death homer would probably be the "Shot Heard ' Round the World '' hit by Bobby Thomson to win the 1951 National League pennant for the New York Giants, along with many other game - ending home runs that famously ended some of the most important and suspenseful baseball games.
A walk - off home run over the fence is an exception to baseball 's one - run rule. Normally if the home team is tied or behind in the ninth or extra innings the game ends as soon as the home team scores enough runs to achieve a lead. If the home team has two outs in the inning, and the game is tied, the game will officially end either the moment the batter successfully reaches 1st base or the moment the runner touches home plate -- whichever happens last. However, this is superseded by the "ground rule '', which provides automatic doubles (when a ball - in - play hits the ground first then leaves the playing field) and home runs (when a ball - in - play leaves the playing field without ever touching the ground). In the latter case, all base runners including the batter are allowed to cross the plate.
A lead - off home run is a home run hit by the first batter of a team, the leadoff hitter of the first inning of the game. In MLB, Rickey Henderson holds the record with 81 lead - off home runs. Craig Biggio holds the National League record with 53, third overall to Henderson, and Soriano with 54.
In 1996, Brady Anderson set a Major League record by hitting a lead - off home run in four consecutive games.
When two consecutive batters each hit a home run, this is described as back - to - back home runs. It is still considered back - to - back even if both batters hit their home runs off different pitchers. A third batter hitting a home run is commonly referred to as back - to - back - to - back.
Four home runs in a row by consecutive batters has only occurred nine times in the history of Major League Baseball. Following convention, this is called back - to - back - to - back - to - back. The most recent occurrence was on July 27, 2017, when the Washington Nationals hit four in a row against the Milwaukee Brewers in Nationals Park as Brian Goodwin (baseball), Wilmer Difo, Bryce Harper and Ryan Zimmerman homered off pitcher Michael Blazek. Blazek became the fourth pitcher to surrender back - to - back - to - back - to - back home runs, following Paul Foytack on July 31, 1963, Chase Wright on April 22, 2007, and Dave Bush.
On August 14, 2008, the Chicago White Sox defeated the Kansas City Royals 9 - 2. In this game, Jim Thome, Paul Konerko, Alexei Ramírez, and Juan Uribe hit back - to - back - to - back - to - back home runs in that order. Thome, Konerko, and Ramirez blasted their homers off of Joel Peralta, while Uribe did it off of Rob Tejeda. The next batter, veteran backstop Toby Hall, tried aimlessly to hit the ball as far as possible, but his effort resulted in a strike out.
On April 22, 2007 the Boston Red Sox were trailing the New York Yankees 3 -- 0 when Manny Ramirez, J.D. Drew, Mike Lowell and Jason Varitek hit back - to - back - to - back - to - back home runs to put them up 4 -- 3. They eventually went on to win the game 7 -- 6 after a three - run home run by Mike Lowell in the bottom of the 7th inning. On September 18, 2006 trailing 9 -- 5 to the San Diego Padres in the 9th inning, Jeff Kent, J.D. Drew, Russell Martin, and Marlon Anderson of the Los Angeles Dodgers hit back - to - back - to - back - to - back home runs to tie the game. After giving up a run in the top of the 10th, the Dodgers won the game in the bottom of the 10th, on a walk - off two run home run by Nomar Garciaparra. J.D. Drew has been part of two different sets of back - to - back - to - back - to - back home runs. In both occurrences, his homer was the second of the four.
On September 30, 1997, in the sixth inning of Game One of the American League Division Series between the New York Yankees and Cleveland Indians, Tim Raines, Derek Jeter and Paul O'Neill hit back - to - back - to - back home runs for the Yankees. Raines ' home run tied the game. New York went on to win 8 -- 6. This was the first occurrence of three home runs in a row ever in postseason play. The Boston Red Sox repeated the feat in Game Four of the 2007 American League Championship Series, also against the Indians.
Twice in MLB history have two brothers hit back - to - back home runs. On April 23, 2013, brothers Melvin Upton, Jr. (formerly B.J. Upton) and Justin Upton hit back - to - back home runs. The first time was on September 15, 1938, when Lloyd Waner and Paul Waner performed the feat.
Simple back - to - back home runs are a relatively frequent occurrence. If a pitcher gives up a homer, he might have his concentration broken and might alter his normal approach in an attempt to "make up for it '' by striking out the next batter with some fastballs. Sometimes the next batter will be expecting that and will capitalize on it. A notable back - to - back home run of that type in World Series play involved "Babe Ruth 's called shot '' in 1932, which was accompanied by various Ruthian theatrics, yet the pitcher, Charlie Root, was allowed to stay in the game. He delivered just one more pitch, which Lou Gehrig drilled out of the park for a back - to - back shot, after which Root was removed from the game.
In Game 3 of the 1976 NLCS, George Foster and Johnny Bench hit back - to - back homers in the last of the ninth off Ron Reed to tie the game. The Series - winning run was scored later in the inning.
Another notable pair of back - to - back home runs occurred on September 14, 1990, when Ken Griffey, Sr. and Ken Griffey, Jr. hit back - to - back home runs, off Kirk McCaskill, the only father - and - son duo to do so in Major League history.
On May 2, 2002, Bret Boone and Mike Cameron of the Seattle Mariners hit back - to - back home runs off of starter Jon Rauch in the first inning of a game against the Chicago White Sox. The Mariners batted around in the inning, and Boone and Cameron came up to bat against reliever Jim Parque with two outs, again hitting back - to - back home runs and becoming the only pair of teammates to hit back - to - back home runs twice in the same inning.
On June 19, 2012, José Bautista and Colby Rasmus hit back - to - back home runs and back - to - back - to - back home runs with Edwin Encarnación for a lead change in each instance.
On July 23, 2017 Whit Merrifield, Jorge Bonifacio, and Eric Hosmer of the Kansas City Royals hit back to back to back home runs in the fourth inning against the Chicago White Sox. The Royals went on to win the game 5 - 4.
The record for consecutive home runs by a batter under any circumstances is 4. Of the sixteen players (through 2012) who have hit 4 in one game, six have hit them consecutively. Twenty - eight other batters have hit four consecutive across two games.
Bases on balls do not count as at - bats, and Ted Williams holds the record for consecutive home runs across the most games, 4 in four games played, during September 17 -- 22, 1957, for the Red Sox. Williams hit a pinch - hit homer on the 17th; walked as a pinch - hitter on the 18th; there was no game on the 19th; hit another pinch - homer on the 20th; homered and then was lifted for a pinch - runner after at least one walk, on the 21st; and homered after at least one walk on the 22nd. All in all, he had 4 walks interspersed among his 4 homers.
In World Series play, Reggie Jackson hit a record three in one Series game, the final game (Game 6) in 1977. But those three were a part of a much more impressive feat. He walked on four pitches in the second inning of game 6. Then he hit his three home runs on the first pitch of his next three at bats, off of three different pitchers (4th inning - Hooten, 5th inning - Sosa, 8th inning - Hough). He had also hit one in his last at bat of the previous game, giving him four home runs on four consecutive swings. (His home run in game 5 was also hit on the first pitch, although this did not add to any significant streak.) The four in a row set the record for consecutive homers across two Series games.
In Game 3 of the World Series in 2011, Albert Pujols hit three home runs to tie the record with Babe Ruth and Reggie Jackson. The St. Louis Cardinals went on to win the World Series in Game 7 at Busch Stadium. In Game 1 of the World Series in 2012, Pablo Sandoval of the San Francisco Giants hit three home runs on his first three at - bats of the Series, also tying the record with Pujols, Jackson, and Ruth.
Nomar Garciaparra holds the record for consecutive home runs in the shortest time in terms of innings: 3 homers in 2 innings, on July 23, 2002, for the Boston Red Sox.
An offshoot of hitting for the cycle, a "home run cycle '' is where a player hits a solo, 2 - run, 3 - run, and grand slam all in one game. This is an extremely rare feat, as it requires the batter to not only hit four home runs in a game (which itself has only occurred 18 times in the Major Leagues), but also to hit those home runs with the specific number of runners already on base. Although it is a rare accomplishment, it is largely dependent on circumstances outside the player 's control, such as his preceding teammates ' ability to get on base, as well as the order in which he comes to bat in any particular inning.
Another variant of the home run cycle would be the "natural home run cycle '', which would require a batter to hit a solo, 2 - run, 3 - run, and grand slam in that order.
Though multiple home run cycles have been recorded in collegiate baseball, the only home run cycle in a professional baseball game belongs to Tyrone Horne, who stroked four long balls for the minor league, Double - A Arkansas Travelers in a game against the San Antonio Missions on July 27, 1998.
A major league player has come close to hitting for the home run cycle several times. Recent examples include:
In the early days of the game, when the ball was less lively and the ballparks generally had very large outfields, most home runs were of the inside - the - park variety. The first home run ever hit in the National League was by Ross Barnes of the Chicago White Stockings (now known as the Chicago Cubs), in 1876. The home "run '' was literally descriptive. Home runs over the fence were rare, and only in ballparks where a fence was fairly close. Hitters were discouraged from trying to hit home runs, with the conventional wisdom being that if they tried to do so they would simply fly out. This was a serious concern in the 19th century, because in baseball 's early days a ball caught after one bounce was still an out. The emphasis was on place - hitting and what is now called "manufacturing runs '' or "small ball ''.
The home run 's place in baseball changed dramatically when the live - ball era began after World War I. First, the materials and manufacturing processes improved significantly, making the now - mass - produced, cork - centered ball somewhat more lively. Batters such as Babe Ruth and Rogers Hornsby took full advantage of rules changes that were instituted during the 1920s, particularly prohibition of the spitball, and the requirement that balls be replaced when worn or dirty. These changes resulted in the baseball being easier to see and hit, and easier to hit out of the park. Meanwhile, as the game 's popularity boomed, more outfield seating was built, shrinking the size of the outfield and increasing the chances of a long fly ball resulting in a home run. The teams with the sluggers, typified by the New York Yankees, became the championship teams, and other teams had to change their focus from the "inside game '' to the "power game '' in order to keep up.
Before 1931, a ball that bounced over an outfield fence during a major league game was considered a home run. The rule was changed to require the ball to clear the fence on the fly, and balls that reached the seats on a bounce became ground rule doubles in most parks. A carryover of the old rule is that if a player deflects a ball over the outfield fence without it touching the ground, it is a home run.
Also, until approximately that time, the ball had to not only go over the fence in fair territory, but to land in the bleachers in fair territory or to still be visibly fair when disappearing behind a wall. The rule stipulated "fair when last seen '' by the umpires. Photos from that era in ballparks, such as the Polo Grounds and Yankee Stadium, show ropes strung from the foul poles to the back of the bleachers, or a second "foul pole '' at the back of the bleachers, in a straight line with the foul line, as a visual aid for the umpire. Ballparks still use a visual aid much like the ropes; a net or screen attached to the foul poles on the fair side has replaced ropes. As with American football, where a touchdown once required a literal "touch down '' of the ball in the end zone but now only requires the "breaking of the (vertical) plane '' of the goal line, in baseball the ball need only "break the plane '' of the fence in fair territory (unless the ball is caught by a player who is in play, in which case the batter is called out).
Babe Ruth 's 60th home run in 1927 was somewhat controversial, because it landed barely in fair territory in the stands down the right field line. Ruth lost a number of home runs in his career due to the when - last - seen rule. Bill Jenkinson, in The Year Babe Ruth Hit 104 Home Runs, estimates that Ruth lost at least 50 and as many as 78 in his career due to this rule.
Further, the rules once stipulated that an over-the - fence home run in a sudden - victory situation would only count for as many bases as was necessary to "force '' the winning run home. For example, if a team trailed by two runs with the bases loaded, and the batter hit a fair ball over the fence, it only counted as a triple, because the runner immediately ahead of him had technically already scored the game - winning run. That rule was changed in the 1920s as home runs became increasingly frequent and popular. Babe Ruth 's career total of 714 would have been one higher had that rule not been in effect in the early part of his career.
Major League Baseball keeps running totals of all - time home runs by team, including teams no longer active (prior to 1900) as well as by individual players. Gary Sheffield hit the 250,000 th home run in MLB history with a grand slam on September 8, 2008. Sheffield had hit MLB 's 249,999 th home run against Gio González in his previous at - bat.
The all - time, verified professional baseball record for career home runs for one player, excluding the U.S. Negro Leagues during the era of segregation, is held by Sadaharu Oh. Oh spent his entire career playing for the Yomiuri Giants in Japan 's Nippon Professional Baseball, later managing the Giants, the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks and the 2006 World Baseball Classic Japanese team. Oh holds the all - time home run world record, having hit 868 home runs in his career.
In Major League Baseball, the career record is 762, held by Barry Bonds, who broke Hank Aaron 's record on August 7, 2007, when he hit his 756th home run at AT&T Park off pitcher Mike Bacsik. Only eight other major league players have hit as many as 600: Hank Aaron (755), Babe Ruth (714), Alex Rodriguez (696), Willie Mays (660), Ken Griffey, Jr. (630), Albert Pujols (620) and Jim Thome (612), Sammy Sosa (609).
The single season record is 73, set by Barry Bonds in 2001. Other notable single season records were achieved by Babe Ruth who hit 60 in 1927, Roger Maris, with 61 home runs in 1961, and Mark McGwire, who hit 70 in 1998.
Negro League slugger Josh Gibson 's Baseball Hall of Fame plaque says he hit "almost 800 '' home runs in his career. The Guinness Book of World Records lists Gibson 's lifetime home run total at 800. Ken Burns ' award - winning series, Baseball, states that his actual total may have been as high as 950. Gibson 's true total is not known, in part due to inconsistent record keeping in the Negro Leagues. The 1993 edition of the MacMillan Baseball Encyclopedia attempted to compile a set of Negro League records, and subsequent work has expanded on that effort. Those records demonstrate that Gibson and Ruth were of comparable power. The 1993 book had Gibson hitting 146 home runs in the 501 "official '' Negro League games they were able to account for in his 17 - year career, about 1 homer every 3.4 games. Babe Ruth, in 22 seasons (several of them in the dead - ball era), hit 714 in 2503 games, or 1 homer every 3.5 games. The large gap in the numbers for Gibson reflect the fact that Negro League clubs played relatively far fewer league games and many more "barnstorming '' or exhibition games during the course of a season, than did the major league clubs of that era.
Other legendary home run hitters include Jimmie Foxx, Mel Ott, Ted Williams, Mickey Mantle (who on September 10, 1960, mythically hit "the longest home run ever '' at an estimated distance of 643 feet (196 m), although this was measured after the ball stopped rolling), Reggie Jackson, Harmon Killebrew, Ernie Banks, Mike Schmidt, Dave Kingman, Sammy Sosa (who hit 60 or more home runs in a season 3 times), Ken Griffey, Jr. and Eddie Mathews. In 1987, Joey Meyer of the Denver Zephyrs hit the longest verifiable home run in professional baseball history. The home run was measured at a distance of 582 feet (177 m) and was hit inside Denver 's Mile High Stadium. Major League Baseball 's longest verifiable home run distance is about 575 feet (175 m), by Babe Ruth, to straightaway center field at Tiger Stadium (then called Navin Field and before the double - deck), which landed nearly across the intersection of Trumbull and Cherry.
The location of where Hank Aaron 's record 755th home run landed has been monumented in Milwaukee. The spot sits outside Miller Park, where the Milwaukee Brewers currently play. Similarly, the point where Aaron 's 715th homer landed, upon breaking Ruth 's career record in 1974, is marked in the Turner Field parking lot. A red - painted seat in Fenway Park marks the landing place of the 502 - ft home run Ted Williams hit in 1946, the longest measured homer in Fenway 's history; a red stadium seat mounted on the wall of the Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota, marks the landing spot of Harmon Killebrew 's record 520 - foot shot in old Metropolitan Stadium.
Replays "to get the call right '' have been used extremely sporadically in the past, but the use of instant replay to determine "boundary calls '' -- home runs and foul balls -- was not officially allowed until 2008.
In a game on May 31, 1999, involving the St. Louis Cardinals and Florida Marlins, a hit by Cliff Floyd of the Marlins was initially ruled a double, then a home run, then was changed back to a double when umpire Frank Pulli decided to review video of the play. The Marlins protested that video replay was not allowed, but while the National League office agreed that replay was not to be used in future games, it declined the protest on the grounds it was a judgment call, and the play stood.
In November 2007, the general managers of Major League Baseball voted in favor of implementing instant replay reviews on boundary home run calls. The proposal limited the use of instant replay to determining whether a boundary / home run call is:
On August 28, 2008, instant replay review became available in MLB for reviewing calls in accordance with the above proposal. It was first utilized on September 3, 2008 in a game between the New York Yankees and the Tampa Bay Rays at Tropicana Field. Alex Rodriguez of the Yankees hit what appeared to be a home run, but the ball hit a catwalk behind the foul pole. It was at first called a home run, until Tampa Bay manager Joe Maddon argued the call, and the umpires decided to review the play. After 2 minutes and 15 seconds, the umpires came back and ruled it a home run.
About two weeks later, on September 19, also at Tropicana Field, a boundary call was overturned for the first time. In this case, Carlos Peña of the Rays was given a ground rule double in a game against the Minnesota Twins after an umpire believed a fan reached into the field of play to catch a fly ball in right field. The umpires reviewed the play, determined the fan did not reach over the fence, and reversed the call, awarding Peña a home run.
Aside from the two aforementioned reviews at Tampa Bay, replay was used four more times in the 2008 MLB regular season: twice at Houston, once at Seattle, and once at San Francisco. The San Francisco incident is perhaps the most unusual. Bengie Molina, the Giants ' catcher, hit what was first called a single. Molina then was replaced in the game by Emmanuel Burriss, a pinch - runner, before the umpires re-evaluated the call and ruled it a home run. In this instance though, Molina was not allowed to return to the game to complete the run, as he had already been replaced. Molina was credited with the home run, and two RBIs, but not for the run scored which went to Burriss instead.
On October 31, 2009, in the fourth inning of Game 3 of the World Series, Alex Rodriguez hit a long fly ball that appeared to hit a camera protruding over the wall and into the field of play in deep left field. The ball ricocheted off the camera and re-entered the field, initially ruled a double. However, after the umpires consulted with each other after watching the instant replay, the hit was ruled a home run, marking the first time an instant replay home run was hit in a playoff game.
Career achievements
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in what state has a us president not been sworn in | United States presidential inauguration - wikipedia
The inauguration of the President of the United States is a ceremony to mark the commencement of a new four - year term of the President of the United States. This ceremony takes place for each new presidential term, even if the president is continuing in office for a second term. Since 1937, it has taken place on January 20, which is 72 to 78 days after the November presidential election (on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November). The term of a president commences at noon ("EST '' -- Eastern Standard Time) on that day, when the Chief Justice of the United States administers the oath of office to the president. However, when January 20 falls on a Sunday, the chief justice administers the oath to the president on that day privately and then again in a public ceremony the next day, on Monday, January 21. The most recent presidential inauguration ceremony was the swearing in of Donald Trump to a four - year term of office on Friday, January 20, 2017.
Recitation of the presidential oath of office is the only component in this ceremony mandated by the United States Constitution (in Article II, Section One, Clause 8). However, over the years, various traditions have arisen that have expanded the inauguration from a simple oath - taking ceremony to a day - long event, including parades and multiple social gatherings. The ceremony itself is carried live via the major U.S. commercial television and cable news networks; various ones also stream it live on their websites.
Since the 1981 inauguration of Ronald Reagan, the ceremony has been held at the west front of the United States Capitol facing the National Mall with its iconic Washington Monument and distant Lincoln Memorial. Other swearing - in ceremonies have taken place on a platform over the steps at the Capitol 's east portico on a regular basis for 180 years, and occasionally inside the Old Senate Chamber on the old north side, the chamber of the House of Representatives in the south wing, and the central Rotunda under the dome. Additionally, on two occasions -- in 1817 and 1945 -- they were held at other locations in Washington, D.C., at the Executive Mansion, (later known as the White House)
Though it is not a constitutional requirement, the Chief Justice typically administers the presidential oath of office. Since 1789, the oath has been administered at 58 scheduled public inaugurations, by 15 chief justices, one associate justice, and one New York state judge. Others, in addition to the chief justice, have administered the oath of office to several of the nine vice presidents who succeeded to the presidency upon their predecessor 's death or resignation intra-term. When a new president assumed office under these unusual circumstances the inauguration is conducted without pomp or fanfare.
The first inauguration, that of George Washington, took place on April 30, 1789. All subsequent (regular) inaugurations from 1793 until 1933, were held on March 4, the day of the year on which the federal government began operations under the U.S. Constitution in 1789. The exception to this pattern was those years in which March 4 fell on a Sunday. When it did, the public inauguration ceremony would take place on Monday, March 5. This happened on four occasions, in 1821, 1849, 1877, and 1917. Inauguration Day moved to January 20, beginning in 1937, following ratification of the Twentieth Amendment to the Constitution, where it has remained since. A similar Sunday exception and move to Monday is made around this date as well (which happened in 1957, 1985, and 2013).
Inauguration Day, while not a federal holiday, is observed as a holiday by federal employees who work in the District of Columbia; Montgomery and Prince George 's Counties in Maryland; Arlington and Fairfax Counties in Virginia, and the cities of Alexandria and Fairfax in Virginia, and who are regularly scheduled to perform non-overtime work on Inauguration Day. There is no in - lieu - of holiday for employees or students who are not regularly scheduled to work or attend school on Inauguration Day.
Most presidential inaugurations since 1801 have been held in Washington D.C. at the Capitol Building. Prior inaugurations were held, first at Federal Hall in New York City (1789), and then at Congress Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (1793 and 1797). Each city was, at the time, the nation 's capital. The location for James Monroe 's 1817 swearing in was moved to the Old Brick Capitol in Washington due to on - going restoration work at the Capitol building following the War of 1812. In 1909, William H. Taft 's inauguration was moved to the Senate Chamber due to a blizzard. Three other inaugurations -- Franklin D. Roosevelt 's fourth (1945), Harry S. Truman 's first (1945), and Gerald Ford 's (1974) -- were held at the White House. Presidential inaugurations (not including intra-term ceremonies following the death or resignation of a president) have traditionally been outdoor public ceremonies. Andrew Jackson, in 1829, was the first of 35 held on the east front of the Capitol. Since the 1981 inauguration of Ronald Reagan, they have been held on the Capitol 's west front; a move designed to both cut costs and to provide more space for spectators.
Prior to Inauguration Day, the president - elect will name a Presidential Inaugural Committee. This committee is the legal entity responsible for fundraising for and the planning and coordination of all official events and activities surrounding the inauguration of president and vice president (other than the ceremony), such as the balls and parade.
Since 1901, the Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies has been responsible for the planning and execution of the swearing - in ceremonies at the U.S. Capitol. Since 1953, the committee has also hosted a luncheon at the Capitol for the new president, vice president, and guests.
The Joint Task Force National Capital Region, composed of service members from all branches of the United States Armed Forces, including Reserve and National Guard components, is responsible for all military support to ceremonies and to civil authorities for the inaugural period (in 2017, January 15 -- 24). U.S. military personnel have participated in Inauguration Day ceremonies since 1789 when members of the Continental Army, local militia units and Revolutionary War veterans escorted George Washington to his first inauguration ceremony. Their participation traditionally includes musical units, color guards, salute batteries and honor cordons. Military support to the inauguration honors the new president, who is commander - in - chief of the armed forces, and recognizes civilian control of the military.
In addition to the public, the attendees at the ceremony generally include the vice president, members of Congress, Supreme Court justices, high - ranking military officers, former presidents, living Medal of Honor recipients, and other dignitaries. The outgoing president customarily attends the president - elect 's inauguration. Only five have chosen not to do so. John Adams, still smarting over the outcome of the election of 1800, did not remain in Washington to witness the inauguration of Thomas Jefferson, his successor. In 1829, John Quincy Adams also left town, unwilling to be present to see Andrew Jackson 's accession to the White House. In 1869, Andrew Johnson was angrily conducting a cabinet meeting even as his successor, Ulysses S. Grant, was being inaugurated. More recently, Woodrow Wilson did not attend Warren G. Harding 's 1921 inauguration (though he rode to the Capitol with him), nor did Richard Nixon attend Gerald Ford 's 1974 inauguration (having left Washington, D.C., prior to his resignation taking effect).
The way inauguration ceremony events are communicated to the public has changed over the years with each advance in technology. Improvements in mass media technologies have allowed presidents to reach substantially greater numbers of their constituents. In 1829, Andrew Jackson spoke to approximately 10,000 people at his inauguration. Most recently, in 2017, it is estimated that about 160,000 people were in the National Mall areas in the hour leading up to Donald Trump 's swearing in. An additional 30.6 million people in the United States watched it on television, and more than 6.8 million worldwide streamed it live on Twitter. Among the inauguration mass communication milestones are:
Inauguration procedure is governed by tradition rather than the Constitution, the only constitutionally required procedure being the presidential oath of office (which may be taken anywhere, with anyone in attendance who can legally witness an oath, and at any time prior to the actual beginning of the new president 's term). Traditionally, the president - elect arrives at the White House and proceeds to the inaugural grounds at the United States Capitol with the incumbent president. Only three incumbent presidents have refused to accompany the president - elect: John Adams, John Quincy Adams, and Andrew Johnson. Around or after 12 noon, the president takes the oath of office, usually administered by the Chief Justice of the United States, and then delivers the inaugural address.
The vice president is sworn into office in the same ceremony as the president. Prior to 1937, the vice presidential oath was administered in the Senate Chamber (in keeping with the vice president 's position as President of the Senate). The oath is administered to the vice president first. Immediately afterwards, the United States Marine Band will perform four ruffles and flourishes, followed by Hail, Columbia. Unlike the presidential oath, however, the Constitution does not specify specific words that must be spoken. Several variants of the oath have been used since 1789. The current form, which is also recited by Senators, Representatives, and other government officers, has been in use since 1884:
At noon, the new presidential and vice presidential terms begin. At about that time, the president recites the constitutionally mandated oath of office:
According to Washington Irving 's biography of George Washington, after reciting the oath at his (and the nation 's) first inauguration, Washington added the words "so help me God ''. However, the only contemporaneous source that fully reproduced Washington 's oath completely lacks the religious codicil. The first newspaper report that actually described the exact words used in an oath of office, Chester Arthur 's in 1881, repeated the "query - response '' method where the words, "so help me God '' were a personal prayer, not a part of the constitutional oath. The time of adoption of the current procedure, where both the chief justice and the president speak the oath, is unknown.
The oath of office was administered to Washington in 1789 by Robert Livingston, Chancellor of New York State. Four years later, the oath was administered by Supreme Court Associate Justice William Cushing. Since the 1797 inauguration of John Adams, it has become customary for the new president to be sworn into office by the Supreme Court 's Chief Justice. Others have administered the oath on occasions when a new president assumed office intra-term due to the incumbent 's death or resignation. William Cranch, chief judge of the U.S. Circuit Court, administered the oath of office to John Tyler in 1841 when he succeeded to the presidency upon William Henry Harrison 's death, and to Millard Fillmore in 1850 when Zachary Taylor died. In 1923, upon being informed of Warren Harding 's death, while visiting his family home in Plymouth Notch, Vermont, Calvin Coolidge was sworn in as president by his father, John Calvin Coolidge, Sr., a notary public. Most recently, Federal Judge Sarah T. Hughes administered the oath of office to Lyndon B. Johnson aboard Air Force One after John F. Kennedy 's assassination on November 22, 1963.
Since 1789 there have been 58 inaugural ceremonies to mark the commencement of a new four - year term of a president of the United States, and an additional nine marking the start of a partial presidential term following the intra-term death or resignation of an incumbent president. With the 2017 inauguration of Donald Trump, the oath has been taken 75 different times by 44 people. This numerical discrepancy results chiefly from two factors: a president must take the oath at the beginning of each term of office, and, because the day of inauguration has sometimes fallen on a Sunday, five presidents have taken the oath privately before the public inaugural ceremonies. In addition, three have repeated the oath as a precaution against potential later constitutional challenges.
There is no requirement that any book, or in particular a book of sacred text, be used to administer the oath, and none is mentioned in the Constitution. By convention, incoming presidents raise their right hand and place the left on a Bible or other book while taking the oath of office. While most have, Theodore Roosevelt did not use a Bible when taking the oath in 1901; neither did John Quincy Adams in 1825. In 1853, Franklin Pierce affirmed the oath of office rather than swear it. More recently, a Catholic missal was used for Lyndon Johnson 's 1963 swearing in ceremony.
Bibles of historical significance have sometimes been used at inaugurations. George H.W. Bush, Jimmy Carter and Dwight D. Eisenhower used the George Washington Inaugural Bible. Barack Obama placed his hand upon the Lincoln Bible for his oaths in 2009 and 2013, as did Donald Trump in 2017.
Immediately after the presidential oath, the United States Marine Band will perform four ruffles and flourishes, followed by Hail to the Chief, while simultaneously, a 21 - gun salute is fired using artillery pieces from the Presidential Guns Salute Battery, 3d United States Infantry Regiment "The Old Guard '' located in Taft Park, north of the Capitol. The actual gun salute begins with the first ruffle and flourish, and ' run long ' (i.e. the salute concludes after Hail to the Chief has ended). The Marine Band, which is believed to have made its inaugural debut in 1801 for Thomas Jefferson 's first inauguration, is the only musical unit to participate in all three components of the Presidential inauguration: the swearing - in ceremony, the inaugural parade, and an inaugural ball. During the ceremony, the band is positioned directly below the presidential podium at the U.S. Capitol.
Newly sworn - in presidents usually give a speech referred to as an inaugural address. As with many inaugural customs, this one was started by George Washington in 1789. After taking his oath of office on the balcony of Federal Hall, he proceeded to the Senate chamber where he read a speech before members of Congress and other dignitaries. Every President since Washington has delivered an Inaugural address. While many of the early Presidents read their addresses before taking the oath, current custom dictates that the chief justice administer the oath first, followed by the president 's speech. William McKinley requested the change in 1897, so that he could reiterate the words of the oath at the close of his first inaugural address.
William Henry Harrison delivered the longest inaugural address, at 8,445 words, in 1841. John Adams ' 1797 address, which totaled 2,308 words, contained the longest sentence, at 737 words. In 1793, Washington gave the shortest inaugural address on record, just 135 words.
Most presidents use their inaugural address to present their vision of America and to set forth their goals for the nation. Some of the most eloquent and powerful speeches are still quoted today. In 1865, in the waning days of the Civil War, Abraham Lincoln stated, "With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation 's wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle and for his widow and his orphan, to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations. '' In 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt avowed, "we have nothing to fear but fear itself. '' And in 1961, John F. Kennedy declared, "And so my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you -- ask what you can do for your country. ''
On the eight occasions where the new president succeeded to the office upon their predecessor 's death intra-term, none gave an address, but each did address Congress soon thereafter. When Gerald Ford became president in 1974, following the resignation of Richard Nixon, he addressed the nation after taking the oath, but he characterized his speech as "Not an inaugural address, not a fireside chat, not a campaign speech -- just a little straight talk among friends. '' (Full text)
Since 1937, the ceremony has incorporated one or more prayers. Since 1933 an associated prayer service either public or private attended by the President - elect has often taken place on the morning of the day. At times a major public or broadcast prayer service takes place after the main ceremony most recently on the next day.
Five inaugural ceremonies since 1961 have included a reading by a poet. The following poetry readings have taken place:
Over the years, various inauguration traditions have arisen that have expanded the event from a simple oath - taking ceremony to a day - long one, including parades, speeches, and balls. In fact, contemporary inaugural celebrations typically span 10 days, from five days before the inauguration to five days after. On some occasions however, either due to the preferences of the new president or to other constraining circumstances, they have been scaled back. Such was the case in 1945, because of rationing in effect during World War II. More recently, in 1973, the celebrations marking Richard Nixon 's second inauguration were altered because of the death of former President Lyndon B. Johnson two days after the ceremony. All pending events were cancelled so preparations for Johnson 's state funeral could begin. Because of the construction work on the center steps of the East Front, Johnson 's casket was taken up the Senate wing steps of the Capitol when taken into the rotunda to lie in state. When it was brought out, it came out through the House wing steps of the Capitol.
Since 1953, the president and vice president have been guests of honor at a luncheon held by the leadership of the United States Congress immediately following the inaugural ceremony. The luncheon is held in Statuary Hall and is organized by the Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies, and attended by the leadership of both houses of Congress as well as guests of the president and vice president. By tradition, the outgoing president and vice president do not attend.
Following the arrival of the presidential entourage to the White House, it is customary for the president, vice-president, their respective families and leading members of the government and military to review an inaugural parade from an enclosed stand at the edge of the North Lawn, a custom begun by James Garfield in 1881. The parade, which proceeds along the 1.5 miles of Pennsylvania Avenue in front of the stand and the Front Lawn in view of the presidential party, features both military and civilian participants from all 50 states and the District of Columbia; this parade largely evolved from the post-inaugural procession to the White House, and occurred as far back as Jefferson 's second inauguration in 1805, when workers from the Washington Navy Yard, accompanied by military music, marched with the president on foot as he rode on horseback from the Capitol to the White House. By the time of William Henry Harrison 's inauguration in 1841, political clubs and marching societies would regularly travel to Washington for the parade. That year was also the first in which floats were part of the parade. It was at Lincoln 's second inauguration, in 1865, that Native Americans and African Americans participated in the inaugural parade for the first time. Women were involved for the first time in 1917.
In 1829, following his first inaugural parade, Andrew Jackson held a public reception at the White House, during which 20,000 people created such a crush that Jackson had to escape through a window. Nevertheless, White House receptions continued until lengthy afternoon parades created scheduling problems. Reviving the idea in 1989, President George H.W. Bush invited the public to a "White House American Welcome '' on the day after the inaugural.
Grover Cleveland 's 1885 inaugural parade lasted three hours and showcased 25,000 marchers. Eighty years later, Lyndon Johnson 's parade included 52 select bands. Dwight D. Eisenhower 's 1953 parade included about 22,000 service men and women and 5,000 civilians, which included 50 state and organization floats costing $100,000. There were also 65 musical units, 350 horses, 3 elephants, an Alaskan dog team, and the 280 - millimeter atomic cannon.
In 1977, Jimmy Carter became the first president to set out by foot for more than a mile on the route to the White House. The walk has become a tradition that has been matched in ceremony if not in length by the presidents who followed.
Twice during the 20th century, an inaugural parade down Pennsylvania Avenue was not held. In 1945, at the height of World War II, Franklin D. Roosevelt 's fourth Inauguration was simple and austere with no fanfare or formal celebration following the event. There was no parade because of gas rationing and a lumber shortage. In 1985, as temperatures hovered near zero, all outdoor events for Ronald Reagan 's second inauguration were canceled or moved indoors. The obverse had been the case four years earlier for Reagan 's first inauguration, as the noontime temperature was an unseasonably 55 degrees. That parade was held as breaking news spread across Washington, D.C. and the rest of the nation that the 52 American hostages held in Iran for the previous 444 days had been released.
A tradition of a national prayer service, usually the day after the inauguration, dates back to George Washington and since Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the prayer service has been held at the Washington National Cathedral. This is not the same as the Inaugural Prayer, a tradition also begun by Washington, when on June 1, 1789, Methodist Bishops Francis Asbury and Thomas Coke, Rev. John Dickins, the pastor of Old St. George 's (America 's oldest Methodist Church) and Major Thomas Morrell, one of President Washington 's former aides - de-camp called upon Washington in New York City. This tradition resumed in 1985 with President Reagan and continues under the auspices of a Presidential Inaugural Prayer Committee based at Old St. George 's.
The first Inaugural Ball was held on the night of James Madison 's first inauguration in 1809. Tickets were $4 and it took place at Long 's Hotel.
The security for the inaugural celebrations is a complex matter, involving the Secret Service, Department of Homeland Security, Federal Protective Service (DHS - FPS), all five branches of the Armed Forces, the Capitol Police, the United States Park Police (USPP), and the Metropolitan Police Department of the District of Columbia (MPDC). Federal law enforcement agencies also sometimes request assistance from various other state and local law - enforcement agencies throughout the United States.
Beginning with George Washington, there has been a traditional association with Inauguration festivities and the production of a presidential medal. With the District of Columbia attracting thousands of attendees for inauguration, presidential medals were an inexpensive souvenir for the tourists to remember the occasion. However, the once - simple trinket turned into an official presidential election memento. In 1901, the first Inauguration Committee on Medals and Badges was established as part of the official Inauguration Committee for the re-election of President McKinley. The Committee saw official medals as a way to raise funding for the festivities. Gold medals were to be produced as gifts for the president, vice president, and committee chair; silver medals were to be created and distributed among Inauguration Committee members, and bronze medals would be for sale for public consumption. McKinley 's medal was simple with his portrait on one side and writing on the other side.
Unlike his predecessor, when Theodore Roosevelt took his oath of office in 1905, he found the previous presidential medal unacceptable. As an art lover and admirer of the ancient Greek high - relief coins, Roosevelt wanted more than a simple medal -- he wanted a work of art. To achieve this goal, the president hired Augustus Saint - Gaudens, a famous American sculptor, to design and create his inauguration medal. Saint - Gaudens 's obsession with perfection resulted in a forestalled release and the medals were distributed after the actual inauguration. Nonetheless, President Roosevelt was very pleased with the result. Saint Gardens ' design, executed by Adolph A. Weinman, was cast by Tiffany & Company and was proclaimed an artistic triumph. Saint - Gaudens ' practice of creating a portrait sculpture of the newly elected president is still used today in presidential medal creation. After the president sits for the sculptor, the resulting clay sketch is turned into a life mask and plaster model. Finishing touches are added and the epoxy cast that is created is used to produce the die cuts. The die cuts are then used to strike the president 's portrait on each medal.
From 1929 through 1949, the official medal was struck by the U.S. Mint. This changed in 1953 when the Medallic Art Company was chosen to strike Walker Hancock 's portrait of President Eisenhower. The official medals have been struck by private mints ever since. The Smithsonian Institution and The George Washington University hold the two most complete collections of presidential medals in the United States.
The 58 inauguration ceremonies marking the start of a new four - year presidential term of office and also the nine marking the start of a partial presidential term following the intra-term death or resignation of an incumbent president are listed in the table below.
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when were kotex pads introduced to the market | Kotex - wikipedia
Kotex is a brand of feminine hygiene products, which includes the Kotex maxi, thin and ultra thin pads, the Security tampons, and the Lightdays pantiliners. Most recently, the company has added U by Kotex to its line of feminine hygiene products. Kotex is owned and managed by Kimberly - Clark, a consumer products corporation active in more than 80 countries.
The modern, commercial, disposable pads seem to have started in the late nineteenth century with the Hartmann company in Germany, and Johnson & Johnson in the United States. In the United States, Kotex was launched in 1920 by Kimberly - Clark to make use of leftover cellucotton (wood pulp fiber) from World War One bandages. Kotex became well known in the 1920s after Kimberly - Clark placed advertisements in Good Housekeeping magazine. Although some readers were offended by the ads, the products ' success led to more advertisements. Kimberly - Clark also promoted Kotex in Good Housekeeping by using intimate advice columnist Mary Pauline Callender.
Originally sold in a hospital blue box at 12 for 60 cents, Victorian sexual prudishness caused slow acceptance until Montgomery Ward began advertising them in its 1926 catalog, reaching $11 million sales in 1927 in 57 countries. It became one of the first self - service items in American retailing history after it was strategically placed on countertops with a special payment box so that the woman did n't have to ask a clerk for it and touch hands. Tampax appeared in 1936. Belts were needed until the 1970 introduction of Stayfree by Personal Products Co. and New Freedom Pads by Kimberly - Clark.
In August 2009 Kotex launched a premium sub-brand called Kotex Luxe in Singapore. It launched U by Kotex Tween, products aimed at girls aged 8 -- 12 in the US in 2011.
In September 2012 Kimberly - Clark issued a warning regarding a shipment of rejected Kotex tampons that had been stolen and sold to the public. The company said that the defective products posed only a minor health risk to consumers.
New Freedom is a former brand in the Kotex family. New Freedom was one of the first beltless pads manufactured in the early 1970s.
Quest Deodorant Powder for Sanitary Napkins, a feminine hygiene product formerly made by Kotex, is featured prominently in the Mad Men episode "Collaborators '' (season 6 episode 3, air date 14 April 2013). Peggy Olson (Elisabeth Moss) finds a container of Quest on her desk, along with a folder detailing three talk points about the product, one of which details the target audience: "working women and other Olsons ''. Peggy mistakes the practical joke as an actual assignment from her boss, Ted Chaough (Kevin Rahm), who has to explain her copywriters have "pranked '' her. The end of the episode shows that Peggy has saved the product in her top desk drawer.
Kotex sanitary napkins were also mentioned in an episode of Boardwalk Empire ("Blue Bell Boy '', season 3 episode 4, air date 7 October 2012). Margaret Thompson (Kelly Macdonald) is working with a young doctor to establish a women 's health clinic in the Catholic hospital where she and husband Nucky Thompson (Steve Buscemi) are benefactors. A nun reviews all materials that are being presented to the patients to assure that they are in line with the church 's guidelines and moral code and inquires about small brown - paper packages that are being distributed in the class. "Kooo - tex? '' she reads quizzically, and Margaret explains that these sanitary napkins are gifts for the women, and that they were newly introduced to the market. The nun is flustered by the fact that such products are "sold openly in stores '' and when Margaret suggests she take some for herself the nun replaces the package and leaves the room in a huff.
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who sang sunrise sunset in fiddler on the roof | Sunrise, Sunset - wikipedia
"Sunrise, Sunset '' is a song from the musical Fiddler on the Roof written in 1964 by composer Jerry Bock and lyricist Sheldon Harnick.
Lyricist Sheldon Harnick said:
I do remember when we wrote "Sunrise Sunset, '' the first person we played it for was Jerry Bock 's wife... and when I finished, then I looked at Jerry 's wife Patti and I was startled to see that she was crying. And I thought my goodness; this song must be more effective than we even know. And the same thing happened -- I am not a pianist but the music to "Sunrise Sunset '' is easy enough so that I could learn the piano part -- and I played it for my sister. And when I finished I looked and she had tears in her eyes. And that was a very unusual experience.
The album Sheldon Harnick: Hidden Treasures (1949 - 2013) features the demo recording of "Sunrise, Sunset '' featuring Harnick, accompanied by composer Jerry Bock. Harnick said "This CD set is supposed to be the unknown songs, and the two men who created it, Bill Rudman (ph) and Ken Bloom (ph), when they said they wanted to use "Sunrise, Sunset, '' I said but that 's a very familiar song. They said not with you singing it. ''
This song is performed at the wedding of Tevye and Golde 's eldest daughter. The two parents sing about how they ca n't believe their daughter has grown up, while Hodel and Perchik sing about whether there may be a wedding in the nearby future for them.
The Irish Times said the song has a "hypnotic chorus ''. AllMusic deemed it one of the film 's "famous and now - standard songs ''. Splash Magazine named it one of the musical 's "big Broadway numbers ''. Style Weekly said the song, along with Tradition, had "infectious strains ''. Des Moines Register says the musical "melts into bittersweetness '' at this song. Northampton Chronicle says it is "poignant ''. Virtual Shropshire writes the song "wrings the heart... as Tevye 's daughters approach marrying age. '' Register Citizen describes the song as a "heartbreaking parental cry to slow down the years, to keep their children young: "Was n't it yesterday when they were small? '' ". AZ Central noted the song was "haunting and emotional ''. Blue Coupe wrote "Musically, the scene 's centerpiece is the classic "Sunrise, Sunset, '' ".
"Sunrise, Sunset '' is often played at weddings. In 2011 Sheldon Harnick wrote two versions of the song, suitable for same - sex weddings, with minor word changes. For example, for male couples, changes include "When did they grow to be so handsome ''.
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what were the names of the first three u.s. frigates | Original six frigates of the United States Navy - wikipedia
The United States Congress authorized the original six frigates of the United States Navy with the Naval Act of 1794 on March 27, 1794, at a total cost of $688,888.82. These ships were built during the formative years of the United States Navy, on the recommendation of designer Joshua Humphreys for a fleet of frigates powerful enough to engage any frigates of the French or British navies yet fast enough to evade any ship of the line.
After the Revolutionary War, a heavily indebted United States disbanded the Continental Navy, and in August 1785, lacking funds for ship repairs, sold its last remaining warship, the Alliance. But almost simultaneously troubles began in the Mediterranean when Algiers seized two American merchant ships and held their crews for ransom. Minister to France Thomas Jefferson suggested an American naval force to protect American shipping in the Mediterranean, but his recommendations were initially met with indifference, as were the recommendations of John Jay, who proposed building five 40 - gun warships. Shortly afterward, Portugal began blockading Algerian ships from entering the Atlantic Ocean, thus providing temporary protection for American merchant ships.
Piracy against American merchant shipping had not been a problem when under the protection of the British Empire prior to the Revolution, but after the Revolutionary War the "Barbary States '' of Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis felt they could harass American merchant ships without penalty. Additionally, once the French Revolution started, Britain began interdicting American merchant ships suspected of trading with France and France began interdicting American merchant ships suspected of trading with Britain. Defenseless, the American government could do little to resist.
The formation of a naval force had been a topic of debate in the new America for years. Opponents argued that building a navy would only lead to calls for a navy department, and the staff to operate it. This would further lead to more appropriations of funds, which would eventually spiral out of control, giving birth to a "self - feeding entity ''. Those opposed to a navy felt that payment of tribute to the Barbary States and economic sanctions against Britain were a better alternative.
In 1793 Portugal reached a peace agreement with Algeria, ending its blockade of the Mediterranean, thus allowing Algerian ships back into the Atlantic Ocean. By late in the year eleven American merchant ships had been captured. This, combined with the actions of Britain, finally led President Washington to request Congress to authorize a navy.
On January 2, 1794, by a narrow margin of 46 -- 44, the House of Representatives voted to authorize building a navy and formed a committee to determine the size, cost, and type of ships to be built. Secretary of War Henry Knox submitted proposals to the committee outlining the design and cost of warships. To appease the strong opposition to the upcoming bill, the Federalist Party inserted a clause into the bill that would bring an abrupt halt to the construction of the ships should the United States reach a peace agreement with Algiers.
The bill was presented to the House on March 10 and passed as the Naval Act of 1794 by a margin of 50 -- 39, and without division in the Senate on the 19th. President Washington signed the Act on March 27. It provided for acquisition, by purchase or otherwise, of four ships to carry forty - four guns each, and two ships to carry thirty - six guns each. It also provided pay and sustenance for naval officers and sailors, and outlined how each ship should be manned in order to operate them. The Act appropriated $688,888.82 to finance the work.
With the formation of a Department of the Navy still several years away, responsibility for design and construction fell to the Department of War, headed by Secretary Henry Knox. As early as 1790 Knox had consulted various authorities regarding ship design. Discussions of the designs were carried out in person at meetings in Philadelphia. Little is known about these discussions due to a lack of written correspondence, making determination of the actual designers involved difficult to assemble. Secretary Knox reached out to ship architects and builders in Philadelphia, which was the largest seaport in North America at the time and possibly the largest freshwater port in the world. This meant that many discussions of ship design took place in Knox 's office, resulting in few if any records of these discussions being available to historians. Joshua Humphreys is generally credited as the designer of the six frigates, but Revolutionary War ship captains John Foster Williams and John Barry and shipbuilders Josiah Fox and James Hackett also were consulted.
The final design plans submitted to President Washington for approval called for building new frigates rather than purchasing merchant ships and converting them into warships, an option under the Naval Act. The design was unusual for the time, being long on keel and narrow of beam (width); mounting very heavy guns; incorporating a diagonal scantling (rib) scheme aimed at limiting hogging; while giving the ships extremely heavy planking. This gave the hull greater strength than the hulls of other navies ' frigates. The designers realized that the fledgling United States could not match the European states in the number of ships afloat. Therefore, the new frigates had the ability to overpower other frigates, but were capable of a speed to escape from a ship of the line. Knox advised President Washington that the cost of new construction would likely exceed the appropriations of the Naval Act. Despite this, Washington accepted and approved the plans the same day they were submitted, April 15, 1794.
Joshua Humphreys was appointed Master Constructor of the ships. An experienced draftsman, Josiah Fox, was hired into the War Department to put plans to paper. However, Fox disagreed with the large dimensions of the design and, according to Humphreys, attempted to downsize the measurements while producing his drafts. This incensed Humphreys enough that Fox was soon assigned to the mould loft with William Doughty.
After or simultaneously with the creation of the drawings, a builder 's half model was assembled from which measurements were taken to create molds of the timbers. In a process known as "molding '', the dimensions of the framing pieces were chalked onto the floor of a mold loft where a template was formed using strips of light wood. Once the molds were transported to the timber crews, the templates were used to select the part of a tree that closely matched the template. From there the timber was felled and roughed out close to the required dimensions, then numbered for identification and loaded onto a ship for transport. An additional set of more detailed molds was required for each frigate for the construction crews to follow.
Secretary Knox suggested to President Washington that six different construction sites be used, one for each ship, rather than building at one particular shipyard. Separate locations enabled the allotted funds to stimulate each local economy, and Washington approved the sites on April 15, 1794. At each site, a civilian naval constructor was hired to direct the work. Navy captains were appointed as superintendents, one for each of the six frigates as follows:
Humphreys wished to use the most durable materials available for construction, primarily white pine, longleaf pine, white oak, and, most importantly, southern live oak. Live oak was used for framing as it was a strong, dense, and long - lasting wood weighing up to 75 lb per cubic foot (1,200 kg / m) when freshly cut. The live oak tree grows primarily in coastal areas of the United States from Virginia to Texas, with the most suitable timber found in the coastal areas of Georgia near St. Simons. This desire for live oak was the primary cause of delays in the frigates ' construction. Appropriated funds from the Naval Act were not available until June 1794. Shipbuilder John T. Morgan was hired by the War Department to procure the live oak and supervise the cutting and crews. Morgan wrote to Humphreys in August reporting that it had hardly ceased raining since his arrival and "the whole country is almost under water ''. Captain John Barry was sent to check up on progress in early October; he found Morgan and several persons sick with malaria. Timber cutting finally began when the crews arrived on the 22nd. The earliest delivery of timber occurred in Philadelphia on December 18, but another load of live oak destined for New York was lost when its cargo ship sank. Delays continued to plague the timber cutting and delivery operations throughout 1795. By December of that year all six keels had been laid down, though the frigates were still unframed and far from finished.
Construction of the frigates slowly continued until the 1796 announcement of the Treaty of Tripoli, which was witnessed by Algiers. In accordance with the clause in the Naval Act, construction of the frigates was to be discontinued. However, President Washington instead requested instructions from Congress on how to proceed. Several proposals circulated before a final decision was reached allowing Washington to complete two of the 44 - gun and one of the 36 - gun frigates. The three frigates nearest to completion, United States, Constellation and Constitution, were chosen. Construction of Chesapeake, Congress, and President was halted, and some of their construction materials were sold or placed in storage.
The earlier predictions of Henry Knox regarding costs of the frigates came to a head in early 1797. Of the original appropriation of $688,888.82, only about $24,000 remained. Secretary of War James McHenry requested of Congress an additional $200,000, but only $172,000 was appropriated. The additional funds were enough to finish the three frigates ' construction, but did not allow them to be manned and put to sea. United States launched on May 10, Constellation on September 7, and Constitution on October 21. Meanwhile, interference with American shipping by France because of their disagreement over the Jay Treaty prompted Congress to debate authorizing completion and manning of the three frigates. Secretary McHenry reported that an additional $200,000 would be required for this stage of construction, touching off grumbling in Congress over the escalating costs. Nevertheless, on July 1, Congress approved the completion and appropriated the requested funds.
When the next session of Congress convened in November, Secretary McHenry again requested funds to complete the three frigates. Though upset over the escalating costs, Congress approved an additional $115,833, but simultaneously launched an investigation into possible waste or fraud in the frigate program. On March 22, 1798, McHenry turned over a report outlining several main reasons for cost escalations: problems procuring the live oak; the logistics of supplying six separate shipyards; and fires, yellow fever, and bad weather. Additional inquiries prior to McHenry 's report revealed that the War Department used substandard bookkeeping practices, and that the authorized funds had to be released by the Treasury Department, resulting in delays, causing waste. These problems led to the formation of the Department of the Navy on April 30.
Simultaneously, relations with France soured even further when President John Adams informed Congress of the XYZ Affair. In response, on May 28, Congress authorized vessels of the United States to capture any armed French vessels lying off the coast of the United States. As Constellation, Constitution and United States were still fitting out, the first U.S. Navy vessel to put to sea for this undeclared Quasi-War was the sloop Ganges with Richard Dale in command. Finally, on July 16, Congress appropriated $600,000 for completion of the remaining three frigates; Congress launched on August 15, 1799, Chesapeake on December 2, and President on April 10, 1800.
The 44 - gun ships usually carried over 50 guns, and Constitution was known to carry 24 - pounder guns in her main battery instead of the normal 18 - pounders most frigates carried.
The Naval Act of 1794 had specified 36 - gun frigates in addition to the 44s, but at some point the 36s were re-rated as 38s. Their "ratings '' by number of guns was meant only as an approximation.
Ships of this era usually had no permanent battery of guns, such as modern navy ships carry. The guns and cannons were designed to be completely portable, and often were exchanged between ships or shore as situations warranted. Each commanding officer generally outfitted armaments to his liking, taking into consideration factors such as the overall tonnage of cargo, complement of personnel on board, and planned routes to be sailed. Consequently, the armaments on ships would change many times during their careers, and records of the changes were not generally kept.
Commonly, twelve men and a powder - boy were required to operate each gun. If needed, some men were designated to take stations as boarders, to man the bilge pumps, or to fight fires. Guns were normally manned on the engaged side only; if a ship engaged two opponents, gun crews had to be divided. All of the guns were capable of using several different kinds of projectiles: round shot, chain or bar shot, grape shot, and heated shot. Each gun was mounted on a wooden gun carriage controlled by an arrangement of rope and tackle. The Captain ordered the gun crews to either open fire together in a single broadside, or allowed each crew to fire at will as the target came close alongside. The gun captain pulled the lanyard to trip the flintlock which sent a spark into the pan. The ignited powder in the pan sent a flame through the priming tube to set off the powder charge in the gun and hurl its projectile at the enemy.
The marine detachment on board provided the naval infantry that manned the fighting tops, armed with muskets to fire down onto the decks of the enemy ship.
The frigates were originally designated by the letters A through F until March 1795, when Secretary of War, Timothy Pickering, prepared a list of ten suggested names for the ships. President Washington was responsible for selecting five of the names: Constitution, United States, President, and Congress, each of which represented a principle of the United States Constitution, together with Constellation which derived from the blazon of the Arms of the United States, "13 stars, forming a constellation. '' The sixth frigate, Chesapeake, remained nameless until 1799, when Secretary of the Navy, Benjamin Stoddert, designated her a namesake of the Chesapeake Bay, ignoring the previous Constitutional naming protocol.
United States was built in Philadelphia, launched on May 10, 1797, and commissioned on July 11, 1797. On October 25, 1812, United States fought and captured the frigate HMS Macedonian. United States was decommissioned on February 24, 1849, and put in reserve at Norfolk, Virginia. In 1861, while still in reserve at Norfolk, the ship was seized and commissioned into the Confederate States Navy, which later scuttled the ship. In 1862, Union forces raised the scuttled ship and retained control until she was broken up in 1865.
Constellation was built in Baltimore and launched on September 7, 1797. On February 9, 1799, she fought and captured the French frigate Insurgente. This was the first major victory by an American - designed and - built warship. In February 1800, Constellation fought the French frigate Vengeance. Although Vengeance was not captured or sunk, she was so badly damaged that her captain intentionally grounded the ship to prevent her from sinking. Constellation was struck in 1853 and broken up. Some timbers were re-used in the building of a new Constellation, and it was claimed that it was a "repair '' of the original ship (a common dodge of the time for political reasons) leading to uncertainty over which ship was preserved in Baltimore until it was proven in 1999 to be the second Constellation.
Constitution, rated at 44 guns, launched from Edmund Hartt 's shipyard in Boston, Massachusetts, on October 21, 1797, by naval constructor George Claghorn and Captain Samuel Nicholson. During the Quasi-War she captured the French merchant ship Niger, and was later involved in battling the Barbary pirates in the First Barbary War.
She is most well known for her actions during the War of 1812 against Britain, when she captured numerous merchant ships and defeated four British warships: HMS Guerriere, HMS Java, HMS Cyane, and HMS Levant. The battle with the Guerriere earned her the nickname of "Old Ironsides '' and public adoration that has repeatedly saved her from scrapping. She continued to actively serve the nation as flagship in the Mediterranean and African squadrons and made a circumnavigation of the world in the 1840s. During the American Civil War she served as a training ship for the United States Naval Academy and carried artwork and industrial displays to the Paris Exposition of 1878. Retired from active service in 1881, she served as a receiving ship until designated a museum ship in 1907. In 1931 she made a three - year, 90 - port tour of the nation, and in 1997 she finally sailed again under her own power for her 200th birthday.
The oldest commissioned warship afloat in the world, Constitution is berthed at the Charlestown Navy Yard in Massachusetts and is used to promote understanding of the Navy 's role in war and peace through educational outreach, historic demonstration, and active participation in public events. Constitution is open to visitors year - round, providing free tours, with the USS Constitution Museum nearby.
Chesapeake was built at the Gosport Navy Yard, Virginia, and was launched on December 2, 1799. The Chesapeake was the only one of the six frigates to be disowned by Humphreys due to liberties taken by her Master Constructor Josiah Fox during construction relating to overall dimensions. The frigate that became Chesapeake was originally planned as a 44 - gun ship, but when her construction began in 1798 Josiah Fox altered the original design plan, resulting in the ship 's re-rating to 36 guns. Fox 's reason for making the alteration is not clear, but may be attributed to construction materials that were diverted to complete Constellation. Additionally, Fox and Humphreys had earlier disagreed over the design of the six frigates, and Fox may have taken opportunities during construction to make alterations to his own liking. Regardless, the plan for the redesigned frigate was approved by Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert.
When construction finished on Chesapeake, she had the smallest dimensions of all six frigates. A length of 152.8 ft (46.6 m) between perpendiculars and 41.3 ft (12.6 m) of beam contrasted with the other two 36 - gun frigates, Congress and Constellation, which were built to 164 ft (50 m) in length and 41 ft (12 m) of beam.
On June 22, 1807, what has become known as the Chesapeake - Leopard Affair occurred when the Chesapeake was fired upon by HMS Leopard for refusing to comply with a demand to permit a search for deserters from the Royal Navy. After several quick broadsides from Leopard, to which the Chesapeake replied with only one gun, the Chesapeake struck her colors. HMS Leopard refused the surrender, searched the Chesapeake, captured four alleged deserters, and sailed to Halifax. Chesapeake was captured on June 1, 1813, by HMS Shannon shortly after sailing from Boston, Massachusetts. Taken into Royal Navy service, she was later sold, and broken up at Portsmouth, England, in 1820 (with a good deal of her timbers being made into a watermill).
Congress -- rated at 38 guns -- was launched on August 15, 1799 from Portsmouth, New Hampshire, under the command of Captain James Sever. Beginning her maiden voyage on January 6, 1800, she headed for the East Indies, but soon after her masts were destroyed in a gale, forcing her return to port; repairs took six months. She sailed again on July 26 for the West Indies and made uneventful patrols through April 1801.
Under the command of John Rodgers, Congress sailed for the Mediterranean in June 1804 and performed services during the First Barbary War. She assumed blockade duties off Tripoli and participated in the capture of a xebec in October. In July 1805, she helped to blockade Tunisia, and in September of that year carried the Tunisian ambassador back to Washington, D.C. Afterward, she served as a classroom for midshipman training through 1807.
Under the command of Captain John Smith during the War of 1812, she made three extended cruises in company with President and briefly with United States. She was part of a pursuit of a fleet of British merchant ships and assisted President in the attempted capture of HMS Belvidera. On the return voyage, Congress and President captured seven merchant ships. Congress ' second cruise began in October 1812, and she pursued HMS Galatea and captured the merchant ship Argo. Arriving back in Boston on December 31, she assisted in capturing eight additional merchant ships. After repairs, she sailed in company with President on April 30, 1813, and pursued HMS Curlew, which escaped. Setting off on her own, she made a lengthy voyage off the Cape Verde Islands and the coast of Brazil. During this long cruise she captured only four small merchant ships, returning home in late 1813. Because of a lack of materials to repair her, she was placed in reserve for the remainder of the war.
In 1815 she returned to active service for the Second Barbary War under Captain Charles Morris, and in August Congress joined a squadron and began patrol duties, subsequently making appearances off Tripoli and Tunis. Returning to Boston, she decommissioned in December. She patrolled against piracy in the Gulf of Mexico from December 1816 to July 1817 and made a voyage to South America in 1818. Early in 1819 she made a voyage to China, becoming the first U.S. warship to visit that country. In 1822 she served as the flagship of James Biddle, combating piracy in the West Indies. Under Biddle she made a voyage to Spain and Argentina. She began serving as a receiving ship in 1824 and remained on that duty until ordered broken up in 1834.
Minor alterations were made to President based on experience gained in constructing the 44 - gun ships Constitution and United States. Humphreys instructed President 's naval contractor to raise the gun deck by 2 in (5.1 cm) and move the mainmast 2 ft (61 cm) farther aft. In the case of President, construction was begun at New York in the shipyard of Foreman Cheesman and work on her was discontinued in 1796. Construction resumed in 1798, under Christian Bergh and naval constructor William Doughty.
Rated at 44 guns, President was the last frigate to be completed, launching from New York City on April 10, 1800, with Captain Thomas Truxtun in command. She departed for patrols during the Quasi-War on August 5 and recaptured several American merchant ships. After the peace treaty, she returned to the United States in March 1801.
In May 1801 she sailed under the command of Richard Dale for service in the First Barbary War. She made appearances off Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, capturing a Greek vessel with Tripolitan soldiers aboard and participating in a prisoner exchange. She returned to the United States on April 14, 1802, then left for a second patrol on the Barbary coast in 1804 under the command of Samuel Barron. In company with Congress, Constellation, and Constitution, President experienced a mostly uneventful tour, assisting in the capture of three vessels, performing blockade duties, and undergoing two changes of commanding officers. She sailed for home on July 13, 1805, carrying with her many sailors released from captivity in Tripoli.
On May 16, 1811, in what became known as the Little Belt Affair, President, under the command of Captain John Rodgers, mistakenly identified HMS Little Belt as the frigate HMS Guerriere while searching for impressed American sailors taken by the Royal Navy. Though the sequence of events is disputed on both sides, both ships discharged cannon for several minutes before Rodgers determined that Little Belt was a much smaller ship than Guerriere. Little Belt suffered serious damage and thirty - one killed or wounded in the exchange. Rodgers offered assistance to Little Belt 's Captain Arthur Bingham, but he declined and sailed off for Halifax, Nova Scotia. The U.S. and Royal Navy investigations each determined the other ship to be responsible for the attack, increasing tensions leading up to the War of 1812.
Still under the command of John Rodgers, President made three extended cruises during the War of 1812 in company with Congress and briefly with United States. President encountered HMS Belvidera and engaged in a fight from which Belvidera eventually escaped. Pursuing a fleet of merchant ships, President sailed to within a day 's journey of the English Channel before returning to Boston, capturing seven merchant ships en route. Her second cruise began with a pursuit of HMS Nymphe and HMS Galatea, but she failed to overtake either of them. Later prizes were the packet ship Swallow, carrying a large amount of currency, and eight other merchant ships. President returned on December 31. Her third cruise of the war began April 30, 1813, with her pursuit of HMS Curlew, but she once again lost a race to overtake an enemy ship. President spent five months at sea, capturing several merchant ships, but the only highlight was the capture of HMS Highflyer in late September.
After the ship spent a year blockaded in port, Stephen Decatur assumed command of President. On the evening of January 14, 1815, President headed out of New York harbor but ran aground, suffering some damage to the copper. Unable to return to port, she was forced to head out to sea. Later the next afternoon she fought a battle with HMS Endymion. Decatur attempted to capture Endymion to replace President, but this plan failed because of Endymion was smaller and more maneuverable. Decatur surrendered his ship to Endymion only to sail away under the cover of night. Subsequently, HMS Pomone and HMS Tenedos overtook President, and Decatur surrendered the ship once again to Endymion President was taken into the Royal Navy as HMS President, but served only a few years before being broken up in 1818.
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what breed of horse is in war horse | Destrier - wikipedia
The destrier is the best - known war horse of the medieval era. It carried knights in battles, tournaments, and jousts. It was described by contemporary sources as the Great Horse, due to its significance.
The word destrier is derived from the Vulgar Latin dextarius, meaning "right - sided '' (the same root as dexterous and dexterity). This may refer to it being led by the squire at the knight 's right side (or led by the right hand) or to the horse 's gait, (possibly leading with the right).
While highly prized by knights and men - at - arms, the destrier was not very common. Most knights and mounted men - at - arms rode other war horses, such as coursers and rounceys. These three types of horse were often referred to generically as chargers.
The word destrier does not refer to a breed, but to a type of horse: the finest and strongest warhorse. These horses were usually stallions, bred and raised from foalhood specifically for the needs of war. The destrier was also considered the most suited to the joust; coursers seem to have been preferred for other forms of warfare. They had powerful hindquarters, able to easily coil and spring to stop, spin, turn or sprint forward. They also had a short back and well - muscled loin, strong bone, and a well - arched neck. From medieval art, the head of the destrier appears to have had a straight or slightly convex profile, strong, wide jaw, and good width between the eyes.
The destrier was specifically for use in battle or tournament; for everyday riding, a knight would use a palfrey, and his baggage would be carried on a sumpter horse (or packhorse), or possibly in wagons.
Much speculation has taken place about the nature of destriers and about the size they attained. They apparently were not enormous draft types. Recent research undertaken at the Museum of London, using literary, pictorial and archeological sources, suggests war horses (including destriers) averaged 14 -- 15 hands, and differed from a riding horse in their strength, musculature and training, rather than in their size. An analysis of medieval horse armour located in the Royal Armouries indicates the equipment was originally worn by horses of 15 to 16 hands, about the size and build of a modern field hunter or ordinary riding horse.
It is probable that the modern Percheron draft breed may in part descend from destriers, though it is probably taller and heavier than the average destrier. Other draft breeds such as the Shire claim destrier ancestry, though proof is less certain.
Equestrian statues in Italy suggest a "Spanish '' style of horse that today would be referred to as a Baroque horse, such as the Andalusian horse, Friesian horse, or even a heavy but agile warmblood breed such as the Irish Draught. Modern estimates put the height of a destrier at no more than 16 hands, though with a strong and heavy physique. Though the term "Great Horse '' was used to describe the destrier, leading some historians to speculate that such animals were the forerunners of modern draught horse breeds, the historical record does not support the image of the destrier as a draft horse.
Modern attempts to reproduce the destrier type usually involve crossing an athletic riding horse with a light draft type. Outcomes of such attempts include crossbreds such as the "Spanish - Norman '', a cross between the Percheron and the Andalusian; and the Warlander, a cross between the Andalusian and the Friesian horse.
A good destrier was expensive. 7th century Salic law gives a price of 12 solidi as weregild, or reparational payment, for a war horse, compared to 3 solidi for a sound mare or 1 solidus for a cow. In later centuries destriers became even more expensive: the average value of each of the horses in a company of 22 knights and squires in the county of Flanders in 1297 compares to the price of seven normal coursers. The price of these destriers varied between 20 and 300 livres parisis (parisian pounds), compared to 5 to 12 livres for a normal courser.
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where is seychelles located on the world map | Seychelles - wikipedia
Coordinates: 4 ° 35 ′ S 55 ° 40 ′ E / 4.583 ° S 55.667 ° E / - 4.583; 55.667
-- in Africa (light blue & dark grey) -- in the African Union (light blue)
Seychelles (/ seɪˈʃɛlz / (listen) say - SHELZ; French: (sɛʃɛl)), officially the Republic of Seychelles (French: République des Seychelles; Creole: Repiblik Sesel), is an archipelago and country in the Indian Ocean. The 115 - island country, whose capital is Victoria, lies 1,500 kilometres (932 mi) east of mainland East Africa. Other nearby island countries and territories include Comoros, Mayotte (region of France), Madagascar, Réunion (region of France) and Mauritius to the south. With a population of roughly 92,000, it has the smallest population of any sovereign African country; however, it does have a larger population than the British overseas territory Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha.
Seychelles is a member of the African Union, the Southern African Development Community, the Commonwealth of Nations, and the United Nations. After proclamation of independence from the United Kingdom in 1976, Seychelles has developed from a largely agricultural society to a market - based diversified economy, with agriculture being supplanted by rapidly rising service and public sectors as well as tourism. Since 1976, nominal GDP output has increased nearly sevenfold and the purchasing power parity nearly sixteenfold. In recent years, the government has encouraged foreign investment in order to upgrade these sectors. Today, Seychelles boasts the highest nominal per capita GDP in Africa, excluding the French regions. It is one of only a handful of countries in Africa with a high Human Development Index. Despite the country 's newfound economic prosperity, poverty remains widespread due to a high level of income inequality, one of the highest in the world, and low wealth distribution.
The Seychelles were uninhabited throughout most of recorded history. Some scholars assume that Austronesian seafarers and later Maldivian and Arab traders were the first to visit the uninhabited Seychelles. This assumption is based on the discovery of tombs, visible until 1910. The earliest recorded sighting by Europeans took place in 1502 by the Portuguese Admiral Vasco da Gama, who passed through the Amirantes and named them after himself (islands of the Admiral). The earliest recorded landing was in January 1609, by the crew of the "Ascension '' under Captain Alexander Sharpeigh during the fourth voyage of the British East India Company.
A transit point for trade between Africa and Asia, the islands were occasionally used by pirates until the French began to take control starting in 1756 when a Stone of Possession was laid on Mahé by Captain Nicholas Morphey. The islands were named after Jean Moreau de Séchelles, Louis XV 's Minister of Finance.
The British controlled the islands between 1794 and 1810. Jean Baptiste Quéau de Quincy, French administrator of Seychelles during the years of war with the United Kingdom, declined to resist when armed enemy warships arrived. Instead, he successfully negotiated the status of capitulation to Britain which gave the settlers a privileged position of neutrality.
Britain eventually assumed full control upon the surrender of Mauritius in 1810, formalised in 1814 at the Treaty of Paris. Seychelles became a crown colony separate from Mauritius in 1903. Elections were held in 1966 and 1970.
Independence was granted in 1976 as a republic within the Commonwealth. In the 1970s Seychelles was "the place to be seen, a playground for film stars and the international jet set ''. In 1977, a coup d'état by France Albert René ousted the first president of the republic, James Mancham. René discouraged over-dependence on tourism and declared that he wanted "to keep the Seychelles for the Seychellois ''.
The 1979 constitution declared a socialist one - party state, which lasted until 1991.
In the 1980s there were a series of coup attempts against President René, some of which were supported by South Africa. In 1981, Mike Hoare led a team of 43 South African mercenaries masquerading as holidaying rugby players in the 1981 Seychelles coup d'état attempt. There was a gun battle at the airport, and most of the mercenaries later escaped in a hijacked Air India plane. The leader of this hijacking was German mercenary D. Clodo, a former member of the Rhodesian SAS. Clodo later stood trial in South Africa (where he was acquitted) as well as in his home country Germany for air - piracy.
In 1986, an attempted coup led by the Seychelles Minister of Defence, Ogilvy Berlouis, caused President René to request assistance from India. In Operation Flowers are Blooming, the Indian naval vessel INS Vindhyagiri arrived in Port Victoria to help avert the coup.
The first draft of a new constitution failed to receive the requisite 60 % of voters in 1992, but an amended version was approved in 1993.
In January 2013, Seychelles declared a state of emergency; the tropical cyclone Felleng caused torrential rain, and flooding and landslides destroyed hundreds of houses.
The Seychelles president, who is head of state and head of government, is elected by popular vote for a five - year term of office. The cabinet is presided over and appointed by the president, subject to the approval of a majority of the legislature.
The unicameral Seychellois parliament, the National Assembly or Assemblée Nationale, consists of 34 members, 25 of whom are elected directly by popular vote, while the remaining nine seats are appointed proportionally according to the percentage of votes received by each party. All members serve five - year terms.
The Supreme Court of Seychelles, created in 1903, is the highest trial court in Seychelles and the first court of appeal from all the lower courts and tribunals. The highest court of law in Seychelles is the Seychelles Court of Appeal, which is the court of final appeal in the country.
Seychelles ' previous president France Albert René came to power after his supporters overthrew the first president James Mancham on 5 June 1977 in a coup d'état and installed him as president. René was at that time the prime minister. René ruled as a strongman under a socialist one - party system until in 1993, when he was forced to introduce a multi-party system. He stepped down in 2004 in favour of his vice-president, James Michel, who was re-elected in 2006 and again in 2011. On 28 September 2016, the Office of the President announced that Michel would step down effective 16 October, and that Vice President Danny Faure would complete the rest of Michel 's term.
The primary political parties are the ruling socialist People 's Party (PP), known until 2009 as the Seychelles People 's Progressive Front (SPPF), and the socially liberal Seychelles National Party (SNP).
Seychelles is a member of the African Union, the francophone Indian Ocean Commission (IOC), La Francophonie, the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the Commonwealth.
Seychelles is divided into twenty - six administrative regions comprising all of the inner islands. Eight of the districts make up the capital of Seychelles and are referred to as Greater Victoria. Another 14 districts are considered the rural part of the main island of Mahé with two districts on Praslin and one on La Digue which also includes respective satellite islands. The rest of the Outer Islands (Îles Eloignées) are the last district, recently created by the tourism ministry.
Greater Victoria
Rural Mahé
Praslin
La Digue and remaining Inner Islands
An island nation, Seychelles is located in the Indian Ocean, northeast of Madagascar and about 1,600 km (994 mi) east of Kenya. The archipelago consists of 115 islands. The majority of the islands are uninhabited, with many dedicated as nature reserves.
A group of 42 islands, referred to as the inland islands, has a total area of 244 km, comprising 54 % of the total land area of the Seychelles and 98 % of the entire population.
The islands are divided into groups as follows.
There are 45 granite - based islands known as the Granitic Seychelles. These are in descending order of size: Mahé, Praslin, Silhouette Island, La Digue, Curieuse, Félicité, Frégate, Ste - Anne, North, Cerf, Marianne, Grand Sœur, Thérèse, Aride, Conception, Petite Sœur, Cousin, Cousine, Long, Récif, Round (Praslin), Anonyme, Mamelles, Moyenne, Eden, Île Soleil, Romainville, Île aux Vaches Marines, L'Islette, Beacon (Île Sèche), Cachée, Cocos, Round (Mahé), L'Ilot Frégate, Booby, Chauve - Souris (Mahé), Chauve - Souris (Praslin), Île La Fouche, Hodoul, L'Ilot, Rat, Souris, St. Pierre (Praslin), Zavé, Harrison Rocks (Grand Rocher).
There are two coral sand cays north of the granitics: Denis and Bird.
There are two coral islands south of the Granitics: Coëtivy and Platte.
There are 29 coral islands in the Amirantes group, west of the granitics: Desroches, Poivre Atoll (comprising three islands -- Poivre, Florentin and South Island), Alphonse, D'Arros, St. Joseph Atoll (comprising 14 islands -- St. Joseph Île aux Fouquets, Resource, Petit Carcassaye, Grand Carcassaye, Benjamin, Bancs Ferrari, Chiens, Pélicans, Vars, Île Paul, Banc de Sable, Banc aux Cocos and Île aux Poules), Marie Louise, Desnœufs, African Banks (comprising two islands -- African Banks and South Island), Rémire, St. François, Boudeuse, Étoile, Bijoutier.
There are 13 coral islands in the Farquhar Group, south - southwest of the Amirantes: Farquhar Atoll (comprising 10 islands -- Bancs de Sable, Déposés, Île aux Goëlettes, Lapins, Île du Milieu, North Manaha, South Manaha, Middle Manaha, North Island and South Island), Providence Atoll (comprising two islands -- Providence and Bancs Providence) and St Pierre.
There are 67 raised coral islands in the Aldabra Group, west of the Farquhar Group: Aldabra Atoll (comprising 46 islands -- Grande Terre, Picard, Polymnie, Malabar, Île Michel, Île Esprit, Île aux Moustiques, Ilot Parc, Ilot Émile, Ilot Yangue, Ilot Magnan, Île Lanier, Champignon des Os, Euphrate, Grand Mentor, Grand Ilot, Gros Ilot Gionnet, Gros Ilot Sésame, Héron Rock, Hide Island, Île aux Aigrettes, Île aux Cèdres, Îles Chalands, Île Fangame, Île Héron, Île Michel, Île Squacco, Île Sylvestre, Île Verte, Ilot Déder, Ilot du Sud, Ilot du Milieu, Ilot du Nord, Ilot Dubois, Ilot Macoa, Ilot Marquoix, Ilots Niçois, Ilot Salade, Middle Row Island, Noddy Rock, North Row Island, Petit Mentor, Petit Mentor Endans, Petits Ilots, Pink Rock and Table Ronde), Assumption Island, Astove and Cosmoledo Atoll (comprising 19 islands -- Menai, Île du Nord (West North), Île Nord - Est (East North), Île du Trou, Goélettes, Grand Polyte, Petit Polyte, Grand Île (Wizard), Pagode, Île du Sud - Ouest (South), Île aux Moustiques, Île Baleine, Île aux Chauve - Souris, Île aux Macaques, Île aux Rats, Île du Nord - Ouest, Île Observation, Île Sud - Est and Ilot la Croix).
The climate is equable although quite humid, as the islands are small, classified by Köppen - Geiger system as tropical rain forest (Af). The temperature varies little throughout the year. Temperatures on Mahé vary from 24 to 30 ° C (75 to 86 ° F), and rainfall ranges from 2,900 mm (114 in) annually at Victoria to 3,600 mm (142 in) on the mountain slopes. Precipitation is somewhat less on the other islands.
During the coolest months, July and August, the average low is about 24 ° C (75 ° F). The southeast trade winds blow regularly from May to November, and this is the most pleasant time of the year. The hot months are from December to April, with higher humidity (80 %). March and April are the hottest months, but the temperature seldom exceeds 31 ° C (88 ° F). Most of the islands lie outside the cyclone belt, so high winds are rare.
Environmental legislation is very strict, and every tourism project must undergo an environmental review and a lengthy process of consultations with the public and conservationists. Seychelles is a world leader in sustainable tourism. The end result of this sustainable development is an intact and stable natural environment, which attracts financially strong visitors (150,000 in 2007) rather than short - term mass tourism. Since 1993 a law guarantees the citizens the right to a clean environment and at the same time obliges them to protect this environment. The country holds a record for the highest percentage of land under natural conservation -- nearly 50 % of the total land area.
Like many fragile island ecosystems, Seychelles saw the loss of biodiversity when humans first settled in the area, including the disappearance of most of the giant tortoises from the granitic islands, the felling of coastal and mid-level forests, and the extinction of species such as the chestnut flanked white eye, the Seychelles parakeet, and the saltwater crocodile. However, extinctions were far fewer than on islands such as Mauritius or Hawaii, partly due to a shorter period of human occupation (since 1770). Seychelles today is known for success stories in protecting its flora and fauna. The rare Seychelles black parrot, the national bird of the country, is now protected.
The granitic islands of Seychelles are home to about 75 endemic plant species, with a further 25 or so species in the Aldabra group. Particularly well - known is the coco de mer, a species of palm that grows only on the islands of Praslin and neighbouring Curieuse. Sometimes nicknamed the "love nut '' because the shape of its "double '' coconut resembles buttocks, the coco - de-mer produces the world 's heaviest seed. The jellyfish tree is to be found in only a few locations on Mahe. This strange and ancient plant in a genus of its own (Medusagyne) seems to reproduce only in cultivation and not in the wild. Other unique plant species include Wright 's gardenia (Rothmannia annae) found only on Aride Island Special Reserve.
The freshwater crab genus Seychellum is endemic to the granitic Seychelles, and a further 26 species of crabs and five species of hermit crabs live on the islands.
The Aldabra giant tortoise now populates many of the islands of Seychelles; the Aldabra population is the largest remaining. These unique reptiles can be found even in captive herds. The granitic islands of Seychelles may support distinct species of Seychelles giant tortoises; the status of the different populations is currently unclear.
There are several unique species of orchid on the islands.
Seychelles hosts some of the largest seabird colonies in the world, notably on the outer islands of Aldabra and Cosmoledo. In granitic Seychelles the largest colonies are on Aride Island including the world 's largest numbers of two species. Sooty terns also breed on the islands. Other birds include Cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis) and Fairy terns (Gygis alba).
The marine life around the islands, especially the more remote coral islands, can be spectacular. More than 1,000 species of fish have been recorded.
Since the use of spearguns and dynamite for fishing was banned through efforts of local conservationists in the 1960s, the wildlife is unafraid of snorkelers and divers. Coral bleaching in 1998 has damaged most reefs, but some reefs show healthy recovery (e.g., Silhouette Island).
Despite huge disparities across nations, Seychelles claims to have achieved nearly all of its Millennium Development Goals. 17 MDGS and 169 targets have been achieved. Environmental protection is becoming a cultural value.
Their government 's Seychelles Climate Guide describes the nation 's climate as rainy, with a dry season with an ocean economy in the ocean regions. The Southeast Trades is on the decline but still fairly strong. Reportedly, weather patterns there are becoming less predictable.
When the British gained control of the islands during the Napoleonic Wars, they allowed the French upper class to retain their land. Both the French and British settlers used enslaved Africans, and although the British prohibited slavery in 1835, African workers continued to come. Thus the Gran blan ("big whites '') of French origin dominated economic and political life. The British administration employed Indians on indentured servitude to the same degree as in Mauritius resulting in a small Indian population. The Indians, like a similar minority of Chinese, were confined to a merchant class.
Through harmonious socioeconomic policies and developments over the years, today Seychelles is described as a fusion of peoples and cultures. Numerous Seychellois are considered multiracial: blending from African, Asian and European descent to create a modern creole culture. Evidence of this harmonious blend is also revealed in Seychellois food, incorporating various aspects of French, Chinese, Indian and African cuisine.
As the islands of the Seychelles had no indigenous population, the current Seychellois are composed of people who have immigrated. The largest ethnic groups were those of African, French, Indian and Chinese descent. The median age of the Seychellois was 32 years.
French and English are official languages along with Seychellois Creole, which is primarily based upon French, yet nowadays is often laced with English words and phrases. Including second - language speakers, Seychellois is the most - spoken official language in the Seychelles, followed by French, and lastly English. 87 % of the population speaks Seychellois, 51 % speaks French, and 38 % speaks English.
According to the 2010 census, most Seychellois are Christians: 76.2 % were Roman Catholic, pastorally served by the exempt Diocese of Port Victoria or Seychelles (immediately dependent on the Holy See); 10.6 % were Protestant, (Anglican 6.1 %, Pentecostal Assembly 1.5 %, Seventh - Day Adventist 1.2 %, other Protestant 1.6 %).
Hinduism is practiced by 2.4 %, and Islam by 1.6 %. Other non-Christian faiths accounted for 1.1 % of the population while a further 5.9 % were non-religious or did not specify a religion.
During the plantation era, cinnamon, vanilla and copra were the chief exports. In 1965, during a three - month visit to the islands, futurist Donald Prell prepared for the then - crown colony Governor General an economic report containing a scenario for the future of the economy. Quoting from his report, in the 1960s, about 33 % of the working population worked at plantations, and 20 % worked in the public or government sector. The Indian Ocean Tracking Station on Mahé was closed in August 1996 after the Seychelles government attempted to raise the rent to more than $10,000,000 per year.
Since independence in 1976, per capita output has expanded to roughly seven times the old near - subsistence level. Growth has been led by the tourist sector, which employs about 30 % of the labour force, compared to agriculture which today employs about 3 % of the labour force. Despite the growth of tourism, farming and fishing continue to employ some people, as do industries that process coconuts and vanilla.
As of 2013, the main export products are processed fish (60 %) and non-fillet frozen fish (22 %).
The prime agricultural products currently produced in Seychelles include sweet potatoes, vanilla, coconuts and cinnamon. These products provide much of the economic support of the locals. Frozen and canned fish, copra, cinnamon and vanilla are the main export commodities.
Since the worldwide economic crises of 2008, the Seychelles government has prioritised a curbing of the budget deficit, including the containment of social welfare costs and further privatisation of public enterprises. The government has a pervasive presence in economic activity, with public enterprises active in petroleum product distribution, banking, imports of basic products, telecommunications and a wide range of other businesses. According to the 2013 Index of Economic Freedom, which measures the degree of limited government, market openness, regulatory efficiency, rule of law, and other factors, economic freedom has been increasing each year since 2010.
The national currency of Seychelles is the Seychellois rupee. Initially tied to a basket of international currencies, it was depegged and allowed to be devalued and float freely in 2008 on the presumed hopes of attracting further foreign investment in the Seychelles economy.
In 1971, with the opening of Seychelles International Airport, tourism became a significant industry, essentially dividing the economy into plantations and tourism. The tourism sector paid better, and the plantation economy could only expand so far. The plantation sector of the economy declined in prominence, and tourism became the primary industry of Seychelles.
In recent years the government has encouraged foreign investment to upgrade hotels and other services. These incentives have given rise to an enormous amount of investment in real estate projects and new resort properties, such as project TIME, distributed by the World Bank, along with its predecessor project MAGIC. Despite its growth, the vulnerability of the tourist sector was illustrated by the sharp drop in 1991 -- 1992 due largely to the Gulf War.
Since then the government has moved to reduce the dependence on tourism by promoting the development of farming, fishing, small - scale manufacturing and most recently the offshore financial sector, through the establishment of the Financial Services Authority and the enactment of several pieces of legislation (such as the International Corporate Service Providers Act, the International Business Companies Act, the Securities Act, the Mutual Funds and Hedge Fund Act, amongst others).
During March 2015, Seychelles allocated Assumption island to be developed by India.
Although multinational oil companies have explored the waters around the islands, no oil or gas has been found. In 2005, a deal was signed with US firm Petroquest, giving it exploration rights to about 30,000 km around Constant, Topaz, Farquhar and Coëtivy islands until 2014. Seychelles imports oil from the Persian Gulf in the form of refined petroleum derivatives at the rate of about 5,700 barrels per day (910 m / d).
In recent years oil has been imported from Kuwait and also from Bahrain. Seychelles imports three times more oil than is needed for internal uses because it re-exports the surplus oil in the form of bunker for ships and aircraft calling at Mahé. There are no refining capacities on the islands. Oil and gas imports, distribution and re-export are the responsibility of Seychelles Petroleum (Sepec), while oil exploration is the responsibility of the Seychelles National Oil Company (SNOC).
Seychellois society is essentially matriarchal. Mothers tend to be dominant in the household, controlling most expenditures and looking after the interests of the children. Unwed mothers are the societal norm, and the law requires fathers to support their children. Men are important for their earning ability, but their domestic role is relatively peripheral.
Until the mid-19th century, little formal education was available in Seychelles. The Catholic and Anglican churches opened mission schools in 1851. The Catholic mission later operated boys ' and girls ' secondary schools with religious Brothers and nuns from abroad even after the government became responsible for them in 1944.
A teacher training college opened in 1959, when the supply of locally trained teachers began to grow, and in short time many new schools were established. Since 1981 a system of free education has been in effect requiring attendance by all children in grades one to nine, beginning at age five. Ninety percent of all children attend nursery school at age four.
The literacy rate for school - age children rose to more than 90 % by the late 1980s. Many older Seychellois had not been taught to read or write in their childhood; adult education classes helped raise adult literacy from 60 % to a claimed 100 % in 2014.
There are a total of 68 schools in Seychelles. The public school system consists of 23 crèches, 25 primary schools and 13 secondary schools. They are located on Mahé, Praslin, La Digue and Silhouette. Additionally, there are three private schools: École Française, International School and the Independent School. All the private schools are on Mahé, and the International School has a branch on Praslin. There are seven post-secondary (non-tertiary) schools: the Seychelles Polytechnic, School of Advanced Level Studies, Seychelles Tourism Academy, University of Seychelles Education, Seychelles Institute of Technology, Maritime Training Center, Seychelles Agricultural and Horticultural Training Center and the National Institute for Health and Social Studies.
The administration launched plans to open a university in an attempt to slow down the brain drain that has occurred. University of Seychelles, initiated in conjunction with the University of London, opened on 17 September 2009 in three locations and offers qualifications from the University of London.
Staple foods include fish, seafood and shellfish dishes, often accompanied with rice. Fish dishes are cooked in several ways, such as steamed, grilled, wrapped in banana leaves, baked, salted and smoked. Curry dishes with rice are also a significant aspect of the country 's cuisine.
Additional food staples include coconut, breadfruit, mangoes and kordonnyen fish. Dishes are often garnished with fresh flowers.
The music of Seychelles is diverse, a reflection of the fusion of cultures through its history. The folk music of the islands incorporates multiple influences in a syncretic fashion, including African rhythms, aesthetic and instrumentation -- such as the zez and the bom (known in Brazil as berimbau), European contredanse, polka and mazurka, French folk and pop, sega from Mauritius and Réunion, taarab, soukous and other pan-African genres, and Polynesian, Indian and Arcadian music.
A form of percussion music called contombley is popular, as is Moutya, a fusion of native folk rhythms with Kenyan benga. Kontredans (based on European contredanse) is popular, especially in District and School competitions during the annual Festival Kreol (International Creole Festival). Moutya playing and dancing can often be seen at beach bazaars. Their main languages are Seychellois Creole of the French language, French and English.
The main daily newspaper is the Seychelles Nation, dedicated to local government views and current affairs and topics. Other political parties operate other papers such as Regar. Foreign newspapers and magazines are readily available in most bookshops and newsagents. The papers are mostly written in Seychellois Creole, French and English.
The main television and radio network is operated by the Seychelles Broadcasting Corporation which offers locally produced news and discussion programmes in the Seychellois Creole language. Broadcasts run between 3pm and 11: 30pm on weekdays and longer hours during the weekends. There are also imported English and French language television programmes imported on Seychellois terrestrial television and international satellite television has grown rapidly in recent years.
The most popular sport in Seychelles is basketball, which has particularly developed in this decade. The country 's national team qualified for the 2015 African Games, its greatest accomplishment to date. There, the team competed against some of the continent 's largest countries such as Egypt.
The Military of Seychelles is the Seychelles People 's Defence Force which consists of a number of distinct branches: including an Infantry Unit, Coast Guard, Air Force and a Presidential Protection Unit. India has and continues to play a key role developing the military of Seychelles. After handing over 2 SDB Mk5 patrol vessels namely INS Tarasa and INS Tarmugli to Seychelles Coast Guard, built by GRSE which were subsequently renamed SCG Constant and SCG Topaz, India also gifted a Dornier Maritime Patrol aircraft built by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited. India also signed a pact to develop Assumption Island, one of the 115 islands that make up the country. Spread over 11 km (4 sq mi), it is strategically located in the Indian Ocean, north of Madagascar. The island is being leased for the development of infrastructure, a euphemism for developing strategic assets by India.
In 2014, Seychelles had the highest incarceration rate in the world of 799 prisoners per 100,000 population, exceeding the United States rate by 15 %. However, the country 's actual population is less than 100,000; as of September 2014, Seychelles had 735 actual prisoners, 6 % of whom were female, incarcerated in three prisons.
Seychelles is a key participant in the fight against Indian Ocean piracy mainly by Somalis. Former president James Michel said that piracy costs between $7 -- 12 million a year to the international community: "The pirates cost 4 % of the Seychelles GDP, including direct and indirect costs for the loss of boats, fishing, and tourism, and the indirect investment for the maritime security, '' factors affecting local fishing -- one of the country 's main national resources -- which had a 46 % loss in 2008 -- 9. International contributions of patrol boats, planes or drones have been provided to help Seychelles combat sea piracy.
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what kind of animal is goofy on mickey mouse clubhouse | Goofy - Wikipedia
Goofy is a funny - animal cartoon character created in 1932 at Walt Disney Productions. Goofy is a tall, anthropomorphic dog with a Southern drawl, and typically wears a turtle neck and vest, with pants, shoes, white gloves, and a tall hat originally designed as a rumpled fedora. Goofy is a close friend of Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck and is one of Disney 's most recognizable characters. He is normally characterized as extremely clumsy and dimwitted, yet this interpretation is not always definitive; occasionally Goofy is shown as intuitive, and clever, albeit in his own unique, eccentric way.
Goofy debuted in animated cartoons, starting in 1932 with Mickey 's Revue as Dippy Dawg, who is older than Goofy would come to be. Later the same year, he was re-imagined as a younger character, now called Goofy, in the short The Whoopee Party. During the 1930s he was used extensively as part of a comedy trio with Mickey and Donald. Starting in 1939, Goofy was given his own series of shorts that were popular in the 1940s and early 1950s. Two Goofy shorts were nominated for an Oscar: How to Play Football (1944) and Aquamania (1961). He also co-starred in a short series with Donald, including Polar Trappers (1938), where they first appeared without Mickey Mouse. Three more Goofy shorts were produced in the 1960s after which Goofy was only seen in television and comics. He returned to theatrical animation in 1983 with Mickey 's Christmas Carol. His last theatrical appearance was How to Hook Up Your Home Theater in 2007. Goofy has also been featured in television, most extensively in Goof Troop (1992 -- 1993), as well as House of Mouse (2001 -- 2003) and Mickey Mouse Clubhouse (2006 -- 2016).
Originally known as Dippy Dawg, the character is more commonly known simply as "Goofy, '' a name used in his short film series. In his 1950s cartoons, he usually played a character called George Geef or G.G. Geef. Sources from the Goof Troop continuity give the character 's full name as G.G. "Goofy '' Goof, likely a reference to the 1950s name. In many other sources, both animated and comics, the surname Goof continues to be used. In other 2000s - era comics, the character 's full name has occasionally been given as Goofus D. Dawg.
Of Disney studio animators, Art Babbitt is most regarded for the creation of the Goofy character, while original concept drawings were by Frank Webb. In a 1930s lecture, Babbitt described the character as: "Think of the Goof as a composite of an everlasting optimist, a gullible Good Samaritan, a half - wit, a shiftless, good - natured colored boy and a hick ''.
In the comics and his pre-1992 animated appearances, Goofy was usually portrayed as single and childless, though unlike Mickey and Donald he did n't have a steady girlfriend; the exception were the 1950s cartoons, in which Goofy played a character called George Geef who was married and at one point became the father of a kid named George Junior. In the Goof Troop series (1992 -- 1993), however, Goofy was portrayed as a single father with a son named Max, and the character of Max made further animated appearances until 2004. This marked a division between animation and comics, as the latter kept showing Goofy as a single childless character, excluding comics taking place in the Goof Troop continuity. After 2004, Max disappeared from animation, thus removing the division between the two media. Goofy 's wife was never shown, while George Geef 's wife appeared -- but always with her face unseen -- in 1950s - produced cartoon shorts depicting the character as a "family man ''.
In the comics, Goofy usually appears as Mickey 's sidekick, though he also is occasionally shown as a protagonist. Goofy lives in Mouseton in the comics and in Spoonerville in Goof Troop. In comics books and strips, Goofy 's closest relatives are his nephew Gilbert, his adventurer cousin Arizona Goof (original Italian name: Indiana Pipps), who is a spoof of the fictional archaeologist Indiana Jones, and his grandmother, simply called Grandma Goofy.
Goofy 's catchphrases are "gawrsh! '' (which is his usual exclamation of surprise and his way of pronouncing "gosh ''), along with "ah - hyuck! '' (a distinctive chuckle) that is sometimes followed by a "hoo hoo hoo hoo! '', and especially the Goofy holler.
According to biographer Neal Gabler, Walt Disney disliked the Goofy cartoons, thinking they were merely "stupid cartoons with gags tied together '' with no larger narrative or emotional engagement and a step backwards to the early days of animation. As such, he threatened constantly to terminate the series, but only continued it to provide make - work for his animators. Animation historian Michael Barrier is skeptical of Gabler 's claim, saying that his source did not correspond with what was written.
Goofy first appeared in Mickey 's Revue, first released on May 25, 1932. Directed by Wilfred Jackson this short movie features Mickey Mouse, Minnie Mouse, Horace Horsecollar and Clarabelle Cow performing another song and dance show. Mickey and his gang 's animated shorts by this point routinely featured song and dance numbers. It begins as a typical Mickey cartoon of the time, but what would set this short apart from all that had come before was the appearance of a new character, whose behavior served as a running gag. Dippy Dawg, as he was named by Disney artists (Frank Webb), was a member of the audience. He constantly irritated his fellow spectators by noisily crunching peanuts and laughing loudly, till two of those fellow spectators knocked him out with their mallets (and then did the same exact laugh as he did). This early version of Goofy had other differences with the later and more developed ones besides the name. He was an old man with a white beard, a puffy tail and no trousers, shorts, or undergarments. But the short introduced Goofy 's distinct laughter. This laughter was provided by Pinto Colvig. A considerably younger Dippy Dawg then appeared in The Whoopee Party, first released on September 17, 1932, as a party guest and a friend of Mickey and his gang. Dippy Dawg made a total of four appearances in 1932 and two more in 1933, but most of them were mere cameos.
In the Silly Symphonies cartoon The Grasshopper and the Ants, the Grasshopper had an aloof character similar to Goofy and shared the same voice (Pinto Colvig) as the Goofy character.
By his seventh appearance, in Orphan 's Benefit first released on August 11, 1934, he gained the new name "Goofy '' and became a regular member of the gang along with two other new characters: Donald Duck and Clara Cluck.
Mickey 's Service Station directed by Ben Sharpsteen, first released on March 16, 1935, was the first of the classic "Mickey, Donald, and Goofy '' comedy shorts. Those films had the trio trying to cooperate in performing a certain assignment given to them. Early on they became separated from each other. Then the short 's focus started alternating between each of them facing the problems at hand, each in their own way and distinct style of comedy. The end of the short would reunite the three to share the fruits of their efforts, failure more often than success. Clock Cleaners, first released on October 15, 1937, and Lonesome Ghosts, first released on December 24, 1937, are usually considered the highlights of this series and animated classics.
Progressively during the series Mickey 's part diminished in favor of Donald, Goofy, and Pluto. The reason for this was simple: Between the easily frustrated Donald and Pluto and the always - living - in - a-world - of - his - own Goofy, Mickey -- who became progressively gentler and more laid - back -- seemed to act as the straight man of the trio. The Studio 's artists found that it had become easier coming up with new gags for Goofy or Donald than Mickey, to a point that Mickey 's role had become unnecessary. Polar Trappers, first released on June 17, 1938, was the first film to feature Goofy and Donald as a duo. The short features the duo as partners and owners of "Donald and Goofy Trapping Co. '' They have settled in the Arctic for an unspecified period of time, to capture live walruses to bring back to civilization. Their food supplies consist of canned beans. The focus shifts between Goofy trying to set traps for walruses and Donald trying to catch penguins to use as food -- both with the same lack of success. Mickey would return in The Whalers, first released on August 19, 1938, but this and also Tugboat Mickey, released on April 26, 1940, would be the last two shorts to feature all three characters as a team.
Goofy next starred at his first solo cartoon Goofy and Wilbur directed by Dick Huemer, first released on March 17, 1939. The short featured Goofy fishing with the help of Wilbur, his pet grasshopper.
In 1938, one year after his last session as the character, Colvig had a fallout with Disney and left the studio, leaving Goofy without a voice. According to Leonard Maltin, this is what caused the How to... cartoons of the 1940s in which Goofy had little dialogue, and a narrator (often John McLeish) was used (they would also reuse Colvig 's voice in recording or hire a voice actor to imitate it). In the cartoons, Goofy would demonstrate clumsily but always determined and never frustrated, how to do everything from snow ski to sleeping, to football, to riding a horse. The Goofy How to... cartoons worked so well they that they became a staple format, and are still used in current Goofy shorts, the most recent being the How to Hook Up Your Home Theater, released theatrically in 2007.
Later, starting with How to Play Baseball (1942), Goofy starred in a series of cartoons where every single character in the cartoon was a different version of Goofy. This took Goofy out of the role of just being a clumsy cartoon character and into an Everyman figure. Colvig returned to Disney in 1940 and resumed the voice of Goofy three years later. Many of the Goofy cartoons were directed by Jack Kinney.
During World War II Goofy was drafted and became the mascot emblem of the 602nd Bombardment Squadron and the 756 Bombardment Squadron U.S. Air Corps.
The 1950s saw Goofy transformed into a family man going through the trials of everyday life, such as dieting, giving up smoking, and the problems of raising children. Walt Disney himself came up with this idea, hoping it would put personality back into the character that he felt was lost when Goofy was merely a crowd of extras. Goofy is never called "Goofy '' during this period. While every cartoon continued with the opening, "Walt Disney presents Goofy '' before each cartoon 's title, he was usually called "George Geef '' in the cartoons ' dialogue. When the stories featured Goofy as multiple characters, then he had numerous other names as well. In addition, the 1950s Goofy shorts gave Goofy a makeover. He was more intelligent, had smaller eyes with eyebrows, often his whole body was pale instead of just his face (while the rest was black), and sometimes had a normal voice. He even lacked his droopy ears, the external pair of teeth and white gloves in some shorts.
According to animation historian Christopher P. Lehman, Disney had started casting Goofy as a suburban everyman in the late 1940s. And with this role came changes in depiction. Goofy 's facial stubble and his protruding teeth were removed to give him a more refined look. His clothing changed from a casual style to wearing business suits. He began to look more human and less dog - like, with his ears hidden in his hat. By 1951, Goofy was portrayed as being married and having a son of his own. Neither the wife nor the son were portrayed as dog - like. The wife 's face was never seen, but her form was human. The son lacked Goofy 's dog - like ears.
Lehman connects this depiction of the character to Disney 's use of humor and animal characters to reinforce social conformity. He cites as an example Aquamania (1961), where everyman Goofy drives to the lake for a boat ride. During a scene depicting a pile - up accident, every car involved has a boat hitched to its rear bumper. Goofy is portrayed as one of numerous people who had the same idea about how to spend their day. Every contestant in the boat race also looks like Goofy. Lehman does not think that Disney used these aspects of the film to poke fun at conformity. Instead, the studio apparently accepted conformity as a fundamental aspect of the society of the United States. Aquamania was released in the 1960s, but largely maintained and prolonged the status quo of the 1950s. The decade had changed but the Disney studio followed the same story formulas for theatrical animated shorts it had followed in the previous decade. And Lehman points that Disney received social approval for it. Aquamania itself received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film.
After the 1965 educational film Goofy 's Freeway Troubles, Goofy was mostly retired except for cameos, because of the fading popularity, and the death of the voice actor Pinto Colvig and he only made a brief appearance in Disney / Amblin 's Who Framed Roger Rabbit, in which the titular Roger Rabbit refers to him as a "real artist ''. However, he made a comeback in Mickey 's Christmas Carol as the ghost of Jacob Marley. After that, he appeared in Sport Goofy in Soccermania which was originally intended to be released theatrically in 1984, but was aired as a 1987 TV special instead, his popularity then rose again. With Colvig dead, Goofy was then voiced with different voice actors until Bill Farmer became the official voice. Goofy also had an act in the 1969 tour show, Disney On Parade. His costar in his act was Herbie the Love Bug.
In the 1990s Goofy got his own TV series called Goof Troop. In the show, Goofy lives with his son Max and his cat Waffles, and they live next door to Pete and his family. Goof Troop eventually led to Goofy and Max starring in their own movies: A Goofy Movie (in 1995) and An Extremely Goofy Movie (in 2000); as well as starring in their own segments of Mickey 's Once Upon a Christmas (in 1999) and Mickey 's Twice Upon a Christmas (in 2004). While Goofy is clearly depicted as a single custodial parent in all of these appearances, by the end of An Extremely Goofy Movie he begins a romance with the character Sylvia Marpole.
In one episode of Bonkers, Goofy has an off - screen cameo whose distinctive laugh is "stolen '' by a disgruntled toon. In another episode, both he and Pete cameo as actors who film cartoons at Wackytoon Studios. And in a third episode, Goofy cameos as part of a group of civilians held hostage in a bank robbery.
Goofy returned to his traditional personality in Mickey Mouse Works and appeared as head waiter in House of Mouse (2001 to 2004). Goofy 's son Max also appeared in House of Mouse as the nightclub 's valet, so that Goofy juggled not only his conventional antics but also the father - role displayed in Goof Troop and its aforementioned related media. In both Mickey Mouse Works and House of Mouse Goofy also seemed to have a crush on Clarabelle Cow, as he asks her on a date in the House of Mouse episode "Super Goof '' and is stalked by the bovine in the Mickey Mouse Works cartoon "How To Be a Spy ''. Though Clarabelle was noted as Horace Horsecollar 's fiancé in early decades, comics from the 1960s and 1970s and more recent cartoons like the aforementioned House of Mouse and Mickey Mouse Works, as well as Mickey, Donald, Goofy: The Three Musketeers, imply some mutual affections between Goofy and Clarabelle; perhaps as an attempt for Disney to give Goofy a more mainstream girlfriend to match his two male co-stars.
On Disney 's Toontown Online, an interactive website for kids, Goofy previously ran his own neighborhood called Goofy Speedway until the close of Toontown. Goofy Speedway was a place where you could race cars and enter the Grand Prix, too. Tickets were exclusively spent on everything there, instead of the usual jellybean currency. The Grand Prix only came on "Grand Prix Monday '' and "Silly Saturday ''. Goofy 's Gag Shop was also found in almost every part of Toontown ' except Cog HQs, Goofy Speedway, or Chip & Dale 's Acorn Acres. At Goofy 's Gag Shop, Toons could buy gags.
Goofy also appears in the children 's television series, Mickey Mouse Clubhouse, with his trademark attire and personality. Goofy appeared in The Lion King 11⁄2. Recently, Goofy starred in a new theatrical cartoon short called How to Hook Up Your Home Theater, that premiered at the Ottawa International Animation Festival. The short received a positive review from animation historian Jerry Beck and then had a wide release on December 21, 2007, in front of National Treasure: Book of Secrets and has aired on several occasions on the Disney Channel.
In 2011, Goofy appeared in a promotional webtoon advertising Disney Cruise Line. He is also a main character on Mickey and the Roadster Racers.
Besides his own solo cartoons and supporting character in Mickey shorts, there were also made some theatrical shorts presented as Donald and Goofy cartoons (even though these cartoons are officially Donald shorts):
Comic strips first called the character Dippy Dawg but eventually his name changed to Goofy by 1936. In the early years, the other members of Mickey Mouse 's gang considered him a meddler and a pest but eventually warmed up to him.
The comic strips drawn by Floyd Gottfredson for Disney were generally based on what was going on in the Mickey Mouse shorts at the time but when Donald Duck 's popularity led to Donald Duck gaining his own newspaper strip, Disney decided that he was no longer allowed to appear in Gottfredson 's strips. Accordingly, Goofy remained alone as Mickey 's sidekick, replacing Horace Horsecollar as Mickey 's fellow adventurer and companion. Similarly in comics the Mickey Mouse world with Goofy as Mickey 's sidekick was usually very separate from the Donald Duck world and crossovers were rare. Goofy also has a characteristic habit of holding his hand in front of his mouth, a trademark that was introduced by Paul Murry.
A character called "Glory - Bee '' was Goofy 's girlfriend for some years.
In 1990, when Disney was publishing their own comics, Goofy starred in Goofy Adventures, that featured him starring in various parodies. Unfortunately, perhaps because of poor sales, Goofy Adventures was the first of the company 's titles to be cancelled by the Disney Comics Implosion, ending at its 17th issue.
Super Goof is Goofy 's superhero alter ego who gets his powers by eating super goobers (peanuts). Goofy became the first Disney character to also be a superhero, but several would follow, including Donald Duck as Paperinik.
The initial concept was developed by Disney Publications Dept. head George Sherman and Disney United Kingdom merchandising representative Peter Woods. It was passed on to Western Publishing scripter Del Connell who refined it, including the eventual device of peanuts providing super powers.
The initial version of Super Goof appeared in "The Phantom Blot meets Super Goof '', in Walt Disney 's The Phantom Blot # 2 (Feb. 1965) by Connell (story) and Paul Murry (art). There Goofy mistakenly believes he has developed superpowers. A second version appeared as an actual superhero in the four - page story "All 's Well that Ends Awful '' in Donald Duck # 102 (July 1965), also by Connell and Murry. The third and definitive version debuted in "The Thief of Zanzipar '' in Walt Disney Super Goof # 1 (Oct. 1965), written by Bob Ogle and drawn by Murry, in which the origin of his powers are special peanuts Goofy finds in his backyard.
In a crossover story, Huey, Dewey and Louie found a super goober plant sprouted by a dropped goober, and "borrowed '' Super Goof 's powers; after doing a round of super deeds, the ducks ' powers faded, and they had to be rescued by the Junior Woodchucks. On occasion, Gilbert uses the super goobers to become a superhero under the name Super Gilbert, beginning with the story "The Twister Resisters '' in Walt Disney Super Goof # 5.
Gold Key Comics subsequently published the comic - book series Walt Disney Super Goof for 74 issues through 1984. A handful of stories were scripted by Mark Evanier. Additional Super Goof stories (both original and reprints) appeared in Walt Disney Comics Digest. The Dynabrite comics imprint issued by Western in the late 1970s and Disney Comic Album # 8 (1990) from Disney Comics contained reprints. Gemstone reprinted a Disney Studio Program story written by Evanier and drawn by Jack Bradbury as a backup in its 2006 release Return of the Blotman.
On Disney 's Toontown Online during the Halloween season, Goofy is Super Goof for the occasion. He also appeared in one episode of Disney 's House of Mouse and in two episodes of Mickey Mouse Clubhouse. In the Disney Channel Mickey Mouse TV series, Goofy dresses as Super Goof for the half - hour Halloween special.
Goofy is captain of the royal guard at Disney Castle in the Kingdom Hearts video game series. Averse to using actual weapons, Goofy fights with a shield. Following a letter left by the missing king Mickey Mouse, Goofy and Donald, the court magician, meet Sora and embark on a quest with him to find the King and Sora 's missing friends. In the game series, Goofy still suffers from being the butt of comic relief, but also is the constant voice of optimism and, surprisingly, selectively perceptive, often noticing things others miss and keeping his cool when Sora and Donald lose it. Goofy 's loyalty was also tested when Riku wielded the Keyblade thus, following the king 's orders, he followed Riku instead. As Riku was about to attack Sora, Goofy used his shield to protect Sora; thus disobeying the king. When Sora, Donald, and Goofy enter the realm known as Timeless River, Goofy states that the world looks familiar; a reference to his cartoons done in the early to mid-1930s. At many times in the Kingdom Hearts series, Goofy is shown to still be his clumsy self, however, in Kingdom Hearts II, he is very keen to details and has very accurate assumptions of certain things. For example, he was the first to figure out why Organization XIII was after the Beast, and he was the first to see through Fa Mulan 's disguise and discovery that Mulan was actually a woman dressed as a male soldier. There were even several instances where Goofy seemed to have more common sense than Sora and Donald, even saying they should "look before we leap '' when Sora and Donald saw Mushu 's shadow resembling a dragon, that Sora had mistaken for a Heartless.
Goofy reappears in the prequel, Kingdom Hearts: Birth by Sleep, in a relatively minor role, having accompanied Mickey (along with Donald) to Yen Sid 's tower to watch Mickey 's Mark of Mastery Exam. Upon realizing that Mickey has been abducted and taken to the Keyblade Graveyard by Master Xehanort in an attempt to lure Ventus out, Goofy and Donald prepare to venture out to rescue Mickey, but as they will obviously be no match for Master Xehanort, Ventus goes alone. Donald and Goofy later care for their King as he recuperates from his injuries.
Pinto Colvig voiced Goofy for most of his classic appearances from 1932 (Mickey 's Revue) to 1938 (The Whalers) when he had a fallout with Disney and left the company to work on other projects. He was later replaced by George Johnson from 1939 to 1943. However, Colvig returned to Disney and resumed the role in 1944 (How to Be a Sailor) until 1965 (Goofy 's Freeway Troubles) when he retired from acting. However many cartoons feature Goofy silent or have recycled dialogue from earlier shorts or have various different - sounding Goofys instead of the original. Colvig also gave Goofy a normal voice for four George Geef shorts except for Goofy and Wilbur when he was voiced by George Johnson. Stuart Buchanan voiced Goofy in The Mickey Mouse Theater of the Air. Bob Jackman took Colvig 's place when he left the Disney Studios for unknown reasons and voiced Goofy in 1951 for a brief time. Jimmy MacDonald voiced Goofy in the 1960s Disney album, Donald Duck and his Friends. Jack Bailey also voiced Goofy in several Donald Duck cartoons. Bill Lee provided the singing voice for Goofy on the 1964 record, Children 's Riddles and Game Songs. Hal Smith began voicing Goofy in 1967 after Pinto Colvig 's death and voiced him until Mickey 's Christmas Carol in 1983. Will Ryan did the voice for DTV Valentine in 1986 and Down and Out with Donald Duck in 1987. Tony Pope voiced Goofy in the 1979 Disney album, Mickey Mouse Disco for the song, "Watch out for Goofy ''. He then voiced him in Sport Goofy in Soccermania in 1987 and Who Framed Roger Rabbit in 1988. Aside from those occasions, Bill Farmer has been voicing Goofy since 1987. Farmer closely imitated Colvig for projects like The Prince and the Pauper but began putting his own spin on the character in 1992 's Goof Troop. Farmer also inherited Colvig 's other characters, like Pluto, Sleepy, and Practical Pig.
Max Goof is Goofy 's teenage son. He first appeared in the 1992 television series Goof Troop and stars in both the spin - off film A Goofy Movie (1995) and its direct - to - video sequel An Extremely Goofy Movie (2000). He also features in the direct - to - video Mickey 's Once Upon a Christmas (1999), its sequel Mickey 's Twice Upon a Christmas (2004), and the 2001 TV series House of Mouse. Max is a playable character on the Super NES video game Goof Troop (1994), the PlayStation 2 video game Disney Golf (2002), and the PC video game Disney 's Extremely Goofy Skateboarding (2001).
Max is one of the few Disney characters aside from his best friend P.J. and Huey, Dewey, and Louie, child or otherwise, who has actually aged in subsequent appearances. He was depicted as an eleven - year - old middle school student in Goof Troop, then a high school student in A Goofy Movie, and then a high school graduate teenager starting college in An Extremely Goofy Movie. In Disney 's House of Mouse, he is still a teenager but old enough to be employed as a parking valet.
The Goofy holler is a stock sound effect that is used frequently in Walt Disney cartoons and films. It is the cry Goofy makes when falling or being launched into the air, that can be transcribed as "Yaaaaaaa - hoo - hoo - hoo - hooey! '' The holler was originally recorded by yodeller Hannès Schroll for the 1941 short The Art of Skiing. Some sources claim that Schrolle was not paid for the recording. Bill Farmer, the current voice of Goofy, demonstrated the "Goofy Holler '' in the Disney Treasures DVD The Complete Goofy. He also does this in the Kingdom Hearts games.
The holler is also used in films and cartoons in which Goofy does not appear, generally in situations that are particularly "goofy '' (examples include Cinderella, Bedknobs and Broomsticks, Pete 's Dragon, The Rescuers, The Hunchback of Notre Dame, Home on the Range, Enchanted and Moana).
In a Batman: The Animated Series episode titled "The Strange Secret of Bruce Wayne '', the Joker performs the holler when the plane crashes toward a canyon.
In the "Lost and Found '' episode of Caillou, Caillou 's mom performs the holler when she falls into the river.
In the "Wacky Delly '' episode of Rocko 's Modern Life, the holler is heard at the end of the haphazardly made cartoon created by Rocko, Heffer Wolfe, and Filburt for Ralph Bighead.
A version of the holler is used in a cutaway in the "Dial Meg for Murder '' episode of Family Guy when Goofy is cast into Hell for causing 9 / 11.
The term "Goofy Holler '' was first created by a user of the Internet Movie Database and originated on the trivia page for A Goofy Movie. It is now generally considered the name for the sound effect. In Epic Mickey 2: The Power of Two, however, it is referenced as "Goofy Yell ''.
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describe the overall feeling of europe about war between the 1850's and 1900 | France in the long nineteenth century - wikipedia
The history of France from 1789 to 1914 (the long 19th century) extends from the French Revolution to World War I and includes:
At the time of the French Revolution, France had expanded to nearly the modern territorial limits. The 19th century would complete the process by the annexation of the Duchy of Savoy and the city of Nice (first during the First Empire, and then definitively in 1860) and some small papal (like Avignon) and foreign possessions. France 's territorial limits were greatly extended during the Empire through Revolutionary and Napoleonic military conquests and re-organization of Europe, but these were reversed by the Vienna Congress. Savoy and the Nice were definitively annexed following France 's victory in the Franco - Austrian War in 1859.
In 1830, France invaded Algeria, and in 1848 this north African country was fully integrated into France as a département. The late 19th century saw France embark on a massive program of overseas imperialism -- including French Indochina (modern day Cambodia, Vietnam and Laos) and Africa (the Scramble for Africa brought France most of North - West and Central Africa) -- which brought it in direct competition with British interests.
With the French defeat in the Franco - Prussian War of 1870, France lost her provinces of Alsace and portions of Lorraine to Germany (see Alsace - Lorraine); these lost provinces would only be regained at the end of World War I.
Between 1795 and 1866, metropolitan France (that is, without overseas or colonial possessions) was the second most populous country of Europe, behind Russia, and the fourth most populous country in the world (behind China, India, and Russia); between 1866 and 1911, metropolitan France was the third most populous country of Europe, behind Russia and Germany. Unlike other European countries, France did not experience a strong population growth from the middle of the 19th century to the first half of the 20th century. The French population in 1789 is estimated at roughly 28 million; by 1850, it was 36 million and in 1880 it was around 39 million.
Until 1850, population growth was mainly in the countryside, but a period of massive urbanization began under the Second Empire. Unlike in England, industrialization was a late phenomenon in France. The revolutionary and Napoleonic wars had hindered early industrialization, particularly as, in 1815, France was obliged to pay reparations which amounted to 700 million francs: Relative to French GNP, this was to be the highest war indemnity paid by a defeated country in contemporary Europe. In addition, France was occupied by 1.2 million foreign soldiers and France had to pay the costs of their accommodation and rations. Therefore, France had little resources to invest in industrial modernization.
France 's economy in the 1830s (limited iron industry, under - developed coal supplies, a massive rural population) developed gradually. The systematic establishment of primary education and the creation of new engineering schools prepared an industrial expansion which would blossom in the following decades. French rail transport only began hesitantly in the 1830s, and would not truly develop until the 1840s. By the revolution of 1848, a growing industrial workforce began to participate actively in French politics, but their hopes were largely betrayed by the policies of the Second Empire. The loss of the important coal, steel and glass production regions of Alsace and Lorraine would cause further problems. The industrial worker population increased from 23 % in 1870 to 39 % in 1914. Nevertheless, France remained a rather rural country in the early 1900s with 40 % of the population still farmers in 1914. While exhibiting a similar urbanization rate as the U.S. (50 % of the population in the U.S. was engaged in agriculture in the early 1900s), the urbanization rate of France was still well behind the one of the UK (80 % urbanization rate in the early 1900s).
In the 19th century, France was a country of immigration for peoples and political refugees from Eastern Europe (Germany, Poland, Hungary, Russia, Ashkenazi Jews) and from the Mediterranean (Italy, Spanish Sephardic Jews and North - African Mizrahi Jews).
France was the first country in Europe to emancipate its Jewish population during the French Revolution. The Crémieux Decree gave full citizenship for the Jews in French Algeria. And by 1872, there were an estimated 86,000 Jews living in France (by 1945 this would increase to 300,000), many of whom integrated (or attempted to integrate) into French society, although the Dreyfus affair would reveal anti-semitism in certain classes of French society (see History of the Jews in France).
With the loss of Alsace and Lorraine, 5000 French refugees from these regions emigrated to Algeria in the 1870s and 1880s, as did too other Europeans (Spain, Malta) seeking opportunity. In 1889, non-French Europeans in Algeria were granted French citizenship (Arabs would however only win political rights in 1947).
France suffered massive losses during World War I -- roughly estimated at 1.4 million French dead including civilians (see World War I casualties) (or nearly 10 % of the active adult male population) and four times as many wounded (see World War I Aftermath).
Linguistically, France was a patchwork. People in the countryside spoke various dialects. France would only become a linguistically unified country by the end of the 19th century, and in particular through the educational policies of Jules Ferry during the French Third Republic. From an illiteracy rate of 33 % among peasants in 1870, by 1914 almost all French could read and understand the national language, although 50 % still understood or spoke a regional language of France (in today 's France, only an estimated 10 % still understand a regional language).
Through the educational, social and military policies of the Third Republic, by 1914 the French had been converted (as the historian Eugen Weber has put it) from a "country of peasants into a nation of Frenchmen ''. (Weber, E., 1979.) By 1914, most French could read French and the use of regional languages had greatly decreased; the role of the Catholic Church in public life had been radically altered; a sense of national identity and pride was actively taught. The anti-clericalism of the Third Republic profoundly changed French religious habits: in one case study for the city of Limoges comparing the years 1899 with 1914, it was found that baptisms decreased from 98 % to 60 %, and civil marriages before a town official increased from 14 % to 60 %.
French economic history since its late - 18th century Revolution was tied to three major events and trends: the Napoleonic Era, the competition with Britain and its other neighbors in regards to ' industrialization ', and the ' total wars ' of the late - 19th and early 20th centuries. Quantitative analysis of output data shows the French per capita growth rates were slightly smaller than Britain. However the British population tripled in size, while France grew by only third -- so the overall British economy grew much faster. François Crouzet has succinctly summarized the ups and downs of French per capita economic growth in 1815 - 1913 as follows: 1815 - 1840: irregular, but sometimes fast growth 1840 - 1860: fast growth; 1860 - 1882: slowing down; 1882 - 1896: stagnation; 1896 - 1913: fast growth
For the 1870 - 1913 era, Angus Maddison gives growth rates for 12 Western advanced countries -- 10 in Europe plus the United States and Canada. In terms of per capita growth, France was about average. However again its population growth was very slow, so as far as the growth rate in total size of the economy France was in next to the last place, just ahead of Italy. The 12 countries averaged 2.7 % per year in total output, but France only averaged 1.6 %. Crouzet concludes that the:
The reign of Louis XVI (1774 -- 1792) saw a temporary revival of French fortunes, but the over-ambitious projects and military campaigns of the 18th century had produced chronic financial problems. Deteriorating economic conditions, popular resentment against the complicated system of privileges granted the nobility and clerics, and a lack of alternate avenues for change were among the principal causes for convoking the Estates - General which convened in Versailles in 1789. On May 28, 1789 the Abbé Sieyès moved that the Third Estate proceed with verification of its own powers and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them. They proceeded to do so, and then voted a measure far more radical, declaring themselves the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates but of "the People ''.
Louis XVI shut the Salle des États where the Assembly met. The Assembly moved their deliberations to the king 's tennis court, where they proceeded to swear the Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789), under which they agreed not to separate until they had given France a constitution. A majority of the representatives of the clergy soon joined them, as did 47 members of the nobility. By June 27 the royal party had overtly given in, although the military began to arrive in large numbers around Paris and Versailles. On July 9 the Assembly reconstituted itself as the National Constituent Assembly.
On July 11, 1789 King Louis, acting under the influence of the conservative nobles, as well as his wife, Marie Antoinette, and brother, the Comte d'Artois, banished the reformist minister Necker and completely reconstructed the ministry. Much of Paris, presuming this to be the start of a royal coup, moved into open rebellion. Some of the military joined the mob; others remained neutral. On July 14, 1789, after four hours of combat, the insurgents seized the Bastille fortress, killing the governor and several of his guards. The king and his military supporters backed down, at least for the time being. After this violence, nobles started to flee the country as émigrés, some of whom began plotting civil war within the kingdom and agitating for a European coalition against France. Insurrection and the spirit of popular sovereignty spread throughout France. In rural areas, many went beyond this: some burned title - deeds and no small number of châteaux, as part of a general agrarian insurrection known as "la Grande Peur '' (the Great Fear).
On August 4, 1789, the National Assembly abolished feudalism, sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the Second Estate and the tithes gathered by the First Estate. In the course of a few hours, nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies, and cities lost their special privileges. The revolution also brought about a massive shifting of powers from the Roman Catholic Church to the State. Legislation enacted in 1790 abolished the Church 's authority to levy a tax on crops known as the "dîme '', cancelled special privileges for the clergy, and confiscated Church property: under the Ancien Régime, the Church had been the largest landowner in the country. Further legislation abolished monastic vows. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy, passed on July 12, 1790, turned the remaining clergy into employees of the State and required that they take an oath of loyalty to the constitution. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy also made the Catholic Church an arm of the secular state.
Looking to the United States Declaration of Independence for a model, on August 26, 1789 the Assembly published the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Like the U.S. Declaration, it comprised a statement of principles rather than a constitution with legal effect. The Assembly replaced the historic provinces with eighty - three départements, uniformly administered and approximately equal to one another in extent and population; it also abolished the symbolic paraphernalia of the Ancien Régime -- armorial bearings, liveries, etc. -- which further alienated the more conservative nobles, and added to the ranks of the émigrés.
Louis XVI opposed the course of the revolution and on the night of June 20, 1791 the royal family fled the Tuileries. However, the king was recognised at Varennes in the Meuse late on June 21 and he and his family were brought back to Paris under guard. With most of the Assembly still favouring a constitutional monarchy rather than a republic, the various groupings reached a compromise which left Louis XVI little more than a figurehead: he had perforce to swear an oath to the constitution, and a decree declared that retracting the oath, heading an army for the purpose of making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would amount to de facto abdication.
Meanwhile, a renewed threat from abroad arose: Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick William II of Prussia, and the king 's brother Charles - Phillipe, comte d'Artois issued the Declaration of Pilnitz which considered the cause of Louis XVI as their own, demanded his total liberty and the dissolution of the Assembly, and promised an invasion of France on his behalf if the revolutionary authorities refused its conditions. The politics of the period inevitably drove France towards war with Austria and its allies. France declared war on Austria (April 20, 1792) and Prussia joined on the Austrian side a few weeks later. The French Revolutionary Wars had begun.
In the Brunswick Manifesto, the Imperial and Prussian armies threatened retaliation on the French population should it resist their advance or the reinstatement of the monarchy. As a consequence, King Louis was seen as conspiring with the enemies of France.
King Louis was arrested on August 10, 1792. On September 20, French revolutionary troops won their first great victory at the battle of Valmy. The First Republic was proclaimed the following day. By the end of the year, the French had overrun the Austrian Netherlands, threatening the Dutch Republic to the north, and had also penetrated east of the Rhine, briefly occupying the imperial city of Frankfurt am Main.
January 17, 1793 saw the king condemned to death for "conspiracy against the public liberty and the general safety '' by a weak majority in Convention. On January 21, he was beheaded. This action led to Britain and the Netherlands declaring war on France.
The first half of 1793 went badly, with the French armies being driven out of Germany and the Austrian Netherlands. In this situation, prices rose and the sans - culottes (poor labourers and radical Jacobins) rioted; counter-revolutionary activities began in some regions. This encouraged the Jacobins to seize power through a parliamentary coup, backed up by force effected by mobilising public support against the Girondist faction, and by utilising the mob power of the Parisian sans - culottes. An alliance of Jacobin and sans - culottes elements thus became the effective centre of the new government. Policy became considerably more radical. The government instituted the "levy - en - masse '', where all able - bodied men 18 and older were liable for military service. This allowed France to field much larger armies than its enemies, and soon the tide of war was reversed.
The Committee of Public Safety came under the control of Maximilien Robespierre, and the Jacobins unleashed the Reign of Terror (1793 -- 1794). At least 1200 people met their deaths under the guillotine -- or otherwise -- after accusations of counter-revolutionary activities. In October, the queen was beheaded, further antagonizing Austria. In 1794 Robespierre had ultra-radicals and moderate Jacobins executed; in consequence, however, his own popular support eroded markedly. Georges Danton was beheaded for arguing that there were too many beheadings. There were attempts to do away with organized religion in France entirely and replace it with a Festival of Reason. The primary leader of this movement, Jacques Hebert, held such a festival in the Cathedral of Notre Dame, with an actress playing the Goddess of Reason. But Robespierre was unmoved by Hebert and had him and all his followers beheaded. On July 27, 1794 the French people revolted against the excesses of the Reign of Terror in what became known as the Thermidorian Reaction. It resulted in moderate Convention members deposing Robespierre and several other leading members of the Committee of Public Safety. All of them were beheaded without trial. With that, the extreme, radical phase of the Revolution ended. The Convention approved the new "Constitution of the Year III '' on August 17, 1795; a plebiscite ratified it in September; and it took effect on September 26, 1795.
The new constitution installed the Directoire and created the first bicameral legislature in French history. It was markedly more conservative, dominated by the bourgeoise, and sought to restore order and exclude the sans - culottes and other members of the lower classes from political life. By 1795, the French had once again conquered the Austrian Netherlands and the left bank of the Rhine, annexing them directly into France. The Dutch Republic and Spain were both defeated and made into French satellites. At sea however, the French navy proved no match for the British, and was badly beaten off the coast of Ireland in June 1794.
In 1796, Napoleon Bonaparte was given command of an army that was to invade Italy. The Austrian and Sardinian forces were defeated by the young general, they capitulated, and he negotiated the Treaty of Campo Formio without the input of the Directory. The French annexation of the Austrian Netherlands and the left bank of the Rhine was recognized, as were the satellite republics they created in northern Italy. The War of the First Coalition came to an end.
Military campaigns continued in 1798, with invasions of Switzerland, Naples, and the Papal States taking place and republics being established in those countries. Napoleon also convinced the Directory to approve an expedition to Egypt, with the purpose of cutting off Britain 's supply route to India. He got approval for this, and set off in May 1798 for Egypt with 40,000 men. But the expedition foundered when the British fleet of Horatio Nelson caught and destroyed most of the French ships in the Battle of the Nile. The army was left with no way to get home, and now faced the hostility of the Ottoman Empire. Napoleon himself escaped back to France, where he led the coup d'état of November 1799, making himself First Consul (his hapless troops remained in Egypt until they surrendered to a British expedition in 1801 and were repatriated to France).
By that point, the War of the Second Coalition was in progress. The French suffered a string of defeats in 1799, seeing their satellite republics in Italy overthrown and an invasion of Germany beaten back. Attempts by the allies on Switzerland and the Netherlands failed however, and once Napoleon returned to France, he began turning the tide on them. In 1801, the Peace of Lunéville ended hostilities with Austria and Russia, and the Treaty of Amiens with Britain.
By 1802, Napoleon was named First Consul for life. His continued provocations of the British led to renewed war in 1803, and the following year he proclaimed himself emperor in a huge ceremony in the Cathedral of Notre Dame. The pope was invited to the coronation, but Napoleon took the crown from him at the last minute and placed it on his own head. He attracted more power and gravitated towards imperial status, gathering support on the way for his internal rebuilding of France and its institutions. The French Empire (or the Napoleonic Empire) (1804 -- 1814) was marked by the French domination and reorganization of continental Europe (the Napoleonic Wars) and by the final codification of the republican legal system (the Napoleonic Code). The Empire gradually became more authoritarian in nature, with freedom of the press and assembly being severely restricted. Religious freedom survived under the condition that Christianity and Judaism, the two officially recognized faiths, not be attacked, and that atheism not be expressed in public. Napoleon also recreated the nobility, but neither they nor his court had the elegance or historical connections of the old monarchy. Despite the growing administrative despotism of his regime, the emperor was still seen by the rest of Europe as the embodiment of the Revolution and a monarchial parvenu.
By 1804, Britain alone stood outside French control and was an important force in encouraging and financing resistance to France. In 1805, Napoleon massed an army of 200,000 men in Boulogne for the purpose of invading the British Isles, but never was able to find the right conditions to embark, and thus abandoned his plans. Three weeks later, the French and Spanish fleets were destroyed by the British at Trafalgar. Afterwards, Napoleon, unable to defeat Britain militarily, tried to bring it down through economic warfare. He inaugurated the Continental System, in which all of France 's allies and satellites would join in refusing to trade with the British.
Portugal, an ally of Britain, was the only European country that openly refused to join. After the Treaties of Tilsit of July 1807, the French launched an invasion through Spain to close this hole in the Continental System. British troops arrived in Portugal, compelling the French to withdraw. A renewed invasion the following year brought the British back, and at that point, Napoleon decided to depose the Spanish king Charles IV and place his brother Joseph on the throne. This caused the people of Spain to rise up in a patriotic revolt, beginning the Peninsular War. The British could now gain a foothold on the Continent, and the war tied down considerable French resources, contributing to Napoleon 's eventual defeat.
Napoleon was at the height of his power in 1810 - 1812, with most of the European countries either his allies, satellites, or annexed directly into France. After the defeat of Austria in the War of the Fifth Coalition, Europe was at peace for 2 - 1 / 2 years except for the conflict in Spain. The emperor was given an archduchess to marry by the Austrians, and she gave birth to his long - awaited son in 1811.
Ultimately, the Continental System failed. Its effect on Great Britain and on British trade is uncertain, but the embargo is thought to have been more harmful on the continental European states. Russia in particular chafed under the embargo, and in 1812, that country reopened trade with Britain, provoking Napoleon 's invasion of Russia. The disaster of that campaign caused all the subjugated peoples of Europe to rise up against French domination. In 1813, Napoleon was forced to conscript boys under the age of 18 and less able - bodied men who had been passed up for military service in previous years. The quality of his troops deteriorated sharply and war - weariness at home increased. The allies could also put far more men in the field than he could. Throughout 1813, the French were forced back and by early 1814, the British were occupying Gascony. The allied troops reached Paris in March, and Napoleon abdicated as emperor. Louis XVIII, the brother of Louis XVI, was installed as king and France was granted a quite generous peace settlement, being restored to its 1792 boundaries and having to pay no war indemnity.
After eleven months of exile on the island of Elba in the Mediterranean, Napoleon escaped and returned to France, where he was greeted with huge enthusiasm. Louis XVIII fled Paris, but the one thing that would have given the emperor mass support, a return to the revolutionary extremism of 1793 - 1794, was out of the question. Enthusiasm quickly waned, and as the allies (then discussing the fate of Europe in Vienna) refused to negotiate with him, he had no choice but to fight. At Waterloo, Napoleon was completely defeated by the British and Prussians, and abdicated once again. This time, he was exiled to the island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he remained until his death from stomach cancer in 1821.
Louis XVIII was restored a second time by the allies in 1815, ending more than two decades of war. He was forced to sanction at least the principles of the French Revolution and rule as a limited, constitutional monarch. After the Hundred Days, a more harsh peace treaty was imposed on France, returning it to its 1789 boundaries and requiring a war indemnity. Allied troops were to remain in the country until it was paid. There were large - scale purges of Bonapartists from the government and military, and a brief "White Terror '' in the south of France claimed 300 victims.
Despite the return of the House of Bourbon to power, France was much changed from the era of the Ancien Régime. The egalitarianism and liberalism of the revolutionaries remained an important force and the autocracy and hierarchy of the earlier era could not be fully restored. The economic changes, which had been underway long before the revolution, had been further enhanced during the years of turmoil and were firmly entrenched by 1815. These changes had seen power shift from the noble landowners to the urban merchants. The administrative reforms of Napoleon, such as the Napoleonic Code and efficient bureaucracy, also remained in place. These changes produced a unified central government that was fiscally sound and had much control over all areas of French life, a sharp difference from the situation the Bourbons had faced before the Revolution.
In 1823, France intervened in Spain, where a civil war had deposed its king Ferdinand VII. The British objected to this, as it brought back memories of the still recent Peninsular War. However, the French troops marched into Spain, retook Madrid from the rebels, and left almost as quickly as they came. Despite worries to the contrary, France showed no sign of returning to an aggressive foreign policy and was admitted to the Concert of Europe in 1818.
Louis XVIII, for the most part, accepted that much had changed. However, he was pushed on his right by the Ultra-royalists, led by the comte de Villèle, who condemned the Doctrinaires ' attempt to reconcile the Revolution with the monarchy through a constitutional monarchy. Instead, the Chambre introuvable elected in 1815 banished all Conventionnels who had voted Louis XVI 's death and passed several reactionary laws. Louis XVIII was forced to dissolve this Chamber, dominated by the Ultras, in 1816, fearing a popular uprising. The liberals thus governed until the 1820 assassination of the duc de Berry, the nephew of the king and known supporter of the Ultras, which brought Villèle 's ultras back to power (vote of the Anti-Sacrilege Act in 1825, and of the loi sur le milliard des émigrés, Act on the émigrés ' billions). Louis died in September 1824 and was succeeded by his brother.
Charles X of France took a far more conservative line. He attempted to rule as an absolute monarch and reassert the power of the Catholic Church in France. Acts of sacrilege in churches became punishable by death, and freedom of the press was severely restricted. Finally, he tried to compensate the families of the nobles who had had their property destroyed during the Revolution. In 1830 the discontent caused by these changes and Charles X 's authoritarian nomination of the Ultra prince de Polignac as minister culminated in an uprising in the streets of Paris, known as the 1830 July Revolution (or, in French, "Les trois Glorieuses '' - The three Glorious days - of 27, 28 and July 29). Charles was forced to flee and Louis - Philippe d'Orléans, a member of the Orléans branch of the family, and son of Philippe Égalité who had voted the death of his cousin Louis XVI, ascended the throne. Louis - Philippe ruled, not as "King of France '' but as "King of the French '' (an evocative difference for contemporaries). It was made clear that his right to rule came from the people and was not divinely granted. He also revived the Tricolor as the flag of France, in place of the white Bourbon flag that had been used since 1815, an important distinction because the Tricolour was the symbol of the revolution.
The July Monarchy (1830 -- 1848) is generally seen as a period during which the haute bourgeoisie was dominant, and marked the shift from the counter-revolutionary Legitimists to the Orleanists, who were willing to make some compromises with the changes brought by the 1789 Revolution. Louis - Philippe was crowned "King of the French '', instead of "King of France '': this marked his acceptance of popular sovereignty, which replaced the Ancien Régime 's divine right. Louis - Philippe clearly understood his base of power: the wealthy bourgeoisie had carried him aloft during the July Revolution through their work in the Parliament, and throughout his reign, he kept their interests in mind.
Louis - Philippe, who had flirted with liberalism in his youth, rejected much of the pomp and circumstance of the Bourbons and surrounded himself with merchants and bankers. The July Monarchy, however, remained a time of turmoil. A large group of Legitimists on the right demanded the restoration of the Bourbons to the throne. On the left, Republicanism and, later Socialism, remained a powerful force. Late in his reign Louis - Philippe became increasingly rigid and dogmatic and his President of the Council, François Guizot, had become deeply unpopular, but Louis - Philippe refused to remove him. The situation gradually escalated until the Revolutions of 1848 saw the fall of the monarchy and the creation of the Second Republic.
However, during the first several years of his regime, Louis - Philippe appeared to move his government toward legitimate, broad - based reform. The government found its source of legitimacy within the Charter of 1830, written by reform - minded members of Chamber of Deputies upon a platform of religious equality, the empowerment of the citizenry through the reestablishment of the National Guard, electoral reform, the reformation of the peerage system, and the lessening of royal authority. And indeed, Louis - Phillipe and his ministers adhered to policies that seemed to promote the central tenets of the constitution. However, the majority of these policies were veiled attempts to shore up the power and influence of the government and the bourgeoisie, rather than legitimate attempts to promote equality and empowerment for a broad constituency of the French population. Thus, though the July Monarchy seemed to move toward reform, this movement was largely illusory.
During the years of the July Monarchy, enfranchisement roughly doubled, from 94,000 under Charles X to more than 200,000 by 1848. However, this represented less than one percent of population, and, as the requirements for voting were tax - based, only the wealthiest gained the privilege. By implication, the enlarged enfranchisement tended to favor the wealthy merchant bourgeoisie more than any other group. Beyond simply increasing their presence within the Chamber of Deputies, this electoral enlargement provided the bourgeoisie the means by which to challenge the nobility in legislative matters. Thus, while appearing to honor his pledge to increase suffrage, Louis - Philippe acted primarily to empower his supporters and increase his hold over the French Parliament. The inclusion of only the wealthiest also tended to undermine any possibility of the growth of a radical faction in Parliament, effectively serving socially conservative ends.
The reformed Charter of 1830 limited the power of the King -- stripping him of his ability to propose and decree legislation, as well as limiting his executive authority. However, the King of the French still believed in a version of monarchy that held the king as much more than a figurehead for an elected Parliament, and as such, he was quite active in politics. One of the first acts of Louis - Philippe in constructing his cabinet was to appoint the rather conservative Casimir Perier as the premier of that body. Perier, a banker, was instrumental in shutting down many of the Republican secret societies and labor unions that had formed during the early years of the regime. In addition, he oversaw the dismemberment of the National Guard after it proved too supportive of radical ideologies. He performed all of these actions, of course, with royal approval. He was once quoted as saying that the source of French misery was the belief that there had been a revolution. "No Monsieur '', he said to another minister, "there has not been a revolution: there is simply a change at the head of state. ''
Further expressions of this conservative trend came under the supervision of Perier and the then Minister of the Interior, François Guizot. The regime acknowledged early on that radicalism and republicanism threatened it, undermining its laissez - faire policies. Thus, the Monarchy declared the very term republican illegal in 1834. Guizot shut down republican clubs and disbanded republican publications. Republicans within the cabinet, like the banker Dupont, were all but excluded by Perier and his conservative clique. Distrusting the National Guard, Louis - Philippe increased the size of the army and reformed it in order to ensure its loyalty to the government.
Though two factions always persisted in the cabinet, split between liberal conservatives like Guizot (le parti de la Résistance, the Party of Resistance) and liberal reformers like the aforementioned journalist Adolphe Thiers (le parti du Mouvement, the Party of Movement), the latter never gained prominence. After Perier came count Molé, another conservative. After Molé came Thiers, a reformer later sacked by Louis - Philippe after attempting to pursue an aggressive foreign policy. After Thiers came the conservative Guizot. In particular, the Guizot administration was marked by increasingly authoritarian crackdowns on republicanism and dissent, and an increasingly pro-business laissez - faire policy. This policy included protective tariffs that defended the status quo and enriched French businessmen. Guizot 's government granted railway and mining contracts to the bourgeois supporters of the government, and even contributing some of the start - up costs. As workers under these policies had no legal right to assemble, unionize, or petition the government for increased pay or decreased hours, the July Monarchy under Perier, Molé, and Guizot generally proved detrimental to the lower classes. In fact, Guizot 's advice to those who were disenfranchised by the tax - based electoral requirements was a simple "enrichissez - vous '' -- enrich yourself. The king himself was not very popular either by the middle of the 1840s, and due to his appearance was widely referred to as the "crowned pear ''. There was a considerable hero - worship of Napoleon during this era, and in 1841 his body was taken from Saint Helena and given a magnificent reburial in France.
Louis - Philippe conducted a pacifistic foreign policy. Shortly after he assumed power in 1830, Belgium revolted against Dutch rule and proclaimed its independence. The king rejected the idea of intervention there or any military activities outside France 's borders. The only exception to this was a war in Algeria which had been started by Charles X a few weeks before his overthrow on the pretext of suppressing pirates in the Mediterranean. Louis - Philippe 's government decided to continue the conquest of that country, which took over a decade. By 1848, Algeria had been declared an integral part of France.
The Revolution of 1848 had major consequences for all of Europe: popular democratic revolts against authoritarian regimes broke out in Austria and Hungary, in the German Confederation and Prussia, and in the Italian States of Milan, Venice, Turin and Rome. Economic downturns and bad harvests during the 1840s contributed to growing discontent.
In February 1848, the French government banned the holding of the Campagne des banquets, fundraising dinners by activists where critics of the regime would meet (as public demonstrations and strikes were forbidden). As a result, protests and riots broke out in the streets of Paris. An angry mob converged on the royal palace, after which the hapless king abdicated and fled to England. The Second Republic was then proclaimed.
The revolution in France had brought together classes of wildly different interests: the bourgeoisie desired electoral reforms (a democratic republic), socialist leaders (like Louis Blanc, Pierre Joseph Proudhon and the radical Auguste Blanqui) asked for a "right to work '' and the creation of national workshops (a social welfare republic) and for France to liberate the oppressed peoples of Europe (Poles and Italians), while moderates (like the aristocrat Alphonse de Lamartine) sought a middle ground. Tensions between groups escalated, and in June 1848, a working class insurrection in Paris cost the lives of 1500 workers and eliminated once and for all the dream of a social welfare constitution.
The constitution of the Second Republic which was ratified in September 1848 was extremely flawed and permitted no effective resolution between the President and the Assembly in case of dispute. In December 1848, a nephew of Napoléon Bonaparte, Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte, was elected as President of the Republic, and pretexting legislative gridlock, in 1851, he staged a coup d'état. Finally, in 1852 he had himself declared Emperor Napoléon III of the Second Empire.
France was ruled by Emperor Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870. The regime was authoritarian in nature during its early years, curbing most freedom of the press and assembly. The era saw great industrialization, urbanization (including the massive rebuilding of Paris by Baron Haussmann) and economic growth, but Napoleon III 's foreign policies would be catastrophic.
In 1852, Napoleon declared that "L'Empire, c'est la paix '' (The empire is peace), but it was hardly fitting for a Bonaparte to continue the foreign policy of Louis - Philippe. Only a few months after becoming president in 1848, he sent French troops to break up a short - lived republic in Rome, remaining there until 1870. The overseas empire expanded, and France made gains in Indo - China, West and central Africa, and the South Seas. This was helped by the opening of large central banks in Paris to finance overseas expeditions. The Suez Canal was opened by the Empress Eugénie in 1869 and was the achievement of a Frenchman. Yet still, Napoleon III 's France lagged behind Britain in colonial affairs, and his determination to upstage British control of India and American influence in Mexico resulted in a fiasco.
In 1854, the emperor allied with Britain and the Ottoman Empire against Russia in the Crimean War. Afterwards, Napoleon intervened in the questions of Italian independence. He declared his intention of making Italy "free from the Alps to the Adriatic '', and fought a war with Austria in 1859 over this matter. With the victories of Montebello, Magenta and Solferino France and Austria signed the Peace of Villafranca in 1859, as the emperor worried that a longer war might cause the other powers, particularly Prussia, to intervene. Austria ceded Lombardy to Napoleon III, who in turn ceded it to Victor Emmanuel; Modena and Tuscany were restored to their respective dukes, and the Romagna to the pope, now president of an Italian federation. In exchange for France 's military assistance against Austria, Piedmont ceded its provinces of Nice and Savoy to France in March 1860. Napoleon then turned his hand to meddling in the Western Hemisphere. He gave support to the Confederacy during the American Civil War, until Abraham Lincoln announced the Emancipation Proclamation in the autumn of 1862. As this made it impossible to support the South without also supporting slavery, the emperor backed off. However, he was conducting a simultaneous venture in Mexico, which had refused to pay interest on loans taken from France, Britain, and Spain. As a result, those three countries sent a joint expedition to the city of Veracruz in January 1862, but the British and Spanish quickly withdrew after realizing the extent of Napoleon 's plans. French troops occupied Mexico City in June 1863 and established a puppet government headed by the Austrian archduke Maximilian, who was declared Emperor of Mexico. Although this sort of thing was forbidden by the Monroe Doctrine, Napoleon reasoned that the United States was far too distracted with its Civil War to do anything about it. The French were never able to suppress the forces of the ousted Mexican president Benito Juárez, and then in the spring of 1865, the American Civil War ended. The United States, which had an army of a million battle - hardened troops, demanded that the French withdraw or prepare for war. They quickly did so, but Maximilian tried to hold onto power. He was captured and shot by the Mexicans in 1867.
Public opinion was becoming a major force as people began to tire of oppressive authoritarianism in the 1860s. Napoleon III, who had expressed some rather woolly liberal ideas prior to his coronation, began to relax censorship, laws on public meetings, and the right to strike. As a result, radicalism grew among industrial workers. Discontent with the Second Empire spread rapidly, as the economy began to experience a downturn. The golden days of the 1850s were over. Napoleon 's reckless foreign policy was inciting criticism. To placate the Liberals, in 1870 Napoleon proposed the establishment of a fully parliamentary legislative regime, which won massive support. The French emperor never had the chance to implement this, however - by the end of the year, the Second Empire had ignominiously collapsed.
Napoleon 's distraction with Mexico prevented him from intervening in the Second Schleswig War in 1864 and the Seven Weeks ' War in 1866. Both of those conflicts saw Prussia establish itself as the dominant power in Germany. Afterwards, tensions between France and Prussia grew, especially in 1868 when the latter tried to place a Hohenzollern prince on the Spanish throne, which was left vacant by a revolution there.
The Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck provoked Napoleon into declaring war on Prussia in July 1870. The French troops were swiftly defeated in the following weeks, and on September 1, the main army, which the emperor himself was with, was trapped at Sedan and forced to surrender. A republic was quickly proclaimed in Paris, but the war was far from over. As it was clear that Prussia would expect territorial concessions, the provisional government vowed to continue resistance. The Prussians laid siege to Paris, and new armies mustered by France failed to alter this situation. The French capital began experiencing severe food shortages, to the extent where even the animals in the zoo were eaten. As the city was being bombarded by Prussian siege guns in January 1871, King William of Prussia was proclaimed Emperor of Germany in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles. Shortly afterwards, Paris surrendered. The subsequent peace treaty was harsh. France ceded Alsace and Lorraine to Germany and had to pay an indemnity of 5 billion francs. German troops were to remain in the country until it was paid off. Meanwhile, the fallen Napoleon III went into exile in England where he died in 1873.
The French legislature established the Third Republic which was to last until the military defeat of 1940 (longer than any government in France since the Revolution). The birth of the republic saw France occupied by foreign troops, the capital in a popular socialist insurrection -- the Paris Commune (which was violently repressed by Adolphe Thiers) -- and two provinces (Alsace - Lorraine) annexed to Germany. Feelings of national guilt and a desire for vengeance ("revanchism '') would be major preoccupations of the French throughout the next two decades. Yet by 1900, France had resumed many economic and cultural ties with Germany, and few French still dreamed of a "revanche ''. No French political party even mentioned Alsace - Lorraine any more on its program.
Napoleon 's rule came to an abrupt end when he declared war on Prussia in 1870, only to be defeated in the Franco - Prussian War and captured at Sedan. He abdicated on 4 September, with a Third Republic proclaimed that same day in Paris. On 19 September the Prussian army arrived at Paris and besieged the city. The city suffered from cold and hunger; the animals, including the elephants, in the Paris zoo were eaten by the Parisians. In January the Prussians began the bombardment of the city with heavy siege guns. The city finally surrendered on January 28, 1871. The Prussians briefly occupied the city and then took up positions nearby.
A revolt broke out on 18 March when radicalized soldiers from the Paris National Guard killed two French generals. French government officials and the army withdrew quickly to Versailles, and a new city council, the Paris Commune, dominated by anarchists and radical socialists, was elected and took power on March 26, and tried to implement an ambitious and radical social program.
The Commune proposed the separation of Church and state, made all Church property state property, and excluded religious instruction from schools, including Catholic schools. The churches were only allowed to continue their religious activity if they kept their doors open to public political meetings during the evenings. Other projected legislation dealt with educational reforms which would make further education and technical training freely available to all. However, for lack of time and resources, the programs were never carried out. The Vendôme Column, seen as a symbol of Napoleon 's imperialism was pulled down, at the suggestion of Commune member Gustave Courbet, who was later briefly jailed and required to pay for putting it back up.
Nathalie Lemel, a religious workwoman, and Elisabeth Dmitrieff, a young Russian aristocrat, created the Union des femmes pour la défense de Paris et les soins aux blessés ("Women Union for the Defense of Paris and Care to the Injured '') on April 11, 1871. They demanded gender equality, wages ' equality, right of divorce for women, right to laïque instruction (non-clerical) and for professional formation for girls. They also demanded suppression of the distinction between married women and concubins, between legitimate and natural children, the abolition of prostitution -- they obtained the closing of the maisons de tolérance (legal unofficial brothels). The Women Union also participated in several municipal commissions and organized cooperative workshops.
The Paris Commune held power for only two months. Between May 21 and 28 the French army reconquered the city in bitter fighting, in what became known as "la semaine sanglante '' or "bloody week. '' During the street fighting, the Communards were outnumbered four or five to one; they lacked competent officers; and they had no plan for the defense of the city, so each neighborhood was left to defend itself. Their military commander, Louis Charles Delescluze, committed suicide by dramatically standing atop a barricade on May 26. In the final days of the battle the Communards set fire to the Tuileries Palace, the Hotel de Ville, the Palais de Justice, the Palace of the Legion of Honor, and other prominent government buildings, and executed hostages they had taken, including Georges Darboy, the archbishop of Paris.
Army casualties from the beginning April through Bloody Week amounted to 837 dead and 6,424 wounded. Nearly seven thousand Communards were killed in combat or summarily executed by army firing squads afterwards, and buried in the city cemeteries, and in temporary mass graves. About ten thousand Communards escaped and went into exile in Belgium, England, Switzerland and the United States. Forty - five thousand prisoners taken after the fall of the Commune. Most were released, but twenty - three were sentenced to death, and about ten thousand were sentenced to prison or deportation to New Caledonia or other prison colonies. All the prisoners and exiles were amnestied in 1879 and 1880, and most returned to France, where some were elected to the National Assembly.
Thus, the Republic was born of a double defeat: before the Prussians, and of the revolutionary Commune. The repression of the commune was bloody. One hundred forty - seven Communards were executed in front of the Communards ' Wall in Père Lachaise Cemetery, while thousands of others were marched to Versailles for trials. The number killed during La Semaine Sanglante (The Bloody Week) had been estimated by some sources as high as twenty thousand; recent historians, using research into the number buried in the city cemeteries and exhumed from mass graves, now put the most likely number at between six and seven thousand. Thousands were imprisoned; 7,000 were exiled to New Caledonia. Thousands more fled to Belgium, England, Italy, Spain and the United States. In 1872, "stringent laws were passed that ruled out all possibilities of organizing on the left. '' For the imprisoned there was a general amnesty in 1880, and many of the Communards returned to France, where some were elected to the Parliament. Paris remained under martial law for five years.
The Primary pretenders to the throne.
Henri V, Legitimist, King for a week in 1830
Napoleon IV, Bonapartist, momentarily Emperor in 1870
Phillipe VII, Orléanist, momentarily King in 1848
Beside this defeat, the Republican movement also had to confront the counterrevolutionaries who rejected the legacy of the 1789 Revolution. Both the Legitimist and the Orleanist royalists rejected republicanism, which they saw as an extension of modernity and atheism, breaking with France 's traditions. This lasted until at least the May 16, 1877 crisis, which finally led to the resignation of royalist Marshal MacMahon in January 1879. The death of Henri, comte de Chambord in 1883, who, as the grandson of Charles X, had refused to abandon the fleur - de-lys and the white flag, thus jeopardizing the alliance between Legitimists and Orleanists, convinced many of the remaining Orleanists to rally themselves to the Republic, as Adolphe Thiers had already done. The vast majority of the Legitimists abandoned the political arena or became marginalised, at least until Pétain 's Vichy regime. Some of them founded Action Française in 1898, during the Dreyfus affair, which became an influent movement throughout the 1930s, in particular among the intellectuals of Paris ' Quartier Latin. In 1891, Pope Leo XIII 's encyclical Rerum novarum was incorrectly seen to have legitimised the Social Catholic movement, which in France could be traced back to Hughes Felicité Robert de Lamennais ' efforts under the July Monarchy. Pope St Pius X later condemned these movements of Catholics for democracy and Socialism in Nostre Charge Apostolique against the Le Síllon movement.
The initial republic was in effect led by pro-royalists, but republicans (the "Radicals '') and bonapartists scrambled for power. The period from 1879 -- 1899 saw power come into the hands of moderate republicans and former "radicals '' (around Léon Gambetta); these were called the "Opportunists '' (Républicains opportunistes). The newly found Republican control on the Republic allowed the vote of the 1881 and 1882 Jules Ferry laws on a free, mandatory and laic public education.
The moderates however became deeply divided over the Dreyfus affair, and this allowed the Radicals to eventually gain power from 1899 until the Great War. During this period, crises like the potential "Boulangist '' coup d'état (see Georges Boulanger) in 1889, showed the fragility of the republic. The Radicals ' policies on education (suppression of local languages, compulsory education), mandatory military service, and control of the working classes eliminated internal dissent and regionalisms, while their participation in the Scramble for Africa and in the acquiring of overseas possessions (such as French Indochina) created myths of French greatness. Both of these processes transformed a country of regionalisms into a modern nation state.
In 1880, Jules Guesde and Paul Lafargue, Marx 's son - in - law, created the French Workers ' Party (Parti ouvrier français, or POF), the first Marxist party in France. Two years later, Paul Brousse 's Possibilistes split. A controversy arose in the French socialist movement and in the Second International concerning "socialist participation in a bourgeois government '', a theme which was triggered by independent socialist Alexandre Millerand 's participation to Radical - Socialist Waldeck - Rousseau 's cabinet around the start of the 20th century, which also included the marquis de Galliffet, best known for his role as repressor of the 1871 Commune. While Jules Guesde was opposed to this participation, which he saw as a trick, Jean Jaurès defended it, making him one of the first social - democrat. Guesde 's POF united itself in 1902 with the Parti socialiste de France, and finally in 1905 all socialist tendencies, including Jaurès ' Parti socialiste français, unified into the Section française de l'Internationale ouvrière (SFIO), the "French section of the Second International '', itself formed in 1889 after the split between anarcho - syndicalists and Marxist socialists which led to the dissolving of the First International (founded in London in 1864).
Bismarck had favoured the instauration of a republic in France in 1871, knowing that this would isolate the defeated nation in Europe where most countries were monarchies. In an effort to break this isolation, France went to great pains to woo Russia and the United Kingdom to its side, first by means of the Franco - Russian Alliance of 1894, then the 1904 Entente Cordiale with the U.K, and finally, with the signing of the Anglo - Russian Entente in 1907 this became the Triple Entente, which eventually led France and the UK to enter World War I as Allies when Germany declared war on Russia.
Distrust of Germany, faith in the army and anti-semitism in parts of the French public opinion combined to make the Dreyfus affair (the unjust trial and condemnation of a Jewish military officer for treason) a political scandal of the utmost gravity. The nation was divided between "dreyfusards '' and "anti-dreyfusards '' and far - right Catholic agitators inflamed the situation even when proofs of Dreyfus ' innocence came to light. The writer Émile Zola published an impassioned editorial on the injustice, and was himself condemned by the government for libel. Once Dreyfus was finally pardoned, the progressive legislature enacted the 1905 laws on laïcité which created a complete separation of church and state and stripped churches of most of their property rights.
The period and the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century is often termed the belle époque. Although associated with cultural innovations and popular amusements (cabaret, cancan, the cinema, new art forms such as Impressionism and Art Nouveau), France was nevertheless a nation divided internally on notions of religion, class, regionalisms and money, and on the international front France came sometimes to the brink of war with the other imperial powers, including Great Britain (the Fashoda Incident). Yet in 1905 - 1914 the French repeatedly elected left - wing, pacifist parliaments, and French diplomacy took care to settle matters peacefully. France was caught unprepared by the German declaration of war in 1914. The human and financial costs of World War I would be catastrophic for the French.
Starting with its scattered small holdings in India, West Indies and Latin America, France began rebuilding its world empire. It took control of Algeria in 1830 and began in earnest to rebuild its worldwide empire after 1850, concentrating chiefly in North and West Africa, as well as South - East Asia, with other conquests in Central and East Africa, as well as the South Pacific. Republicans, at first hostile to empire, only became supportive when Germany started to build her own colonial empire In the 1880s. As it developed the new empire took on roles of trade with France, especially supplying raw materials and purchasing manufactured items, as well as lending prestige to the motherland and spreading French civilization and language, and the Catholic religion. It also provided manpower in the World Wars.
It became a moral mission to lift the world up to French standards by bringing Christianity and French culture. In 1884 the leading exponent of colonialism, Jules Ferry declared; "The higher races have a right over the lower races, they have a duty to civilize the inferior races. '' Full citizenship rights -- assimilation -- was a long - term goal, but in practice colonial officials were reluctant to extend full citizenship rights. France sent small numbers of white permanent settlers to its empire, in sharp contrast to Britain, Spain and Portugal. The notable exception was Algeria, where the French settlers nonetheless always remained a but powerful minority.
The Suez Canal, initially built by the French, became a joint British - French project in 1875, as both saw it as vital to maintaining their influence and empires in Asia. In 1882, ongoing civil disturbances in Egypt prompted Britain to intervene, extending a hand to France. The government allowed Britain to take effective control of Egypt.
Under the leadership of expansionist Jules Ferry, the Third Republic greatly expanded the French colonial empire. Catholic missionaries played a major role. France acquired Indochina, Madagascar, vast territories in West Africa and Central Africa, and much of Polynesia.
In the early 1880s, Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza was exploring the Kongo Kingdom for France, at the same time Henry Morton Stanley explored it in on behalf of Léopold II of Belgium, who would have it as his personal Congo Free State (see section below). France occupied Tunisia in May 1881. In 1884, France occupied Guinea. French West Africa (AOF) was founded in 1895, and French Equatorial Africa in 1910.
During the Scramble for Africa in the 1870s and 1880s, the British and French generally recognised each other 's spheres of influence. The Suez Canal, initially built by the French, became a joint British - French project in 1875, as both saw it as vital to maintaining their influence and empires in Asia. In 1882, ongoing civil disturbances in Egypt (see Urabi Revolt) prompted Britain to intervene, extending a hand to France. France 's expansionist Prime Minister Jules Ferry was out of office, and the government was unwilling to send more than an intimidatory fleet to the region. Britain established a protectorate, as France had a year earlier in Tunisia, and popular opinion in France later put this action down to duplicity. It was about this time that the two nations established co-ownership of Vanuatu. The Anglo - French Convention of 1882 was also signed to resolve territory disagreements in western Africa.
In the 1875 - 1898 era, serious tensions with Britain erupted over African issues. At several points war was possible, but it never happened. One brief but dangerous dispute occurred during the Fashoda Incident when French troops tried to claim an area in the Southern Sudan, and a British force purporting to be acting in the interests of the Khedive of Egypt arrived. Under heavy pressure the French withdrew securing Anglo - Egyptian control over the area. The status quo was recognised by an agreement between the two states acknowledging British control over Egypt, while France became the dominant power in Morocco. France had failed in its main goals. P.M.H. Bell says, "Between the two governments there was a brief battle of wills, with the British insisting on immediate and unconditional French withdrawal from Fashoda. The French had to accept these terms, amounting to a public humiliation... Fashoda was long remembered in France as an example of British brutality and injustice. ''
France had colonies in Asia and looked for alliances and found in Japan a possible ally. At Japan 's request Paris sent military missions in 1872 -- 1880, in 1884 -- 1889 and in 1918 -- 1919 to help modernize the Japanese army. Conflicts with China over Indochina climaxed during the Sino - French War (1884 -- 1885). Admiral Courbet destroyed the Chinese fleet anchored at Foochow. The treaty ending the war, put France in a protectorate over northern and central Vietnam, which it divided into Tonkin and Annam.
France 's intellectual climate in the mid to late 19th century was dominated by the so - called "Realist '' Movement. The generation that came of age after 1848 rejected what it considered the opulence and tackiness of the Romantic Movement. Realism was in a sense a revival of 18th - century Enlightenment ideas. It favored science and rationality and considered the Church an obstruction to human progress. The movement peaked during the Second Empire with writers and artists such as Flaubert and Courbet. After the establishment of the Third Republic, it had coalesced into a unified system of thought known as Positivism, a term coined by the philosopher Auguste Comte. The two most notable writers of the 1870s - 80s, Hippolyte Taine and Ernest Renan rejected the Positivist label, but most of their ideas were similar in content. Writers such as Émile Zola and artists like Édouard Manet and Pierre - Auguste Renoir epitomized the spirit of Positivism.
In addition, France produced a large body of prominent scientists during the late 19th century such as Louis Pasteur and Marcellin Berthelot. Social sciences were less well - developed, but Gustave Le Bon and Emile Durkheim were notable figures in this field.
Positivism survived as a movement until at least World War I, but beginning in the 1890s was challenged by a rival school of thought that saw the return of Romantic ideas. A number of artists came to disagree with the cold rationalism and logic of the Positivists, feeling that it ignored human emotions. The so - called Symbolists included the poets Paul Verlaine and Stéphane Mallarmé and an assortment of composers such as Georges Bizet and Camille Saint - Saëns who then gave way to the more experimental music of Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel.
Symbolist writers and philosophers included Paul Bourget, Maurice Barres, and Henri Bergson plus the painters Paul Cézanne and Paul Gauguin. Bourget denounced Positivist ideas and proclaimed that man 's salvation did not come from science, but by the more traditional values of God, family, and country. He espoused what he called "integral nationalism '' and that traditional institutions, reverence for one 's ancestors, and the sacredness of the French soil were what needed to be taught and promoted. Henri Bergson, whose lectures at the College de France became major social gatherings among Parisians, criticized scientific rationalism and exalted man 's irrational drives, especially what he dubbed élan vital, distinguishing heroic men and nations from the plodding masses.
The Symbolist Movement also affected the political climate of the nation: in the syndicalist beliefs of Georges Sorel, in labor activism, and also a resurgent nationalism among French youth in the years immediately preceding World War I. This new spirit brought a revival of belief in the Church and a strong, fervent sense of patriotism. Also a new school of young artists emerged who completely broke with Impressionism and favored a deep, intense subjectivism. Inspired by Cézanne and Gauguin, Georges Braque, Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and Georges Rouault entered the art scene so abruptly that they came to be known as the Fauves (Wild Ones).
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who were the janissaries and what religion did they follow | Janissaries - wikipedia
The Janissaries (Ottoman Turkish: يڭيچرى yeñiçeri (jeniˈt͡ʃeɾi), meaning "new soldier '') were elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman Sultan 's household troops, bodyguards and the first modern standing army in Europe. The corps was most likely established during the reign of Murad I (1362 -- 89).
They began as an elite corps of slaves made up of kidnapped young Christian boys who were forced to convert to Islam, and became famed for internal cohesion cemented by strict discipline and order. Unlike typical slaves, they were paid regular salaries. Forbidden to marry or engage in trade, their complete loyalty to the Sultan was expected. By the seventeenth century, due to a dramatic increase in the size of the Ottoman standing army, the corps ' initially strict recruitment policy was relaxed. Civilians bought their way into the corps in order to benefit from the improved socioeconomic status it conferred upon them. Consequently, the corps gradually lost its military character, undergoing a process that has been described as ' civilianization '. The corps was abolished by Sultan Mahmud II in 1826 in the Auspicious Incident in which 6,000 or more were executed.
The formation of the Janissaries has been dated to the reign of Murad I (r. 1362 - 1389), the third ruler of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans instituted a tax of one - fifth on all slaves taken in war, and it was from this pool of manpower that the sultans first constructed the Janissary corps as a personal army loyal only to the sultan.
From the 1380s to 1648, the Janissaries were gathered through the devşirme system, which was abolished in 1638. This was the taking (enslaving) of non-Muslim boys, notably Anatolian and Balkan Christians; Jews were never subject to devşirme, nor were children from Turkic families. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, "in early days, all Christians were enrolled indiscriminately. Later, those from Albania, Bosnia, and Bulgaria were preferred. ''
The Janissaries were kapıkulları (sing. kapıkulu), "door servants '' or "slaves of the Porte '', neither freemen nor ordinary slaves (köle). They were subjected to strict discipline, but were paid salaries and pensions upon retirement and formed their own distinctive social class. As such, they became one of the ruling classes of the Ottoman Empire, rivalling the Turkish aristocracy. The brightest of the Janissaries were sent to the palace institution, Enderun. Through a system of meritocracy, the Janissaries held enormous power, stopping all efforts at reform of the military.
According to military historian Michael Antonucci and economic historians Glenn Hubbard and Tim Kane, the Turkish administrators would scour their regions (but especially the Balkans) every five years for the strongest sons of the sultan 's Christian subjects. These boys (usually between the ages of 6 and 14) were then taken from their parents and given to Turkish families in the provinces to learn Turkish language and customs, and the rules of Islam. The recruits were indoctrinated into Islam, forced into circumcision and supervised 24 hours a day by eunuchs. They were subjected to severe discipline, being prohibited from growing a beard, taking up a skill other than soldiering, and marrying. As a result, the Janissaries were extremely well - disciplined troops, and became members of the askeri class, the first - class citizens or military class. Most were non-Muslims, because it was not permissible to enslave a Muslim.
It was a similar system to the Iranian Safavid, Afsharid, and Qajar era ghulams, who were drawn from converted Circassians, Georgians, and Armenians, and in the same way as with the Ottoman 's Janissaries who had to replace the unreliable ghazis. They were initially created as a counterbalance to the tribal, ethnic and favoured interests the Qizilbash gave, which make a system imbalanced.
In the late 16th century, a sultan gave in to the pressures of the Corps and permitted Janissary children to become members of the Corps, a practice strictly forbidden for the previous 300 years. They also became rent - seeking and sought protection of their special rights and advantages. According to paintings of the era, they were also permitted to grow beards. Consequently, the formerly strict rules of succession became open to interpretation. While they advanced their own power, the Janissaries also helped to keep the system from changing in other progressive ways, and according to some scholars the corps was most responsible for the political stagnation of Istanbul.
Greek Historian Dimitri Kitsikis in his book Türk Yunan İmparatorluğu ("Turco - Greek Empire '') states that many Christian families were willing to comply with the devşirme because it offered a possibility of social advancement. Conscripts could one day become Janissary colonels, statesmen who might one day return to their home region as governors, or even Grand Viziers or Beylerbeys (governor generals).
Some of the most famous Janissaries include George Kastrioti Skanderbeg, an Albanian who defected and led a 25 ‐ year Albanian revolt against the Ottomans. Another was Sokollu Mehmed Paşa, a Serbian who became a grand vizier, served three sultans, and was the de facto ruler of the Ottoman Empire for more than 14 years.
The Janissary corps were distinctive in a number of ways. They wore unique uniforms, were paid regular salaries (including bonuses) for their service, marched to music (the mehter), lived in barracks and were the first corps to make extensive use of firearms. A Janissary battalion was a close - knit community, effectively the soldier 's family. By tradition, the Sultan himself, after authorizing the payments to the Janissaries, visited the barracks dressed as a janissary trooper, and received his pay alongside the other men of the First Division. They also served as policemen, palace guards, and fire fighters during peacetime. The Janissaries also enjoyed far better support on campaign than other armies of the time. They were part of a well - organized military machine, in which one support corps prepared the roads while others pitched tents and baked the bread. Their weapons and ammunition were transported and re-supplied by the cebeci corps. They campaigned with their own medical teams of Muslim and Jewish surgeons and their sick and wounded were evacuated to dedicated mobile hospitals set up behind the lines.
These differences, along with an impressive war - record, made the janissaries a subject of interest and study by foreigners during their own time. Although eventually the concept of a modern army incorporated and surpassed most of the distinctions of the janissaries and the corps was eventually dissolved, the image of the janissary has remained as one of the symbols of the Ottomans in the western psyche. By the mid-18th century they had taken up many trades and gained the right to marry and enroll their children in the corps and very few continued to live in the barracks. Many of them became administrators and scholars. Retired or discharged janissaries received pensions, and their children were also looked after.
The first Janissary units were formed from prisoners of war and slaves, probably as a result of the sultan taking his traditional one - fifth share of his army 's plunder in kind rather than cash; however the continuing enslaving of dhimmi constituted a continuing abuse of a subject population. Initially the recruiters favoured Greeks and Albanians. As borders of the Ottoman Empire expanded, the devşirme was extended to include Bosniaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Serbs, Armenians, Hungarians and later, in rare instances, Romanians, Georgians, Ukrainians and southern Russians.
In response to foreign threats the Ottoman government chose to rapidly expand the size of the corps after the 1570s. Janissaries spent shorter periods of time in training as acemi oğlans, as the average age of recruitment increased from 13.5 in the 1490s to 16.6 in 1603. This reflected not only the Ottomans ' greater need for manpower, but also the shorter training time necessary to produce skilled musketeers in comparison with archers. However, this change alone was not enough to produce the necessary manpower, and consequently the traditional limitation of recruitment to boys conscripted in the devşirme was lifted. Membership was opened up to free - born Muslims, both recruits hand - picked by the commander of the Janissaries, as well as the sons of current members of the Ottoman standing army. By the middle of the seventeenth century, the devşirme had largely been abandoned as a method of recruitment.
The prescribed daily rate of pay for entry - level Janissaries in the time of Ahmet I was three Akçes. Promotion to a cavalry regiment implied a minimum salary of 10 Akçes. Janissaries received a sum of 12 Akçes every three months for clothing incidentals and 30 Akçes for weaponry, with an additional allowance for ammunition as well.
When a non-Muslim boy was recruited under the devşirme system, he would first be sent to selected Turkish families in the provinces to learn Turkish, the rules of Islam (i.e. to be converted to Islam) and the customs and cultures of Ottoman society. After completing this period, acemi (new recruit) boys were gathered for training at the Enderun "acemi oğlan '' school in the capital city. There, young cadets would be selected for their talents in different areas to train as engineers, artisans, riflemen, clerics, archers, artillery, and so forth. Janissaries trained under strict discipline with hard labour and in practically monastic conditions in acemi oğlan ("rookie '' or "cadet '') schools, where they were expected to remain celibate. Unlike other Muslims, they were expressly forbidden to wear beards, only a moustache. These rules were obeyed by Janissaries, at least until the 18th century when they also began to engage in other crafts and trades, breaking another of the original rules. In the late 16th century a sultan gave in to the pressures of the Janissary Corps and permitted Janissary children to become members of the Corps, a practice strictly forbidden for 300 years. They also became rent - seeking and set goals to protect their special rights and advantages. Consequently, succession rules, formerly strict, became open to interpretation. They gained their own power but kept the system from changing in other progressive ways.
For all practical purposes Janissaries belonged to the Sultan and they were regarded as the protectors of the throne and the Sultan. Janissaries were taught to consider the corps their home and family, and the Sultan as their father. Only those who proved strong enough earned the rank of true Janissary at the age of 24 or 25. The Ocak inherited the property of dead Janissaries, thus acquiring wealth. Janissaries also learned to follow the dictates of the dervish saint Haji Bektash Veli, disciples of whom had blessed the first troops. Bektashi served as a kind of chaplain for Janissaries. In this and in their secluded life, Janissaries resembled Christian military orders like the Knights Hospitaller. As a symbol of their devotion to the order, Janissaries wore special hats called "börk ''. These hats also had a holding place in front, called the "kaşıklık '', for a spoon. This symbolized the "kaşık kardeşliği '', or the "brotherhood of the spoon '', which reflected a sense of comradeship among the Janissaries who ate, slept, fought and died together.
Even after the rapid expansion of the size of the corps at the end of the sixteenth century, the Janissaries continued to undergo strict training and discipline. The Janissaries experimented with new forms of battlefield tactics, and in 1605 became one of the first armies in Europe to implement rotating lines of volley fire in battle.
The corps was organized in ortas. An orta (equivalent to a battalion) was headed by a çorbaci. All ortas together comprised the Janissary corps proper and its organization, named ocak (literally "hearth ''). Suleiman I had 165 ortas and the number increased over time to 196. While the Sultan was the supreme commander of the Ottoman Army and of the Janissaries in particular, the corps was organized and led by a commander, the ağa. The corps was divided into three sub-corps:
In addition there were also 34 ortas of the ajemi (cadets). A semi-autonomous Janissary corps was permanently based in Algiers.
Originally Janissaries could be promoted only through seniority and within their own orta. They could leave the unit only to assume command of another. Only Janissaries ' own commanding officers could punish them. The rank names were based on positions in the kitchen staff or Sultan 's royal hunters; 64th and 65th Orta ' Greyhound Keepers ' comprised as the only Janissary cavalry, perhaps to emphasise that Janissaries were servants of the Sultan. Local Janissaries, stationed in a town or city for a long time, were known as yerliyyas.
Even though the Janissaries were part of the royal army and personal guards of the sultan, the corps was not the main force of the Ottoman military. In the classical period, Janissaries were only one tenth of the overall Ottoman army, while the traditional Turkish cavalry made up the rest of the main battle force. According to David Nicolle, the number of Janissaries in the 14th century was 1,000 and about 6,000 in 1475. The same source estimates the number of Timarli Sipahi, the provincial cavalry which constituted the main force of the army at 40,000.
Beginning in the 1530s, the size of the Janissary corps began to dramatically expand, a result of the rapid conquests the Ottomans were carrying out during those years. Janissaries were used extensively to garrison fortresses and for siege warfare, which was becoming increasingly important for the Ottoman military. The pace of expansion increased after the 1570s, due to the initiation of a series of wars with the Safavid Empire and, after 1593, with Habsburg Austria. By 1609, the size of the corps had stabilized at approximately 40,000 men, but increased again later in the century, during the period of the Cretan War (1645 -- 69) and particularly the War of the Holy League (1683 -- 99).
During the initial period of formation, Janissaries were expert archers, but they began adopting firearms as soon as such became available during the 1440s. The siege of Vienna in 1529 confirmed the reputation of their engineers, e.g. sappers and miners. In melee combat they used axes and kilijs. Originally in peacetime they could carry only clubs or daggers, unless they served as border troops. Turkish yatagan swords were the signature weapon of the Janissaries, almost a symbol of the corps. Janissaries who guarded the palace (Zülüflü Baltacılar) carried long - shafted axes and halberds.
By the early 16th century, the Janissaries were equipped with and were skilled with muskets. In particular, they used a massive "trench gun '', firing an 80 - millimetre (3.1 in) ball, which was "feared by their enemies ''. Janissaries also made extensive use of early grenades and hand cannons, such as the abus gun. Pistols were not initially popular but they became so after the Cretan War (1645 -- 1669).
The Ottoman Empire used Janissaries in all its major campaigns, including the 1453 capture of Constantinople, the defeat of the Egyptian Mamluks and wars against Hungary and Austria. Janissary troops were always led to the battle by the Sultan himself, and always had a share of the loot. The Janissary corps was the only infantry division of the Ottoman army. In battle the Janissaries ' main mission was to protect the Sultan, using cannon and smaller firearms, and holding the centre of the army against enemy attack during the strategic fake forfeit of Turkish cavalry. The Janissary corps also included smaller expert teams: explosive experts, engineers and technicians, sharpshooters (with arrow and rifle) and sappers who dug tunnels under fortresses, etc.
Janissaries battling the Knights Hospitaller during the Siege of Rhodes in 1522.
Battle of Mohács, 1526.
A Janissary, a pasha and cannon batteries at the Siege of Esztergom in 1543.
Sultan Murad III 's expedition to Revan.
As Janissaries became aware of their own importance they began to desire a better life. By the early 17th century Janissaries had such prestige and influence that they dominated the government. They could mutiny and dictate policy and hinder efforts to modernize the army structure. They could change Sultans as they wished through palace coups. They made themselves landholders and tradesmen. They would also limit the enlistment to the sons of former Janissaries who did not have to go through the original training period in the acemi oğlan, as well as avoiding the physical selection, thereby reducing their military value. When Janissaries could practically extort money from the Sultan and business and family life replaced martial fervour, their effectiveness as combat troops decreased. The northern borders of the Ottoman Empire slowly began to shrink southwards after the second Battle of Vienna in 1683.
In 1449 they revolted for the first time, demanding higher wages, which they obtained. The stage was set for a decadent evolution, like that of the Streltsy of Tsar Peter 's Russia or that of the Praetorian Guard which proved the greatest threat to Roman emperors, rather than an effective protection. After 1451, every new Sultan felt obligated to pay each Janissary a reward and raise his pay rank (although since early Ottoman times, every other member of the Topkapi court received a pay raise as well). Sultan Selim II gave Janissaries permission to marry in 1566, undermining the exclusivity of loyalty to the dynasty. By 1622, the Janissaries were a "serious threat '' to the stability of the Empire. Through their "greed and indiscipline '', they were now a law unto themselves and, against modern European armies, ineffective on the battlefield as a fighting force. In 1622, the teenage Sultan Osman II, after a defeat during war against Poland, determined to curb Janissary excesses. Outraged at becoming "subject to his own slaves '', he tried to disband the Janissary corps, blaming it for the disaster during the Polish war. In the spring, hearing rumours that the Sultan was preparing to move against them, the Janissaries revolted and took the Sultan captive, imprisoning him in the notorious Seven Towers: he was murdered shortly afterwards.
In 1804, the Dahias, the Jannisary junta that ruled Serbia at the time, had taken power in the Sanjak of Smederevo in defiance of the Sultan and they feared that the Sultan would make use of the Serbs to oust them. To forestall this they decided to execute all prominent nobles throughout Central Serbia, a move known as Slaughter of the knezes. According to historical sources of the city of Valjevo, heads of the murdered men were put on public display in the central square to serve as an example to those who might plot against the rule of the Janissaries. The event triggered the start of the Serbian revolution with the First Serbian uprising aimed at putting an end to the 300 years of Ottoman occupation of modern Serbia.
In 1807 a Janissary revolt deposed Sultan Selim III, who had tried to modernize the army along Western European lines. This modern army Selim III created was called Nizam - ı Cedid. His supporters failed to recapture power before Mustafa IV had him killed, but elevated Mahmud II to the throne in 1808. When the Janissaries threatened to oust Mahmud II, he had the captured Mustafa executed and eventually came to a compromise with the Janissaries. Ever mindful of the Janissary threat, the sultan spent the next years discreetly securing his position. The Janissaries ' abuse of power, military ineffectiveness, resistance to reform and the cost of salaries to 135,000 men, many of whom were not actually serving soldiers, had all become intolerable.
By 1826, the sultan was ready to move against the Janissary in favour of a more modern military. The sultan informed them, through a fatwa, that he was forming a new army, organised and trained along modern European lines. As predicted, they mutinied, advancing on the sultan 's palace. In the ensuing fight, the Janissary barracks were set in flames by artillery fire resulting in 4,000 Janissary fatalities. The survivors were either exiled or executed, and their possessions were confiscated by the Sultan. This event is now called the Auspicious Incident. The last of the Janissaries were then put to death by decapitation in what was later called the Tower of Blood, in Thessaloniki.
After the Janissaries were disbanded by Mahmud II, he then created a new army soon after recruiting 12,000 troops. This new army was formally named the Trained Victorious Soldiers of Muhammad, the Mansure Army for short. By 1830, the army expanded to 27,000 troops and included the Sipahi cavalry. By 1838, all Ottoman fighting corps were included and the army changed its name to the Ordered troops. This military corps lasted until the end of the empire 's history.
The military music of the Janissaries was noted for its powerful percussion and shrill winds combining kös (giant timpani), davul (bass drum), zurna (a loud shawm), naffir, or boru (natural trumpet), çevgan bells, triangle (a borrowing from Europe), and cymbals (zil), among others. Janissary music influenced European classical musicians such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven, both of whom composed music in the "Alla turca '' style (Mozart 's Piano Sonata in A major, K. 331 (c. 1783), Beethoven 's incidental music for The Ruins of Athens, Op. 113 (1811), and the final movement of Symphony no. 9), although the Beethoven example is now considered a march rather than Alla turca.
Sultan Mahmud II abolished the mehter band in 1826 along with the Janissary corps. Mahmud replaced the mehter band in 1828 with a European style military band trained by Giuseppe Donizetti. In modern times, although the Janissary corps no longer exists as a professional fighting force, the tradition of Mehter music is carried on as a cultural and tourist attraction.
In 1952, the Janissary military band, Mehterân, was organized again under the auspices of the Istanbul Military Museum. They hold performances during some national holidays as well as in some parades during days of historical importance. For more details, see Turkish music (style) and Mehter.
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who won the great australian bake off 2017 | The Great Australian Bake Off - Wikipedia
The Great Australian Bake Off is an Australian television baking series that is based on the BBC baking competition The Great British Bake Off. The series first premiered on 9 July 2013 on the Nine Network and ran for one season with presenters Shane Jacobson and Anna Gare and judges Dan Lepard and Kerry Vincent.
On 1 April 2015 it was announced that the series had been picked up by pay television channel LifeStyle Food and production company FremantleMedia Australia for a second season which premiered on 13 October 2015 with presenters Claire Hooper and Mel Buttle and judges Maggie Beer and Matt Moran.
The programme operates on a weekly elimination process to find the best all - round baker from the contestants who are all amateurs, where in each episode the bakers are tasked with 3 different challenges; a signature bake, a technical bake and a show - stopper. The bakes are critically examined by the judges who will then choose a "Baker of the week '' and a baker that is eliminated from the competition. Ten contestants were chosen for the first season.
Season 1 of The Great Australian Bake Off saw ten home bakers take part in a bake - off to test their baking skills as they battled to be crowned The Great Australian Bake Off 's best amateur baker. Each week saw the bakers put through three challenges in a particular discipline.
The three finalists were Jonathan Gurfinkel, Maria Vella and Nancy Ho. On 27 August 2013, Nancy Ho was crowned the best amateur baker.
Season 2 of The Great Australian Bake Off will see twelve home bakers take part in a bake - off to test their baking skills as they battled to be crowned The Great Australian Bake Off 's best amateur baker. The 10 - part season will premiere on 13 October 2015.
The three finalists were Jasmin Hartley, Sian Redgrave and Suzy Stefanidis. On 15 December 2015, Sian was crowned the best amateur baker.
Season 3 of The Great Australian Bake Off will see twelve home bakers take part in a bake - off to test their baking skills as they battled to be crowned The Great Australian Bake Off 's best amateur baker. The 10 - part season will premiere on 11 October 2016.
The three finalists were Monica Cavallaro, Olivia McMahon and Antonio Marcona. On 13 December 2016, Olivia was crowned the best amateur baker.
Production on season 4 of the series began in May 2017. It premiered on 18 January 2018, and moved from Lifestyle Food to the main LifeStyle channel.
The three finalists were Claudia Anton, Barb Dunn & Dave Yan. On 22 March 2018, Claudia was crowned the best amateur baker.
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who played miss hannigan in annie on broadway | Annie (musical) - wikipedia
Annie is a Broadway musical based upon the popular Harold Gray comic strip Little Orphan Annie, with music by Charles Strouse, lyrics by Martin Charnin, and book by Thomas Meehan. The original Broadway production opened in 1977 and ran for nearly six years, setting a record for the Alvin Theatre (now the Neil Simon Theatre). It spawned numerous productions in many countries, as well as national tours, and won the Tony Award for Best Musical. The musical 's songs "Tomorrow '' and "It 's the Hard Knock Life '' are among its most popular musical numbers.
In 1933, eleven - year - old Annie is in the Municipal Girls Orphanage, along with Molly (age 6), Kate (age 7), Tessie (age 10), Pepper (age 12), July and Duffy (both 13). When Molly awakes from a bad dream, angering Pepper and Duffy, July tells them to hush up and eventually gets into a fight with Pepper. Annie gets up and tells everyone to go back to sleep. Molly then asks if Annie could read her note from when her parents left her at the orphanage. Duffy and Pepper are yet again annoyed. Along with Kate, Pepper and Duffy imitate Annie 's acting as if they were her parents ("Maybe '').
Annie decides to escape to find her parents, but is caught by Miss Hannigan, who is currently suffering from a hangover. She is angered by this and forces all the girls to vigorously clean the orphanage ("Hard Knock Life '') before their day of sweatshop labour sewing for a dress manufacturing company (from which Miss Hannigan pockets the proceeds). Shortly after, Mr. Bundles, the laundry man, comes in to pick up the blankets. While Miss Hannigan is flirting with him, Annie climbs into the laundry basket and the orphans cover her up with the blankets. Once Miss Hannigan realizes she is gone, the other orphans express their frustration ("Hard Knock Life (Reprise) '').
Annie successfully escapes, running into a friendly stray dog. As she comforts him, she tells him of better days yet to come ("Tomorrow ''). The dog catcher is after him, so she pretends the dog is hers by calling him Sandy. Though at first unsuccessful, she convinces the dog catcher, and she continues on. She later finds a Hooverville, where people made homeless by the Great Depression have come together as a community ("We 'd Like To Thank You, Herbert Hoover ''). However, a policeman named Lt. Ward, who had been sent by Miss Hannigan, catches Annie and brings her back.
Grace Farrell, assistant to the billionaire Oliver Warbucks, comes to the orphanage asking for an orphan to come to his mansion for the Christmas holiday. Because Annie was in Miss Hannigan 's office, Grace asks to take her, and Miss Hannigan reluctantly agrees. Once she has left, Miss Hannigan explodes with her hatred for all the girls in the orphanage ("Little Girls '').
Meanwhile, at the Warbucks Mansion, the staff welcomes Annie with open arms ("I Think I 'm Gonna Like It Here ''). When Oliver Warbucks comes back, though, he is very moody and not too happy to have an orphan in his mansion. He asks Grace to take Annie to a movie, but she persuades him to come too. As he and Annie begin to like each other, they enjoy a fabulous night in New York City ("N.Y.C. '').
Back at the orphanage, Miss Hannigan 's brother, Rooster, and his girlfriend, Lily, pay a visit. Miss Hannigan mentions that Annie is staying at a billionaire 's house, and they think they could use this situation to their advantage, though they do not yet know how ("Easy Street '').
Warbucks sees the locket around Annie 's neck, and buys her a new one from Tiffany & Co. He debates taking her "under his wing '', because he does n't know much about children, but he decides he loves her and gives her the locket ("Why Should I Change A Thing? ''). However, she bursts into tears, saying it was the only thing left by her parents, and refuses to accept a new one. Grace and the staff then pledge to find her parents no matter what it takes ("You Wo n't Be An Orphan For Long '').
Annie appears on the radio on a show by Bert Healy ("Maybe '' reprise) where Warbucks announces that he is offering $50,000 to the couple who can prove they are her parents. Healy then sings a song with the Boylan Sisters ("You 're Never Fully Dressed Without a Smile ''). Back at the orphanage the girls are listening to the song. Everyone is fascinated that their friend is on the radio, except Pepper; who could n't care less. ("You 're Never Fully Dressed Without a Smile '' reprise). When Miss Hannigan hears, she barges in and demands to know what was happening. Molly announces that Annie was on the radio, and that there is a $50,000 reward for her parents. Miss Hannigan is anything but pleased. Shortly after, a couple named Ralph and Shirley Mudge arrive, saying they left a little girl here eleven years ago and have come back for her. Miss Hannigan is shocked. They soon reveal themselves to be Rooster and Lily; they explain their plan to get the reward. They request information about Annie from Miss Hannigan for one third of the money, though she demands one half for this service, and she tells them about the note and the locket ("Easy Street '' reprise).
Warbucks brings Annie to Washington, D.C., where she requests to meet the president. Warbucks thinks that it would be better if Annie waited outside, but Franklin D. Roosevelt asks her to stay. She begins to sing "Tomorrow '', though shushed by the cabinet. Roosevelt, however, believes that people must be optimistic during tough times, and commands them to sing ("Tomorrow '' Cabinet reprise). Once back home, Warbucks tells Annie how much he loves her ("Something Was Missing ''). Because her parents have not shown up, he announces he would like to adopt her ("I Do n't Need Anything But You ''). They decide to throw a Christmas party, and Annie wants to invite Miss Hannigan and the orphans. While preparing, the delighted staff tell of how her arrival has changed their lives ("Annie '').
Judge Louis Brandeis shows up to begin the adoption proceedings, but is interrupted by Mr. and Mrs. Mudge (Rooster and Lily in disguise) who come to pick up Annie. Grace and Warbucks are shocked, because they know about the note and the locket. Still, Warbucks does not think they are her real parents. He requests that she will be allowed to stay one more night for the Christmas party, and then they can take her away to their supposed pig farm in New Jersey. Early that morning, she wishes she could have been adopted, not sent off with her "parents '' ("Maybe '' reprise). Warbucks then receives a surprise visit from Roosevelt and his Secret Service. It is revealed by him that Annie 's parents are actually David and Margaret Bennett, who died when she was a baby. They then realize that Mr. and Mrs. Mudge are really Rooster and Lily, just as they show up to claim her and the money. They, along with Miss Hannigan, are arrested by the Secret Service, and everyone is delighted by Roosevelt 's new deal for the economy ("A New Deal for Christmas '' / "Tomorrow '' finale).
The New York Times estimates that Annie is produced 700 to 900 times each year in the United States.
Charnin first approached Meehan to write the book of a musical about Little Orphan Annie in 1972. Meehan researched by re-reading prints of the comic strip, but was unable to find any satisfactory material for a musical other than the characters of Annie, Oliver Warbucks and Sandy, so decided to write his own story. As all three of Meehan, Charnin and Strouse were from New York and given what he saw as the downbeat mood of the then - current Nixon era and the Vietnam War, Meehan set his story in New York during the similarly downbeat Great Depression. Meehan saw the character of Annie as a 20th Century American female version of the titular orphan characters created by Charles Dickens in works such as Oliver Twist and David Copperfield with the mystery of Annie 's abandonment and unknown parenthood as consistent with a strand of mysteries in Dickens ' tales. Meehan 's book was accepted by Charnin and Strouse, but considerable material had to be trimmed out -- material which Meehan would later restore for his novelisation.
Annie had its world premiere on August 10, 1976 at the Goodspeed Opera House in East Haddam, Connecticut under the direction of Michael P. Price, Executive Director. Kristen Vigard was the first actress to play the title role. However, the producers soon decided that Vigard 's genuinely sweet interpretation was not tough enough for the street - smart orphan. After a week of performances, Vigard was replaced by Andrea McArdle, who played one of the other orphans, Pepper. Vigard went on to become McArdle 's Broadway understudy.
The original Broadway production opened at the Alvin Theatre on April 21, 1977 and starred Andrea McArdle as Annie, Reid Shelton as Daddy Warbucks, Dorothy Loudon as Miss Hannigan, and Sandy Faison as Grace Farrell. Danielle Brisebois was one of the orphans. It was nominated for eleven Tony Awards and won seven, including the Best Musical, Best Score, and Best Book. Replacements in the title role on Broadway included then - child actors Shelley Bruce, Sarah Jessica Parker, Allison Smith and Alyson Kirk. Replacements in the role of Miss Hannigan included Alice Ghostley, Dolores Wilson, Betty Hutton, Marcia Lewis, and June Havoc. Ann Ungar understudied and played for Dorothy Loudon in the role of Miss Hannigan. She also understudied Alice Ghostley and Dolores Wilson. The show closed on January 2, 1983, after a total of 2,377 performances, setting a record for the longest running show at the Alvin Theatre (now the Neil Simon Theatre), until it was surpassed by Hairspray in 2009.
During the Broadway run of Annie, there were four touring companies that were launched from the original production to tour to major North American cities:
The 1st National Touring Company opened in Toronto in March 1978 with Kathy Jo Kelly as Annie, Norwood Smith as Daddy Warbucks, Jane Connell, Ruth Kobart as Miss Hannigan, and Gary Beach as Rooster. It played in Miami from April 12 to May 13, 1978 then continued for a few more cities until it landed in Chicago where it played for 32 weeks. In April 1979, it continued on the road in with Mary K. Lombardi now in the lead as Annie. In the fall of 1980, Theda Stemler took over the part and was replaced in Boston when she grew too old. On May 15, 1981, Louanne Sirota, who had played Annie in the long - running Los Angeles production (see below), took over the role for four months. In August 1981, Becky Snyder became the company 's last Annie, closing the tour on September 6, 1981.
The 2nd National Touring Company (sometimes referred to as the West Coast or Los Angeles Production) opened in San Francisco on June 22, 1978 with Patricia Ann Patts starring as Annie, Jennifer Cihi as Pepper and the then - unknown Molly Ringwald as one of the orphans. The show landed in Los Angeles on October 15, 1978 for an open - ended run at the Shubert Theatre. On June 12, 1979, Sirota, just 9 years old (up until that time, all Annies had been 11 years old), took over the role from Patts. Marisa Morell took the role in December 1979, closing the Los Angeles run and continuing on tour with the show through December 1980. Kristi Coombs then played Annie until this touring company closed in Philadelphia on January 23, 1982. Alyssa Milano played one of the orphans in 1981.
The 3rd National Touring Company opened in Dallas on October 3, 1979 with Rosanne Sorrentino (who would later go on to portray Pepper in the 1982 film version) in the title role. This company toured to 23 cities playing mostly shorter runs of a month or less. On March 27, 1981, Bridget Walsh took over as Annie. Becky Snyder (who had closed the 1st National Tour) joined this company in the summer of 1982 and stayed with it until it closed in September of that year.
The 4th National Touring Company opened on September 11, 1981 with Mollie Hall playing Annie. This production was a "bus and truck '' tour, with a slightly reduced cast, that traveled the country and often played in two cities a week. This company was still touring when the original Broadway production closed in January 1983, making Kathleen Sisk the final performer to play Annie from the original production team. This tour closed in September 1983.
The musical premiered in the West End at the Victoria Palace Theatre on 3 May 1978. Andrea McArdle, the original Broadway Annie, played the title role for 40 performances. British 12 - year - old Ann Marie Gwatkin was also cast in the title role and appeared on the Original London cast recording. The Opening night cast and the original sound track of children were Claire Hood, Jane Collins, Dawn Napier, Annette Mason, Helen Stephenson, Jackie Ekers and Linda Brewis. Ann Marie Gwatkin alternated with Christine Hyland and four other Annies were cast at this point: Anne O'Rourke, Jacinta Whyte, Helen Thorne, Rosa Michelle who were to play the role over the next year. Suzie Kemeys, from South Wales also performed two stints in 1980 / 81. The first was as the character July in the chorus and the second was playing the title role of Annie. ITV Wales commissioned two documentaries about this young Welsh girl and her rise from obscurity to a West End leading lady. Following, this Ann Marie Gwatkin and Jackie Ekers shared the title role followed by many other casts of Annie. Miss Hannigan was originally played by Sheila Hancock, and later by Maria Charles and Stella Moray; Daddy Warbucks was played by Stratford Johns and later by Charles West, with Deborah Clarke playing Pepper in the first year and Melanie Grant playing Molly.
Annie closed on 28 November 1981, after 1485 performances.
The musical transferred to the Bristol Hippodrome for a special Christmas season before touring Britain. Because of strict British employment laws for juvenile actors, a succession of actresses took on the lead role every four months. One of the last girls to perform the role at the Victoria Palace before the show went on tour was 10 - year - old Claudia Bradley from Leeds who was featured on a 1981 BBC programme called Fame.
A 20th anniversary Broadway revival, which played at the Martin Beck Theatre (now called the Al Hirschfeld Theatre) in 1997, entitled Annie, the 20th Anniversary, starred Nell Carter as Miss Hannigan, but controversy surrounded the casting of the titular character. The original actress cast in the role, Joanna Pacitti, was fired and replaced by her fellow orphan, Brittny Kissinger (who usually played orphan July) just two weeks before her Broadway debut, while battling bronchitis in Boston. The Pre-Broadway Tour was playing the Colonial Theatre. ' Annie ' Understudy and Swing Orphan Alexandra Keisman performed the role the first night Pacitti was absent. The producers then gave Kissinger the next performance. The show then moved on to the Oakdale in Connecticut where an insert was placed in the Playbill claiming "The Role of Annie is now being played by Brittny Kissinger ''. Public sentiment seemed to side with Pacitti as she was the winner of a highly publicized contest to find a new Annie sponsored by the department store Macy 's. This incident, coupled with the mixed reviews the new staging garnered, doomed it to a short run, although it was followed by a successful national tour. Kissinger, then 8, became the youngest actress to ever play Annie on Broadway.
More controversy surrounding the show involved Nell Carter. Carter reportedly was very upset when commercials promoting the show used a different actress, Marcia Lewis, a white actress, as Miss Hannigan. The producers claimed that the commercials, which were made during an earlier production, were too costly to reshoot. Carter felt that racism played a part in the decision. "Maybe they do not want audiences to know Nell Carter is black '', she told the New York Post. However, the ads did mention that Carter was in the show. "It hurts a lot '', Carter told the Post, "I 've asked them nicely to stop it -- it 's insulting to me as a black woman. '' Later reports stated that "Nell Carter of Broadway 's ' Annie ' denied Thursday that she called her show 's producers racist because they chose to air commercials featuring a previous Miss Hannigan -- who is white -- instead of her. '' Her statement, released by the Associated Press, read: "' Yes, it is true that I and my representatives have gone to management on more than one occasion about the commercial and were told that there was nothing they could do about it, ' Carter said in a statement Thursday. ' Therefore, I have resigned myself to the fact that this is the way it is. ' The statement also addressed the alleged charges of racism, first published in Thursday 's New York Post. Carter is black. ' I, Nell Carter, never, ever, ever accused my producers or anyone in the show of racism, ' she said. Producers have said it is too expensive to film a new commercial. '' Carter was later replaced by another white actress, Sally Struthers. The revival closed on October 19, 1997 after 14 previews and 239 performances.
The show was revived at the Victoria Palace, running from 30 September 1998 to 28 February 1999. It starred Lesley Joseph and then Lily Savage (the female alter ego of comedian Paul O'Grady) as Miss Hannigan and Kevin Colson as Warbucks. The young girls who played Annie were Charlene Barton, Tasha Gold, Libby Gore and Sophie McShera.
Starting in August 1999, the post Broadway National Tour continued with Meredith Anne Bull as Annie. In the spring of 2000, Ashley Wieronski, who had been playing Duffy, moved up to play Annie. In July 2000, Dana Benedict took over as Annie.
In 2000 / 2001 a tour played Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane. Anthony Warlow starred as Daddy Warbucks with Amanda Muggleton as Miss Hannigan. A new song, "Why Should I Change a Thing '', was written for Warlow. Appearing as Annie in the Sydney production were Rachel Marley and Jodie McGaw. A publicist noted that "each time the show moves to a new city two casts of seven orphans plus two Annies have to be found to join the adult cast. ''
Further UK tours of the show were also staged, including a one - month run at The Theatre Royal in Lincoln in 2001. Members of the original cast included Kate Winney and Jemma Carlisle as Annie, Louise English (Grace), Vicki Michelle (Miss Hannigan) and Simon Masterton - Smith (Daddy Warbucks). The show proved to be a success, and so for the first two tours and the Malaysian Genting Highlands Production, the role of Annie was then shared by Faye Spittlehouse and a young Lucy May Barker. Miss Hannigan was late performed by Sue Pollard and Ruth Madoc and Daddy Warbucks by Mark Wynter. This particular production toured from 2001 -- 2007 and resumed in September 2008. The last tour of this production ended in 2011 with the role of Miss Hannigan still Su Pollard, David McAlister as Daddy Warbucks, Victoria Sian Lewis as Annie, and Simone Craddock as Grace Farrell.
Starting in August 2005, a 30th anniversary traveling production of Annie by NETworks Tours embarked on a multi-city tour. This production was directed by Martin Charnin. For the first year of the tour, Conrad John Schuck played Daddy Warbucks, Alene Robertson was Miss Hannigan and Annie was played by Marissa O'Donnell. Throughout the run of the show, there were a couple of replacements, including Amanda Balon, who took over as Molly. For the 2nd year of the tour, Annie was played by Marissa O'Donnell again. This Equity Tour closed on March 25, 2007, at the Hippodrome Theatre in Baltimore, Maryland. The 2007 -- 08 tour starred Amanda Balon as Annie. The 2008 -- 09 cast for the tour featured Tianna Stevens as Annie. Early in 2009, Amanda Balon returned temporarily to play the role of Annie until Madison Kerth was rehearsed to play the title role. Also returning were Barton, Andrews and Meisner. Other cast members included Mackenzie Aladjem (Molly). In the 2009 -- 10 tour, Kerth returned as Annie along with most of the previous year 's cast, adding Jordan Boezem (from Spotlight Kids in Sarasota, Fl) in the role of July.
A 35th Anniversary production opened on Broadway in 2012. Thomas Meehan revised the musical, with James Lapine directing. Lilla Crawford starred as Annie with Katie Finneran as Miss Hannigan, and Anthony Warlow playing "Daddy '' Warbucks. Featured cast includes Brynn O'Malley, Clarke Thorell and J. Elaine Marcos as Grace Farrell, Rooster and Lily St. Regis (respectively). The revival started previews at the Palace Theatre on October 3, 2012, and officially opened on November 8, 2012 receiving mostly mixed reviews. Notable replacements include Jane Lynch and Faith Prince as Miss Hannigan. On July 30, Taylor Richardson and Sadie Sink both began alternating the role of Annie, replacing Crawford. This production closed on January 5, 2014, after 38 previews and 487 regular performances.
Starting in September 2014, a 40th anniversary traveling production of Annie was launched by TROIKA Entertainment. Directed by Martin Charnin, the tour kicked off in Detroit, Michigan. For the first year of the tour, Issie Swickle played the title character alongside Gilgamesh Tagget and Lynn Andrews as Oliver Warbucks and Miss Hannigan respectively. There were many replacements throughout the tour, and by the end Gilgamesh Tagget was the only remaining original member. For most of the second year of the tour, Heidi Gray played the red head. For the third and final year of the tour Tori Bates played Annie and became the first bi-racial Annie in a professional production. The 40th Anniversary performance was celebrated in Baltimore, Maryland on April 21, 2017 with Angelina Carballo as Annie. The tour came to a close in Boston, Massachusetts on May 21, 2017 after 745 performances.
A West End revival began at the Piccadilly Theatre in London opening on 5 June 2017 (previews beginning 23 May) for a limited run until 6 January 2018. Miranda Hart will make her musical debut as Miss Hannigan until 17 September, the production will be directed by Nikolai Foster and produced by Michael Harrison and David Ian. The production will be identical to the 2015 -- 16 UK and Ireland tour. The 3 girls who are sharing the main role are Madeleine Haynes (reprising her the role from the UK tour), Lola Moxom and Ruby Stokes. From 19 September, for a limited 10 week run, Craig Revel Horwood returned to the role of Miss Hannigan, reprising his role from the 2015 -- 16 UK and Ireland tour. Due to phenomenal success at the box office, the production extended its limited run, with Meera Syal as Miss Hannigan from 27 November, through to the show 's conclusion on 18 February 2018, when it will close to make way for the musical adaptation of Strictly Ballroom.
Annie has been produced professionally in Argentina (1982), Australia (1978, 2000, 2011, 2012), Denmark (1982), Germany (1999), Hungary (1998), Ireland (2003, 2016), Israel (2001, 2010), Italy (1982, 2006), Japan (1979, 1986, 2004, 2010, 2012), United Kingdom (1978, 1983, 1998, tours from 2000 -- 2010), Mexico (1979, 1991, 2010, 2015), Netherlands (1997 -- 1999, 2005 -- 2007, 2012 -- 2013), Norway (1991, 2004, 2013), Philippines (1978, 1987, 1998, 2016), Portugal (1982,, 2010), Spain (1982, 2000, 2010), Sweden (1979 (Stockholm), 1999 (Stockholm), 2005 -- 2006 (Malmö)), Peru (1986, 1997, 2002), Zimbabwe (2003), Russia (2002 -- 2009), Colombia (2006), Belgium (1992, 2008 -- 2009, 2012), Poland (1989), North America (1978, 2003), United Arab Emirates 2009 (Dubai), Denmark (2011), Puerto Rico (2012), Singapore (2012), Greece (2013).
Indicates the production made an official cast recording.
In Japan, a special demo recording of selected songs is made each year, with the new actress playing Annie.
In Ireland, in the 2016 production, the actresses playing Annie and Molly (Aoife McNamara & Simone McInerney) alternated between the roles.
The first attempt at a sequel, Annie 2: Miss Hannigan 's Revenge, opened at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C. in December 1989 to universally disastrous reviews. Extensive reworking of the script and score proved futile, and the project ended before reaching Broadway.
In 1993, a second attempt (with a similar plot and score) entitled Annie Warbucks was developed in a workshop at the Goodspeed Opera House under the direction of Michael P. Price where the original Annie enjoyed its world premier in 1976. It subsequently opened at the Off Broadway Variety Arts Theatre, where it ran for 200 performances.
† This number was added as a showcase for Nell Carter in the 1997 Broadway revival. It has not appeared in any subsequent productions. ‡ This number was added as a showcase for Anthony Warlow in a 2000 Australian production, and has since become an optional part of the show, as it notably did not appear in the 2012 Broadway revival, also starring Warlow.
The Original Broadway Cast recording was released in 1977; a CD containing bonus tracks was released on September 15, 1998 by Sony (ASIN: B00000AG6Z). The 1995 London studio cast recording, featuring the National Symphony Orchestra, stars Sarah French as Annie, Kim Criswell as Miss Hannigan and Ron Raines as Daddy Warbucks.
A 30th anniversary cast recording was released in 2008 on Time -- Life Records. An all - star cast of former Annie cast members includes Carol Burnett, Sally Struthers, Kathie Lee Gifford, Andrea McArdle, John Schuck, Harve Presnell, Gary Beach and Amanda Balon. The rest of the cast is made up of the members of the 30th Anniversary Tour. This recording is a double CD set and includes the entire show as it is performed now on the first disc. The second one includes songs from the sequel, "Annie 2: Miss Hannigan 's Revenge '' as well as songs that were cut from or added to the original production. There is also a song from the 1977 Annie Christmas special. The booklet is made up of original drawings by Philo Barnhart, who is the creator of Ariel and Ursula in "The Little Mermaid '', and is presented in a comic book style.
In 1980, Macmillan Books published Meehan 's novelisation of his script for the musical, later reprinted by Puffin Books in 2014. Several of the lyrics from songs from the show were adapted into dialogue and monologue for the novelisation, not least Tomorrow whose main lyric is depicted as being Annie 's personal motto. Meehan used the novel to restore material cut from his original storyline and develop the Annie story into his original concept of what he considered to be a 20th Century American version of Charles Dickens ' Oliver Twist, albeit with a female rather than male orphan as the protagonist.
The novel goes into greater depth regarding the backgrounds of many of the characters and particularly about hardship at the orphanage, at which brutal beatings and emotional abuse from Miss Hannigan are everyday occurrences. Unlike the high camp portrayal of Miss Hannigan in most productions of the musical, the novelisation -- in the tradition of Dickens ' original novel of Oliver Twist -- emphatically depicts her as a truly sinister and malevolent villainess -- "a skinny hatchet faced woman with short jet - black hair (who) reminded the orphans of a particularly unpleasant looking -- and all too real -- Halloween witch ''.
A greater emphasis is placed on the sheer drudgery and illegality of the orphans ' sewing labours in the orphanage basement. However, whereas in the musical the orphans are not enrolled in school until the final scene, in the novelisation they attend a public school, PS62, where they suffer from snobbery from teachers and harassment from non-orphan pupils, particularly from a spoiled rich girl named Myrtle Vandenmeer. The legal name of Rooster 's girlfriend Lily St Regis is given in the book as being Muriel Jane Gumper.
In the novel, Annie spends several months on the run from the orphanage, initially spending the winter as resident staff in Bixby 's Beanery, a low - grade café run by couple Fred and Gert Bixby, before escaping after she finds Sandy. She then spends several months living in the Hooverville with Sophie and the Apple Seller (who is named as G. Randall "Randy '' Whitworth Jr, a former stockbroker left destitute by the Depression) who, in the novelisation, are adult characters and a couple. It is revealed at the end that Randy, Sophie and all the other Hoovervillites had been released from prison and given jobs and homes by Warbucks as gratitude for taking care of Annie. Also reappearing at the end of the book is Sandy, previously written out of the book while fleeing police during the raid on the Hooverville, who it transpires was successfully traced by agents from Pinkerton hired by Warbucks.
A second novelisation of Annie, by Leonore Fleischer, was published by Random House in 1982. This was a tie - in with the film and was adapted directly from the screenplay.
The Columbia Pictures film was released in 1982, starring Albert Finney as Daddy Warbucks, Carol Burnett as Miss Hannigan, Ann Reinking as Grace Farrell, Tim Curry as Rooster, Bernadette Peters as Lily, and newcomer Aileen Quinn as Annie. A sequel, Annie: A Royal Adventure! was made for television in 1995. It starred Ashley Johnson, Joan Collins, George Hearn, and Ian McDiarmid. Aside from a reprise of "Tomorrow '', there are no songs in it.
A made - for - TV Wonderful World of Disney movie version, produced by The Walt Disney Company and directed by Rob Marshall, was broadcast in 1999; it starred Victor Garber as Daddy Warbucks, Kathy Bates as Miss Hannigan, Audra McDonald as Grace Farrell, Alan Cumming as Rooster, Kristin Chenoweth as Lily, and newcomer Alicia Morton as Annie.
A documentary film, Life After Tomorrow, was directed and produced by one of the original Broadway and National Tour orphans, Julie Stevens and partner, Gil Cates Jr. It reunites more than 40 women who played orphans in the show and reveals the highs and lows of their experiences as child actresses in a cultural phenomenon. The film premiered on Showtime and was released on DVD in 2008.
In January 2011, Will Smith announced plans for a redux of Annie set in the present day, produced with his wife Jada Pinkett Smith and rapper Jay - Z for release by Columbia Pictures, now owned by Sony Pictures Entertainment. This version was to star the Smiths ' daughter, Willow, as Annie; as she had aged out of the part before production began, she was replaced by Academy Award - nominated actress Quvenzhané Wallis. Directed by Will Gluck and released on December 19, 2014, this version of Annie also stars Jamie Foxx as Will Stacks (an update of Daddy Warbucks), Rose Byrne as Grace Farrell, and Cameron Diaz as Miss Hannigan. The film 's song score includes most of the original musical 's songs plus new compositions produced by Greg Kurstin and Sia.
Annie Jr. is a musical licensed by Music Theatre International 's Broadway Junior collection, specially edited to be performed by youngsters in a shortened version. It is performed internationally every year by acting academies, programs, schools, and theatre camps. MTI also licenses another youth version of the show, called Annie KIDS, a 30 - minute length version meant for elementary school aged performers.
The songs "We 'd Like to Thank You Herbert Hoover '', "A New Deal for Christmas '', "Something Was Missing '' and "Tomorrow (Cabinet Reprise) '' were cut. There is only one version of "You 're Never Fully Dressed Without a Smile '', which is sung by the orphans. Also, there are only two "Maybe '' reprises. The song "You wo n't Be an Orphan For Long '' only features Annie and Daddy Warbucks. The songs "Easy Street '' and "Little Girls '' were also shortened.
Annie 's popularity is reflected in its numerous mentions in popular media. References to the show appear in films such as Austin Powers: Goldmember, where Dr. Evil and Mini-Me perform Jay - Z 's version of the song ' Hard Knock Life '; and in the 1994 John Waters dark comedy Serial Mom, where a woman is bludgeoned to death with a leg of mutton by the titular serial killer while watching the 1982 film version and singing along. It is parodied in Reefer Madness, where President Franklin D. Roosevelt shows up as the deus ex machina at the end of the satirical musical to tell the assembled crowd, "A little orphan girl once told me that the sun would come out tomorrow. Her adopted father was a powerful billionaire, so I suppressed the urge to laugh in her face, but now, by gum, I think she may have been on to something! ''
References in television series include:
The song "Tomorrow '' is sung in many media references, including by Joe 's aunt in a scene in the film You 've Got Mail; in Dave, by Kevin Kline and Sigourney Weaver; by Lewis on The Drew Carey Show; by Jane Krakowski in the fourth season of Ally McBeal; in Roseanne, by Darlene and Becky; by Reese Witherspoon in Just Like Heaven; by Donkey in the CGI movies Shrek II (although he passes out halfway through the second line) and Shrek Forever After when he is pulling the witches ' cart to Rumpelstiltskin with an unconscious Shrek inside after making the deal with Rumpelstiltskin; in a commercial for Lowe 's Hardware promoting their next - day delivery; by the Royle Family in the episode "The Queen of Sheba '' of the eponymous series; by contestant Teresa Cooper on an episode of Survivor: Africa; in a Duel Masters episode, it is recited by Shobu; by Marta in School Of Rock; in Like Mike, by a couple hoping to be Calvin 's adoptive parents; and in Addams Family Values. In the Ugly Betty episode "Lose the Boss '' the song can be heard playing in the bedroom of Justin Suarez after he was sent there for fighting in school. Pastiche versions of the song are sung in the Disney theme park attraction It 's Tough to be a Bug! and in the Rooms To Go next - day delivery ad campaign. The long - running Broadway parody production of Forbidden Broadway took up "Tomorrow '' as sung by an adult Annie ("I 'm thirty years old... tomorrow '') pleading for a sequel to the original musical.
The climax of the animated film Igor involved a giant robot portraying Annie.
Other prominent media references include the following:
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when did the north west territories join confederation | History of British Columbia - wikipedia
British Columbia is the westernmost province of Canada. Originally politically constituted as a pair of British colonies, British Columbia joined the Canadian Confederation on July 20, 1871. Perhaps the most influential historian of British Columbia has been Margaret Ormsby. In British Columbia: A History (1958) she presented a structural model that has been adopted by numerous historians and teachers. Chad Reimer says, "in many aspects, it still has not been surpassed ''. Ormsby posited a series of propositions that provided the dynamic to the history:
the ongoing pull between maritime and continental forces; the opposition between a "closed '', hierarchical model of society represented by the Hudson 's Bay Company and colonial officials, and the "open '', egalitarian vision of English and Canadian settlers; and regional tensions between Vancouver Island and mainland, metropolitan Vancouver and the hinterland interior.
Human history in what has come to be known as British Columbia dates back thousands of years. Archaeology has identified dates in British Columbia as early as 13,500 years ago, with some exciting potential for underwater sites beginning to be detected.
The geography of the land influenced cultural development of the peoples - and in places, allowed for cultural development of permanent villages, complex social institutions and a huge range of languages. BC is divided by anthropological theory into three cultural areas - the Northwest Coast, The Plateau and the North. First Nations in each area developed customs and approaches to living that fit the resources in the region. Through much of British Columbia salmon are available and formed a substantial part of the diet where available. The term pre-contact is used to describe the time period prior to contact between First Nations and European explorers. The precise time of contact varied according to circumstance but took place on the coast between the 1770s and 1800. In places in the Interior it occurred later.
British Columbia, before the arrival of the Europeans, was home to many Indigenous peoples speaking more than 30 different languages, including Babine - Witsuwit'en, Danezaa (Beaver), Carrier, Chilcotin, Gitxsan, Haida, Halkomelem, Kaska, Kutenai, Lillooet, Nisga'a, Nuu - chah - nulth, Nuxalk, Sekani, Shuswap, Sinixt, Squamish, Tagish, Tahltan, Thompson, Tlingit, Tsetsaut, and Tsimshian. There was frequent contact between bands and voyages across the Strait of Georgia and the Strait of Juan de Fuca were common.
The abundance of natural resources, such as salmon and cedar, enabled the development of a complex hierarchical society within coastal communities. With so much food being available, the peoples of the coastal regions could focus their time on other pursuits such as art, politics, and warfare.
The first visitors to present - day British Columbia were Spanish sailors and other European sailors who sailed for the Spanish crown. There is some evidence that the Greek - born Juan de Fuca, who sailed for Spain and explored the West coast of North America in the 1590s, might have reached the passageway between Washington State and Vancouver Island -- today known as the Strait of Juan de Fuca (citation needed). (A later British explorer named Charles William Barkley named the passage after Juan de Fuca 's reputed visit.)
There is actually no evidence that Juan de Fuca arrived in British Columbia. He invented a popular fiction known as the Strait of Ainan in 1560, which captured the minds of Europeans looking for a quick, direct route from Europe to China (I will not delete it as future Wiki readers can read and understand the controversy over this issue). This became known as the Northwest Passage, a dangerous sea - ice covered route through the Arctic Circle which only ninety - four boats have ever made after the great Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen 's three - year expedition from 1903 - 1906. The Spanish and the British sent several expeditions to find this semi-mythical Northwest Passage, including Juan de Fuca 's 1779 expedition and James Cook 's 1778 expedition. If Juan de Fuca were to be believed, he would have crossed the Arctic Ocean in 1560. While Europeans knew about the Northwest Passage, with John Cabot 's failed 1479 expedition being the first attempt to pass it which ultimately lead to the explorer 's death. This is further complicated by the fact that controversy exists as to whether or not Juan de Fuca was even a real person, with some scholars doubting that he actually exists Juan de Fuca # Controversy.
There is not much evidence to suggest that European traders and explorers regularly came to present - day British Columbia in the 17th century. The first recorded discovery of British Columbia was by James Cook in 1778.
The arrival of Europeans began to intensify in the mid-18th century, as fur traders entered the area to harvest sea otters. While there is a theory and some evidence that Sir Francis Drake may have explored the British Columbia Coast in 1579, it is conventionally claimed that it was Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra who completed the first documented voyage, which took place in 1775 (citation needed). In doing so, Quadra reasserted the Spanish claim for the whole of the Pacific coast, first made by Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513, who declared the whole of the Pacific and its shores as part of the Spanish Empire. Quadra sailed over Sonora Reef, named after his boat, on Destruction Island in 1775. His crew were murdered by the cannibal natives on the beach, and they attempted to board his ship until his crew destroyed them with cannon - fire. Quadra left the coast of Washington and sailed to Sitka, Alaska, but he did not make landfall or "discover '' British Columbia. It was not until Captain James Cook 's doomed third expedition that British Columbia was discovered when he anchored in Friendly Cove, modern - day Nootka Sound.
In 1774, the Spanish navigator Juan José Pérez Hernández, a native of Mexico, sailed from San Blas, Nueva Galicia (modern - day Nayarit), with instructions to reach 60 ° north latitude to discover possible Russian settlements and take possession of the lands for the Spanish Crown. Hernández reached 55 ° north latitude, becoming the first European to sight the Queen Charlotte Islands and Vancouver Island. He traded with the natives near Estevan Point, although apparently without landing. The expedition was forced to return to Nueva Galicia, due to the lack of provisions.
Since Pérez Hernández 's first expedition failed to achieve its objective, the Spanish organized a second expedition in 1775 with the same goal. This expedition was commanded by Bruno de Heceta on board the Santiago, piloted by Pérez Hernández, and accompanied by Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra in La Sonora. After illnesses, storms, and other troubles had affected the expedition, de Heceta returned to Nueva Galicia, while Quadra kept on a northward course, ultimately reaching 59 ° North in what today is Sitka, Alaska. During this expedition, the Spanish made sure to land several times and formally claim the lands for the Spanish Crown, while verifying the absence of Russian settlements along the coast (citation needed). Three years later, in 1778, the British Royal Navy Captain James Cook arrived in the region, searching for the Northwest Passage, and successfully landed at Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island, where he and his crew traded with the Nuu - chah - nulth First Nation. Upon trading his goods for sea otter pelts, his crew in turn traded them for an enormous profit in Macau on their way back to Britain. This led to an influx of traders to the British Columbian coast, and ongoing economic contact with the aboriginal peoples there.
In 1788, John Meares, an English navigator and explorer, sailed from China and explored Nootka Sound and the neighbouring coasts. He bought some land from a local chief named Maquinna and built a trading post there.
Two years later, in 1789, the Spanish commander Esteban José Martínez, a native of Seville, established a settlement and started building a fort in Friendly Cove, Nootka Sound, which was named Fort San Miguel. This territory was already considered as part of New Spain by the Spanish due to the previous explorations of the region. Upon Martinez 's arrival, a number of British ships were seized, including those of Captain Meares. This originated the Nootka Crisis, which almost led to a war between Britain and Spain. The controversy resulted in the abandonment of the Nootka Sound settlement by the Spanish. Some months later, Manuel Antonio Flores, Viceroy of New Spain, ordered a Francisco de Eliza to rebuild the fort. The expedition, composed of three ships, the Concepción, under the command of De Eliza, the San Carlos, under the command of Salvador Fidalgo and the Princesa Real, under the command of Manuel Quimper, sailed in early 1790 from San Blas in Nueva Galicia and arrived at Nootka Sound in April of that year. The expedition had many Catalan volunteers from the First Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia, commanded by Pere d'Alberní, a native of Tortosa. The expedition rebuilt the fort, which had been dismantled after Martínez abandoned it. The rebuilt fort included several defensive constructions as well as a vegetable garden to ensure the settlement had food supplies. The Catalan volunteers left the fort in 1792 and Spanish influence in the region ended in 1795 after the Nootka Convention came into force.
Subsequently, European explorer - merchants from the east started to discover British Columbia. Three figures dominate in the early history of mainland British Columbia: Sir Alexander Mackenzie, Simon Fraser, and David Thompson. As employees of the North West Company, the three were primarily concerned with discovering a practicable river route to the Pacific, specifically via the Columbia River, for the extension of the fur trade. In 1793, Mackenzie became the first European to reach the Pacific overland north of the Rio Grande. He and his crew entered the region through the Rocky Mountains via the Peace River, reaching the ocean at North Bentinck Arm, near present - day Bella Coola. Shortly thereafter, Mackenzie 's companion, John Finlay, founded the first permanent European settlement in British Columbia, Fort St. John, located at the junction of the Beatton and Peace Rivers.
Simon Fraser was the next to try to find the course of the Columbia. During his expedition of 1805 - 09, Fraser and his crew, including John Stuart, explored much of the British Columbia interior, establishing several forts (Hudson 's Hope, Trout Lake Fort, Fort George, Fort Fraser, and Fort St. James). Fraser 's expedition took him down the river that now bears his name, to the site of present - day Vancouver. Although both Mackenzie and Fraser reached the Pacific, they found the routes they took impassable for trade. It was David Thompson who found the Columbia River and followed it down to its mouth in 1811. He was unable to establish a claim, however, for the American explorers Lewis and Clark had already claimed the territory for the United States of America six years earlier. The American Fur Company of John Jacob Astor had founded Fort Astoria just months before Thompson arrived, though within a year the local staff at Astoria sold the fort and others in the region to the North West Company, which renamed it Fort George. Though "returned '' to US hands as a result of treaty complications at the end of the War of 1812, this meant only there was a parallel US fort adjacent to the NWC one, which was the more prosperous of the two. Following the forced merger of the North West Company and Hudson 's Bay Company in 1821, Fort Vancouver was established as the new regional headquarters.
Although technically a part of British North America, British Columbia was largely run by the Hudson 's Bay Company after its merger with the North West Company in 1821. The Central Interior of the region was organized into the New Caledonia District, a name that came to be generally attributed to the mainland as a whole. It was administered from Fort St. James, about 150 km northwest of present - day Prince George. The Interior south of the Thompson River and north of California was named by the company the Columbia District, and was administered first from Fort Vancouver (present day Vancouver, Washington).
Throughout the 1820s and 1830s, the HBC controlled nearly all trading operations in the Pacific Northwest, based out of the company headquarters at Fort Vancouver on the Columbia River. Although authority over the region was nominally shared by the United States and Britain through the Anglo - American Convention of 1818, company policy, enforced via Chief Factor John McLoughlin of the company 's Columbia District, was to discourage any settlement, including US settlement, of the territory. The company 's effective monopoly on trade virtually forbade any settlement in the region. It established Fort Boise in 1834 (in present - day southwestern Idaho) to compete with the American Fort Hall, 483 km (300 mi) to the east. In 1837, it purchased Fort Hall, also along the route of the Oregon Trail, where the outpost director displayed the abandoned wagons of discouraged settlers to those seeking to move west along the trail.
Fort Vancouver was the nexus for the fur trade on the Pacific Coast; its influence reached from the Rocky Mountains to the Hawaiian Islands, and from Alaska into Mexican - controlled California. At its pinnacle, Fort Vancouver watched over 34 outposts, 24 ports, six ships, and 600 employees. Also, for many primarily American settlers the fort became the last stop on the Oregon Trail as they could get supplies before starting their homestead.
By 1843 the Hudson 's Bay Company operated numerous posts in the Columbia Department, including Fort Vancouver, Fort George (Astoria), Fort Nisqually, Fort Umpqua, Fort Langley, Fort Colville, Fort Okanogan, Fort Kamloops, Fort Alexandria, Flathead Post, Kootanae House, Fort Boise, Fort Hall, Fort Simpson, Fort Taku, Fort McLoughlin (in Milbanke Sound), Fort Stikine, as well as a number of others.
A very high degree of linguistic variation occurs in BC; a response to this was the development of a trade jargon, Chinook Jargon. Not a complete language, it was used in trade, governance and some early writings, for example hymns.
By 1811 John Jacob Astor had founded Astoria, and ten years later the Hudson 's Bay Company had established itself on the Columbia. In the meantime the explorers and traders had been coming by land. Somewhere and sometime during this period the existence of the (Chinook) Jargon became known. All the Indians talked it to each other and resorted to it in their conversations with the whites. Knowledge of this trade language became a necessary part of the trader 's equipment.
Fort Victoria was established as a trading post in 1843, both as a means to protect HBC interests, as well as to assert British claims to Vancouver Island and the adjacent Gulf Islands. The Gulf Islands and Strait of Juan de Fuca are the access point to Puget Sound as well as a fall back position in preparation for the "worst case '' scenario settlement of the dispute, in the face of manifest destiny. Increasing numbers of American settlers arriving on the Oregon Trail gave rise to the Oregon boundary dispute. The Hudson 's Bay Company dominated and controlled all territory north of the Columbia River. The British position was that a fair division of the Columbia District was a boundary at the Columbia River.
In 1844, the United States Democratic Party asserted that the U.S. had a legitimate claim to the entire Columbia District or Oregon Country, but President James Polk was prepared to draw the border along the 49th parallel, the longstanding U.S. proposal. When the British rejected this offer, Polk broke off negotiations, and American expansionists reasserted the claim, coining slogans (most famously "Fifty - Four Forty or Fight! ''). With the outbreak of the Mexican - American War diverting attention and resources, Polk was again prepared to compromise. The Oregon boundary dispute was settled in the 1846 Treaty of Washington. The terms of the agreement established the border between British North America and the United States at the 49th parallel from the Rocky Mountains to the sea, the original American proposal, with all of Vancouver Island retained as British territory.
This effectively destroyed the geographical logic of the HBC 's Columbia Department, since the lower Columbia River was the core and lifeline of the system. The U.S. soon organized its portion as the Oregon Territory. The administrative headquarters of fur operations, and of the Columbia Department, then shifted north to Fort Victoria, which had been founded by James Douglas.
In 1849, the Crown Colony of Vancouver Island was created; and in 1851, James Douglas was appointed Governor. Douglas, known as the father of British Columbia, established colonial institutions in Victoria. He started the process of expanding the economic base of the new colony by signing 14 treaties between 1850 -- 1854 to purchase land for settlement and industrial development (coal deposits were known by the HWBC in the vicinities of Nanaimo and Fort Rupert). Subsequent native population crashes later in the 19th century along with economic upheaval and native wars allowed his political successors to be much less consistent with British principles, treaties, and laws.
Meanwhile, on the mainland, New Caledonia continued to focus on the fur trade with few non-native inhabitants (mostly HBC employees and their families) under the administrative oversight of Douglas, who was also the HBC 's regional chief executive. The Hudson 's Bay Company like the previous French colony and North West Company of Montreal still officially discouraged settlement because it interfered with the lucrative fur trade. The fur trade was a mutually beneficial relationship between the local HBC trading fort and adjacent native tribes. American expansion and control of territory was predicated primarily by settlement of the land not commercial relationships with the existing local population. The British made virtually no effort to assert sovereignty over the aboriginal peoples of the area. In accordance with the Royal Proclamation of 1763, large - scale settlement by non-aboriginal people was prohibited until the lands were surrendered by treaty.
In 1858, gold was found along the banks of the Thompson River just east of what is now Lytton, British Columbia, triggering the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. When word got out to San Francisco about gold in British territory, Victoria was transformed overnight into a tent city as prospectors, speculators, land agents, and outfitters flooded in from around the world, mostly via San Francisco. The Hudson 's Bay Company 's Fort Langley burgeoned economically as the staging point for many of the prospectors heading by boat to the Canyon.
A wide range of linguistic diversity among First Nations and explorers / traders made communication difficult. Trade jargon, initially used by First Nations expanded and changed to include words from English and French to become the Chinook Jargon. Not a complete language, the jargon became widespread among First Nations and early Europeans to enable communication and trade. Though little used today a significant number of place names in British Columbia deprive from Chinook and early anthropologists sometimes recorded stories using the jargon.
At the time, the region was still not under formal colonial authority. Douglas, fearing challenges to the claim of British sovereignty in the region in the face of an influx of some 20,000 Americans, stationed a gunboat at the mouth of the Fraser in order to obtain license fees from those seeking to head upstream. The resolution of the Oregon Boundary Dispute whereby British interests, primarily the HBC, lost governance of all territory between the 49th Parallel and the Columbia River due to a sudden influx of American settlers 8 years previous.
When news of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush reached London, the Colonial Office established the mainland as a Crown colony on August 2, 1858, naming it the Colony of British Columbia. Richard Clement Moody was hand - picked by the Colonial Office, under Sir Edward Bulwer - Lytton, to establish British order and to transform the newly established Colony of British Columbia (1858 -- 66) into the British Empire 's "bulwark in the farthest west '' and "found a second England on the shores of the Pacific ''. Lytton desired to send to the colony ' representatives of the best of British culture, not just a police force ': he sought men who possessed ' courtesy, high breeding and urbane knowledge of the world ' and he decided to send Moody, whom the Government considered to be the archetypal ' English gentleman and British Officer ' at the head of the Columbia Detachment, which was created by an Act of the British Parliament on 2 August 1858. The Engineers were believed to exemplify the qualities sought by the Government.
Moody arrived in British Columbia in December 1858, commanding the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment. He was sworn in as the first Lieutenant - Governor of British Columbia and appointed Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works for British Columbia. On the advice of Lytton, Moody hired Robert Burnaby as his personal secretary, and the two became close friends.
Moody had hoped to begin immediately the foundation of a capital city, but upon his arrival at Fort Langley he learned of an outbreak of violence at the settlement of Hill 's Bar. This led to an incident popularly known as "Ned McGowan 's War '', where Moody led 22 Engineers and Judge Matthew Baillie Begbie to Yale to face down a group of rebellious American miners. Order was restored without further strict pain.
In British Columbia, Moody ' wanted to build a city of beauty in the wilderness ' and planned his city as an iconic visual metaphor for British dominance, ' styled and located with the objective of reinforcing the authority of the Crown and of the robe '. Subsequent to the enactment of the Pre-emption Act of 1860, Moody settled the Lower Mainland. He selected the site and founded the new capital, New Westminster. He selected the site due to the strategic excellence of its position and the quality of its port. He was also struck by the majestic beauty of the site, writing in his letter to Blackwood,
"The entrance to the Frazer is very striking -- Extending miles to the right & left are low marsh lands (apparently of very rich qualities) & yet fr the Background of Superb Mountains -- Swiss in outline, dark in woods, grandly towering into the clouds there is a sublimity that deeply impresses you. Everything is large and magnificent, worthy of the entrance to the Queen of England 's dominions on the Pacific mainland. (...) My imagination converted the silent marshes into Cuyp - like pictures of horses and cattle lazily fattening in rich meadows in a glowing sunset. (...) The water of the deep clear Frazer was of a glassy stillness, not a ripple before us, except when a fish rose to the surface or broods of wild ducks fluttered away ''.
Moody designed the first Coat of arms of British Columbia.
However, Lord Lytton ' forgot the practicalities of paying for clearing and developing the site and the town ' and the efforts of Moody 's Engineers were continuous hampered by insufficient funds, which, together with the continuous opposition of Douglas, ' made it impossible for (Moody 's) design to be fulfilled '.
Throughout his tenure in British Columbia, Richard Clement Moody was engaged in a bitter feud with Sir James Douglas, Governor of Vancouver Island, whose jurisdiction overlapped with his own. Moody 's position as Chief Commissioner and Lieutenant - Governor was one of ' higher prestige (and) lesser authority ' than that of Douglas, despite Moody 's vastly superior social position in the eyes of the Engineers and the British Government: Moody had been selected by Lord Lytton due to his possession of the quality of the "archetypal English gentleman and British Officer '', his family was "eminently respectable '': he was the son of Colonel Thomas Moody (1779 - 1849), one of the wealthiest mercantilists in the West Indies, who owned much of the land in the islands where Douglas 's father owned a small amount of land and from which Douglas 's mother, "a half - breed '', originated. Governor Douglas 's ethnicity and made him ' an affront to Victorian society '. Mary Moody, the descendant of the Hawks industrial dynasty and the Boyd merchant banking family, wrote on 4 August 1859 "it is not pleasant to serve under a Hudson 's Bay Factor '' and that the "Governor and Richard can never get on ''. In letter to the Colonial Office of 27 December 1858, Richard Clement Moody boasts that he has ' entirely disarmed (Douglas) of all jealously '' Douglas repeatedly insulted the Engineers by attempting to assume their command and refusing to acknowledge their value in the nascent colony
Margaret A. Ormsby, author of the Dictionary of Canadian Biography entry for Moody (2002), condemns Moody for a contribution to the abortive development of the city. However, most other historians have exonerated Moody for the abortive development of the city and consider his achievement to be impressive, especially with regard to the perpetual insufficiency of funds and the personally motivated opposition of Douglas, whose opposition to the project continually retarded its development. Robert Edgar Cail, Don W. Thomson, Ishiguro, and Scott have praised Moody for his contribution, the latter accusing Ormsby of being ' adamant in her dislike of Colonel Moody ' despite the evidence, and almost all biographies of Moody, including those of the Institute of Civil Engineers, the Royal Engineers, and the British Columbia Historical Association, are flattering.
Moody and the Royal Engineers also built an extensive road network, including what would become Kingsway, connecting New Westminster to False Creek, the North Road between Port Moody and New Westminster, and the Cariboo Road and Stanley Park. He named Burnaby Lake after his private secretary Robert Burnaby and named Port Coquitlam 's 400 - foot "Mary Hill '' after his wife. As part of the surveying effort, several tracts were designated "government reserves '', which included Stanley Park as a military reserve (a strategic location in case of an American invasion). The Pre-emption act did not specify conditions for distributing the land, so large parcels were snapped up by speculators, including 3,750 acres (1,517 hectares) by Moody himself. For this he was criticized by local newspapermen for land grabbing. Port Moody is named after him. It was established at the end of a trail that connected New Westminster with Burrard Inlet to defend New Westminster from potential attack from the US.
By 1862, the Cariboo Gold Rush, attracting an additional 5000 miners, was underway, and Douglas hastened construction of the Great North Road (commonly known now as the Cariboo Wagon Road) up the Fraser Canyon to the prospecting region around Barkerville. By the time of this gold rush, the character of the colony was changing, as a more stable population of British colonists settled in the region, establishing businesses, opening sawmills, and engaging in fishing and agriculture. With this increased stability, objections to the colony 's absentee governor and the lack of responsible government began to be vocalised, led by the influential editor of the New Westminster British Columbian and future Premier, John Robson. A series of petitions requesting an assembly were ignored by Douglas and the colonial office until Douglas was eased out of office in 1864. Finally the colony would have both an assembly and a resident governor.
Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment was disbanded in July, 1863. The Moody family, only 22 men and 8 wives returned to England, while the rest, 130 sappers, elected to remain in BC. Scott contends that the departure of the Engineers ' doomed ' the development of the settlement and the fruition of Lord Lytton 's dream. Chartres Brew replaced Moody as land commissioner.
A second major gold rush in the Cariboo region of the colony occurred in 1861 - 64, in the midst of smaller ones, notably in the Omenica, Big Bend and on the Stikine. The influx of gold miners into B.C. 's economy led to the creation of basic infrastructure in B.C., most notably, the creation of the Cariboo Wagon Road which linked the Lower Mainland to the rich gold fields of Barkerville. However, the enormous costs of the road, and its predecessor the Douglas Road and services such as the Gold Escort, left B.C. in debt by the mid-1860s. In 1866, because of the massive debt left over from the gold rush, the mainland and Vancouver Island became one colony named British Columbia, with its capital in Victoria.
On Vancouver Island settlement and industrial development took place along the shorelines. For example, see the 19th century settlement in Comox or Colony of Vancouver Island.
In 1867, there were three options open: to continue as a British colony, to be annexed by the United States, or to confederate with the newly formed Dominion of Canada. In Britain, many Little Englanders expected, or even hoped, that its North American colonies would depart from the British Empire. Admiral Joseph Denman told the Admiralty that British Columbia did not deserve Royal Navy protection, and advised the British government to "divest herself of these possessions by any means consistent with honour ''. Secretary of State for the Colonies Lord Granville stated his wish that British North America "would propose to be independent and annex themselves ''. The Times ' view was the British consensus:
British Columbia is a long way off... With the exception of a limited official class it receives few immigrants from England, and a large proportion of its inhabitants consists of citizens of the United States who have entered it from the south. Suppose that the colonists met together and came to the conclusion that every natural motive of contiguity, similarity of interests, and facility of administration induced them to think it more convenient to slip into the Union than into the Dominion... We all know that we should not attempt to withstand them.
Financially, becoming officially part of the United States made sense since British Columbia was economically essentially a satellite of San Francisco -- the most important city of the entire American west and North America 's Pacific coast -- Washington, and Oregon, which provided all of the colony 's supplies despite a substantial American tariff. American currency circulated widely in the colony, whose nearest British neighbors were Red River 2,000 miles to the east, and Hong Kong to the west. San Francisco 's population in the 1860s exceeded 60,000, while Victoria 's never rose above 4,000. All mail from British Columbia went through San Francisco, forcing the colony 's post office to keep large amounts of American postage stamps. The opening of the American transcontinental railroad in 1869 made it possible to travel by ship from Victoria to San Francisco, then by train to Ottawa or Washington in just 24 days. With the gold now gone, most of the American miners had left, and the economic future did not look promising unless B.C. could join the very rapidly growing, rich economies of the Pacific states.
While American residents of British Columbia celebrated the United States ' purchase of Alaska in 1867, having American territory to their north and south caused British residents ' fears for the future of their colony to grow. Alaska was part of American Secretary of State William H. Seward 's plan to incorporate the entire northwest Pacific Coast, chiefly for the long - term commercial advantages to the United States in terms of Pacific trade. Seward believed that the people in British Columbia wanted annexation and that Britain would accept this in exchange for the Alabama claims. In the event, Seward dropped the idea of an exchange and accepted an arbitration plan that settled the Alabama claims for cash. When a false report circulated in April, soon after the Alaska news, that the British government was considering settling the claims by ceding the colony, a substantial annexation movement appeared supported by many residents and three of the colony 's six newspapers.
Anti-confederationists, who were not necessarily annexationists, were the majority on Vancouver Island. That said, annexationists argued that the colony would never be able to negotiate with the United States a free trade agreement similar to the Reciprocity Treaty of 1854, and that annexation would end the disadvantage of the American tariff. Most Canadian - born residents supported confederation with their land of origin but were not very popular, as many in the colony believed that they sent their money home instead of spending it in British Columbia as the American - born colonists did. Residents of the mainland almost unanimously supported confederation with the rest of British North America; they argued that this would benefit the colony as Canada would soon negotiate another reciprocity treaty. Many British - born colonists were on both sides.
Representative Nathaniel P. Banks of Massachusetts ' Annexation Bill of 1866 offered voluntary annexation to British North America, including territorial status for Vancouver Island and British Columbia together as the "territory of Columbia ''. The bill was unsuccessful, as was Senator Alexander Ramsey of Minnesota 's 1867 proposal that the United States, as part of another reciprocity treaty with Canada, offer $6 million to the Hudson 's Bay Company for the territory west of the 90th longitude. The US would assume British Columbia 's $2 million debt, and subsidize the Northern Pacific Railway to build a road to Puget Sound. Two American military officers, who travelled throughout British Columbia for two months while arranging for supply of occupation troops in Alaska, wrote a detailed report to Washington in November 1867 of their belief that a majority of residents supported annexation. They claimed that "(i) t did not become necessary in a single instance to broach the subject of the cession of that territory to the United States, for it was the constant theme of conversation ''. Employees of the Hudson 's Bay Company were said to be especially supportive, although they and many others could not make their opinion public because of fears of being denounced as disloyal. A majority of British Columbians never publicly supported American annexation, however, and support for joining Canada grew over time; in particular, annexationists failed to persuade the anti-confederation Hudson 's Bay Company officials and their friends that dominated Vancouver Island politics. Accusations that "American gold '' and "American greenbacks '' funded "renegade Englishmen '' likely hurt annexation support; whether the US officers ' belief of the existence of widespread covert support was correct, by October 1867 annexation no longer appeared as a topic in British Columbia newspapers or documents.
Until the Alaska Purchase and the new Dominion status (which were almost simultaneous), the British had been indifferent to the fate of British Columbia. London now paid attention, and realized the value of B.C. as a base for its imperial trade opportunities in the Pacific and the need of the Royal Navy for a station in the region. By 1868 public opinion was likely on the confederation side. Annexationists (or, at least, anti-confederationists) were in control of the Legislative Council of British Columbia, however, and in February 1869 passed a resolution opposing confederation; until his death the colonial governor, Frederick Seymour, also opposed confederation. Successor Anthony Musgrave supported confederation (after being unsuccessful in bringing Newfoundland into Canada) but due to an accident was delayed in his duties; meanwhile, annexation support revived during the winter of 1869 - 1870. One hundred four individuals, about one percent of the white population of the colony, signed an 1869 petition to President Ulysses S. Grant asking for annexation. While there is no reason to believe that they accurately represented the majority opinion, it is true that many colonists viewed Washington and London as equal competitors for British Columbia 's loyalty depending on who offered more incentives, while Ottawa was more foreign and less familiar.
In August 1869 Lord Granville communicated London 's new view of British Columbia when he wrote to Musgrave, "I have no hesitation in stating that (support of confederation) is also the opinion of Her Majesty 's Government. '' In February 1870 Musgrave successfully persuaded the Legislative Council to pass a resolution supporting confederation with Canada. Many British - born colonists now supported confederation as the best way to maintain a connection with Britain. By April the Victoria Colonist reported that a mass meeting in Victoria supported confederation while "the most vague hint in the direction of annexation was met with a howl of execration ''. Musgrave proposed an attractive plan for joining Canada, with the Dominion assuming the colony 's debt and building a new Canadian transcontinental railway that would eliminate the reliance on the American railroad. Meanwhile, the United States was so focused on issues of Reconstruction, that few Americans picked up on Seward 's grand dream to expand Manifest Destiny to the Pacific.
Both the depressed economic situation arising from the collapse of the gold rushes, as well as a desire for the establishment of truly responsible and representative government, led to enormous domestic pressure for British Columbia to join the Canadian Confederation, which had been proclaimed in 1867. The Confederation League, spearheaded by three future premiers of the province -- Amor De Cosmos, Robert Beaven, and John Robson -- took a leading role in pushing the colony towards this goal. And so it was on July 20, 1871, that British Columbia became the sixth province to join Canada. In return for entering Confederation, Canada absorbed B.C. 's massive debt, and promised to build a railway from Montreal to the Pacific coast within 10 years.
Contrary to popular belief British Columbia did not demand a transcontinental railroad as a condition of confederation; its delegates expected a wagon road, but John A. Macdonald 's national government proposed the railroad as a substitute, with Ottawa and London viewing it as a way of connecting not just British Columbia but the prairies with the rest of the British Empire. The promise of a railroad became, however, the most important reason for British Columbia to stay within Canada. The provincial legislature threatened to secede in 1878 because Macdonald 's successor Alexander Mackenzie, whose Liberal Party had opposed the railroad, attempted to modify the promise; Macdonald 's return to power that year likely kept British Columbia from departing Canada. In fulfillment of the promise, the last spike of the Canadian Pacific Railway was driven in Craigellachie on 7 November 1885. (No good road yet existed between British Columbia and other provinces; until the completion of the Trans - Canada Highway automobiles had to enter the United States to travel to eastern Canada.)
The mining frontier in B.C. led to the creation of many mines and smelters, mostly through American investment. One of the world 's largest smelters still exists today in Trail. The capital and work to be found in B.C. during the turn of the 19th century to the 20th century led to the creation of several new towns in B.C. such as Nelson, Nakusp, Slocan, Kimberley, Castlegar, Rossland, and Salmo. A large coal empire run by Robert Dunsmuir, and his son and later premier, James Dunsmuir also developed on Vancouver Island during this era.
As the economy on the mainland continued to improve as a result of improved transportation and increased settlement, other resource - based economic activity began to flourish. Throughout the latter half of the nineteenth century, fishing, forestry, and farming (including the planting of extensive orchards in the Okanagan region) became the "three F 's '' on which the new province built its economy -- a situation that persisted well into the late twentieth century.
With the booming economy came the expansion of the original fur trading posts into thriving communities (such as Victoria, Nanaimo, and Kamloops). It also led to the establishment of new communities, such as Yale, New Westminster, and -- most notably, though a latecomer -- Vancouver. The product of the consolidation of the burgeoning mill towns of Granville and Hastings Mill located near the mouth of the Fraser on Burrard Inlet in the later 1860s, Vancouver was incorporated in 1886 following its selection as the railhead for the Canadian Pacific Railway. Despite a devastating fire which all but wiped out the city three months later, Vancouver quickly became the largest city in the province, its ports conveying both the resource wealth of the province as well as that transported from the prairie provinces by rail, to markets overseas. Vancouver 's status as the principal city in the province has endured, augmented by growth in the surrounding municipalities of Richmond, Burnaby, Surrey, Delta, Coquitlam, and New Westminster. Today, Metro Vancouver is the third most populous metropolitan area in Canada, behind Toronto and Montreal.
It was also during this period where ethnic diversity began to develop significantly, as immigration was not fed entirely by European countries. Chinese and Japanese emigrants made many coastal settlements home, beginning in the 1850s, and became increasingly more pronounced in the 1880s.
Since the days of the fur trade, British Columbia 's economy has been based on natural resources, particularly fishing, logging and mining. From the canneries to the mills and mines, B.C. 's resource sector was increasingly the domain of large commercial interests.
With industrialization and economic growth, workers arrived to join in the seemingly boundless prosperity. Increasingly, these workers came from Asia as well as Europe. The mix of cultures and diversity was a source of strength, but also, often, of conflict. The early part of the 20th century was a time of great change and talk between immigrants and the First Nations, all of whom found their lives changing rapidly.
The dominance of the economy by big business was accompanied by an often militant labour movement. The first major sympathy strike was in 1903 when railway employees struck against the CPR for union recognition. Labour leader Frank Rogers was killed while picketing at the docks by CPR police during that strike, becoming the British Columbia movement 's first martyr. Canada 's first general strike occurred following the death of another labour leader, Ginger Goodwin, in 1918, at the Cumberland coal mines on Vancouver Island. A lull in industrial tensions through the later 1920s came to an abrupt end with the Great Depression. Most of the 1930s strikes were led by Communist Party organizers. That strike wave peaked in 1935 when unemployed men flooded the city to protest conditions in the relief camps run by the military in remote areas throughout the province. After two tense months of daily and disruptive protesting, the relief camp strikers decided to take their grievances to the federal government and embarked on the On - to - Ottawa Trek, but their commandeered train was met by a gatling gun at Hatzic, just east of Mission City, and the strikers arrested and interned in work camps for the duration of the Depression.
At the time that BC was settled the ideology of the British Empire, and of many of its colonial settlers was based on an assumption of superiority, often racial superiority based on the pseudo-science of Race. Racism and a desire to create a white colony were widespread. The scientific thinking of Charles Darwin was used to develop a theory of the races, which is today completely discredited - came to be known as Social Darwinism.
Under the ideology of Social Darwinism a series of restrictive laws were passed, by both federal and provincial levels of government. The Potlatch Ban outlawed First Nations cultural and spiritual practices, non-white people were denied the vote - specifically First Nations, Chinese and Japanese people were not eligible to vote.
During the 20th century, many immigrant groups arrived in British Columbia and today, Vancouver is the second most ethnically diverse city in Canada, only behind Toronto. In 1886, a head tax was imposed on the Chinese, which reached as much as $500 per person to enter Canada by 1904. By 1923 the government passed the Chinese Immigration Act, which prohibited all Chinese immigration until 1947. Sikhs had to face an amended Immigration Act in 1908 that required Sikhs to have $200 on arrival in Canada, and immigration would be allowed only if the passenger had arrived by continuous journey from India, which was impossible. Perhaps the most famous incident of anti-Sikh racism in B.C. was in 1914 when the Komagata Maru arrived in Vancouver harbour with 376 Sikhs aboard, of whom only 20 were allowed entry. The Komagata Maru spent two months in harbour while the Khalsa Society went through the courts to appeal their case. The Khalsa Society also kept the passengers on the Komagata Maru alive during those two months. When the case was lost, HMCS Rainbow, a Royal Canadian Navy cruiser, escorted the Komagata Maru out to sea while thousands of Caucasians cheered from the seawall of Stanley Park.
During the Second World War, security concerns following the bombing of Pearl Harbor and Canada 's entry into the war versus Japan led to controversial measures. The local Japanese - Canadian population was openly discriminated against, being put in internment camps. The Pacific Coast Militia Rangers were formed in 1942 in order to provide an armed presence on the coast in addition to the pre-war fortress garrisons, which were expanded after hostilities. Japanese military attacks against BC amounted to a small number of parachute bombs released from great distance away and by the middle of 1942 the threat of direct attack diminished following defeat at the Battle of Midway by US forces.
Alcohol was prohibited in British Columbia for about four years, from 1917 to 1921. A referendum in 1916 asked BC citizens whether they approved of making alcohol illegal (the other question was whether women had the right to vote). The contested results rejecting prohibition led to a major political scandal that subsequently saw the referendum being overturned and alcohol prohibited. However, by 1921 the failures were so apparent -- a thriving black market, arbitrary (often class - and race - based) enforcement and punishment, rampant corruption -- that alcohol was established as a commodity subject to government regulation and taxation as it is today. U.S. prohibition in the 1920s and early 1930s led to a thriving business of producing and smuggling alcohol to quench the thirst of BC 's southern neighbors. Many of Vancouver 's richest families built or consolidated their fortunes in the rum - running business. Some compare today 's robust cannabis - growing industry in BC (the number - one cash crop) to this earlier era.
A Pacific Command was created in 1942 also, and was disbanded in 1945. During the war a range of coastal defences were constructed, including harbour defences for Vancouver. Today 's Museum of Anthropology at UBC sits atop the foundation for gun batteries that were used to command Vancouver Harbour approaches.
Militia units from southern BC provided cadres for many regiments that eventually fought in Europe. The Rocky Mountain Rangers sent a battalion to fight the Japanese in the Battle of the Aleutian Islands in 1943. Thousands more British Columbians volunteered for the Royal Canadian Navy and Royal Canadian Air Force. Two soldiers, Ernest Alvia Smith and John Keefer Mahony, were awarded the Victoria Cross for actions with BC - based regiments in Italy.
In 1961, British Columbia ratified the Columbia River Treaty which required the building of three large dams in British Columbia in return for financial compensation related to U.S. hydroelectric power production enabled by the dams. The dams flooded large areas within British Columbia, but would prove to be a very stable and renewable source of power for the province.
If the 20th century can be said to have been (see above) one of ethnocultural strife, the 21st thus far can be said to be one of relative harmony. One of the first pronouncements of Stephen Harper, upon his victory in the 39th general election to the Parliament in Ottawa, was that proper redress would be afforded the payers of the Chinese head tax. On 22 June 2006, he offered an apology and $20,000 compensation for the head tax once paid by Chinese immigrants. Asian people, at 20.2 % of the total population, were in the 2006 census by far the largest visible minority demographic, with many of the Lower Mainland 's large cities having sizable Chinese, South Asian, Japanese, Filipino, and Korean communities.
The Chinese appeasement policies continue to bear fruit. Whereas prior to 2009 the Federal government was ill - disposed toward the Chinese, by spring of that year the China Investment Corporation was able to purchase of a 17 % share fraction of the Vancouver miner Teck Resources. The transition of views on the Chinese government has been unprecedented, from one of fear to one of official cooperation in the space of five years, and in the face of popular trepidation. In November 2013, British Columbia finance minister Mike de Jong reported a successful placement of Chinese RMB $2.5 bn in dim sum bonds.
The province hosted the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver and Whistler.
After a scandal - filled second term for the BC NDP government, the BC Liberals won the 2001 election with the biggest landslide in BC history: 77 of 79 seats. Gordon Campbell became the seventh premier in ten years, and the first Liberal premier in almost 50 years. On 25 November 2005, the Civil Forfeiture Act (CFA) was passed by Campbell 's second government with a 3: 2 majority. This Act followed Ontario 's Civil Remedies Act, which had passed in November 2003. This Act makes it possible for the government to amerce or to seize property without due process, and the Civil Forfeiture Office (CFO) has been eager to use this power in order to fill the coffers of government. The office does not need criminal charges, or convictions, to amerce a property. Bill 5 was introduced by Solicitor - General Rich Coleman, who made liberal use of the "organised crime '' fear, uncertainty and doubt tactic. He also mentioned that Ontario, Manitoba and Alberta had also recently introduced similar legislation.
The Act, which was brought in with "organised crime '' as the target, since at least 2007 has been expanded to target ordinary citizens. In latter - day practice, amercements may include partial (Jang) or full seizure (Lloydsmith, Rai) of a house. On 4 May 2011, Solicitor - General Shirley Bond of Christy Clark 's first government introduced the concept of "administrative forfeiture '', under which a civil court is no longer required to judge amercements of property worth less than $75,000. The CFO moved in summer 2012 to seize the Guide Certificate of Robert Milligan, a certain way to destroy his livelihood. The CFO has a budgetary target. Offences under the Motor Vehicle Act, Wildlife Act and Employment Standards Act are now pursued by the CFO. The public is now bribed with the proceeds, for example, violence - prevention projects at six schools, an anti-gang campaign, women and family violence programs and a workshop on sexual exploitation awareness. Justice Minister Suzanne Anton expressed unreserved support for the CFO and CFA in a January 2014 interview.
The legacy of British Imperialism in BC is unusual in that neither conquest nor treaties were undertaken as settlement occurred under the doctrine of Terra Nullius. With few exceptions (the Douglas Treaties of Fort Rupert and southern Vancouver Island) no treaties were signed. Some early settlers assumed, based on the catastrophic population crash of First Nations peoples linked to smallpox, and racist ideas that ' Indians ' were a dying race led to a lack of action to deal with what was then termed the ' Indian Land Question '.
Upon Confederation the federal government assumed responsibility for Indians and lands reserved for Indians, while the province had responsibility for non-Aboriginal civil matters and resources. The 1913 McKenna - McBride Royal Commission made some amendments to lands but failed to deal with issues pertaining to title and First Nations rights. Several delegations to Ottawa and London were sent by First Nations seeking redress for grievances, to little avail. Instead the Indian Act, federal legislation governing First Nations, was amended to make it a crime to organize or engage legal council. Other oppressive measure also accompanied the amendment including the Potlatch Ban and the increasingly applied Indian Residential School system designed to assimilate First Nations.
The status of the First Nations (Aboriginal) people of British Columbia is a long - standing problem that has become a major issue in recent years. First Nations were confined to tiny reserves that no longer provide an economic base. They were provided with inadequate education and discriminated against in numerous ways. In many areas they were excluded from restaurants and other establishments. Status Indians gained the right to vote in 1960. They were prohibited from possessing alcohol, which rather than preventing problems with this drug, exacerbated them by fostering unhealthy patterns of consumption such as binge drinking. Certain privileges of status Indians are governed by the Indian Act. With the exception of what are known as the Douglas Treaties, negotiated by Sir James Douglas with the native people of the Victoria area, no treaties were signed in British Columbia until 1998. Many native people wished to negotiate treaties, but the province refused until 1990. Another major development was the 1997 decision of the Supreme Court of Canada in the Delgamuukw v. British Columbia case that aboriginal title still exists in British Columbia.
60 % of First Nations in British Columbia are aligned with the First Nations Summit. This brings a total of 58 First Nations, but only 20 are said to be in active negotiations. Three Final Agreements have been settled, with one being rejected by Lheidli T'enneh in 2007. The other two, the Maa - nulth treaty group, a 5 Nuu - chah - nulth member group, and the Tsawwassen First Nation. Although these treaties have yet to be ratified by Parliament in Ottawa and Legislature in Victoria, neighbouring First Nations are seeking to block these treaties in the courts. A group of Vancouver Island and some mainland First Nations, the WSANEC, Lekwungen, and Semiahmoo, are seeking to block to Tsawwassen First Nation treaty, claiming infringement on their rights and land titles. On the west coast of Vancouver Island, the Ditidaht First Nation is doing the same against the Maa - nulth treaty group. The only treaty signed in recent years, the Nisga'a Treaty (1998), was negotiated outside of the current treaty process. There is considerable disagreement about treaty negotiations. Among indigenous people, there is mounting criticism of extinguishment of Aboriginal title and continued assimilation strategies by attempting to change the indigenous peoples from nations to municipal style government. Therefore, a substantial number of First Nations governments consider the current treaty process inadequate and have refused to participate.
A November 2007 court ruling for the Xeni Gwet'in First Nation called future participation in the process into question. The judge ruled that the Xeni Gwet'in could demonstrate aboriginal title to half of the Nemaia Valley, and that the province had no power over these lands. Under the BC treaty process, negotiating nations have received as little as 5 % of their claimed land recognized. Grand Chief Stewart Phillip, president of the Union of B.C. Indian Chiefs, called the court victory a "nail in the coffin '' of the B.C. treaty process.
By nationality, in chronological order of influence to the region:
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lewis and clark the journey of the corps of discovery ken burns | Lewis & Clark: the Journey of the Corps of Discovery - wikipedia
Sam Waterston Adam Arkin Murphy Guyer
Lewis & Clark: The Journey of the Corps of Discovery is a 1997 documentary film about the Lewis and Clark Expedition directed and co-produced by Ken Burns. The film, produced by Burns ' Florentine Films for Washington, DC PBS station WETA - TV, first aired on PBS on November 4 and 5, 1997.
Part 1 of the film covers the expedition up to the headwaters of the Missouri River. Part 2 covers the meeting with the Shoshone, the treacherous crossing of the mountains, the downstream rush to reach the Pacific Ocean, and the ambitious explorations of the return trip.
The film, as with most of Burns ' individual biography documentaries, is part of his American Lives film project, and is so credited in the copyright.
The following summary appeared in the 2001 PBS DVD Gold release of the film:
"Sent by President Thomas Jefferson to find the fabled Northwest Passage, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark led the most important expedition in American history -- a voyage of danger and discovery from St. Louis to the headwaters of the Missouri River, over the Continental Divide to the Pacific. It was the United States ' first exploration of the West and one of the nation 's most enduring adventures. ''
"This extraordinary film tells the remarkable story of the entire Corps of Discovery -- not just the two famous Captains, but the young army men, French - Canadian boatmen, Clark 's African - American slave, and the Shoshone woman named Sacagawea, who brought along her infant son. Journey with them all, across a breath - taking landscape in an unforgettable experience that explores both the history -- and promise -- of America. ''
Cast information from IMDB.
The voice - over cast reading quotes from the people involved included:
Appearing as themselves:
Funding for the film was provided by General Motors, the Pew Charitable Trusts, the Arthur Vining Davis Foundations, Corporation for Public Broadcasting, PBS viewers, the William T. Kemper Foundation, the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation and by the Montana Department of Commerce, whose voice - over in the original introduction draws a famous quote from a journal entry by Meriwether Lewis: "Montana, where ' scenes of visionary enchantment ' can still be discovered ''.
Longtime Burns collaborator Geoffrey C. Ward served as Senior Creative Consultant.
Program advisors included Allen, Ambrose, Heat - Moon and Ronda. Program advisors not appearing on camera included Gary E. Moulton, Frank Muhly and Lynn Novick.
Ken Burns recalls in his Charlie Rose interview November 3, 1997 that primary film underwriter General Motors wanted to know how he wanted to celebrate their 10th anniversary of filmmaking together. He suggested, in keeping with the "help along the way '' spirit of the expedition, a preview tour honoring the people of the cities along the trail who helped make the film possible.
As part of these events, their segment of the completed film was previewed prior to its airing on PBS. So for example, when the preview tour reached Great Falls that October, nearby resident and film contributor Stephen E. Ambrose joined Burns and Duncan and many of the reenactors of the month - long portage of the five falls of the Missouri River as the completed film segment about the portage was previewed.
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dams are the temples of modern india wikipedia | Temples of modern India - wikipedia
Temples of modern India was a term coined by India 's first Prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru while starting the construction of the Bhakra Nangal Dam to describe scientific research institutes, steel plants, power plants, dams being launched in India after independence to jumpstart scientific and industrial progress. Dams are known as temples of modern India. Temples of Modern India, Financial Express, August 16, 2003. < / ref > These projects were part of his vision of development of modern India with a mix of heavy industries and scientific research institutes.
Most of the PSUs and scientific institutions such as the IITs were created by him as part of his vision of modern India.
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describe the impact of falls can have in late adulthood | Falls in older adults - wikipedia
Falls in older adults are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality and are an important class of preventable injuries. The cause of falling in old age is often multifactorial, and may require a multidisciplinary approach both to treat any injuries sustained and to prevent future falls. Falls include dropping from a standing position, or from exposed positions such as those on ladders or stepladders. The severity of injury is generally related to the height of the fall. The state of the ground surface onto which the victim falls is also important, harder surfaces causing more severe injury. Falls can be prevented by ensuring that carpets are tacked down, that objects like electric cords are not in one 's path, that hearing and vision are optimized, dizziness is minimized, alcohol intake is moderated and that shoes have low heels or rubber soles.
A review of clinical trial evidence by the European Food Safety Authority led to a recommendation that people over age 60 years should supplement the diet with vitamin D to reduce the risk of falling and bone fractures. Falls are an important aspect of geriatric medicine.
Other definitions are more inclusive and do not exclude "major intrinsic events '' as a fall. Falls are of concern within medical treatment facilities. Fall prevention is usually a priority in healthcare settings.
A 2006 review of literature identified the need for standardization of falls taxonomy due to the variation within research. The Prevention of Falls Network Europe (ProFane) taxonomy for the definition and reporting of falls aimed at mitigating this problem. ProFane recommended that a fall be defined as "an unexpected event in which the participants come to rest on the ground, floor, or lower level. '' The ProFane taxonomy is currently used as a framework to appraise falls - related research studies in Cochrane Systematic Reviews.
Falls are often caused by a number of factors. The faller may live with many risk factors for falling and only have problems when another factor appears. As such, management is often tailored to treating the factor that caused the fall, rather than all of the risk factors a patient has for falling. Risk factors may be grouped into intrinsic factors, such as existence of a specific ailment or disease. External or extrinsic factors includes the environment and the way in which it may encourage or deter accidental falls. Such factors as lighting and illumination, personal aid equipment and floor traction are all important in fall prevention.
When assessing a person who has fallen, it is important to try to get an eyewitness account of the incident. As the faller may have had some loss of consciousness, they may not give an accurate description of the fall. However, in practice, these eyewitness accounts are often unavailable. It is also important to remember than 30 % of cognitively intact older people are unable to remember a documented fall three months later. Important points of inquiry:
Fall prevention is accomplished first with a detailed assessment of the risk for falls.
A large body of evidence shows that a multi-disciplinary approach to assessment and treatment results in the best outcome.
Possible interventions to prevent falls include:
Interventions to minimize the consequences of falls:
People who are hospitalized are at risk for falling. A randomized trial showed that use of a tool kit reduced falls in hospitals. Nurses complete a valid fall risk assessment scale. From that, a software package develops customized fall prevention interventions to address patients ' specific determinants of fall risk. The kit also has bed posters with brief text and an accompanying icon, patient education handouts, and plans of care, all communicating patient - specific alerts to key stakeholders.
American Geriatrics society (AGS) / British Geriatrics Society (BGS) recommend that all older adults should be screened for "falls in the past year ''. Fall history is the strongest risk factor associated with subsequent falls. Older people who have experienced at least one fall in the last 6 months, or who believe that they may fall in the coming months, should be evaluated with the aim of reducing their risk of recurrent falls.
Many health institutions in USA have developed screening questionnaires. Enquiry includes difficulty with walking and balance, medication use to help with sleep / mood, loss of sensation in feet, vision problems, fear of falling, and use of assistive devices for walking.
Older adults who report falls should be asked about their circumstances and frequency to assess risks from gait and balance which may be compromised. A fall risk assessment is done by a clinician to include history, physical exam, functional capability, and environment.
The incidence of falls increases progressively with age. According to the existing scientific literature, approximately one - third of the elderly population experiences one or more falls each year, while 10 % experience multiple falls annually. The risk is greater in people older than 80 years, in which the annual incidence of falls can reach 50 %.
Researchers have tried to create a consensual definition of a fall since the 1980s. Tinneti et al. defined a fall as "an event which results in a person coming to rest unintentionally on the ground or other lower level, not as a result of a major intrinsic event (such as a stroke) or overwhelming hazard. ''
The health care impact and costs of falls in older adults is significantly rising all over the world. The cost of falls are categorized into 2 aspects: direct cost and indirect cost.
Direct costs are what patients and insurance companies pay for treating fall - related injuries. This includes fees for hospital and nursing home, doctors and other professional services, rehabilitation, community - based services, use of medical equipment, prescription drugs, changes made to home and insurance processing.
Indirect costs include the loss of productivity of family caregivers and long - term effects of fall - related injuries such as disability, dependence on others and reduced quality of life.
In the United States alone, the total cost of falling injuries for people 65 and older was $31 billion in 2015. The costs covered millions of hospital emergency room visits for non-fatal injuries and more than 800,000 hospitalizations. By 2030, the annual number of falling injuries is expected to be 74 million older adults.
Furthermore, a recent systematic review has demonstrated that performing dual - task tests (for example, combining a walking task with a counting task) may help in predicting which people are at an increased risk of a fall.
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who sings the original i will always love you | I Will Always Love You - wikipedia
The song, "I Will Always Love You '' was originally written and recorded in 1973 by American singer - songwriter Dolly Parton. Her country version of the track was released in 1974 as a single and was written as a farewell to her one - time partner and mentor of seven years, Porter Wagoner, following Parton 's decision to pursue a solo career.
Parton 's version of "I Will Always Love You '' was a commercial success. It reached number one on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart twice. It first reached number one in June 1974, and then in October 1982, with her re-recording on the soundtrack of the movie version of The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas, making Parton the first singer ever to achieve the number one position twice with the same song. Whitney Houston recorded her version of the song for the 1992 film The Bodyguard. Her single spent 14 weeks at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart making it one of the best - selling singles of all time. It also holds the record for being the best - selling single by a woman in music history. Houston 's version of "I Will Always Love You '' re-entered the charts in 2012 after her death, making it the second single ever to reach the top three on the Billboard Hot 100 in separate chart runs. The song has been recorded by many other significant artists including Linda Ronstadt and John Doe.
Country music singer - songwriter Dolly Parton wrote the song in 1973 for her one - time partner and mentor Porter Wagoner, from whom she was separating professionally after a seven - year partnership. She recorded it in RCA 's Studio B in Nashville on June 13, 1973. "I Will Always Love You '' was issued on June 6, 1974, as the second single from Parton 's thirteenth solo studio album, Jolene (1974). In 1982, Parton re-recorded the song, when it was included on the soundtrack to the film The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas. In addition to the 1982 re-recording for the soundtrack album, Parton 's original 1974 recording of the song also appeared in Martin Scorsese 's film Alice Does n't Live Here Anymore, and the 1996 film It 's My Party. The song also won Parton Female Vocalist of the Year at the 1975 CMA Awards.
Author Curtis W. Ellison stated that the song "speaks about the breakup of a relationship between a man and a woman that does not descend into unremitting domestic turmoil, but instead envisions parting with respect -- because of the initiative of the woman ''. According to sheet music published at musicnotes.com by Hal Leonard Corporation, the country love track is set in a time signature of common time with a tempo of 66 beats per minute. (Larghetto / Adagio) Although Parton found much success with the song, many people are unaware of its origin; during an interview, Parton 's manager Danny Nozel said that "one thing we found out from American Idol is that most people do n't know that Dolly Parton wrote (the track) ''.
During its original release in 1974, "I Will Always Love You '' reached number four in Canada on the Canadian RPM Country Tracks chart and peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart, becoming one of the best selling singles of 1974.
When Parton re-recorded the song in 1982 for the soundtrack of the film The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas, the track was issued as a single and once again charted at number one on Hot Country Songs -- making her the first artist ever to earn a number one record twice with the same song. After recording a duet with Vince Gill in 1995 for the album Something Special, "I Will Always Love You '' re-entered the Billboard chart and peaked at number 15. Another duet version of the song was released in 2017 with Michael Bolton from his album Songs of Cinema.
When the 1974 recording of the song was reaching number one on the country charts, Elvis Presley indicated that he wanted to cover the song. Parton was interested until Presley 's manager, Colonel Tom Parker, told her that it was standard procedure for the songwriter to sign over half of the publishing rights to any song Elvis recorded. Parton refused. She recalls:
I said, ' I 'm really sorry, ' and I cried all night. I mean, it was like the worst thing. You know, it 's like, Oh, my God... Elvis Presley. ' And other people were saying, ' You 're nuts. It 's Elvis Presley. '... I said, ' I ca n't do that. Something in my heart says, ' Do n't do that. And I just did n't do it... He would have killed it. But anyway, so he did n't. Then when Whitney (Houston 's version) came out, I made enough money to buy Graceland.
In Curtis W. Ellison 's book Country Music Culture: From Hard Times to Heaven (1995), he stated: "In the early 1990s, when ambiguity in romantic relationships accompanies changing expectations for both men and women, this song demonstrates Dolly Parton 's appeal as a songwriter in the pop music market. '' Ken Knight, author of The Midnight Show: Late Night Cable - TV "Guy - Flicks '' of the ' 80s (2008), commented that Parton is the only singer who can sing "I Will Always Love You '' and "make it memorable ''. Writer Paul Simpson criticized the singer, stating that the track was only written to "soften the blow '' of Parton and Wagoner 's split.
After Whitney Houston 's recording of the song became a hit in 1992, the tabloid press began reporting on a ' feud ' between the two performers, stemming from Dolly Parton allegedly reneging on an agreement that she would not perform the song for a number of months while Houston 's version was on the charts, so as not to compete with Houston 's recording. However, both Parton and Houston dispelled any rumors speaking glowingly of one another in interviews. Houston praised Parton for writing a beautiful song. In return, Parton thanked Houston for bringing her song to a wider audience and increasing the amount of royalties for her song in the process. Dolly Parton also gave a live interview, confirming this.
When Houston won the Record of the Year award at the 1994 Grammy Awards for the recording, Parton (along with David Foster) presented her with the award.
In a statement to Billboard on the day of Houston 's death in February 2012, Parton said:
Mine is only one of the millions of hearts broken over the death of Whitney Houston. I will always be grateful and in awe of the wonderful performance she did on my song and I can truly say from the bottom of my heart, ' Whitney, I will always love you. You will be missed. '
In 1992, R&B singer Whitney Houston recorded a new arrangement of "I Will Always Love You '' for the soundtrack to The Bodyguard, her film debut. The song has a saxophone solo by Kirk Whalum. She was originally to record Jimmy Ruffin 's "What Becomes of the Brokenhearted '' as the lead single from The Bodyguard. However, when it was discovered the song was to be used for Fried Green Tomatoes, Houston requested a different song. It was her co-star Kevin Costner who suggested "I Will Always Love You '', playing her Linda Ronstadt 's 1975 version from her album Prisoner in Disguise. Producer David Foster re-arranged the song as a soul ballad. Her record company did not feel a song with an a cappella introduction would be as successful; however, Houston and Costner insisted on retaining it. When Parton heard that Houston was using Ronstadt 's recording as a template, she called Foster to give him the final verse, which was missing from the Ronstadt recording, as she felt it was important to the song. The tenor saxophone solo was played by Kirk Whalum. Whitney Houston 's recording is not the only version of the song featured in the movie. In a scene where she dances with Kevin Costner, a version by John Doe can be heard playing on a jukebox.
Houston 's version appears at No. 9 on NME 's Greatest No 1 Singles in History list. In 2004, Houston 's version of "I Will Always Love You '' finished at # 65 on AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs survey of top tunes in American cinema. It was also ranked at number 22 on The Guardian 's list of Britain 's favorite 100 songs, published in May 2002. In February 2014, the song was placed at number six on Billboard 's list of the Top 50 ' Love ' Songs of All Time.
A live performance was included on the 1999 release Divas Live ' 99, and on the 2014 CD / DVD release of Whitney Houston Live: Her Greatest Performances, a 1994 performance of the song was included as well.
The single spent 14 weeks at the top of the US Billboard Hot 100, which at the time was a record. It became Houston 's longest run at number one, surpassing her previous record of three weeks with the "Greatest Love of All '' in 1986. It is also the longest running number one single from a soundtrack album.
It debuted at number 40 on the Billboard Hot 100, and became Houston 's tenth number one entry two weeks later. It also dominated other Billboard charts, spending 14 weeks at the top of Billboard Hot 100 Single Sales chart, and 11 weeks at number one on its Hot 100 Airplay chart. The song also remained at number one for five weeks on the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks, and for 11 weeks on the Hot R&B Singles chart becoming the longest running number one on the R&B charts at the time; it remained in the top 40 for 24 weeks. It became Arista Records ' biggest hit. The song was number one on the Hot 100, Adult Contemporary, and R&B chart simultaneously for a record - equaling five weeks; Ray Charles ' "I Ca n't Stop Loving You '' in 1962 achieved the same feat on the same charts.
The song stayed at number one in the United States throughout January and February 1993, making it the first time Billboard did not rank a new number one single until March of the new year. Houston 's "I Will Always Love You '' was also the year - end single of 1993 in the US. Similarly, in the UK, Houston 's version was ranked the number one single of 1992, and then made the countdown again in 1993 where it was ranked number nine, marking the first time any artist or group had the same single ranked in the top 10 of the year - end review two years in a row. In Australia, it was the number 17 single of 1992 and the number two song of 1993.
Houston 's single was also an international success, peaking at number one of the singles charts in almost all countries, including the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles, where it spent 13 weeks at the top. The single ruled the summit position for ten weeks in Australia, five weeks in Austria, seven weeks for Belgium, eight weeks in France, six weeks in Germany, eight weeks in Ireland, two weeks in Italy, six weeks in Netherlands, 11 weeks in New Zealand, nine weeks in Norway, one week in Spain, six weeks in Sweden, eight weeks in Switzerland, and ten weeks in the United Kingdom. Houston 's 10 - week reign in the UK set the record for the longest run at the top by a solo female artist in the history of the British singles chart. It is the only single to have topped the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australian singles charts for at least ten weeks.
Only a few hours after Houston 's death on February 11, 2012, "I Will Always Love You '' topped the US iTunes charts. Also, in the week following her death, the single returned to the Billboard Hot 100 after almost 20 years, debuting at number 7, and becoming a posthumous top - ten single for Houston, the first one since 2001. The song eventually peaked at No. 3, two spots shy of becoming the first song to return to the No. 1 position after falling off the chart since "The Twist '' by Chubby Checker. It debuted on the Billboard Hot Digital Singles Chart at number 3 on the chart dated February 25, 2012, with over 195,000 copies downloaded. In the United Kingdom, the song charted at number 10 the week of Houston 's death.
Houston 's single sold approximately 400,000 copies in its second week at the top of the charts, making it the best - selling song in a single week surpassing Bryan Adams ' "(Everything I Do) I Do It for You ''. It broke its own record in the following three weeks, peaking at 632,000 copies in the week ending December 27, 1992. The January 9, 1993 issue of Billboard reported it had broken its own record for most copies sold in a single week for any song in the Nielsen SoundsScan era. This record was broken by Elton John 's "Candle in the Wind 1997 / Something About the Way You Look Tonight '', which sold 3.4 million in the final week of September 1997. "I Will Always Love You '' was certified four times Platinum in the US for shipments of over 4 million copies by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on January 12, 1993, making Houston the first female artist with a single to reach that level in RIAA history. According to Nielsen SoundScan, as of 2009, the single had sold 4,591,000 copies, and had become the second best - selling physical single in US alone, only behind Elton John 's single in 1997.
In the United Kingdom, the single sold over 1,550,000 copies, becoming the tenth best - selling single of the 1990s, and was certified two times Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) on January 1, 1993. It was certified Platinum for shipments of over 500,000 copies by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie (BVMI) in Germany. In Japan, "I Will Always Love You '' sold over 810,000 copies, staying for 27 weeks on the chart, and became the best - selling single by a foreign female artist at the time, despite not topping the charts.
Houston 's version was later called her "signature song ''. Stephen Holden of The New York Times said it was a "magnificent rendition '', commenting
Houston transforms a plaintive country ballad into a towering pop - gospel assertion of lasting devotion to a departing lover. Her voice breaking and tensing, she treats the song as a series of emotional bursts in a steady climb toward a final full - out declamation. Along the way, her virtuosic gospel embellishments enhance the emotion and never seem merely ornamental.
Writing for USA Today on November 17, 1992, James T. Jones IV called it a "tour - de-force '', and added "(Houston) gives a 3 ⁄ - star (out of four) performance. Where Dolly Parton 's original ' I Will Always Love You ' was plaintive and tear - stained, Houston 's is gospel - infused and dramatic. '' Chris Willman of the Los Angeles Times stated: "Houston has the goods to deliver on the tune 's haunting beauty and resists overpowering it -- until the finale, when the key change and stratospheric notes drain all the heart - rending sadness out of the song and make it sound like just another anthem of survival. '' Amy Linden of Entertainment Weekly wrote Houston 's version "is artistically satisfying and uncharacteristically hip for the MOR songbird. '' Stewart Mason of AllMusic found Houston 's cover "repulsively overwrought... so boomingly bombastic and glutinous with self - approbation that the tenderness of Dolly Parton 's song is lost in the mire ''.
"I Will Always Love You '' won the 1994 Grammy Award for Record of the Year, and Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance, her third award for this category after earlier awards in 1986 and 1988. During the Grammy Award telecast, the Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Performance, Female was presented to Houston by composer Dolly Parton and David Foster. The single topped the 1993 Billboard Hot 100 and Hot R&B Singles year - end charts simultaneously, becoming the first single by a female artist and the second overall to achieve that feat behind Prince 's "When Doves Cry '' in 1984. In addition, it received Favorite Pop / Rock Single and Favorite Soul / R&B Single awards at the 21st American Music Awards, which was the first record by a solo female artist to win both categories, and the third overall in AMA history behind "Endless Love '' by Lionel Richie & Diana Ross in 1982 and "Beat It '' by Michael Jackson in 1984. "I Will Always Love You '' won two Japan Gold Disc Awards in 1993 for International Song of the Year, and a 1994 International Song of the Year Special Award for Japanese sales of over one million units.
In 2015, "I Will Always Love You '' was named the # 1 Song of the Rock Era in the book The Top 500 Songs of the Rock Era: 1955 - 2015.
The single 's music video, is credited to Alan Smithee (Nick Brandt removed his name due to the way Clive Davis re-edited the video), and produced by Rob Newman. It begins with the performance of the song Houston gives at the end of The Bodyguard. The video then cuts to Houston in a dark blue suit sitting in an empty theater with the spotlight shining on her, singing of her love. The video is inter-cut with scenes from The Bodyguard and gives the viewer the experience of reliving the moments with the singer. At the time of the video 's shooting Houston was pregnant with her daughter Bobbi Kristina so is shown only sitting in the theater scenes.
' UK / Europe 12 '' vinyl single
UK / Europe / US 7 '' vinyl single
US / Europe Maxi - CD single
Maxi - CD singles (1999 Remixes)
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Since Houston 's death in 2012, many other artists have performed tributes to the late singer 's version of the song.
Jennifer Hudson performed the song in front of Houston, who received The BET Honors Award for Entertainer Lifetime Achievement spanning over 25 years in the industry. The 2010 BET Honors Awards was held at the Warner Theatre in Washington, D.C. and aired on February 1, 2010.
On February 12, 2012, Hudson performed the song as a tribute during the 54th Grammy Awards, the day after Houston 's death, alongside images of musicians who had died in 2011 and 2012, including Amy Winehouse and Etta James. The song was played at Houston 's funeral as her casket was brought out of the church. Parton complimented Hudson on her performance, saying,
I was brought to tears again last night, as I 'm sure many were, when Jennifer Hudson sang "I Will Always Love You '' on the Grammys in memory of Whitney. Like everybody else, I am still in shock. But I know that Whitney will live forever in all the great music that she left behind. I will always have a very special piece of her in the song we shared together and had the good fortune to share with the world. Rest in peace, Whitney. Again, we will always love you.
In 2012, following Whitney Houston 's death, American singer Beyoncé performed a tribute to Houston during her revue Revel Presents: Beyoncé Live in Atlantic City, New Jersey at the Revel resort. She began the performance of her song "Halo '' singing the first verse of "I Will Always Love You '' a cappella.
Later, in 2013, during her The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour, Beyoncé also sang the opening lines of "I Will Always Love You '' prior to the performance of "Halo '' as the final song of the tour.
On March 7, 2012, on the eleventh season of American Idol, during the Top 13 week, Jessica Sanchez performed a rendition of the song. She received a standing ovation for her performance. She performed the song again on the season finale, where she would finish as the eventual runner - up.
During the festival TOP trends in 2012, Edyta Górniak performed "I Will Always Love You '' as a tribute to Whitney Houston on May 26.
At the 2017 Commencement of the University of Southern California, Will Ferrell sang "I Will Always Love You '' to the graduating class. See Washington Post commentary:
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who has the highest shooting percentage in nba history | Field goal percentage - Wikipedia
Field goal percentage in basketball is the ratio of field goals made to field goals attempted. Its abbreviation is FG %. Although three - point field goal percentage is often calculated separately, three - point field goals are included in the general field goal percentage. Instead of using scales of 0 to 100 %, the scale. 000 to 1.000 is commonly used. A higher field goal percentage denotes higher efficiency. In basketball, a FG % of. 500 (50 %) or above is considered a good percentage, although this criterion does not apply equally to all positions. Guards usually have lower FG % than forwards and centers. Field goal percentage does not completely tell the skill of a player, but a low field goal percentage can indicate a poor offensive player or a player who takes many difficult shots. In the NBA, Center Shaquille O'Neal has a high career FG % (around. 580) because he plays near the basket making many high percentage layups and slam dunks. Guard Allen Iverson often had a low FG % (around. 420) because he took the bulk of his team 's shot attempts, even with high difficulty shots.
The NBA career record for field goal percentage is held by DeAndre Jordan at 0.677. The highest field goal percentage for a single season was set by Wilt Chamberlain with 0.727 in the 1972 -- 73 season.
Field goal percentages were substantially lower in the NBA until the mid-to - late 1960s. For this reason, many early NBA stars have low field goal percentages, such as Bob Cousy at. 375, and George Mikan, Bob Pettit, and Bill Russell, whose career field goal percentages of. 404,. 436, and. 440, respectively, are much lower than later post players.
Three - point field goal percentage is usually kept as additional statistics. Its abbreviation is 3FG %. A 3FG % of. 400 and above is a very good percentage.
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a host of golden daffodils meaning in urdu | I wandered lonely as a Cloud - wikipedia
I wandered lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er vales and hills, When all at once I saw a crowd, A host, of golden daffodils; Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. Continuous as the stars that shine And twinkle on the milky way, They stretched in never - ending line Along the margin of a bay: Ten thousand saw I at a glance, Tossing their heads in sprightly dance. The waves beside them danced; but they Out - did the sparkling waves in glee: A poet could not but be gay, In such a jocund company: I gazed -- and gazed -- but little thought What wealth the show to me had brought: For oft, when on my couch I lie In vacant or in pensive mood, They flash upon that inward eye Which is the bliss of solitude; And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the daffodils..
William Wordsworth (1815)
"I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud '' (also commonly known as "Daffodils '') is a lyric poem by William Wordsworth. It is Wordsworth 's most famous work.
The poem was inspired by an event on 15 April 1802, in which Wordsworth and his sister Dorothy came across a "long belt '' of daffodils. Written some time between 1804 and 1807 (in 1804 by Wordsworth 's own account), it was first published in 1807 in Poems in Two Volumes, and a revised version was published in 1815.
In a poll conducted in 1995 by the BBC Radio 4 Bookworm programme to determine the nation 's favourite poems, I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud came fifth. Often anthologised, the poem is commonly seen as a classic of English romantic poetry, although Poems in Two Volumes, in which it first appeared, was poorly reviewed by Wordsworth 's contemporaries.
The inspiration for the poem came from a walk Wordsworth took with his sister Dorothy around Glencoyne Bay, Ullswater, in the Lake District. He would draw on this to compose "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud '' in 1804, inspired by Dorothy 's journal entry describing the walk:
When we were in the woods beyond Gowbarrow park we saw a few daffodils close to the water side, we fancied that the lake had floated the seed ashore and that the little colony had so sprung up -- But as we went along there were more and yet more and at last under the boughs of the trees, we saw that there was a long belt of them along the shore, about the breadth of a country turnpike road. I never saw daffodils so beautiful they grew among the mossy stones about and about them, some rested their heads upon these stones as on a pillow for weariness and the rest tossed and reeled and danced and seemed as if they verily laughed with the wind that blew upon them over the Lake, they looked so gay ever glancing ever changing. This wind blew directly over the lake to them. There was here and there a little knot and a few stragglers a few yards higher up but they were so few as not to disturb the simplicity and unity and life of that one busy highway -- We rested again and again. The Bays were stormy and we heard the waves at different distances and in the middle of the water like the Sea.
At the time he wrote the poem, Wordsworth was living with his wife, Mary Hutchinson, and sister Dorothy at Town End, in Grasmere in England 's Lake District. Mary contributed what Wordsworth later said were the two best lines in the poem, recalling the "tranquil restoration '' of Tintern Abbey,
Wordsworth was aware of the appropriateness of the idea of daffodils which "flash upon that inward eye '' because in his 1815 version he added a note commenting on the "flash '' as an "ocular spectrum ''. Coleridge in Biographia Literaria of 1817, while he acknowledged the concept of "visual spectrum '' as being "well known '', described Wordsworth 's (and Mary 's) lines, amongst others, as "mental bombast ''. Fred Blick has shown that the idea of flashing flowers was derived from the "Elizabeth Linnaeus Phenomenon '', so - called because of the discovery of flashing flowers by Elizabeth Linnaeus in 1762. Wordsworth described it as "rather an elementary feeling and simple impression (approaching to the nature of an ocular spectrum) upon the imaginative faculty, rather than an exertion of it... '' The phenomenon was reported upon in 1789 and 1794 by Erasmus Darwin, whose work Wordsworth certainly read.
The entire household thus contributed to the poem. Nevertheless, Wordsworth 's biographer Mary Moorman, notes that Dorothy was excluded from the poem, even though she had seen the daffodils together with Wordsworth. The poem itself was placed in a section of Poems in Two Volumes entitled "Moods of my Mind '' in which he grouped together his most deeply felt lyrics. Others included "To a Butterfly '', a childhood recollection of chasing butterflies with Dorothy, and "The Sparrow 's Nest '', in which he says of Dorothy "She gave me eyes, she gave me ears ''.
The earlier Lyrical Ballads, a collection of poems by both himself and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, had been first published in 1798 and had started the romantic movement in England. It had brought Wordsworth and the other Lake poets into the poetic limelight. Wordsworth had published nothing new since the 1800 edition of Lyrical Ballads, and a new publication was eagerly awaited. Wordsworth had, however, gained some financial security by the 1805 publication of the fourth edition of Lyrical Ballads; it was the first from which he enjoyed the profits of copyright ownership. He decided to turn away from the long poem he was working on (The Recluse) and devote more attention to publishing Poems in Two Volumes, in which "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud '' first appeared.
Wordsworth revised the poem in 1815. He replaced "dancing '' with "golden ''; "along '' with "beside ''; and "ten thousand '' with "fluttering and ''. He then added a stanza between the first and second, and changed "laughing '' to "jocund ''. The last stanza was left untouched.
Pamela Woof notes "The permanence of stars as compared with flowers emphasises the permanence of memory for the poet. ''
Andrew Motion notes that the final verse replicates in the minds of its readers the very experience it describes.
Poems in Two Volumes was poorly reviewed by Wordsworth 's contemporaries, including Lord Byron, whom Wordsworth came to despise. Byron said of the volume, in one of its first reviews, "Mr. W (ordsworth) ceases to please,... clothing (his ideas) in language not simple, but puerile ''. Wordsworth himself wrote ahead to soften the thoughts of The Critical Review, hoping his friend Francis Wrangham would push for a softer approach. He succeeded in preventing a known enemy from writing the review, but it did n't help; as Wordsworth himself said, it was a case of "Out of the frying pan, into the fire ''. Of any positives within Poems in Two Volumes, the perceived masculinity in "The Happy Warrior '', written on the death of Nelson and unlikely to be the subject of attack, was one such. Poems like "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud '' could not have been further from it. Wordsworth took the reviews stoically.
Even Wordsworth 's close friend Coleridge said (referring especially to the "child - philosopher '' stanzas VII and VIII of "Intimations of Immortality '') that the poems contained "mental bombast ''. Two years later, however, many were more positive about the collection. Samuel Rogers said that he had "dwelt particularly on the beautiful idea of the ' Dancing Daffodils ' '', and this was echoed by Henry Crabb Robinson. Critics were rebutted by public opinion, and the work gained in popularity and recognition, as did Wordsworth.
Poems in Two Volumes was savagely reviewed by Francis Jeffrey in the Edinburgh Review (without, however, singling out "I wandered lonely as a Cloud ''), but the Review was well known for its dislike of the Lake poets. As Sir Walter Scott put it at the time of the poem 's publication, "Wordsworth is harshly treated in the Edinburgh Review, but Jeffrey gives... as much praise as he usually does '', and indeed Jeffrey praised the sonnets.
Upon the author 's death in 1850, The Westminster Review called "I wandered lonely as a Cloud '' "very exquisite ''.
The poem is presented and taught in many schools in the English - speaking world: these include the 7th grade of most schools of the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE), India; the English Literature GCSE course in some examination boards in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland; and in the current Higher School Certificate syllabus topic, Inner Journeys, New South Wales, Australia. It is also frequently used as a part of the Junior Certificate English Course in Ireland as part of the Poetry Section. In The Middle Passage, V.S. Naipaul refers to a campaign in Trinidad against the use of the poem as a set text because daffodils do not grow in the tropics.
Because it is one of the best known poems in the English language, it has frequently been the subject of parody and satire.
The English prog rock band Genesis parodies the poem in the opening lyrics to the song "The Colony of Slippermen '', from their 1974 album The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway.
It was the subject of a 1985 Heineken beer TV advertisement, which depicts a poet having difficulties with his opening lines, only able to come up with "I walked about a bit on my own '' or "I strolled around without anyone else '' until downing a Heineken and reaching the immortal "I wandered lonely as a cloud '' (because "Heineken refreshes the poets other beers ca n't reach ''). The assertion that Wordsworth originally hit on "I wandered lonely as a cow '' until Dorothy told him "William, you ca n't put that '' occasionally finds its way into print.
The daffodils Wordsworth saw would have been wild daffodils. However, the National Gardens Scheme runs a Daffodil Day every year, allowing visitors to view daffodils in Cumbrian gardens including Dora 's Field, which was planted by Wordsworth. In 2013 the event was held in March, when unusually cold weather meant that relatively few of the plants were in flower. April, the month that Wordsworth saw the daffodils at Ullswater, is usually a good time to view them, although the Lake District climate has changed since the poem was written.
In 2004, in celebration of the 200th anniversary of the writing of the poem, it was also read aloud by 150,000 British schoolchildren, aimed both at improving recognition of poetry, and in support of Marie Curie Cancer Care.
In 2007, Cumbria Tourism released a rap version of the poem, featuring MC Nuts, a Lake District Red squirrel, in an attempt to capture the "YouTube generation '' and attract tourists to the Lake District. Published on the two - hundredth anniversary of the original, it attracted wide media attention. It was welcomed by the Wordsworth Trust, but attracted the disapproval of some commentators.
In 2015 events marking the 200th anniversary of the publication of the revised version were celebrated at Rydal Mount.
In the 2013 musical Big Fish, composed by Andrew Lippa, some lines from the poem are used in the song "Daffodils, '' which concludes the first act. Lippa mentioned this in a video created by Broadway.com in the same year.
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where is sleeping giant state park in connecticut | Sleeping Giant (Connecticut) - wikipedia
Sleeping Giant (also known as Mount Carmel) is a rugged traprock mountain with a high point of 739 feet (225 m), located 8 miles (13 km) north of New Haven, Connecticut. A prominent landscape feature visible for miles, the Sleeping Giant receives its name from its anthropomorphic resemblance to a slumbering human figure as seen from either the north or south. The Giant is known for its expansive clifftop vistas, rugged topography, and microclimate ecosystems. Most of the Giant is located within Sleeping Giant State Park. The mountain is a popular recreation site: over 30 miles (48 km) of hiking trails traverse it including 5 miles (8 km) of the 23 - mile (37 km) Quinnipiac Trail. Quinnipiac University is located at Mount Carmel 's foot in Hamden.
The Sleeping Giant, 2.75 miles (4.43 km) long by 1.75 miles (2.82 km) wide, is located in Hamden with its eastern edge falling into Wallingford. The Giant 's profile features distinct "head, '' "chin, '' "chest, '' "hip, '' "knee, '' and "feet '' sections topographically represented by traprock outcrops and ridge crests. The highest point is the Left Hip, 739 ft (225 m), followed by the Chest, 710 ft (220 m), and the Left Knee and Right Leg, 700 ft (210 m) each, and so on. The Giant 's Head, 670 ft (200 m), is marked by a 400 ft (120 m) cliff. A stone observation tower located on the Left Hip, built by the Works Progress Administration in the 1930s, offers 360 ° views of the surrounding Mill and Quinnipiac River valleys. An old rock quarry, closed since 1933 and now part of the state park, has left scars on the Giant 's Head.
It is part of the narrow, linear Metacomet Ridge that extends from Long Island Sound north through the Connecticut River Valley of Massachusetts to the Vermont border. The Metacomet Ridge extends west and south from Sleeping Giant as Rocky Top and West Rock Ridge. The west side of Sleeping Giant drains into the Mill River thence to New Haven Harbor and Long Island Sound; the east side into the Quinnipiac River, thence to New Haven Harbor and Long Island Sound.
Sleeping Giant, a fault - block ridge that formed 200 million years ago during the Triassic and Jurassic periods, is composed of traprock, also known as basalt, an extrusive volcanic rock. Minor earthquakes have also been measured by seismographs and reported by residents. Basalt is a dark colored rock, but the iron within it weathers to a rusty brown when exposed to the air, lending the ledges a distinct reddish appearance. Basalt frequently breaks into octagonal and pentagonal columns, creating a unique "postpile '' appearance. Huge slopes made of fractured basalt scree are visible beneath many of the ledges of Sleeping Giant. The basalt cliffs are the product of several massive lava flows hundreds of feet deep that welled up in faults created by the rifting apart of North America from Eurasia and Africa. These basalt floods of lava happened over a period 20 million years. Erosion occurring between the eruptions deposited deep layers of sediment between the lava flows, which eventually lithified into sedimentary rock. The resulting "layer cake '' of basalt and sedimentary sheets eventually faulted and tilted upward. Subsequent erosion wore away the weaker sedimentary layers at a faster rate than the basalt layers, leaving the abruptly tilted edges of the basalt sheets exposed, creating the distinct linear ridge and dramatic cliff faces visible today. One way to imagine this is to picture a layer cake tilted slightly up with some of the frosting (the sedimentary layer) removed in between.
Sleeping Giant hosts a combination of microclimates unusual in New England. Dry, hot upper ridges support oak savannas, often dominated by chestnut oak and a variety of understory grasses and ferns. Eastern red cedar, a dry - loving species, clings to the barren edges of cliffs. Lower eastern slopes tend to support oak - hickory forest species common in the surrounding lowlands. Narrow ravines crowded with eastern hemlock block sunlight, creating damp, cooler growing conditions with associated cooler climate plant species. Talus slopes are especially rich in nutrients and support a number of calcium - loving plants uncommon in eastern Connecticut. Because the ridge generates such varied terrain, it is the home of several plant and animal species that are state - listed or globally rare. Sleeping Giant is also an important seasonal raptor migration path.
According to Native Americans of the Quinnipiac Tribe, the giant stone spirit Hobbomock (or Hobomock), a prominent wicked figure in many stories (see Pocumtuck Ridge and Quinnipiac), became enraged about the mistreatment of his people and stamped his foot down in anger, diverting the course of the Connecticut River (where the river suddenly swings east in Middletown, Connecticut after several hundred miles of running due south). To prevent him from wreaking such havoc in the future, the good spirit Keitan cast a spell on Hobbomock to sleep forever as the prominent man - like form of the Sleeping Giant.
In the title story of Eleanor Estes 's 1948 collection, The Sleeping Giant and Other Stories, the Giant decides to get up and leave. The Native American legend is retold (with a few liberties) by Jason J. Marchi in his illustrated children 's book The Legend of Hobbomock: The Sleeping Giant, published in 2015.
During the mid-19th century, spurred by the painters of the Hudson River School and transcendentalist philosophers such as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, an interest in mountains as a respite from industrialization and urbanization took hold in New England. Summer cottages were built on the Sleeping Giant and many other locations on the Metacomet Ridge. In 1888, John H. Dickerman built a carriage road on the Giant and opened what he called Blue Hills Park. He held picnics with ice cream on the ledges for local residents.
Conservation of the Giant began in 1924 with the creation of the Sleeping Giant Park Association (SGPA) by a group of local residents concerned with ongoing traprock quarrying on the Giant 's head. A cottage owner, Judge Willis Cook, had leased his property to the Mount Carmel Traprock Company for the purpose of quarrying traprock for building materials. The blasting away of what was a beloved landscape feature resulted in public outrage, well reported by local newspapers at the time. Under the leadership of James W. Toumey, a Yale University forestry professor, the SGPA undertook a ten - year struggle with the traprock operation. The property was purchased by the SGPA in 1933, during the Great Depression, for $30,000; the money was raised through private donations and the property became the Sleeping Giant State Park.
Sleeping Giant State Park was created in 1924, when the SGPA donated 600 acres to the Park and Forest Commission. The state added an additional 65 acres that year, purchased at a cost of $7025.00.
In 1936, the Sleeping Giant Tower was built at the top by the Works Progress Administration. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986 as part of the Connecticut State Park and Forest Depression - Era Federal Work Relief Programs Structures.
On May 15, 2018, an EF1 tornado caused significant damage to the park, forcing officials to close the park for the entire summer season.
Sleeping Giant State Park is a popular outdoor recreation destination among residents and visitors of the greater New Haven region. The clifftops offer long views of much of New Haven County and some of Hartford County over more than 270 degrees of the compass, and (atmospheric conditions permitting) across Long Island Sound to the Shoreham area on Long Island.
The state park is open until sunset year - round. During warm weather months, a parking fee is charged on weekends and holidays ($4 to $15 in 2016). Activities permitted on the Giant include hiking, rock climbing, snowshoeing, picnicking, bird watching, and other passive pursuits. Trails specifically designed for horseback riding and cross-country skiing are located on the lower reaches of the Giant, and fishing is allowed in the abutting Mill River. Rock climbing, closed on the Giant in 1953 because of accidents, was permitted as of 2015. Youth camping only is allowed on the Giant (by permit). Seasonal facilities include restrooms, a picnic shelter, and picnic tables. The 23 - mile (37 km) Quinnipiac Trail -- the oldest trail in the 700 - mile (1,100 km) blue blazed trail system managed by the Connecticut Forest and Park Association -- traverses the length of the Giant from the Quinnipiac River west over the Giant 's high points to the Mill River then continues north over West Rock Ridge and Mount Sanford.
Most, but not all, of the Sleeping Giant has been conserved. The trails and facilities on Sleeping Giant are collaboratively maintained by the Sleeping Giant Park Association and the State of Connecticut, with the bulk of the trail maintenance done by the association. Sleeping Giant State Park encompasses 1,500 acres (6.1 km); the SGPA remains active in securing additional parcels to add to the property. The SGPA has also been instrumental in defeating attempts to log the Giant, build communications towers on its summits, and close the state park altogether. SGPA runs a regular recreational and interpretive hikes on the Giant and volunteer trail maintenance programs. The Connecticut Forest and Park Association also has a working investment in the conservation of the Giant and trail building on it.
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what are the bodies of water that surround the caribbean region | Caribbean Sea - wikipedia
The Caribbean Sea (Spanish: Mar Caribe; French: Mer des Caraïbes; Dutch: Caraïbische Zee) is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean in the tropics of the Western Hemisphere. It is bounded by Mexico and Central America to the west and south west, to the north by the Greater Antilles starting with Cuba, to the east by the Lesser Antilles, and to the south by the north coast of South America.
The entire area of the Caribbean Sea, the numerous islands of the West Indies, and adjacent coasts, are collectively known as the Caribbean. The Caribbean Sea is one of the largest seas and has an area of about 2,754,000 km (1,063,000 sq mi). The sea 's deepest point is the Cayman Trough, between the Cayman Islands and Jamaica, at 7,686 m (25,217 ft) below sea level. The Caribbean coastline has many gulfs and bays: the Gulf of Gonâve, Gulf of Venezuela, Gulf of Darién, Golfo de los Mosquitos, Gulf of Paria and Gulf of Honduras.
The Caribbean Sea has the world 's second biggest barrier reef, the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef. It runs 1,000 km (620 mi) along the coasts of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras.
The name "Caribbean '' derives from the Caribs, one of the region 's dominant Native American groups at the time of European contact during the late 15th century. After the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492, the Spanish term Antillas applied to the lands; stemming from this, "Sea of the Antilles '' became a common alternative name for "Caribbean Sea '' in various European languages. During the first century of development, Spanish dominance in the region remained undisputed.
From the 16th century, Europeans visiting the Caribbean region identified the "South Sea '' (the Pacific Ocean, to the south of the isthmus of Panama) as opposed to the "North Sea '' (the Caribbean Sea, to the north of the same isthmus).
The Caribbean Sea had been unknown to the populations of Eurasia until 1492, when Christopher Columbus sailed into Caribbean waters on a quest to find a sea route to Asia. At that time the Western Hemisphere in general was unknown to Europeans, but first discovered between the years 800 and 1000 by the vikings. Following Eurasia 's discovery of the islands by Columbus, the area was quickly colonized by several Western cultures (initially Spain, then later England, the Dutch Republic, France, Courland and Denmark). Following the colonization of the Caribbean islands, the Caribbean Sea became a busy area for European - based marine trading and transports, and this commerce eventually attracted pirates such as Samuel Bellamy and Blackbeard. (See Piracy in the Caribbean)
Due to the abundance of sunshine, year - round tropical temperatures moderated by the almost constant trade winds and the great variety of scenic destinations to visit, during the second half of the 20th century and on into the 21st the Caribbean Sea became a popular place for tourism.
As of 2015 the area is home to 22 island territories and borders 12 continental countries.
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Caribbean Sea as follows:
Note that, although Barbados is an island on the same continental shelf, it is considered to be in the Atlantic Ocean rather than the Caribbean Sea.
The Caribbean Sea is an oceanic sea largely situated on the Caribbean Plate. The Caribbean Sea is separated from the ocean by several island arcs of various ages. The youngest stretches from the Lesser Antilles to the Virgin Islands to the north east of Trinidad and Tobago off the coast of Venezuela. This arc was formed by the collision of the South American Plate with the Caribbean Plate and includes active and extinct volcanoes such as Mount Pelee, the Quill (volcano) on Sint Eustatius in the Caribbean Netherlands and Morne Trois Pitons on Dominica. The larger islands in the northern part of the sea Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica and Puerto Rico lie on an older island arc.
The geological age of the Caribbean Sea is estimated to be between 160 and 180 million years and was formed by a horizontal fracture that split the supercontinent called Pangea in the Mesozoic Era. It is assumed the proto - caribbean basin existed in the Devonian period. In the early Carboniferous movement of Gondwana to the north and its convergence with the Euramerica basin decreased in size. The next stage of the Caribbean Sea 's formation began in the Triassic. Powerful rifting led to the formation of narrow troughs, stretching from modern Newfoundland to the west coast of the Gulf of Mexico which formed siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. In the early Jurassic due to powerful marine transgression, water broke into the present area of the Gulf of Mexico creating a vast shallow pool. The emergence of deep basins in the Caribbean occurred during the Middle Jurassic rifting. The emergence of these basins marked the beginning of the Atlantic Ocean and contributed to the destruction of Pangaea at the end of the late Jurassic. During the Cretaceous the Caribbean acquired the shape close to that seen today. In the early Paleogene due to Marine regression the Caribbean became separated from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean by the land of Cuba and Haiti. The Caribbean remained like this for most of the Cenozoic until the Holocene when rising water levels of the oceans restored communication with the Atlantic Ocean.
The Caribbean 's floor is composed of sub-oceanic sediments of deep red clay in the deep basins and troughs. On continental slopes and ridges calcareous silts are found. Clay minerals likely having been deposited by the mainland river Orinoco and the Magdalena River. Deposits on the bottom of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico have a thickness of about 1 km (0.62 mi). Upper sedimentary layers relate to the period from the Mesozoic to the Cenozoic (250 million years ago to present) and the lower layers from the Paleozoic to the Mesozoic.
The Caribbean sea floor is divided into five basins separated from each other by underwater ridges and mountain ranges. Atlantic Ocean water enters the Caribbean through the Anegada Passage lying between the Lesser Antilles and Virgin Islands and the Windward Passage located between Cuba and Haiti. The Yucatán Channel between Mexico and Cuba links the Gulf of Mexico with the Caribbean. The deepest points of the sea lie in Cayman Trough with depths reaching approximately 7,686 m (25,220 ft). Despite this, the Caribbean Sea is considered a relatively shallow sea in comparison to other bodies of water.
The pressure of the South American Plate to the east of the Caribbean causes the region of the Lesser Antilles to have high volcanic activity. There was a very serious eruption of Mount Pelée in 1902 which caused many casualties.
The Caribbean sea floor is also home to two oceanic trenches: the Cayman Trench and Puerto Rico Trench, which put the area at a high risk of earthquakes. Underwater earthquakes pose a threat of generating tsunamis which could have a devastating effect on the Caribbean islands. Scientific data reveals that over the last 500 years the area has seen a dozen earthquakes above 7.5 magnitude. Most recently, a 7.1 earthquake struck Haiti on January 12, 2010.
The hydrology of the sea has a high level of homogeneity. Annual variations in monthly average water temperatures at the surface do not exceed 3 ° C (5.4 ° F). Over the past fifty years the Caribbean has gone through three stages: cooling until 1974; a cold phase with peaks during 1974 -- 1976 and 1984 -- 1986 then; a warming phase with an increase in temperature of 0.6 ° C (1.1 ° F) per year. Virtually all temperature extremes were associated with the phenomena of El Niño and La Niña. The salinity of seawater is about 3.6 % and its density is 1,023.5 -- 1,024.0 kg / m (63.90 -- 63.93 lb / cu ft). The surface water colour is blue - green to green.
The Caribbean 's depth in its wider basins and deep water temperatures are similar to those of the Atlantic. Atlantic deep water is thought to spill into the Caribbean and contribute to the general deep water of its sea. The surface water (30 feet; 100 m) acts as an extension of the northern Atlantic as the Guiana Current and part of the North Equatorial Current enter the sea on the east. On the western side of the sea the trade winds influence a northerly current which causes an upwelling and a rich fishery near Yucatán.
The Caribbean is home to about 9 % of the world 's coral reefs covering about 50,000 km (19,000 sq mi), most of which are located off the Caribbean Islands and the Central American coast. Among them stands out the Belize Barrier Reef with an area of 963 km (372 sq mi) which was declared a World Heritage Site in 1996. It forms part of the Great Mayan Reef also known as the MBRS and being over 1,000 km (600 mi) in length is the world 's second longest. It runs along the Caribbean coasts of Mexico, Belize, Guatemala and Honduras.
During the past ten years, unusually warm Caribbean waters have been increasingly threatening Caribbean coral reefs. Coral reefs support some of the most diverse marine habitats in the world, but they are fragile ecosystems. When tropical waters become unusually warm for extended periods of time, microscopic plants called zooxanthellae, which are symbiotic partners living within the coral polyp tissues, die off. These plants provide food for the corals, and give them their color. The result of the death and dispersal of these tiny plants is called coral bleaching, and can lead to the devastation of large areas of reef. Over 42 % of corals are completely bleached and 95 % are experiencing some type of whitening. Historically the Caribbean is thought to contain 14 % of the world 's coral reefs.
The habitats supported by the reefs are critical to such tourist activities as fishing and diving, and provide an annual economic value to Caribbean nations of US $ 3.1 -- 4.6 billion. Continued destruction of the reefs could severely damage the region 's economy. A Protocol of the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region came in effect in 1986 to protect the various endangered marine life of the Caribbean through forbidding human activities that would advance the continued destruction of such marine life in various areas. Currently this protocol has been ratified by 15 countries. Also, several charitable organisations have been formed to preserve the Caribbean marine life, such as Caribbean Conservation Corporation which seeks to study and protect sea turtles while educating others about them.
In connection with the foregoing, the Institute of Marine Sciences and Limnology of the National Autonomous University of Mexico, conducted a regional study, funded by the Department of Technical Cooperation of the International Atomic Energy Agency, in which specialists from 11 Latin American countries (Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Dominican Republic, Venezuela plus Jamaica) participated. The findings indicate that heavy metals such as mercury, arsenic, and lead, have been identified in the coastal zone of the Caribbean Sea. Analysis of toxic metals and hydrocarbons is based on the investigation of coastal sediments that have accumulated less than 50 meters deep during the last hundred and fifty years. The project results were presented in Vienna in the forum "Water Matters '', and the 2011 General Conference of said multilateral organization.
The Caribbean weather is influenced by the Gulf Stream and Humboldt Current ocean currents. The tropical location of the sea helps the water to maintain a warm temperature ranging from the low of 21 -- 26 ° C (70 -- 79 ° F) by the season.
The Caribbean is a focal area for many hurricanes within the Western Hemisphere. A series of low pressure systems develop off the West coast of Africa and make their way across the Atlantic Ocean. While most of these systems do not become tropical storms, some do. The tropical storms can develop into Atlantic hurricanes, often in the low pressure areas of the eastern Caribbean. The Caribbean hurricane season as a whole lasts from June through November, with the majority of hurricanes occurring during August and September. On average around 9 tropical storms form each year, with 5 reaching hurricane strength. According to the National Hurricane Center 385 hurricanes occurred in the Caribbean between 1494 and 1900.
Every year hurricanes represent a potential threat to the islands of the Caribbean, due to the extremely destructive nature of these powerful weather systems. Coral reefs can easily be damaged by violent wave action, and can be destroyed when a hurricane dumps sand or mud onto a reef. When this happens, the coral organisms are smothered and the reef dies and ultimately breaks apart.
The region has a high level of biodiversity and many species are endemic to the Caribbean.
The vegetation of the region is mostly tropical but differences in topography, soil and climatic conditions increase species diversity. Where there are porous limestone terraced islands these are generally poor in nutrients. It is estimated that 13,000 species of plants grow in the Caribbean of which 6,500 are endemic. For example, guaiac wood (Guaiacum officinale), the flower of which is the national flower of Jamaica and the Bayahibe rose (Pereskia quisqueyana) which is the national flower of the Dominican Republic and the ceiba which is the national tree of both Puerto Rico and Guatemala. The mahogany is the national tree of the Dominican Republic and Belize. The caimito (Chrysophyllum cainito) grows throughout the Caribbean. In coastal zones there are coconut palms and in lagoons and estuaries are found thick areas of black mangrove and red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle).
In shallow water flora and fauna is concentrated around coral reefs where there is little variation in water temperature, purity and salinity. Leeward side of lagoons provide areas of growth for sea grasses. Turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum) is common in the Caribbean as is manatee grass (Syringodium filiforme) which can grow together as well as in fields of single species at depths up to 20 m (66 ft). Another type shoal grass (Halodule wrightii) grows on sand and mud surfaces at depths of up to 5 m (16 ft). In brackish water of harbours and estuaries at depths less than 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) widgeongrass (Ruppia maritima) grows. Representatives of three species belonging to the genus Halophila, (Halophila baillonii, Halophila engelmannii and Halophila decipiens) are found at depths of up to 30 m (98 ft) except for Halophila engelmani which does not grow below 5 m (16 ft) and is confined to the Bahamas, Florida, the Greater Antilles and the western part of the Caribbean. Halophila baillonii has been found only in the Lesser Antilles.
Marine biota in the region have representatives of both the Indian and Pacific oceans which were caught in the Caribbean before the emergence of the Isthmus of Panama four million years ago. In the Caribbean Sea there are around 1,000 documented species of fish, including sharks (bull shark, tiger shark, silky shark and Caribbean reef shark), flying fish, giant oceanic manta ray, angel fish, spotfin butterflyfish, parrotfish, Atlantic Goliath grouper, tarpon and moray eels. Throughout the Caribbean there is industrial catching of lobster and sardines (off the coast of Yucatán Peninsula).
There are 90 species of mammals in the Caribbean including sperm whales, humpback whales and dolphins. The island of Jamaica is home to seals and manatees. The Caribbean monk seal which lived in the Caribbean is considered extinct. The solenodon is endangered.
There are 500 species of reptiles (94 % of which are endemic). Islands are inhabited by some endemic species such as rock iguanas and American crocodile. The blue iguana, endemic to the island of Grand Cayman, is endangered. The green iguana is invasive to Grand Cayman. The Mona ground iguana which inhabits the island of Mona, Puerto Rico, is endangered. The rhinoceros iguana from the island of Hispaniola which is shared between Haiti and the Dominican Republic is also endangered. The region has several types of sea turtle (loggerhead, green turtle, hawksbill, leatherback turtle, Atlantic ridley and olive ridley). Some species are threatened with extinction. Their populations have been greatly reduced since the 17th century -- the number of green turtles has declined from 91 million to 300,000 and hawksbill turtles from 11 million to less than 30,000 by 2006.
All 170 species of amphibians that live in the region are endemic. The habitats of almost all members of the toad family, poison dart frogs, tree frogs and leptodactylidae (a type of frog) are limited to only one island. The Golden coqui is in serious threat of extinction.
In the Caribbean 600 species of birds have been recorded of which 163 are endemic such as the tody, Fernandina 's flicker and palmchat. The American yellow warbler is found in many areas as is the green heron. Of the endemic species 48 are threatened with extinction including the Puerto Rican amazon, yellow - breasted crake and the Zapata wren. According to Birdlife International in 2006 in Cuba 29 species of bird are in danger of extinction and two species officially extinct. The black - fronted piping guan is endangered as is the plain pigeon. The Antilles along with Central America lie in the flight path of migrating birds from North America so the size of populations is subject to seasonal fluctuations. In the forests are found parrots, bananaquit and toucans. Over the open sea can be seen frigatebirds and tropicbirds.
The Caribbean region has seen a significant increase in human activity since the colonization period. The sea is one of the largest oil production areas in the world, producing approximately 170 million tons per year. The area also generates a large fishing industry for the surrounding countries, accounting for 500,000 tonnes (490,000 long tons; 550,000 short tons) of fish a year.
Human activity in the area also accounts for a significant amount of pollution, The Pan American Health Organization estimated in 1993 that only about 10 % of the sewage from the Central American and Caribbean Island countries is properly treated before being released into the sea.
The Caribbean region supports a large tourism industry. The Caribbean Tourism Organization calculates that about 12 million people a year visit the area, including (in 1991 -- 1992) about 8 million cruise ship tourists. Tourism based upon scuba diving and snorkeling on coral reefs of many Caribbean islands makes a major contribution to their economies.
The Caribbean is the setting for countless literary efforts often related to piracy acts and swashbuckling. One memorable work of pulp fiction has in its title a geographic feature unique in its way to the islands: Fear Cay, the eleventh Doc Savage adventure by Lester Dent. Many James Bond adventures were set there. It is also well known as the location of the Pirates of the Caribbean films, featuring Port Royal. Peter Matthiessen 's Far Tortuga (1975) chronicles the adventures of a turtling crew in the late 1960s.
Cayo de Agua in Los Roques archipelago, Venezuela
The Anguilla island.
Sunrise over the south beach of Jamaica
the island of San Andrés
Roatán, Bay Islands, Honduras
Cayo Largo, Cuba
Marie Galante, Guadeloupe
Scotts Head, Dominica
Great Blue Hole off the coast of Belize
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who played tony and ziva's daughter on ncis | Tony DiNozzo and Ziva David - wikipedia
Tony DiNozzo and Ziva David are fictional characters from the American police procedural drama NCIS. Tony, an original character, is portrayed by Michael Weatherly, and Ziva, who first appeared in the third season, is portrayed by Cote de Pablo. Frequently referred to by the portmanteau "Tiva '' (for Tony and Ziva), the characters ' flirtation and the idea of them eventually beginning a relationship became a subject of interest among viewers, and by 2010, TV Guide reported that "many fans have become obsessed with the romantic tension between Weatherly 's character and co-worker Ziva ''. Focus and media coverage on the pair escalated over the years, particularly after NCIS became the most watched television series in America during its tenth season.
The characters were initially scripted as having a "cat and mouse '' relationship, something that continues into the later seasons. The pairing develops at a slow pace throughout the series and is dealt a number of obstacles. This includes Tony 's "commitment phobias '', Ziva 's trust issues, a series of other love interests, and Ziva being taken captive and presumed dead between Seasons 6 and 7.
In the season 13 finale, Ziva is killed by a mortar attack arranged by former CIA Agent Trent Kort, and Tony learns that he and Ziva have a daughter, who she named after her sister, Tali. These events drive Tony to leave NCIS to care for their daughter.
Michael Weatherly was cast for the role of Anthony "Tony '' DiNozzo in 2003 and appeared in every episode of the show 's first 13 seasons. The character is portrayed as "complex '': he is a former Baltimore homicide detective with a "heroic spirit '' as well as a "total dinosaur in terms of sexual politics ''.
In the second season finale, NCIS series regular Caitlin Todd was killed off after Sasha Alexander, her portrayer, decided to permanently leave the show. Shortly afterwards, series creator Donald P. Bellisario voiced intentions to replace Todd with another female lead, whom he stated would be "someone foreign who brings a whole new attitude ''. He expressed hopes that the new character would be drastically different from Todd, who was "kind of uptight ''.
One aspect Bellisario wanted to change was the way the character would interact with Tony. Though Tony and Kate had a "wonderful dynamic '', he ultimately thought that "(she) treated (him) like a big brother '' and decided "to bring in a character that causes Tony to have to sit back and not quite be able to handle her ''.
Cote de Pablo, who was one of the last to audition, was set to perform opposite Michael Weatherly to test for chemistry. Weatherly improvised during the audition by brushing her hair back and commenting, "You remind me of Salma Hayek. '' De Pablo, who was initially upset by the departure from the script, stayed in character and "dismissed him completely ''. She later said in an interview, "He totally did it with the other (actresses). One other girl sort of flirted back with him, and she was sort of open. Which is what actors do! They 're sort of open. But I got lucky and got the part because I responded the way they felt was right. ''
According to Bellisario, CBS chief executive Leslie Moonves "took one look at her and said, Wow! '' Co-executive producer Charles Floyd Johnson commented, "When you get actors who really listen and respond organically in the moment to what they 're hearing, sometimes magic happens. They really seemed to get that immediately, and that does n't always happen. ''
Producers eventually decided to make de Pablo 's character, who was given "the arresting name of Ziva David '', an Israeli agent. Bellisario had previously discussed possibly scripting her as European or Australian. She is introduced as having a soldier mentality and as "(someone) who was comfortable in her own sexuality and used to working with men on an equal footing ''.
Tony and Ziva first meet in the "Kill Ari '' two - part story arc at the beginning of Season 3 during the manhunt for Ari Haswari, Kate 's killer and Ziva 's half - brother. Michael Weatherly and Cote de Pablo both point to "Under Covers '', the eighth episode of that season, as the catalyst for the flirtation between the characters. The episode involves Tony and Ziva being sent undercover as a married couple, an assignment that requires them to simulate sexual relations in order to solidify their cover. De Pablo commented, "Michael and I talked about all of those scenes right before we did them. We had a totally different way of looking at it. In our minds, we thought the characters were n't faking anything. They just got carried away. Then all of the sudden after that, they saw each other in a different light. '' Weatherly discussed the creation of the "Under Covers '' scenario:
"This episode was so much fun to shoot. Cote de Pablo, who plays Ziva, came to me right before we were shooting the first scene where we kissed, and said, ' I 've never kissed anyone on camera before. ' I was expecting this timid little bird kiss, like a little peck, but she was like a lioness -- she practically ate my head off! This is where TIVA (Tony + Ziva) started. We were told to really have fun with it, they wanted a sexy thing happening, and Cote delivered. I was just sort of along for the ride. And let 's be honest, three out of the four letters in ' TIVA ' are from Ziva, so what is the ' T ' then? The crucible, is it the cross? I do n't think so. ''
At the time, Bellisario said that he "kind of (likes) what 's going on now '' and that it was unlikely that the relationship would be taken further any time in the immediate future. De Pablo agreed, saying, "I would think if the characters get together, the whole mystery would be done. I think it will be a lot more fun to play the tension. '' She elaborated in another interview, "My character has sort of this understated flirtation with Michael 's character, Tony. She gets jealous, but I think she would never admit it or hook up with someone in the workplace. He scares her to death. He is the epitome of the American man and all of the things that come out of his mouth are brutally stupid. ''
Tony is renowned for his juvenile sense of humor and "commitment phobias '' while Ziva is characterized as "a tease '' early on, a factor that de Pablo enjoyed playing "because (she 's) so not that in real life ''. Some aspects of Ziva 's personality disturb him, such as the fact that she sleeps with a gun in her hand and snores very loudly. However, as co-workers, they respect each other despite their frequent exchange of sarcastic remarks. Both have had a string of failed romances.
Team leader Gibbs (Mark Harmon) resigns in Hiatus (Part II), the third season finale, and appoints Tony as his replacement. During the 2006 summer break, it was reported that Ziva would fall under suspicion of being a spy in the fall premiere, and in the opening episode, "Shalom '', she is framed by the Iranian government for the murder of a terrorist in FBI custody and the two agents guarding him. When she initially goes to the Israeli embassy to report their deaths, which she witnessed, Mossad Officer Michael Bashan asks her directly, "Did you or did you not sleep with him? '' In response to her confusion, Bashan tells her that he knows that Tony has been visiting her apartment at least once a week for the past three months and that Mossad officers have been spying on her, evidently on orders from her father, Mossad Director Eli David.
Throughout the episode, Tony vigorously defends Ziva 's innocence to the FBI, as well as berating any agent who dares question her loyalty when her car is found at a bombing in downtown Georgetown. She is eventually cleared of all wrongdoing. Though Ziva never addresses Bashan 's accusation and her relationship with Tony is left undefined, there is no overt romantic connection in subsequent episodes.
Shortly afterwards, Tony begins dating Jeanne Benoit (Scottie Thompson) and is shown to be on the verge of a serious commitment for the first time within the series. His romance with Jeanne continues to progress throughout the year, and he remains tight - lipped about it when his colleagues notice the change in his behavior. When questioned about the effects this would have on Tony and Ziva 's relationship, de Pablo commented, "Am I just being jealous? I do n't know. I still love him very much, but I 've sort of thrown away that possibility because I think he 's really struggling with some immense feelings for somebody else. '' In an interview with Chicago Tribune, she clarified that Ziva "does have feelings for DiNozzo, '' but that she was uncertain that this would be addressed.
In the Season 4 finale, "Angel of Death '', it is made apparent that Tony and Jeanne 's relationship was orchestrated by NCIS Director Jenny Shepard (Lauren Holly) in hopes of catching Jeanne 's father, an arms dealer, though Tony had fallen in love while on assignment. Jeanne breaks it off following this revelation, and their storyline is ultimately given closure in the fifth season episode "Internal Affairs ''.
Bellisario stepped down as executive producer in May 2007 after series star Mark Harmon threatened to walk due to alleged "overly long production days '', and co-executive producer Charles Floyd Johnson and head writer Shane Brennan took over afterwards.
Following the fatal shooting of Director Shepard in the fifth season finale, the NCIS team is disbanded by the new Director Vance: McGee is sent to cyber crimes, Ziva is returned to Israel, and Tony is deployed on an aircraft carrier.
Season 6 focuses more on Ziva and Tony, but leaves their relationship undefined. Gibbs manages to have Ziva and McGee transferred back to the team in the premiere, but Tony is still acting as agent afloat on the USS Seahawk. In the following episode, Ziva accompanies Gibbs onto the Seahawk as part of a murder investigation and notices that Tony has pictures of her in a bikini pinned up in his room. After the investigation is closed, his deployment is ended prematurely and he is allowed to return to the team in the conclusion of the episode.
As the season progresses, Ziva seems to have become involved with someone while in Israel but refuses to discuss it. In "Nine Lives '', after she plans a visit to Israel, Tony looks through her desk and finds a picture of an unidentified man (Merik Tadros). Before she leaves, he tells her to have a good trip ("Nisiya Tova '') in Hebrew, demonstrating that he had at least made some effort to learn that phrase. In "Cloak '', Ziva disobeys Gibbs ' orders to not engage during a war game, attacking the guards to defend Tony. Later they both say that they are "tired of pretending '': Tony about the politics in the hunt for the mole within the team, which required the team to withhold information from each other, and Ziva for reasons undisclosed.
Producers and writers for NCIS were initially divided over how to proceed with Tadros ' character. In January 2009, some were suggesting possibly making him a relative of Ziva, an idea Cote de Pablo opposed. It was also proposed that Ziva would "stop toying with (Tony) completely '' which would "drive him even more insane ''. De Pablo relayed, "We 're going to play around with the idea that it could possibly be real love, and see how (he) deals with it. '' In March, executive producer Shane Brennan stated, "You 've got what you might want to call a triangle. It 's a triangle with very, very pointy ends. Someone 's going to get hurt. '' He continued, "Something tragic will happen to Tony. Something tragic will happen to Ziva as well. ''
This comes to a head when Tadros appeared again portraying Mossad Officer Michael Rivkin in the "Legend '' two - part, which also served as a backdoor pilot for the show 's spin - off, NCIS: Los Angeles. He arrives in the United States during the NCIS team 's hunt for members of a terrorist sleeper cell. Working independently, he draws ire from the agency when he kills suspects rather than bringing them in for questioning. Tony begins to doubt Ziva 's loyalty to NCIS when she continues to defend Rivkin, and it becomes apparent by the end of Part II that she is involved in a relationship with him as the two are seen lying together in bed in the last few seconds of "Legend Part 2 ''.
More details were released in the days preceding the finale. Michael Weatherly disclosed, "The way this season is ending, and what 's gon na happen with Ziva and Tony and Rivkin, it 's pretty massive and explosive, and it 's gon na span four episodes. '' De Pablo added, "We could not be farther away from kissing. I 'm telling you, it 's not ' I hate you ' (kissing sound) anger; it 's ' I want to kill you ' anger. Like, ' I want to shoot you in the head, but instead I 'm gon na put my gun on your knee ' anger.... He does something to her that is almost unforgivable. However, the reason he does it is because he truly believes it 's going to help her. Little does he know that he almost kills her. '' When asked how the storyline would affect Tony and Ziva 's interactions, Tadros replied, "I think that love can hurt and heal. In this case, we 'll have opportunity to see both of those things take place. I do n't want to say too much, but... I think it will only make their connection stronger, as they learn a lot more about each other. ''
Viewers speculated that Ziva 's romance with Rivkin was "arranged '' and something that she was "trapped '' in. Tadros responded:
"Well, with the underworld of espionage, you would never really know. They could easily have been paired and had to be in love and then had to learn to love each other... The way I 've always approached it is that Rivkin loves Ziva. They 've always wanted to add some suspense and mystery to all of it, but I would always say to the directors, ' How could I not love her? ' But he also has a job to do. And so does she. (Executive producer) Shane (Brennan) is a genius, so it 's been a great pleasure to just go along for this ride. I 'm excited to watch the finale (airing May 19) myself just to see how it all plays out! ''
Tony confronts a drunken Rivkin at Ziva 's apartment in the episode directly prior to the finale. When he attempts to arrest Rivkin for killing the leader of the terrorist cell in Los Angeles and also an ICE agent (which Mossad leader Eli David later reveals was an accident), a fight breaks out between the two men which eventually results in Tony being forced to shoot Rivkin in self - defense due to the fact that Rivkin is about to stab Tony with a piece of glass. Though he had acted in self - defense, Rivkin later succumbs to his injuries and dies with his death having serious repercussions for Tony and Ziva 's relationship, culminating in Ziva leaving NCIS to resume working for Mossad in the finale, "Aliyah ''. She is quickly assigned to take Rivkin 's place on a mission to take down a terrorist in Somalia. In the closing moments of the episode, she is shown to have been captured and tortured nearly beyond recognition by a terrorist demanding information on NCIS.
Brennan reportedly kept the cliffhanger ending a secret from most of the cast, saying that "those pages were only in one copy of the script ''. Shortly after "Aliyah '' aired, it was assured that Ziva "will be back next season. But she 'll be a changed woman. ''
During the summer hiatus, de Pablo admitted that she was to a point tired of the producers teasing the pairing and said, "I wish the writers would just make it easy for us and just say, ' You know, go into the elevator and kiss passionately. ' Or, (have us say) say, ' I do n't like you. ' '' She added, "But I 've always thought that, deep inside, Tony loves Ziva and Ziva loves Tony, but she 's almost ashamed of saying it because he 's so stupid. In the best of ways. That personal that he comes out with, that frat boy thing -- he 's hiding constantly from the truth. It 's just a big facade and she sees right through it. ''
In Season 7 premiere "Truth or Consequences '', Tony initiates a mission of revenge against the terrorists believed to be responsible for Ziva 's (presumed) death, traveling to Somalia along with Gibbs and McGee to avenge her murder. After intentionally allowing himself to be captured and interrogated, he finds that Ziva is actually still alive, having been held hostage the entire time. Upon being brought into the room to talk to him, she is shown to have been severely beaten and very weak as well as unsure of how to react at Tony 's presence. Ziva asks why Tony is in Somalia, saying that he should not have come. Tony, under truth serum, first deflects. When Ziva asks again, he replies, "I could n't live without you, I guess. ''
Eventually, Gibbs kills their captor with a long range head shot, allowing them to return safely to the US. In the following episode, there seems to be a great degree of awkwardness between them, which is ultimately resolved when Ziva confronts Tony in the men 's room and thanks him, saying he would "always have her back '' before kissing him on the cheek.
Though Tony and Ziva 's "will they / wo n't they '' tension appeared to progress during the first few episodes of the seventh season, Cote de Pablo had already stated that it would not be resolved in the immediate future. Michael Weatherly opined that putting the two characters together at the time would be "Kryptonite '' due to Ziva 's assassin background.
Ziva resigns from Mossad in the fourth episode of the season, "Good Cop, Bad Cop '', and applies to become a full - fledged NCIS agent, effectively becoming the "probie '' on the team.
In December 2009, TV Fanatic announced that "the January 26 episode finds Tony and Ziva hopping a plane to the most romantic city on earth. The city of light, and of love. That 's right, Ziva and Tony in Paris! You would n't believe it, but as if that were n't enough, their French hotel totally screws up the reservation and the two bad - ass agents end up... gulp... sharing a room together. '' Executive producer Shane Brennan disclosed, "There will be a realization that the spark is still there. It does n't mean that something is going to be resolved, but it does mean that the journey may have started again. It 's a long road back. When you think about what they went through, for them to resolve what happened and come to terms with that, it 's a long road back. ''
During the episode, Ziva tells a witness that she and Tony shared a hotel room, and that she took the couch so she would n't have to hear Tony whine about his back. Tony in turn tells McGee that he took the couch. Ziva asks him why he lied and he returns the question. There was much speculation on the part of fans about whether the characters might have shared more than was divulged, but Weatherly said in response, "The truth of what happened is probably something that can be discovered inside the episode itself. If you really listen to what they say, I think it is pretty clear what happened: Nothing. '' He clarified that Tony and Ziva had "a tremendous amount of fun '' in Paris and that, "Ziva had more fun with Tony than she thought she was going to have, which maybe shocked her a little bit, because she was so angry at him after he killed her boyfriend last year. '' Cote de Pablo added, "Michael has his views of what happened in Paris. I have mine. We have n't discussed it. But all I can say is it was good. '' Shortly afterwards, Glenn Diaz from BuddyTV reported that the cast was divided on whether or not the characters should be allowed to progress beyond "unfulfilled sexual tension ''.
In the following episode "Masquerade '', Ziva mentions her time in Somalia, but refuses to give Tony much more than a few terse statements about it, though he was obviously willing to listen to her. In the final episode of Season 7, "Rule Fifty - One '', Tony misses Ziva 's citizenship ceremony due to an unexpected assignment from Director Vance, despite his personal promises to her that he would be there.
Executive producer Shane Brennan left NCIS to focus on the spinoff, NCIS: Los Angeles, and was replaced by Gary Glasberg in 2011.
The series introduced new love interests for both Tony and Ziva in the latter half of Season 8, and in February 2011, Michael Ausiello from TVLine announced that Ziva 's boyfriend "Ray arrives in this season 's 20th episode and is described as a handsome, charming, intelligent federal agent of Mediterranean or Latin American descent. He has a strong, nice - guy demeanor but -- I 'm quoting from the casting notice here -- ' there 's a hint of a mystery behind his smile. ' '' A week later, Glasberg described the character as a "fun, smart, exciting addition '', and Michael Weatherly commented, "I think it 's going to be interesting. Tony cares about Ziva and wants to make sure she 's not mixed up with the wrong kind of guy, so he 's going to be watchful and protective of her. '' After Enrique Murciano was cast for the role of Ray Cruz, Cote de Pablo said, "You never know if you 're gon na have chemistry, and since I had no say in the casting, I was sort of waiting to meet this famous Enrique Murciano. '' She went on to describe his appearance in the show: "There 's a lovely scene in which he basically brings his interpretation of ' fancy ' candlelight dinner, which takes place by the vending machines at NCIS. It 's really funny. There 's kissing involved. We kept it light and we kept it fun, and we kept it like two people who are genuinely in to each other and wanting to move things along. It 's about what 's going on between the lines. These two people are touchy - feely, and that 's different for Ziva. ''
The character of Erica Jane "EJ '' Barrett (Sarah Jane Morris) was set to be introduced in the episode "One Last Score '', which also marked Weatherly 's directing debut. Weatherly divulged, "With the appearance of EJ, suddenly there 's a renewed spirit that Tony has always had in him -- it 's what made him to go Africa and rescue Ziva with McGee. (Sometimes) he acts like a goofball because that 's what people expect, but in this episode he comes away from that place. We 'll see what the audience thinks, but for me, he feels potential and possibility in a way that he has n't for years. EJ is a mirror, so he sees that hope for himself again. '' He added, "She 's the diametric opposite of Ziva -- physically, and in her demeanor, her way of being. She has her eccentricities as well, which makes her adorable to Tony and highly irritating to Ziva. ''
Around the same time, a "major serial killer plot '' was launched that would center on "a murdering psychopath '' called the Port to Port killer. TVLine reported, "this menace will prove to be extremely formidable -- so much so that Gibbs will be forced to expand his team. ''
At the end of EJ 's first episode, she begins a sexual relationship with Tony. She is a team leader, having accepted the assignment in Rota, Spain that Tony had turned down several years prior. Ray, a CIA agent, first appears in "Two - Faced '' after having evidently dated Ziva for several months. Ziva abruptly ends their relationship after learning that he had lied to her directly about his reasoning for being in Washington, D.C. and by omission about his role in the Port to Port killer case.
In the episode "Swan Song '', former NCIS agent Mike Franks is killed by the Port to Port killer, who is identified as Lieutenant Jonas Cobb, and Ziva turns to Tony for comfort while the team is grieving over his death. She is kidnapped by Cobb in the following episode, the Season 8 finale, and Tony shows great concern. When EJ assures him that they will find Ziva, he replies that "it 's just different for some of us ''.
EJ takes an extended leave of absence with the conclusion of the season, ending her affair with Tony. Ziva and Ray repair their relationship somewhat, and he gives her an empty ring box as a "promise '' before leaving for a long - term assignment. Glasberg commented, "Ziva and Ray are a little open - ended at the moment. There is n't any closure to it. We 'll have to see where it leads, but I think he was pretty clear that he has a job to do at the moment, and that 's gon na be the primary focus for him. '' The use of the ring box was criticized by viewers as an "empty gesture ''.
EJ returns for a guest appearance in the Season 9 episode "Housekeeping ''. After a fallout with Tony, she tells him that Ziva respects him and cares about him. He at first deflects but then says, "Surround yourself with people you would give your own life for. '' At the end of the show, he and Ziva have a brief discussion about their relationship but are interrupted when Ray calls her. Ray returns after spending several months on his overseas assignment in the following episode and proposes to Ziva, much to her shock.
Glasberg said that Tony would not openly oppose the possibility of her getting engaged, explaining, "Tony wants Ziva to be happy. He 's protective of her and cares about her and has feelings for her, and, at the end of the day, wants to make sure that she 's safe and happy with the direction of her life. '' Though Ziva accepts Ray 's proposal after some hesitation, she confronts him and breaks off the engagement after realizing that he had killed a woman on American soil while attempting to rectify a failure from overseas.
In the ninth season finale, "Till Death Do Us Part '', a bomb is planted by domestic terrorist Harper Dearing. Tony and Ziva, feeling bad about missing Jimmy and Breena 's wedding, try to cheer each other up by joking about how awful weddings are -- an exchange that begins to take on meaning when they become wistful about "the vow, the ring, the kiss, the ketubah... '' and eloping instead of dealing with all the fuss. Later, when the Navy Yard is seconds from exploding, Ziva refuses to leave the building without Tony. The bomb goes off while they are still in the elevator; Ziva and Tony fall to the ground, with Tony 's arm around her waist, and their free hands clasped tightly as the elevator appears to crash.
Glasberg stated that the Season 10 premiere would "pick up with them in that elevator '' and that there would be "some conversations ''. When questioned about the framing of the situation, he replied that their time trapped in the elevator would be the "trajectory '' for a more in depth look at the relationship later in the tenth season. He added, "The consensus was to do that more of that this season, to peel back some layers and find little moments -- and (ever since then) we 're finding opportunities I think the Tony and Ziva fans will really enjoy. ''
The tenth season was promoted as "Season X '', and Michael Weatherly dubbed it the "Year of Tiva '', saying, "This is the year. Trust me. This is the year. '' Cote de Pablo was more apprehensive and said, "I think that is maybe Michael and his wishful thinking. I 've had years in which I thought, ' Oh my God, this a Tiva year, ' and there have been years he thought were Tiva years.... The truth is, we have yet to find out where that storyline is going to go. I think they 're toying around with us like they always do. ''
However, shortly after the season began, TV Guide announced, "In a November episode of CBS ' NCIS, the origins of Tony 's fascination with cinema will be explained -- and strengthen his bond with Ziva. '' This involved him finding an old camera with photographs of his mother and later showing them to Ziva. Weatherly stated, "She was really the beginning of his love for movies and why that is such a deep, penetrating part of who he is. The last gift she gave him was to turn to the movies as a moral compass. '' De Pablo divulged, "We end up going deeper with each other than ever before. It 's a profound, soft, vulnerable moment. ''
This was followed by "Ziva reminiscing with her partner about her dead sister (Tali) ''. In "Shell Shock (Part II) '', she attempts to purchase tickets to the opera but is unable due to it being sold out. Tony, believing her to be going on a date, badgers her until she admits that she goes to the opera every year on her deceased sister 's birthday, as Tali had wanted to be a singer. Unable to obtain tickets for her himself, he makes a CD of opera music and gives it to her to listen to.
In the eleventh episode of Season 10 and the first of 2013, "Shabbat Shalom '', Ziva 's estranged father Eli is killed in a house attack, along with Director Vance 's wife Jackie. Glasberg discussed the ramifications that would be shown in the following episode, "Shiva '', saying, "There 's a part of Ziva that 's wounded, and broken, and Tony is there for her -- as a friend, and as a coworker... We end up back in Tony 's apartment, and there 's some really lovely, emotional stuff that happens. '' He added, "You 'll really see Tony be there for her and support her and emotionally be strong for her. It 's all the things I hope that people who enjoy the Tony - Ziva relationship will look for. '' Throughout the episode, Tony attempts to comfort Ziva, taking her to his apartment as a precaution against the possibility of her being the next target and bringing her long - time Israeli friend Shmeil Pinkhas to stay with them. Near the end of the episode, he comes to see her off as she prepares to fly to Israel for Eli 's funeral and assures her in Hebrew that she is not alone.
When asked if the dynamic between the characters would continue to progress, de Pablo remarked, "I have a feeling that they 're going to want to play with that (relationship) a little bit more and see where that goes. I think they 're always testing that relationship and they 're always throwing things at it to see how far they can take (it). It 's already a very complex relationship. They 're very close; they 're very good friends; and they trust each other. So, I think the complexity of it all can go further and I think they 're going to explore more. '' Pauley Perrette, who portrays series regular Abby Sciuto, openly opposed it and said, "I do n't want any of our cast members to be in relationships on screen at all. I like things the way they are, so I 'm not in (to) that. I 'm petitioning against it. ''
"Berlin '', set later in the season, features Tony and Ziva departing for Germany to track down Ilan Bodnar, her father 's killer. Before the episode aired, Glasberg disclosed that they would share a slow dance while there, resulting in "a very personal moment of vulnerability where her guard goes down and she lets herself melt into his arms ''. De Pablo added, "You also see (Tony) as a man Teddy Bear -- like, a very sweet but manly man, a guy who 's really taking care of a situation and really wants to make it better, a guy who 's not looking for the joke or is uncomfortable staring at a woman or reaching out to hold her hand. '' This is highlighted in the closing scenes as the two of them drive home from the airport, and Ziva explains her animosity towards Orli Elbaz (Marina Sirtis), the new director of Mossad: Elbaz was the reason her parents split up. She tells Tony, "If it were not for Orli, things would be different. I would be a different person. '' Tony then takes her hand, and Ziva intertwines their fingers together. Tony replies, "Then I should catch her before she leaves, you know, and thank her. '' The episode ends with a cliffhanger when an unknown vehicle crashes into them, leaving their fates unknown.
De Pablo described the filming of the dancing scene:
"Michael and I crafted that scene. We felt the moment was very intimate, and we thought that just looking at each other was enough. And the director kept saying, ' No, I want the moment to be longer, ' and we had to sort of fight the director. Finally, I had to say, ' Listen, if there was any more time of staring into each other 's eyes, it would be like, cut to a hotel room. '... so finding the length of the moment became a topic. We certainly enjoyed it. I told (Tony) -- without really realizing what I was saying and then I realized it came out the wrong way -- I said, ' God, I felt a little drunk when I was staring at you. ' I 'm not sure if it was because by the end of the day we were both so tired or if it was because it was just such a magical moment. ''
They both survive the crash, and despite being urged to back off by various other characters, Ziva ultimately kills Bodnar in the following episode. This leads to DOD investigator Richard Parsons (Colin Hanks) initiating a witch hunt against the team and Ziva being aggressively interrogated about her conduct in the aftermath of her father 's death. When he accuses her of sleeping with an old friend while in Israel, Tony, who had been viewing the interrogation from the observation room, abruptly ends it and forces Parsons out. When he approaches Ziva about the accusation, she admits that it was a "moment of weakness '' because she felt alone. This obviously hurts Tony, and he says, "My Hebrew must not be as good as I thought because I could 've sworn when I dropped you off at the airport, I told you you are not alone ''. Ziva recalls this, and Tony says that they must have different interpretations before walking away. Despite this, he later confronts Parsons, demanding that Ziva be left alone and calling her his best friend.
In the following episode, the Season 10 finale, tension exists until Ziva privately tells Tony that she is sorry if she hurt him during the ordeal, that she cares too much about their friendship, and that she does not want things to be awkward between them. He kisses her forehead and assures her that "nothing is awkward between friends ''.
Despite concerns to the contrary, Glasberg denied that Ziva "friend zoned '' Tony in the finale. He explained, "It might not satisfy everyone out there, but I think we 're getting there -- she even reaches up with her hand and puts it very gently, and in a lovely way, on his shoulder before that kiss happens. I think there are gestures being made that have definitely advanced from where we were a year ago. '' In response to complaints about the pace of the development, he said, "There are a lot of fans who would like to see that story advance much faster than we 're doing it, but I firmly believe a little goes a long way and there are ways to tease it and to flirt that are just as significant and just as meaningful. '' He maintained, "We made huge strides. Their relationship has evolved, has changed. They 're a little more open with each other and a little more emotionally connected, certainly more than where we were at the beginning of the season. (The couple 's closeness) may not be the big leap that a lot of people would like it to be, but I also feel like we 're enjoying the pace at which this is happening. That 's not to say we 're not headed in the direction everyone would like to go, but I think we 're getting there. It 's very complicated when two agents who are working together get into a relationship, and that 's something that (Tony and Ziva) would be very conscious of. So I think they would tread lightly, which is why, in theory, we 're treading lightly and being very careful about the steps that we take. ''
On July 10, 2013 it was announced that Cote De Pablo would not be returning to her role as Ziva David for the upcoming 11th season. De Pablo stated "I 've had 8 great years with NCIS and Ziva David. I have huge respect and affection for Mark, Gary, Michael, David, Rocky, Pauley, Brian, Sean, all of the team and CBS. I look forward to finishing Ziva 's story. '' However it was announced that Cote De Pablo would return for the beginning of season 11 to wrap up Ziva 's storyline. Show runner Gary Glasberg stated in an interview with EW that: "The amazing resolution you 're going to see is pretty damn heart - wrenching and we 're incredibly proud of it, '' he writes. "Prepare yourselves for a moment in television history. Images that will end up in the archives. I could n't be happier with how my NCIS family stepped up and did some of the most emotional work we 've ever done. ''
On September 24, 2013 the episode "Whiskey Tango Foxtrot '' aired and on October 1, 2013 "Past, Present, and Future '' aired, opening with the introduction of a new threat: Benham Parsa and also the Brotherhood of Doubt.
In the episode, "Past, Present and Future '', Tony heads to Israel to search for Ziva but eventually finds no sign of her, although a few months later he finds her in hiding at the very farmhouse where she was born, Ziva having gone to examine herself and her past.
Tony and Ziva share their first on - screen kiss as themselves on the tarmac in Tel - Aviv. However, in 2013, showrunner Gary Glasberg told TVLine the characters had shared another smooch in a previous season, but it did not make the cut. The couple previously kissed in season 3, episode 8 Under Covers during a covert operation as married assassins.
Despite Tony 's efforts to persuade Ziva to return to the United States and NCIS, Ziva instead chooses to stay in Israel, with Tony reluctantly returning to the United States although Tony manages to find Ziva 's Star of David necklace in his jacket pocket.
In the season 13 finale "Family First, '' after learning of Ziva 's death in the bombing of her Israel home caused by Trent Kort, the NCIS crew mourn her. Tony is then introduced to his almost two - year - old daughter, Tali. Conflicted, Tony asks Mossad Director Orli Elbaz about Ziva 's motivations for not telling him about Tali. Orli tells him that she wanted to, especially as Tali grew but that she feared he would not be pleased, to which Tony tells her "Then she never knew me at all. '' Later in the episode, Tony finds a picture of him and Ziva in Paris, to which Tali points to each of them, saying "Ima '' and "Abba '' indicating that she knew who he was, her father.
After killing Kort, Tony and Gibbs have a heart to heart, where DiNozzo informs him that he is moving on from NCIS, with his daughter, his family.
Evidently we have a daughter, me and Ziva. She knew me better than I thought. When McGee called, something hit me. I got this feeling, something I 'd never felt before. In that moment, I did n't want Trent Kort dead. All I wanted to do was take care of Tali. Everything she had in her life was gone. Except me. I 'm it. I 'm everything to that little girl now. And I 've never been anybody 's everything before. But that 's it. I 'm done now. I 'm going to take Tali to Israel, look for some answers. Then I 'm going to take her to Paris. Ziva loves Paris. And you got ta believe what you got ta believe. (holds out his right hand as if to offer Gibbs a handshake) I 'd say thank you but it does n't quite cover it, boss.
Speaking of Ziva 's fate, Glasberg stated "Tremendous thought was put into every element of what you saw last night... down to the lines of dialogue, the specific wordage. At the end of the day, I leave it in the hands of our fantastic fans and audience ''.
Over the seasons, Tony and Ziva 's flirtation attracted much media attention, commentary, and praise. Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune wrote that the characters ' "love - hate banter gives the show extra zip '' during Cote de Pablo 's first year on the show. They have been called a "power couple '' by Entertainment Weekly and "one of TV 's hottest couples '' by TV Guide. In May 2009, they were pictured on the cover of TV Guide Magazine and described as "TV 's hottest love - hate relationship ''.
Fondness for the pairing led to a dislike for some of Tony and Ziva 's other love interests on the show; by contrast, EJ, Tony 's ex, became well - received after encouraging him to pursue a relationship with Ziva.
The pairing 's slow progression was discussed by reviewers, and Ariane Lange from BuzzFeed referred to it as "their sexual - tension - ridden not - quite - love affair ''. Some viewers became frustrated with the show 's seeming unwillingness to allow the characters to enter an actual relationship. Ryan expressed sentiment on the matter in 2009: "It 's hard not to enjoy the chemistry between investigators Ziva David (Cote de Pablo) and Tony DiNozzo (Michael Weatherly)... It makes me grind my teeth with frustration that TV writers and producers are so averse to putting will - they - or - wo n't - they couples together. '' Executive producer Gary Glasberg admitted to feeling pressure from the audience to pair them officially.
The couple was not universally accepted among viewers, and a portion of the audience felt that pairing the characters would disrupt the dynamics of the series. Matt Webb Mitovich from TVLine suggested that the dispute among fans over how far "Tiva '' should be taken had left producers in a "no win '' situation, saying, "Quite honestly, I think NCIS and show boss Gary Glasberg face a tremendously difficult juggling act with this (would - be) couple because it is TV 's most watched program, and like a game of Jenga, you ca n't be quite sure which slight move could send things toppling. Is NCIS No. 1 because it metes out exactly 25 milligrams of romance every third episode, and never a bit more? Is there a fear that going all - in with Tiva will soap up the show too much? ''
In 2010, Kate Stroup listed Tony and Ziva among Entertainment Weekly 's "10 ' Will They / Wo n't They ' TV Couples '', saying, "The chemistry is undeniable. '' In 2012, they appeared again in the magazine 's "30 Best ' Will They / Wo n't They? ' TV Couples ''. Similarly, the pair was included in BuddyTV 's compile of "The Top 12 Will - They - or - Wo n't - They Couples of 2012 '' and TV Guide 's top 15 "TV Duos Who Should Do It ''.
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where does the pacific highway start and finish | Pacific Highway (United States) - wikipedia
Pacific Highway is the name of several north - south highways in the Pacific Coast region of the Western United States, either by legislation officially designating it as such or by common usage.
Good roads advocate and road - building pioneer Sam Hill was perhaps the main motivating force behind building the original Pacific Highway as a "national auto trail ''; from Blaine, Washington, on the Canada -- US border, where he would build his Peace Arch, through Oregon to the Siskiyou Mountains of northwestern California. The road was built in the early 20th century -- long before the U.S. Highway System was established. In 1923, its 1,687 miles (2,715 km) of pavement made it the longest continuous stretch of paved road in the world at the time. The Pacific Highway later extended north to Vancouver, British Columbia, and south through San Francisco to San Diego in Southern California.
The Pacific Highway auto trail became British Columbia Highway 99 from Vancouver to the Canada -- United States border, U.S. Route 99 from the border to Red Bluff, California, in the Sacramento Valley; U.S. Route 99W from Red Bluff to Davis, California, in the Central Valley; U.S. Route 40 from Davis to San Francisco; and U.S. Route 101 from San Francisco to San Diego. This alignment is now mostly Interstate 5 in California, except between Woodland, California, and Los Angeles, where it uses State Route 113, Interstate 80 and then U.S. Route 101.
In Oregon, Interstate 5 is now officially the Pacific Highway No. 1 (see Oregon highways and routes). First completed in 1923, Oregon 's Pacific Highway was the first border - to - border paved highway west of the Mississippi River.
In California, Highway 1 named the Pacific Coast Highway or the "PCH '' runs along the coast from Leggett, California (north of San Francisco) south through Big Sur to Los Angeles before terminating in Orange County. PCH runs along the coast while Pacific Highway runs inland. An old freeway section of U.S. Route 101 parallel to Interstate 5 near the San Diego International Airport is known as ' Pacific Highway ' and is now locally maintained. It also runs through the North County of San Diego.
An extensive section of the Pacific Highway (over 600 miles), from approximately Stockton, California to Vancouver, Washington, followed very closely the track of the Siskiyou Trail. The Siskiyou Trail was based on an ancient network of Native American footpaths connecting the Pacific Northwest with California 's Central Valley.
By the 1820s, trappers from the Hudson 's Bay Company were the first non-Native Americans to use the route of the future Pacific Highway to move between today 's Washington State and "Alta California. '' During the second half of the 19th Century, mule trains, stagecoaches, and the Central Pacific Railroad also followed the route of the Siskiyou Trail.
In the early 20th century, around 1910, entrepreneur Sam Hill lobbied the governments of Washington and Oregon to build automobile roads along the path of the Siskiyou Trail, with the ultimate goal of building a paved auto route from Canada to Mexico.
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which hormone causes follicles to release their eggs for fertilization | Ovulation - wikipedia
Ovulation is the release of eggs from the ovaries. In humans, this event occurs when the ovarian follicles rupture and release the secondary oocyte ovarian cells. After ovulation, during the luteal phase, the egg will be available to be fertilized by sperm. In addition, the uterine lining (endometrium) is thickened to be able to receive a fertilized egg. If no conception occurs, the uterine lining as well as blood will be shed during menstruation.
In humans, ovulation occurs about midway through the menstrual cycle, after the follicular phase. The few days surrounding ovulation (from approximately days 10 to 18 of a 28 - day cycle), constitute the most fertile phase. The time from the beginning of the last menstrual period (LMP) until ovulation is, on average, 14.6 days, but with substantial variation between females and between cycles in any single female, with an overall 95 % prediction interval of 8.2 to 20.5 days.
The process of ovulation is controlled by the hypothalamus of the brain and through the release of hormones secreted in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle - stimulating hormone (FSH). In the preovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle, the ovarian follicle will undergo a series of transformations called cumulus expansion, which is stimulated by FSH. After this is done, a hole called the stigma will form in the follicle, and the secondary oocyte will leave the follicle through this hole. Ovulation is triggered by a spike in the amount of FSH and LH released from the pituitary gland. During the luteal (post-ovulatory) phase, the secondary oocyte will travel through the fallopian tubes toward the uterus. If fertilized by a sperm, the fertilized secondary oocyte or ovum may implant there 6 -- 12 days later.
The follicular phase (or proliferative phase) is the phase of the menstrual cycle during which the ovarian follicles mature. The follicular phase lasts from the beginning of menstruation to the start of ovulation.
For ovulation to be successful, the ovum must be supported by the corona radiata and cumulus oophorous granulosa cells. The latter undergo a period of proliferation and mucification known as cumulus expansion. Mucification is the secretion of a hyaluronic acid - rich cocktail that disperses and gathers the cumulus cell network in a sticky matrix around the ovum. This network stays with the ovum after ovulation and has been shown to be necessary for fertilization.
An increase in cumulus cell number causes a concomitant increase in antrum fluid volume that can swell the follicle to over 20 mm in diameter. It forms a pronounced bulge at the surface of the ovary called the blister.
Estrogen levels peak towards the end of the follicular phase. This causes a surge in levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle - stimulating hormone (FSH). This lasts from 24 to 36 hours, and results in the rupture of the ovarian follicles, causing the oocyte to be released from the ovary.
Through a signal transduction cascade initiated by LH, proteolytic enzymes are secreted by the follicle that degrade the follicular tissue at the site of the blister, forming a hole called the stigma. The secondary oocyte leaves the ruptured follicle and moves out into the peritoneal cavity through the stigma, where it is caught by the fimbriae at the end of the fallopian tube. After entering the fallopian tube, the oocyte is pushed along by cilia, beginning its journey toward the uterus.
By this time, the oocyte has completed meiosis I, yielding two cells: the larger secondary oocyte that contains all of the cytoplasmic material and a smaller, inactive first polar body. Meiosis II follows at once but will be arrested in the metaphase and will so remain until fertilization. The spindle apparatus of the second meiotic division appears at the time of ovulation. If no fertilization occurs, the oocyte will degenerate between 12 and 24 hours after ovulation. Approximately 1 - 2 % of ovulations release more than one oocyte. This tendency increases with maternal age. Fertilization of two different oocytes by two different spermatozoa results in fraternal twins.
The mucous membrane of the uterus, termed the functionalis, has reached its maximum size, and so have the endometrial glands, although they are still non-secretory.
The follicle proper has met the end of its lifespan. Without the oocyte, the follicle folds inward on itself, transforming into the corpus luteum (pl. corpora lutea), a steroidogenic cluster of cells that produces estrogen and progesterone. These hormones induce the endometrial glands to begin production of the proliferative endometrium and later into secretory endometrium, the site of embryonic growth if implantation occurs. The action of progesterone increases basal body temperature by one - quarter to one - half degree Celsius (one - half to one degree Fahrenheit). The corpus luteum continues this paracrine action for the remainder of the menstrual cycle, maintaining the endometrium, before disintegrating into scar tissue during menses.
The start of ovulation can be detected by signs. Because the signs are not readily discernible by people other than the female, humans are said to have a concealed ovulation. In many animal species there are distinctive signals indicating the period when the female is fertile. Several explanations have been proposed to explain concealed ovulation in humans.
Females near ovulation experience changes in the cervical mucus, and in their basal body temperature. Furthermore, many females experience secondary fertility signs including Mittelschmerz (pain associated with ovulation) and a heightened sense of smell, and can sense the precise moment of ovulation.
Many females experience heightened sexual desire in the several days immediately before ovulation. One study concluded that females subtly improve their facial attractiveness during ovulation.
Symptoms related to the onset of ovulation, the moment of ovulation and the body 's process of beginning and ending the menstrual cycle vary in intensity with each female but are fundamentally the same. The charting of such symptoms -- primarily basal body temperature, mittelschmerz and cervical position -- is referred to as the sympto - thermal method of fertility awareness, which allow auto - diagnosis by a female of her state of ovulation. Once training has been given by a suitable authority, fertility charts can be completed on a cycle - by - cycle basis to show ovulation. This gives the possibility of using the data to predict fertility for natural contraception and pregnancy planning.
The moment of ovulation has been photographed.
Disorders of ovulation are classified as menstrual disorders and include oligoovulation and anovulation:
The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed the following classification of ovulatory disorders:
Ovulation induction is a promising assisted reproductive technology for patients with conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and oligomenorrhea. It is also used in in vitro fertilization to make the follicles mature before egg retrieval. Usually, ovarian stimulation is used in conjunction with ovulation induction to stimulate the formation of multiple oocytes. Some sources include ovulation induction in the definition of ovarian stimulation.
A low dose of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) may be injected after completed ovarian stimulation. Ovulation will occur between 24 -- 36 hours after the HCG injection.
By contrast, induced ovulation in some animal species occurs naturally, ovulation can be stimulated by coitus.
Contraception can be achieved by suppressing the ovulation.
The majority of hormonal contraceptives and conception boosters focus on the ovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle because it is the most important determinant of fertility. Hormone therapy can positively or negatively interfere with ovulation and can give a sense of cycle control to the female.
Estradiol and progesterone, taken in various forms including combined oral contraceptive pills, mimics the hormonal levels of the menstrual cycle and engage in negative feedback of folliculogenesis and ovulation.
Ovulation Calculator = = External links = =
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set of isoquants presented on two dimensional plain is referred as | Isoquant - wikipedia
An isoquant (derived from quantity and the Greek word iso, meaning equal) is a contour line drawn through the set of points at which the same quantity of output is produced while changing the quantities of two or more inputs. While an indifference curve mapping helps to solve the utility - maximizing problem of consumers, the isoquant mapping deals with the cost - minimization problem of producers. Isoquants are typically drawn along with isocost curves in capital - labor graphs, showing the technological tradeoff between capital and labor in the production function, and the decreasing marginal returns of both inputs. Adding one input while holding the other constant eventually leads to decreasing marginal output, and this is reflected in the shape of the isoquant. A family of isoquants can be represented by an isoquant map, a graph combining a number of isoquants, each representing a different quantity of output. Isoquants are also called equal product curves.
An isoquant shows that extent to which the firm in question has the ability to substitute between the two different inputs at will in order to produce the same level of output. An isoquant map can also indicate decreasing or increasing returns to scale based on increasing or decreasing distances between the isoquant pairs of fixed output increment, as output increases. If the distance between those isoquants increases as output increases, the firm 's production function is exhibiting decreasing returns to scale; doubling both inputs will result in placement on an isoquant with less than double the output of the previous isoquant. Conversely, if the distance is decreasing as output increases, the firm is experiencing increasing returns to scale; doubling both inputs results in placement on an isoquant with more than twice the output of the original isoquant.
As with indifference curves, two isoquants can never cross. Also, every possible combination of inputs is on an isoquant. Finally, any combination of inputs above or to the right of an isoquant results in more output than any point on the isoquant. Although the marginal product of an input decreases as you increase the quantity of the input while holding all other inputs constant, the marginal product is never negative in the empirically observed range since a rational firm would never increase an input to decrease output.
An isoquants shows all those combinations of factors which produce same level of output. An isoquants is also known as equal product curve or iso - product curve.
If the two inputs are perfect substitutes, the resulting isoquant map generated is represented in fig. A; with a given level of production Q3, input X can be replaced by input Y at an unchanging rate. The perfect substitute inputs do not experience decreasing marginal rates of return when they are substituted for each other in the production function.
If the two inputs are perfect complements, the isoquant map takes the form of fig. B; with a level of production Q3, input X and input Y can only be combined efficiently in the certain ratio occurring at the kink in the isoquant. The firm will combine the two inputs in the required ratio to maximize profit.
Isoquants are typically combined with isocost lines in order to solve a cost - minimization problem for given level of output. In the typical case shown in the top figure, with smoothly curved isoquants, a firm with fixed unit costs of the inputs will have isocost curves that are linear and downward sloped; any point of tangency between an isoquant and an isocost curve represents the cost - minimizing input combination for producing the output level associated with that isoquant. A line joining tangency points of isoquants and isocosts (with input prices held constant) is called the expansion path.
The only relevant portion of the isoquant is the one that is convex to the origin, part of the curve which is not convex to the origin implies negative marginal product for factors of production. The higher the isoquant, the higher the production.
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who played the first receptionist in doc martin | Lucy Punch - wikipedia
Lucy Punch (born 30 December 1977) is an English actress. She has appeared in films such as Ella Enchanted, Hot Fuzz, Bad Teacher, You Will Meet a Tall Dark Stranger, Dinner for Schmucks, and Into the Woods. She is also known for her role as Esmé Squalor in A Series of Unfortunate Events.
Punch was born in Hammersmith, the daughter of Johanna and Michael Punch, who ran a market research company. She was educated privately at Godolphin and Latymer School in Hammersmith, London. She performed with the National Youth Theatre from 1993 to 1997, and began a course at University College London before dropping out to become an actress.
Punch made her acting debut in a 1998 episode of The New Adventures of Robin Hood. Her other TV credits include the naive daughter of Alison Steadman 's character in the short - lived series Let Them Eat Cake which starred French and Saunders. She starred as a football player in the kids TV show Renford Rejects, and played the role of victim Melissa Townsend in the 19th episode of Midsomer Murders.
In 2000, Punch appeared in the film Greenfingers... Punch made her stage debut as Elaine in Terry Johnson 's West End adaptation of The Graduate. She has worked at the Royal Court and Bush theatres, both in London.
In 2004, Punch played receptionist Elaine Denham on Doc Martin. She left the television show The Class after appearing in 11 of the first 12 episodes. In 2006 she won the Best Actress award at the Monaco International Film Festival for her performance in Are You Ready For Love? She played murder victim and actress Eve Draper in Edgar Wright 's 2007 film Hot Fuzz.
Punch starred in Woody Allen 's 2010 film You Will Meet a Tall Dark Stranger. In August 2010, she appeared in BBC Two 's three part police comedy - drama Vexed. In 2011, Punch appeared in Bad Teacher, portraying sanctimonious school teacher Amy Squirrel.
Punch was cast as Deena Pilgrim, the female lead in the TV pilot Powers, but the role was recast. In 2016 she played Amanda, leader of the "Alpha mums '' in the BBC comedy series Motherland.
In 2017, Punch was cast in the recurring role of Esmé Squalor on the second season of the Netflix comedy drama series A Series of Unfortunate Events.
Punch resides in West Hollywood, California. She gave birth to her first child, a son named Rex, in July 2015.
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what happened in the golden age of athens | Fifth - century Athens - Wikipedia
Fifth - century Athens is the Greek city - state of Athens in the time from 480 BC - 404 BC. This was a period of Athenian political hegemony, economic growth and cultural flourishing formerly known as the Golden Age of Athens with the later part The Age of Pericles. The period began in 478 BC after defeat of the Persian invasion, when an Athenian - led coalition of city - states, known as the Delian League, confronted the Persians to keep the liberated Asian Greek cities free. After peace was made with Persia in the mid 5th century BCE, what started as an alliance of independent city - states became an Athenian empire when Athens abandoned the pretense of parity among its allies and relocated the Delian League treasury from Delos to Athens, where it funded the building of the Athenian Acropolis and put half its population on the public payroll and maintained dominating naval power in the Greek world. With the empire 's funds, military dominance and its political fortunes guided by statesman and orator Pericles, Athens produced some of the most influential and enduring cultural artifacts of the Western tradition. The playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides all lived and worked in 5th century BCE Athens, as did the historians Herodotus and Thucydides, the physician Hippocrates, and the philosopher Socrates. Athens ' patron goddess was Athena, from whom they derived the name.
During the golden age, Athenian military and external affairs were mostly entrusted to the ten generals who were elected each year by the ten tribes of citizens, who could be relied on rather than the variable - quality magistrates chosen by lot under the democracy. These strategoi were given duties which included planning military expeditions, receiving envoys of other states and directing diplomatic affairs. During the time of the ascendancy of Ephialtes as leader of the democratic faction, Pericles was his deputy. When Ephialtes was assassinated for overthrowing the elitist Council of the Aeropagus, Pericles stepped in and was elected in 445 BCE, a post he held continuously until his death in 429 BC, always by election of the Athenian Assembly.
Pericles was a great speaker; this quality brought him tremendous success in the Assembly, presenting his vision of politics. One of his most popular reforms was to allow thetes (Athenians without wealth) to occupy public office. Another success of his administration was the creation of the misthophoria (μισθοφορία, which literally means paid function), a special salary for the citizens that attended the courts as jurors. This way, these citizens were able to dedicate themselves to public service without facing financial hardship. With this system, Pericles succeeded in keeping the courts full of jurors (Ath. Pol. 27.3), and in giving the people experience in public life. As Athens ' ruler, he made the city the first and most important polis of the Greek world, acquiring a resplendent culture and democratic institutions.
The sovereign people governed themselves, without intermediaries, deciding matters of state in the Assembly. Athenian citizens were free and only owed obedience to their laws and respect to their gods. They achieved equality of speech in the Assembly: the word of a poor person had the same worth as that of a rich person. The censorial classes did not disappear, but their power was more limited; they shared the fiscal and military offices but they did not have the power of distributing privileges.
The principle of equality granted to all citizens had dangers, since many citizens were incapable of exercising political rights due to their extreme poverty or ignorance. To avoid this, Athenian democracy applied itself to the task of helping the poorest in this manner:
Most importantly, and in order to emphasize the concept of equality and discourage corruption and patronage, practically all public offices that did not require a particular expertise were appointed by lot and not by election. Among those selected by lot to a political body, specific office was always rotated so that every single member served in all capacities in turn. This was meant to ensure that political functions were instituted in such a way as to run smoothly, regardless of each official 's individual capacity.
These measures appear to have been carried out in great measure since the testimony has come to us from, (among others, the Greek historian Thucydides (c. 460 - 400 BC), who comments: Everyone who is capable of serving the city meets no impediment, neither poverty, nor civic condition...
The magistrates were people who occupied a public post and formed the administration of the Athenian state. They were submitted to rigorous public control. The magistrates were chosen by lot, using fava beans. Black and white beans were put in a box and depending on which color the person drew out they obtained the post or not. This was a way of eliminating the personal influence of rich people and possible intrigues and use of favors. There were only two categories of posts not chosen by lot, but by election in the Popular Assembly. These were strategos, or general, and magistrate of finance. It was generally supposed that significant qualities were needed to exercise each of those two offices. A magistrate 's post did not last more than a year, including that of the strategoi and in this sense the continued selection of Pericles year after year was an exception. At the end of every year, a magistrate would have to give an account of his administration and use of public finances.
The most honored posts were the ancient archontes, or archons in English. In previous ages they had been the heads of the Athenian state, but in the Age of Pericles they lost their influence and power, although they still presided over tribunals.
Every year the citizens elected ten "strategoi '' (singular "strategos ''), or generals, who served as both military officers and diplomats. It was through this position that Pericles shaped 5th - century BC Athens.
There were also more than forty public administration officers and more than sixty to police the streets, the markets, to check weights and measures and to carry out arrests and executions.
The Assembly (in Greek, ἐκκλησία, that is to say, an assembly by summons), was the first organ of the democracy. In theory it brought together in assembly all the citizens of Athens, however the maximum number which came to congregate is estimated at 6,000 participants. The gathering place was a space on the hill called Pnyx, in front of the Acropolis. The sessions sometimes lasted from dawn to dusk. The ecclesia occurred forty times a year.
The Assembly decided on laws and decrees which were proposed. Decisions relied on ancient laws which had long been in force. Bills were voted on in two stages: first the Assembly itself decided and afterwards the Council or βουλή gave definitive approval.
The Council or Boule (βουλή) consisted of 500 members, fifty from each tribe, functioning as an extension of the Assembly. These were chosen by chance, using the system described earlier, from which they were familiarly known as "councillors of the bean ''; officially they were known as prytaneis (πρύτανις, meaning "chief '' or "teacher '').
The council members examined and studied legal projects, supervised the magistrates and saw that daily administrative details were on the right path. They oversaw the city state 's external affairs. They also met at Pnyx hill, in a place expressly prepared for the event. The fifty prytaneis in power were located on grandstands carved into the rock. They had stone platforms which they reached by means of a small staircase of three steps. On the first platform were the secretaries and scribes; the orator would climb up to the second.
The economic resources of the Athenian State were not excessive. All the glory of Athens in the Age of Pericles, its constructions, public works, religious buildings, sculptures, etc. would not have been possible without the treasury of the Delian League. The treasury was originally held on the island of Delos but Pericles moved it to Athens under the pretext that Delos was n't safe enough. This resulted in internal friction within the league and the rebellion of some city - states that were members. Athens retaliated quickly and some scholars believe this to be the period wherein it would be more appropriate to discuss an Athenian Empire instead of a league.
Other small incomes came from customs fees and fines. In times of war a special tax was levied on rich citizens. These citizens were also charged permanently with other taxes for the good of the city. This was called the system of liturgy. The taxes were used to maintain the triremes which gave Athens great naval power and to pay and maintain a chorus for large religious festivals. It is believed that rich Athenian men saw it as an honor to sponsor the triremes (probably because they became leaders of it for the period they supported it) or the festivals and they often engaged in competitive donating.
The Athenian elite lived modestly and without great luxuries, compared to the elites of other ancient states. There were very few great fortunes and land ownership was not concentrated: 71 - 73 % of the citizen population owned 60 - 65 % of the land, whereas the Gini coefficient for citizen population has been calculated as 0.708. The economy was based on maritime commerce and manufacturing, according to Amemiya 's estimates, 56 % of Athens ' GDP was derived from manufacturing. Agriculture was also important, but it did not produce enough to feed the populace, so most food had to be imported (it is estimated that the carrying capacity of Attica 's soil was between 84,000 and 150,000, while the population was 300,000 to 350,000 in 431 BC).
The state oversaw all the major religious festivals. The most important one was the Panathenaia in honor of the goddess Athena, a ritual procession carried out once a year in May and once every four years in July, in which the town presented a new veil (peplos) to the old wooden statue of Athena Poliada. Phidias immortalized this procession in the frieze of the Parthenon, which is currently at the British Museum. In the July Panathenaia (Great Panathenaia), large competitions were organized which included gymnastics and horseback riding, the winners of which received amphoras full of sacred olive oil as a prize. The other important festival was the dramatic Dionysia in honour of Dionysus where tragedies and comedies were performed.
The education of boys began in their own home up until the age of seven when they had to attend school. There, they had several teachers who taught them to read and write, as well as subjects such as mathematics and music. Boys also had to take part in physical education classes where they were prepared for future military service with activities such as wrestling, racing, jumping and gymnastics. At eighteen they served in the army and were instructed on how to bear arms. Physical education was very intense and many of the boys ended up becoming true athletes. In addition to these compulsory lessons, the students had the chance to discuss and learn from the great philosophers, grammarians and orators of the time. Some poor people had to stay at home and help their parents. However Aristophanes and Socrates, though they were poor, became famous and successful.
The primary role of free women in classical Athens was to marry and bear children. The emphasis on marriage as a way to perpetuate the family through childbearing had changed from archaic Athens, when (at least amongst the powerful) marriages were as much about making beneficial connections as they were about perpetuating the family. Married women were responsible for the day - to - day running of the household. At marriage, they assumed responsibility for the prosperity of their husband 's household and the health of its members. Their primary responsibilities were bearing, raising and caring for children, weaving cloth and making clothes. They would also have been responsible for caring for ill household members, supervising slaves, and ensuring that the household had sufficient food. In classical Athenian marriages, husband or wife could legally initiate a divorce. The woman 's closest male relative (who would be her kyrios if she were not married) could also do so, apparently even against the couple 's wishes. After divorce, the husband was required to return the dowry or pay 18 percent interest annually so the woman 's livelihood would continue and she could remarry. If there were children at the time of the divorce, they remained in their father 's house and he remained responsible for their upbringing.
In most cases, Athenian women had the same rights and responsibilities as Athenian men. However, Athenian women did have some significant disabilities at law compared to their male counterparts. Like slaves and metics, they were denied political freedom, being excluded from the law courts and the Assembly. Women ideally remained apart from men. However it was recognised that an ideology of separation could not be practiced by many Athenians. In Politics, Aristotle asked: "How is it possible to prevent the wives of the poor from going out of doors? '' In practice, only wealthy families would have been able to implement this ideology. Women 's responsibilities would have forced them to leave the house frequently -- to fetch water from the well or wash clothing, for example. Although wealthy families may have had slaves to enable free women to remain in the house, but most would not have had enough slaves to prevent free women from leaving at all.
The cult of Athena Polias (the city 's eponymous goddess) was central to Athenian society, reinforcing morality and maintaining societal structure. Women played a key role in the cult; the priestesshood of Athena was a position of great importance, and the priestess could use her influence to support political positions. According to Herodotus, before the Battle of Salamis the priestess of Athena encouraged the evacuation of Athens by telling the Athenians that the snake sacred to Athena (which lived on the Acropolis) had already left.
Historians consider the Athenian 5th and 6th centuries BC as the Golden Age of sculpture and architecture. In this period the ornamental elements and the technique employed did not vary from the previous period. What characterizes this period is the quantity of works and the refinement and perfection of the works. Most were religious in nature, mainly sanctuaries and temples. Some examples from this period are:
Phidias is considered the greatest sculptor of this era. He created colossal gold - plated marble statues ("chryselephantine statues ''), generally face and hands, which were highly celebrated and admired in his own time: Athena, situated in the interior of the Parthenon, whose splendor reached the faithful through the open doors, and Zeus in the Sanctuary of Olympia, considered in its age and in later ages to be one of the marvels of the world. The Athenians were assured that after they had contemplated this statue it was impossible to feel unlucky ever again.
According to Pliny the Elder 's Natural History, in order to conserve the marble of these sculptures, oil receptacles were placed in the temples so that the ivory would not crack.
The other great sculptors of this century were Myron and Polycletus.
During this age, the production of ceramic pieces was abundant. Amphorae were produced in mass quantity due to the heavy trading with other cities all around the Mediterranean. Large evidence of amphorae from this era can be found around every major ancient port as well as in the Aegean sea. During this period is also seen an abundance of white background ceramics which are much more delicate than the previously popular yellow and black background ceramics. These ceramics were often used to keep perfume or for mortuary rites, including decorations on graves. It is also known that there were many great painters, but their works are lost, both frescos and free - standing paintings.
The theatre reached its greatest height in the 5th century BC. Pericles promoted and favored the theatre with a series of practical and economic measures. The wealthiest families were obligated to care for and to sustain the choruses and actors. By this means, Pericles maintained the tradition according to which theatrical performances served the moral and intellectual education of the people. Plays were made by men and usually for men, and this platform was often used to reinforce the patriarchy.
Athens became the great city of Greek theatre. Theatrical performances lasted eight consecutive hours and were performed as part of a competition in which a jury proclaimed a winner. While the decor of the provisional theatres was very simple, the permanent theatrical venues of ancient Athens eventually became more sumptuous and elaborate. No matter the performance venue, plays were performed by, at most, three actors, who wore masks to identify them with the characters they portrayed; they were accompanied by a chorus who sang and danced.
The dramatic poets from this era whose plays have survived are:
The Golden Age featured some of the most renowned Western philosophers of all time. Chief among these were Socrates, whose ideas exist primarily in a series of dialogues by his student Plato, who mixed them with his own; Plato; and Plato 's student, Aristotle.
Other notable philosophers of the Golden Age included Anaxagoras; Democritus (who first inquired as to what substance lies within all matter, the earliest known proposal of what is now called the atom or its sub-units); Empedocles; Hippias; Isocrates; Parmenides; Heraclitus; and Protagoras.
In the second half of the 5th century BC the name of sophist (from the Greek sophistês, expert, teacher, man of wisdom) was given to the teachers that gave instruction on diverse branches of science and knowledge in exchange for a fee.
In this age, Athens was the "school of Greece. '' Pericles and his mistress Aspasia had the opportunity to associate with not only the great Athenians thinkers of their day, but also other Greek and foreign scholars. Among them were the philosopher Anaxagoras, the architect Hippodamus of Miletus, who reconstructed Peiraeus, as well as the historians Herodotus (484 -- 425), Thucydides (460 -- 395), and Xenophon (427 -- 335).
Athens was also the capital of eloquence. Since the late 5th century BC, eloquence had been elevated to an art form. There were the logographers (λογογράφος) who wrote courses and created a new literary form characterized by the clarity and purity of the language. It became a lucrative profession. It is known that the logographer Lysias (460 -- 380 BC) made a great fortune thanks to his profession. Later, in the 4th century BCE, the orators Isocrates and Demosthenes also became famous.
Pericles governed Athens throughout the 5th century BC bringing to the city a splendour and a standard of living never previously experienced. All was well within the internal regiment of government, however discontent within the Delian League was ever increasing. The foreign affairs policies adopted by Athens did not reap the best results; members of the Delian League were increasingly dissatisfied. Athens was the city - state that dominated and subjugated the rest of Greece and these oppressed citizens wanted their independence.
Previously, in 550 BC, a similar league between the cities of the Peloponnessus -- directed and dominated by Sparta -- had been founded. Taking advantage of the general dissent of the Greek city - states, this Peloponnesian League began to confront Athens. After long lasting series of poorly managed, hawkish policies, (ca. 431 B.C.) the city of Athens finally lost its independence in 338 BC, when Philip II of Macedonia conquered the rest of Greece.
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orange is the new black cast pennsatucky friends | Tiffany Doggett - wikipedia
Tiffany "Pennsatucky '' Doggett is a fictional character in the Netflix series Orange Is the New Black, portrayed by Taryn Manning. Manning was offered the role without needing to audition. The character of Doggett is based on a real life prisoner; a "young woman from western Pennsylvania who proudly called herself a redneck ''. She is originally from Waynesboro, Virginia. Prior to her imprisonment, she is shown to be exchanging sexual favors for soda or money. Doggett is also known to have had five abortions. She is charged with shooting an abortion doctor and decides to hire a Christian lawyer; the ensuing support she receives from Christian groups leads to Doggett 's becoming a born - again Christian.
Doggett makes her first appearance in Season 1, episode 5 and is initially is the main antagonist but becomes a protagonist in later seasons. In her debut episode, she unsuccessfully attempts to hang up a cross in the prison chapel and expresses homophobic views. She conflicts with Alex Vause and Piper Chapman throughout the first season. In the second season, Doggett 's storyline revolves around her friendships with Sam Healy and Carrie "Big Boo '' Black. This friendship with Big Boo continues into the third season. Big Boo comforts Doggett when the latter is feeling remorse for her abortions and when she is raped by a correctional officer. The character Doggett has received mixed reviews from critics, though Manning 's performance has received positive feedback.
Tiffany Doggett 's nickname "Pennsatucky '' is derived from Pennsyltucky; a slang term for the rural portions of Pennsylvania. The author, Piper Kerman, of the book, Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women 's Prison, which inspired Orange is the New Black describes the real life version of Pennsatucky as "a young woman from western Pennsylvania who proudly called herself a redneck ''. Kerman further describes her as someone addicted to crack cocaine and dealing with the loss of custody of her child.
Taryn Manning, already an established actress, did not have to audition for the role of Doggett and was offered it. Manning, when speaking about this to Joshua Rotter of Download.com, said that she immediately accepted the offer "I loved it and did n't need to look any further. I was sold. '' To prepare for the role, Manning did some research on faith healing and evangelistic ceremonies. She also states that her inspiration for Doggett at least partly comes from the White family in the 2009 documentary film The Wild and Wonderful Whites of West Virginia. The only make - up that Manning wears for her role as Doggett, in the first season, is on her teeth to create the effect of receding gums and missing teeth. From the second season onwards, however, Doggett has false teeth in place and so the teeth seen are Manning 's own.
Doggett is from Waynesboro, Virginia. After Doggett has her first period, her mother gives her advice about sex: "go on and let them (referring to men) do their business. '' This leads to her, later in life, to have sex with men in exchange for soda or money. Her perspective of sex changes when she meets Nathan. Jonathon Dornbush, of Entertainment Weekly writes "(Nathan) wants them both to enjoy the experience (of sex), and it opens Tiffany 's perception of relationships. '' Nathan and his family move away, causing their relationship to end, and, almost immediately afterwards, Doggett is raped by an ex-boyfriend.
Doggett has had five abortions. After having her fifth abortion, which takes place at an abortion clinic in Fishersville, Virginia, the nurse remarks "we should give you a punch card, get the sixth one free. '' Doggett is so offended by this joke that she shoots the nurse with a shotgun. She agrees to have a Christian lawyer as it was likely to lead to a lighter sentence and her legal bills being paid for. Since she shot an abortion nurse, she became a ' hero ' of the pro-life movement. Doggett regularly receives cards praising her for her claims of defending the unborn as well as generous cash donations to her commissary account by fans & supporters. Although her Christian faith was initially fake, at some point Doggett did become a Christian; this was confirmed by Manning in an interview. Manning describes Doggett 's faith as "a hybrid of Christianity, Baptism, Presbyterian ''.
Doggett first appears in the fifth episode. She wishes to hang up a cross in Litchfield Penitentiary 's chapel but is refused permission. She ignores this and hangs her cross up on a light fixture; this causes the entire fixture to fall down and hence damages the chapel 's ceiling. She also displays transphobia; calling the transgender woman Sophia Burset (played by Laverne Cox) an ' abomination ' and ' it ' and blaming her for the damage to the chapel. Doggett has numerous clashes with Alex Vause (played by Laura Prepon); firstly Vause threatens to rape Doggett after growing tired of her complaining about Piper Chapman (played by Taylor Schilling); Doggett locks Vause in a dryer while she is helping Chapman to fix it and, lastly, Doggett snitches on Chapman and Vause for dancing provocatively with each other; resulting in Chapman being placed in solitary confinement.
Chapman and Vause get revenge on Doggett and trick her into believing that she has faith healing powers, eventually culminating in her being sent to the psychiatric ward. Although Chapman aids in Doggett 's release from the psychiatric ward, Doggett still bears a grudge against her. Doggett 's lawyer encourages her to evangelize to Chapman instead and this leads to Chapman ' converting ' but then refusing to be baptized. Doggett sees this as disrespectful and expresses a wish to kill Chapman. The two have a confrontation at the end of the season 's final episode. Doggett attacks Chapman with a shiv made from a wooden cross; Chapman throws Doggett to the ground and hits her repeatedly.
It is revealed in the third episode that Suzanne Warren (played by Uzo Aduba) is also involved in the fight at the end of season one. She punches Chapman in the face twice and knocks her unconscious (Doggett is already unconscious at this stage). This gives the impression that Doggett and Chapman were evenly matched and therefore equally responsible. Following Doggett 's return to full health, she finds that her previous best friends, Leanne Taylor (played by Emma Myles) and Angie Rice (played by Julie Lake), no longer want to be associated with her. This leaves Doggett seeking prison counsellor Sam Healy (played by Michael J. Harney) for comfort.
Following her friendships with Taylor and Rice continuing to deteriorate, Doggett forms friendships with Healy and Carrie "Big Boo '' Black (played by Lea DeLaria). Healy and Doggett unite to form "Safe Place '', a therapy group where prisoners can share their feelings in a confidential and supportive environment. "Safe Place '' is short - lived, however, and Healy decides to cancel the group indefinitely after Doggett fails to attend one of the sessions; when he investigates her reason for non-attendance, he finds her getting a hair cut from Burset. Doggett initially talks to Big Boo, an openly lesbian inmate, during a blackout in the prison as she believes that there is a secret ' gay agenda ' and she believes that Big Boo will give her the answers that she is seeking. Doggett 's physical appearance also changes in this season; she has white false teeth, neater hair and her skin looks smoother.
In the first episode, Big Boo and Doggett 's friendship continues to develop. Seeing that Doggett bears strong feelings of guilt relating to the six abortions that she has had, Big Boo makes reference to the book Freakonomics, which suggests that crime rates in the 1990s fell because of Roe v. Wade. Following Lorna Morello (played by Yael Stone) being relieved of her duty of driving the prison van, the role is given to Doggett. She comes into contact with one of the new correctional officers called Charlie Coates (played by James McMenamin). Coates is initially friendly towards Doggett. Despite relationships between prison staff and prisoners being forbidden, Coates kisses Doggett, against her will, after feeding some ducks. Following another outing, Coates gets in trouble with his boss Joe Caputo (played by Nick Sandow) for being late for count and is placed on probation. Doggett apologises for having caused him trouble, and he rapes her in the back of the prison van.
When Big Boo learns of the rape, she encourages Doggett to take revenge on Coates by making him unconscious and then raping him with a broomstick. Whilst they successfully drug Coates, neither of them are willing to violate him with the broomstick. In order to end contact with Coates, Doggett fakes a seizure on her next outing with him and is declared unfit for driving a van. She is replaced as prison van driver by another inmate, Maritza Ramos (played by Diane Guerrero).
Coates approaches Doggett in the fourth episode of season 4; Doggett responds in a manner that shows clearly that she is still affected by the rape. This is also the first time that Doggett openly refers to the incident as a ' rape '. Coates is seen to be visibly distressed by this. Towards the middle of the season, it is shown that Coates finally apologizes to Doggett and she, clearly surprised and relieved, forgives him and goes on to tell Big Boo about what happened. Big Boo, still furious about the rape, refuses to accept Doggett 's decision, straining their friendship. In the twelfth episode of the season, Doggett explains to Big Boo the reasons why she decided to forgive Coates; "Pain is always there... but suffering is a choice ''. The two resume their friendship following this.
In "Toast Can Never Be Bread Again '', as Doggett and Big Boo are assigned to cover the cafeteria following the death of Poussey Washington (played by Samira Wiley), Coates is also there to watch over the body. Coates then tells Doggett that he needs to quit because he hates how awful the prison is becoming. She tells him she does not want him to go, since they are on good terms, and she likes talking to him, despite what happened. She kisses him and Coates makes it clear that he wants to go further than this but chooses not to, reasoning "I do n't want to ruin where we are now ''.
Doggett was widely perceived to have been the series ' main antagonist in its first season. She was seen to be homophobic and racist; one Cosmopolitan critic described her as ' vile '. A critic for TV Insider described the first season Doggett as "terrifying, manipulative and so entirely unlikable '' but also "hypnotic to watch ''. Horatia Harrod 's review in the Daily Telegraph described Manning 's portrayal of Doggett as "brilliantly unhinged ''. Other critics have praised the character, especially in the final episode of season one; calling her "fantastic '', a "solid character '' and "one of the best characters on the show ''. Some also felt that Manning 's performance was worthy of an Emmy nomination.
Following the release of the first season of Orange is the New Black, Doggett received some criticism from different media. Writing for The American Conservative, B.D. McClay claimed that Doggett was a poor and inaccurate representation of American Christians; "Pennsatucky is such an aggressively terrible character '' and "her faith is neither well - understood nor well - drawn ''. Laura Leonard of Christianity Today, supports Clay 's view and goes further to say "it was frustrating to see this one painful narrative represent Christian faith on OITNB, a show that masters other aspects of the melting pot so well '', speaking about Doggett 's background story and conflict with Chapman. Two critics for The A.V. Club also gave negative reviews of Doggett; Todd VanDerWerff says that "Pennsatucky never really comes together as a character in the same way as some of the others on the show '' and Myles McNutt opted to criticize the storyline of the final episode of the first season specifically, saying that it "(treats) her like a cartoon villain instead of a real character ''. Betsy Leondar - Wright accused the series ' creators of classism and said that Doggett was an "outrageous Redneck stereotype ''.
Doggett 's rape storyline in the third season garnered much reaction, both positive and negative. Jada Yuan of Vulture described the rape scenes (both the one in the flashback and the one involving correctional officer Coates) as "heartbreaking '' and praised episode director Jesse Peretz 's decision to keep the camera focused on Manning during the scenes. Megan Vick praised the ' transformation ' of the character of Doggett, calling it "the season 's breakout storyline and performance ''. McNutt, who had been critical of Doggett in the first season, spoke positively about the rape storyline.
Marissa Higgins, writing for xoJane, contended that the show "did n't accomplish anything with their portrayal of sexual assault '' and said that she disliked the way that the story ended with Doggett effectively quitting her job as van driver in order to avoid further contact with Coates. Emma Eisenberg, of Salon, criticized the scenes depicting Doggett growing up in Waynesboro as being "riddled with excessive Appalachian clichés ''. She went further by calling Doggett 's mother unrealistic in her attitude towards sex: "the mothers I met (near Waynesboro) wanted their daughters to understand sex and to make informed choices ''. Eisenberg claimed that, therefore, Doggett 's mother 's speech about sex − "it 's like a bee sting, in and out, over before you knew it was happening '' − was not representative of people in Waynesboro at that time. Chloe Stillwell completely disagreed with Eisenberg and insisted that the character of Doggett was realistic: "Eisenberg 's argument completely misses the point that perhaps the show is trying to be as real as possible, and acknowledging that there are real life Pennsatuckies in this world is n't to disenfranchise Appalachia. ''
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where is the assiniboine river located in canada | Assiniboine River - wikipedia
The Assiniboine River (/ əˈsɪnɪbɔɪn /) is a 1,070 - kilometre (660 mi) river that runs through the prairies of Western Canada in Saskatchewan and Manitoba. It is a tributary of the Red River. The Assiniboine is a typical meandering river with a single main channel embanked within a flat, shallow valley in some places and a steep valley in others. Its main tributaries are the Qu'Appelle, Souris and Whitesand Rivers. For early history and exploration see Assiniboine River fur trade.
The river takes its name from the Assiniboine First Nation. Robert Douglas of the Geographical Board of Canada (1933) made several comments as to its origin: "The name commemorates the Assiniboine natives called by La Vérendrye in 1730 ' Assiniboils ' and by Governor Knight in 1715 of the Hudson 's Bay Company ' stone Indians. ' Assiniboine is the name of a First Nation and is derived from the Ojibwe words ' asin ' a stone and ' bwaan ' the Sioux, hence Stony Sioux name was possibly given because they used heated stones in cooking their food. ''
The Assiniboine River rises in eastern Saskatchewan east of the community of Kelvington on the upper prairie level above the Manitoba Escarpment. The Assiniboine River flows through three basic zones with different channel characteristics. Upstream of Brandon, the main stem of the river and its most important tributaries flow within a very large valley. The valley was cut by huge glacial melt water flows at the end of the last glaciation. The floor of this spillway valley provides a natural floodplain for the river and the valley provides a significant storage volume making the construction of the Shellmouth Dam near Russell both technically and economically viable. The major tributaries in this reach are the Qu'Appelle, Shell and Little Saskatchewan Rivers.
The glacial flows created a large delta east of Brandon extending almost to Portage la Prairie. The river has eroded down through sediments of the delta cutting a narrow valley through these sediments as it drops through a vertical distance of about 150 metres (490 ft) to the Lake Agassiz -- Red River Plain. In this valley, the river is confined with a narrow valley floor. The Souris River is the primary tributary contributing flow to the Assiniboine in this reach. Near Portage la Prairie the river emerges from the delta reach onto the relatively flat Red River plain (the floor of former Glacial Lake Agassiz) and at this point it can flow in any direction from roughly northwest to roughly southeast. The gradient of the river channel within the delta reach to the west is relatively high, so the river water velocities are fairly high and the waters of the river carry significant amounts of sediment. The gradient in the flat Red River plain is much less and the velocity of the river water flowing over this plain is much lower. Therefore, the sediments carried by the river waters as they flow through the delta reach are deposited onto the plain. The Assiniboine winds its way east eventually joining the Red River at "The Forks '' in Winnipeg, Manitoba.
Today, Assiniboine Herald at the Canadian Heraldic Authority is named after the river. Asessippi Provincial Park, an RV park was built on the east shore of the Shellmouth Reservoir.
Tributaries include the Whitesand River which joins it near Kamsack, Saskatchewan, the Souris River, which joins it near Wawanesa, Manitoba, the Birdtail River which joins at the Birdtail Sioux First Nation, the Little Saskatchewan, which joins west of Brandon, and the Qu'Appelle River, which joins near the site of the Hudson 's Bay Company historic Fort Ellice site.
There are three hydrometric stations on the river that have been taking measurements since 1913. The Assiniboine River near Headingley has an average discharge of 45 cubic metres per second (1,600 cu ft / s). One millimeter of runoff from half the watershed would take 70 hours to drain at flow rates of 360 cubic metres per second (13,000 cu ft / s). The following discharge rates were recorded during the 1995 flood:
It is prone to spring flooding. Some flood flows can be diverted into Lake Manitoba at Portage la Prairie. In 1967, the Shellmouth Dam was built in Shellmouth to help reduce flood peaks and to supplement flows during dry periods. The Portage Diversion was completed in 1970. Despite these efforts, in May 2011 it was necessary to breach one of the dikes beside the river to relieve flood stresses east of Portage la Prairie. A Manitoba - wide state of emergency was declared in the wake of one in three hundred - year floods on the Assiniboine River at Brandon.
Fish species include walleye, yellow perch, northern pike, mooneye, burbot, channel catfish brown bullhead, rock bass, white sucker, shorthead redhorse and common carp.
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the great san francisco earthquake and fire of 1906 | 1906 San Francisco earthquake - wikipedia
The 1906 San Francisco earthquake struck the coast of Northern California at 5: 12 a.m. on Wednesday, April 18 with an estimated moment magnitude of 7.9 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme). High intensity shaking was felt from Eureka on the North Coast to the Salinas Valley, an agricultural region to the south of the San Francisco Bay Area. Devastating fires soon broke out in the city and lasted for several days. Thousands of homes were dismantled.As a result, up to 3,000 people died and over 80 % of the city of San Francisco was destroyed. The events are remembered as one of the worst and deadliest earthquakes in the history of the United States. The death toll remains the greatest loss of life from a natural disaster in California 's history and high in the lists of American disasters.
The San Andreas Fault is a continental transform fault that forms part of the tectonic boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate. The strike - slip fault is characterized by mainly lateral motion in a dextral sense, where the western (Pacific) plate moves northward relative to the eastern (North American) plate. This fault runs the length of California from the Salton Sea in the south to Cape Mendocino in the north, a distance of about 810 miles (1,300 km). The maximum observed surface displacement was about 20 feet (6 m); geodetic measurements show displacements of up to 28 feet (8.5 m).
The 1906 earthquake preceded the development of the Richter magnitude scale by three decades. The most widely accepted estimate for the magnitude of the quake on the modern moment magnitude scale is 7.9; values from 7.7 to as high as 8.3 have been proposed. According to findings published in the Journal of Geophysical Research, severe deformations in the earth 's crust took place both before and after the earthquake 's impact. Accumulated strain on the faults in the system was relieved during the earthquake, which is the supposed cause of the damage along the 450 - kilometer - long segment of the San Andreas plate boundary. The 1906 rupture propagated both northward and southward for a total of 296 miles (476 km). Shaking was felt from Oregon to Los Angeles, and inland as far as central Nevada.
A strong foreshock preceded the main shock by about 20 to 25 seconds. The strong shaking of the main shock lasted about 42 seconds. There were decades of minor earthquakes -- more than at any other time in the historical record for northern California -- before the 1906 quake. Widely interpreted previously as precursory activity to the 1906 earthquake, they have been found to have a strong seasonal pattern and have been postulated to be due to large seasonal sediment loads in coastal bays that overlie faults as a result of the erosion caused by hydraulic mining in the later years of the California Gold Rush.
For years, the epicenter of the quake was assumed to be near the town of Olema, in the Point Reyes area of Marin County, because of evidence of the degree of local earth displacement. In the 1960s, a seismologist at UC Berkeley proposed that the epicenter was more likely offshore of San Francisco, to the northwest of the Golden Gate. The most recent analyses support an offshore location for the epicenter, although significant uncertainty remains. An offshore epicenter is supported by the occurrence of a local tsunami recorded by a tide gauge at the San Francisco Presidio; the wave had an amplitude of approximately 3 in (8 cm) and an approximate period of 40 -- 45 minutes.
Analysis of triangulation data before and after the earthquake strongly suggest that the rupture along the San Andreas Fault was about 500 km in length, in agreement with observed intensity data. The available seismological data support a significantly shorter rupture length, but these observations can be reconciled by allowing propagation at speeds above the S - wave velocity (supershear). Supershear propagation has now been recognized for many earthquakes associated with strike - slip faulting.
At the time, 375 deaths were reported; however, hundreds of fatalities in Chinatown went ignored and unrecorded. The total number of deaths is still uncertain, but various reports presented a range of 700 -- 3,000 +. Most of the deaths occurred in San Francisco itself, but 189 were reported elsewhere in the Bay Area; nearby cities, such as Santa Rosa and San Jose, also suffered severe damage. In Monterey County, the earthquake permanently shifted the course of the Salinas River near its mouth. Where previously the river emptied into Monterey Bay between Moss Landing and Watsonville, it was diverted 6 miles south to a new channel just north of Marina.
Between 227,000 and 300,000 people were left homeless out of a population of about 410,000; half of those who evacuated fled across the bay to Oakland and Berkeley. Newspapers described Golden Gate Park, the Presidio, the Panhandle and the beaches between Ingleside and North Beach as covered with makeshift tents. More than two years later, many of these refugee camps were still in operation.
The earthquake and fire left long - standing and significant pressures on the development of California. At the time of the disaster, San Francisco had been the ninth - largest city in the United States and the largest on the West Coast, with a population of about 410,000. Over a period of 60 years, the city had become the financial, trade and cultural center of the West; operated the busiest port on the West Coast; and was the "gateway to the Pacific '', through which growing U.S. economic and military power was projected into the Pacific and Asia. Over 80 % of the city was destroyed by the earthquake and fire. Though San Francisco rebuilt quickly, the disaster diverted trade, industry and population growth south to Los Angeles, which during the 20th century became the largest and most important urban area in the West. Many of the city 's leading poets and writers retreated to Carmel - by - the - Sea where, as "The Barness '', they established the arts colony reputation that continues today.
The 1908 Lawson Report, a study of the 1906 quake led and edited by Professor Andrew Lawson of the University of California, showed that the same San Andreas Fault which had caused the disaster in San Francisco ran close to Los Angeles as well. The earthquake was the first natural disaster of its magnitude to be documented by photography and motion picture footage and occurred at a time when the science of seismology was blossoming.
The most important characteristic of the shaking intensity noted in Andrew Lawson 's (1908) report was the clear correlation of intensity with underlying geologic conditions. Areas situated in sediment - filled valleys sustained stronger shaking than nearby bedrock sites, and the strongest shaking occurred in areas of former bay where soil liquefaction had occurred. Modern seismic - zonation practice accounts for the differences in seismic hazard posed by varying geologic conditions. The shaking intensity as described on the Modified Mercalli intensity scale reached XI (Extreme) in San Francisco and areas to the north like Santa Rosa where destruction was devastating.
Although the impact of the earthquake on San Francisco was the most famous, the earthquake also inflicted considerable damage on several other cities. These include San Jose and Santa Rosa, the entire downtown of which was essentially destroyed.
As damaging as the earthquake and its aftershocks were, the fires that burned out of control afterward were even more destructive. It has been estimated that up to 90 % of the total destruction was the result of the subsequent fires. Within three days, over 30 fires, caused by ruptured gas mains, destroyed approximately 25,000 buildings on 490 city blocks. One of the largest of these fires was accidentally started in a house on Hayes Street by a woman making breakfast for her family. This came to be known as the "Ham and Eggs Fire ''. Some were started when firefighters, untrained in the use of dynamite, attempted to demolish buildings to create firebreaks. The dynamited buildings themselves often caught fire. The city 's fire chief, Dennis T. Sullivan, who would have been responsible, had died from injuries sustained in the initial quake. In all, the fires burned for four days and nights.
Due to a widespread practice by insurers to indemnify San Francisco properties from fire, but not earthquake damage, most of the destruction in the city was blamed on the fires. Some property owners deliberately set fire to damaged properties, in order to claim them on their insurance. Capt. Leonard D. Wildman of the U.S. Army Signal Corps reported that he "was stopped by a fireman who told me that people in that neighborhood were firing their houses... they were told that they would not get their insurance on buildings damaged by the earthquake unless they were damaged by fire ''.
One landmark building lost in the fire was the Palace Hotel, subsequently rebuilt, which had many famous visitors, including royalty and celebrated performers. It was constructed in 1875 primarily financed by Bank of California co-founder William Ralston, the "man who built San Francisco ''. In April 1906, the tenor Enrico Caruso and members of the Metropolitan Opera Company came to San Francisco to give a series of performances at the Grand Opera House. The night after Caruso 's performance in Carmen, the tenor was awakened in the early morning in his Palace Hotel suite by a strong jolt. Clutching an autographed photo of President Theodore Roosevelt, Caruso made an effort to get out of the city, first by boat and then by train, and vowed never to return to San Francisco. Caruso died in 1921, having remained true to his word. The Metropolitan Opera Company lost all of its traveling sets and costumes in the earthquake and ensuing fires.
Some of the greatest losses from fire were in scientific laboratories. Alice Eastwood, the curator of botany at the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco, is credited with saving nearly 1,500 specimens, including the entire type specimen collection for a newly discovered and extremely rare species, before the remainder of the largest botanical collection in the western United States was destroyed in the fire. The entire laboratory and all the records of Benjamin R. Jacobs, a biochemist who was researching the nutrition of everyday foods, were destroyed. The original California flag used in the 1846 Bear Flag Revolt at Sonoma, which at the time was being stored in a state building in San Francisco, was also destroyed in the fire.
The fire following the earthquake in San Francisco, cost an estimated $350 million at the time, equivalent to $8.97 billion. The devastating quake levelled about 80 % of the city.
The city 's fire chief, Dennis T. Sullivan, was gravely injured when the earthquake first struck and later died from his injuries. The interim fire chief sent an urgent request to the Presidio, an army post on the edge of the stricken city, for dynamite. General Frederick Funston had already decided that the situation required the use of troops. Telephoning a policeman, he sent word to Mayor Eugene Schmitz of his decision to assist, and then ordered army troops from nearby Angel Island to mobilize and come into the city. Explosives were ferried across the bay from the California Powder Works in what is now Hercules.
During the first few days, soldiers provided valuable services like patrolling streets to discourage looting and guarding buildings such as the U.S. Mint, post office, and county jail. They aided the fire department in dynamiting to demolish buildings in the path of the fires. The army also became responsible for feeding, sheltering, and clothing the tens of thousands of displaced residents of the city. Under the command of Funston 's superior, Major General Adolphus Greely, Commanding Officer, Pacific Division, over 4,000 troops saw service during the emergency. On July 1, 1906, civil authorities assumed responsibility for relief efforts, and the army withdrew from the city.
On April 18, in response to riots among evacuees and looting, Mayor Schmitz issued and ordered posted a proclamation that "The Federal Troops, the members of the Regular Police Force and all Special Police Officers have been authorized by me to kill any and all persons found engaged in Looting or in the Commission of Any Other Crime ''. In addition, accusations of soldiers themselves engaging in looting also surfaced.
Early on April 18, 1906, recently retired Captain Edward Ord of the 22nd Infantry Regiment was appointed a Special Police Officer by Mayor Eugene Schmitz and liasioned with Major General Adolphus Greely for relief work with the 22nd Infantry and other military units involved in the emergency. Ord later wrote a long letter to his mother on the April 20 regarding Schmitz ' "Shoot - to - Kill '' Order and some "despicable '' behavior of certain soldiers of the 22nd Infantry who were looting. He also made it clear that the majority of soldiers served the community well.
Property losses from the disaster have been estimated to be more than $400 million in 1906 dollars. This is equivalent to $10.9 billion in 2017 dollars. An insurance industry source tallies insured losses at $235 million, the equivalent to $6.4 billion in 2017 dollars.
Political and business leaders strongly downplayed the effects of the earthquake, fearing loss of outside investment in the city which badly needed to rebuild. In his first public statement, California governor George Pardee emphasized the need to rebuild quickly: "This is not the first time that San Francisco has been destroyed by fire, I have not the slightest doubt that the City by the Golden Gate will be speedily rebuilt, and will, almost before we know it, resume her former great activity ''. The earthquake itself is not even mentioned in the statement. Fatality and monetary damage estimates were manipulated.
Almost immediately after the quake (and even during the disaster), planning and reconstruction plans were hatched to quickly rebuild the city. Rebuilding funds were immediately tied up by the fact that virtually all the major banks had been sites of the conflagration, requiring a lengthy wait of seven - to - ten days before their fire - proof vaults could cool sufficiently to be safely opened. The Bank of Italy had evacuated its funds and was able to provide liquidity in the immediate aftermath. Its president also immediately chartered and financed the sending of two ships to return with shiploads of lumber from Washington and Oregon mills which provided the initial reconstruction materials and surge. In 1929, Bank of Italy was renamed and is now known as Bank of America.
William James, the pioneering American psychologist, was teaching at Stanford at the time of the earthquake and traveled into San Francisco to observe first - hand its aftermath. He was most impressed by the positive attitude of the survivors and the speed with which they improvised services and created order out of chaos. This formed the basis of the chapter "On some Mental Effects of the Earthquake '' in his book Memories and Studies.
H.G. Wells had just arrived in New York on his first visit to America when he learned, at lunch, of the San Francisco earthquake. What struck him about the reaction of those around him was that "it does not seem to have affected any one with a sense of final destruction, with any foreboding of irreparable disaster. Every one is talking of it this afternoon, and no one is in the least degree dismayed. I have talked and listened in two clubs, watched people in cars and in the street, and one man is glad that Chinatown will be cleared out for good; another 's chief solicitude is for Millet 's ' Man with the Hoe. ' ' They 'll cut it out of the frame, ' he says, a little anxiously. ' Sure. ' But there is no doubt anywhere that San Francisco can be rebuilt, larger, better, and soon. Just as there would be none at all if all this New York that has so obsessed me with its limitless bigness was itself a blazing ruin. I believe these people would more than half like the situation. ''
The grandeur of citywide reconstruction schemes required investment from Eastern monetary sources, hence the spin and de-emphasis of the earthquake, the promulgation of the tough new building codes, and subsequent reputation sensitive actions such as the official low death toll. One of the more famous and ambitious plans came from famed urban planner Daniel Burnham. His bold plan called for, among other proposals, Haussmann - style avenues, boulevards, arterial thoroughfares that radiated across the city, a massive civic center complex with classical structures, and what would have been the largest urban park in the world, stretching from Twin Peaks to Lake Merced with a large atheneum at its peak. But this plan was dismissed during the aftermath of the earthquake.
The earthquake also was crucial in the development of the University of California, San Francisco and its medical facilities. Until 1906, the school faculty had provided care at the City - County Hospital (San Francisco General Hospital, 1915 -- 2016, but Zuckerberg San Francisco General Hospital and Trauma Center (SFGH) since 2016), but did not have a hospital of its own. Following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, more than 40,000 people were relocated to a makeshift tent city in Golden Gate Park and were treated by the faculty of the Affiliated Colleges. This brought the school, which until then was located on the western outskirts of the city, in contact with significant population and fueled the commitment of the school towards civic responsibility and health care, increasing the momentum towards the construction of its own health facilities. Finally, in April 1907, one of the buildings was renovated for outpatient care with 75 beds. This created the need to train nursing students, and, in 1907, the UC Training School for Nurses was established, adding a fourth professional school to the Affiliated Colleges.
For example, real estate investors and other land owners were against the idea due to the large amount of land the city would have to purchase to realize such proposals. City fathers likewise attempted at the time to eliminate the Chinese population and export Chinatown (and other poor populations) to the edge of the county where the Chinese could still contribute to the local taxbase. The Chinese occupants had other ideas and prevailed instead. Chinatown was rebuilt in the newer, modern, Western form that exists today. The destruction of City Hall and the Hall of Records enabled thousands of Chinese immigrants to claim residency and citizenship, creating a backdoor to the Chinese Exclusion Act, and bring in their relatives from China.
While the original street grid was restored, many of Burnham 's proposals inadvertently saw the light of day, such as a neoclassical civic center complex, wider streets, a preference of arterial thoroughfares, a subway under Market Street, a more people - friendly Fisherman 's Wharf, and a monument to the city on Telegraph Hill, Coit Tower.
The earthquake was also responsible for the development of the Pacific Heights neighborhood. The immense power of the earthquake had destroyed almost all of the mansions on Nob Hill except for the James C. Flood Mansion. Others that had n't been destroyed were dynamited by the Army forces aiding the firefighting efforts in attempts to create firebreaks. As one indirect result, the wealthy looked westward where the land was cheap and relatively undeveloped, and where there were better views and a consistently warmer climate. Constructing new mansions without reclaiming and clearing old rubble simply sped attaining new homes in the tent city during the reconstruction.
Reconstruction was swift, and largely completed by 1915, in time for the 1915 Panama -- Pacific International Exposition which celebrated the reconstruction of the city and its "rise from the ashes ''.
Since 1915, the city has officially commemorated the disaster each year by gathering the remaining survivors at Lotta 's Fountain, a fountain in the city 's financial district that served as a meeting point during the disaster for people to look for loved ones and exchange information.
The army built 5,610 redwood and fir "relief houses '' to accommodate 20,000 displaced people. The houses were designed by John McLaren, and were grouped in eleven camps, packed close to each other and rented to people for two dollars per month until rebuilding was completed. They were painted navy blue, partly to blend in with the site, and partly because the military had large quantities of navy blue paint on hand. The camps had a peak population of 16,448 people, but by 1907 most people had moved out. The camps were then re-used as garages, storage spaces or shops. The cottages cost on average $100 to put up. The $2 monthly rents went towards the full purchase price of $50. Most of the shacks have been destroyed, but a small number survived. One of the modest 720 sq ft (67 m) homes was purchased in 2006 for more than $600,000. The last official refugee camp was closed on June 30, 1908.
A 2017 study found that the fire had the effect of increasing the share of land used for nonresidential purposes: "Overall, relative to unburned blocks, residential land shares on burned blocks fell while nonresidential land shares rose by 1931. The study also provides insight into what held the city back from making these changes before 1906: the presence of old residential buildings. In reconstruction, developers built relatively fewer of these buildings, and the majority of the reduction came through single - family houses. Also, aside from merely expanding nonresidential uses in many neighborhoods, the fire created economic opportunities in new areas, resulting in clusters of business activity that emerged only in the wake of the disaster. These effects of the fire still remain today, and thus large shocks can be sufficient catalysts for permanently reshaping urban settings. ''
During the first few days after news of the disaster reached the rest of the world, relief efforts reached over $5,000,000. London raised hundreds of thousands of dollars. Individual citizens and businesses donated large sums of money for the relief effort: Standard Oil gave $100,000; Andrew Carnegie gave $100,000; the Dominion of Canada made a special appropriation of $100,000 and even the Bank of Canada in Ottawa gave $25,000. The U.S. government quickly voted for one million dollars in relief supplies which were immediately rushed to the area, including supplies for food kitchens and many thousands of tents that city dwellers would occupy the next several years. These relief efforts were not enough to get families on their feet again, and consequently the burden was placed on wealthier members of the city, who were reluctant to assist in the rebuilding of homes they were not responsible for. All residents were eligible for daily meals served from a number of communal soup kitchens and citizens as far away as Idaho and Utah were known to send daily loaves of bread to San Francisco as relief supplies were coordinated by the railroads.
Insurance companies, faced with staggering claims of $250 million, paid out between $235 million and $265 million on policyholders ' claims, often for fire damage only, since shake damage from earthquakes was excluded from coverage under most policies. At least 137 insurance companies were directly involved and another 17 as reinsurers. Twenty companies went bankrupt, and most excluded shake damage claims. Lloyd 's of London reports having paid all claims in full, more than $50 million and the insurance companies in Hartford, Connecticut report also paying every claim in full, with the Hartford Fire Insurance Company paying over $11 million and Aetna Insurance Company almost $3 million.
After the 1906 earthquake, global discussion arose concerning a legally flawless exclusion of the earthquake hazard from fire insurance contracts. It was pressed ahead mainly by re-insurers. Their aim; a uniform solution to insurance payouts resulting from fires cause by earthquakes. Until 1910, a few countries, especially in Europe, followed the call for an exclusion of the earthquake hazard from all fire insurance contracts. In the U.S., the question was discussed differently. But the traumatized public reacted with fierce opposition. On August 1, 1909, the California Senate enacted the California Standard Form of Fire Insurance Policy, which did not contain any earthquake clause. Thus the state decided that insurers would have to pay again if another earthquake was followed by fires. Other earthquake - endangered countries followed the California example. The insurance payments heavily affected the international financial system. Gold transfers from European insurance companies to policyholders in San Francisco led to a rise in interest rates, subsequently to a lack of available loans and finally to the Knickerbocker Trust Company crisis of October 1907 which led to the Panic of 1907.
The 1906 Centennial Alliance was set up as a clearing - house for various centennial events commemorating the earthquake. Award presentations, religious services, a National Geographic TV movie, a projection of fire onto the Coit Tower, memorials, and lectures were part of the commemorations. The USGS Earthquake Hazards Program issued a series of Internet documents, and the tourism industry promoted the 100th anniversary as well.
Eleven survivors of the 1906 earthquake attended the centennial commemorations in 2006, including Irma Mae Weule (May 11, 1899 -- August 8, 2008), who was the oldest survivor of the quake at the time of her death in August 2008, aged 109. Vivian Illing (December 25, 1900 -- January 22, 2009) was believed to be the second - oldest survivor at the time of her death, aged 108, leaving Herbert Hamrol (January 10, 1903 -- February 4, 2009) as the last known remaining survivor at the time of his death, aged 106. Another survivor, Libera Armstrong (September 28, 1902 -- November 27, 2007), attended the 2006 anniversary, but died in 2007, aged 105.
Shortly after Hamrol 's death, two additional survivors were discovered. William Del Monte, then 103, and Jeanette Scola Trapani (April 21, 1902 -- December 28, 2009), 106, stated that they stopped attending events commemorating the earthquake when it became too much trouble for them. Del Monte and another survivor, Rose Cliver, then 106, attended the earthquake reunion celebration on April 18, 2009, the 103rd anniversary of the earthquake. Cliver (October 9, 1902 -- February 18, 2012) died in February 2012, aged 109. Nancy Stoner Sage (February 19, 1905 -- April 15, 2010) died, aged 105, in Colorado just three days short of the 104th anniversary of the earthquake on April 18, 2010. Del Monte attended the event at Lotta 's Fountain on April 18, 2010 and the dinner at John 's Restaurant the night before. 107 - year - old George Quilici (April 26, 1905 -- May 31, 2012) died in May 2012, and 113 - year - old Ruth Newman (September 23, 1901 -- July 29, 2015) in July 2015. William Del Monte (January 22, 1906 -- January 11, 2016), who died 11 days shy of his 110th birthday, was thought to be the last survivor.
In 2005 the National Film Registry added San Francisco Earthquake and Fire, April 18, 1906, a newsreel documentary made soon after the earthquake, to its list of American films worthy of preservation.
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total box office collection of jab hari met sajal | Jab Harry Met Sejal - wikipedia
Jab Harry Met Sejal (English: When Harry Met Sejal) is a 2017 Indian romance film written and directed by Imtiaz Ali. It features Shah Rukh Khan and Anushka Sharma in the lead roles, their third collaboration after Rab Ne Bana Di Jodi (2008) and Jab Tak Hai Jaan (2012). Pre-production of the film begun in April 2015 and principal photography commenced in August 2016 in Prague, Amsterdam, Vienna, Lisbon and Budapest.
The movie did not meet the expectations of some audience members and critics.
Harinder "Harry '' Singh Nehra is a tourist guide in Amsterdam. He is shown to be a "cheap womanizer '' as he calls himself but is a friendly and helpful guide.
After dropping a family at the airport, Harry comes across Sejal Zaveri, a member of the same family, who has lost her engagement ring. He reluctantly agrees to help her find her ring. In due course of time while searching for the ring, they become friendly and he tells her that he had left his home in Nur Mahal village and came to Canada to become a singer, which did not work out.
Both Harry and Sejal travel to places where he had initially taken the family, in search of the ring. During this, Harry falls in love with Sejal, but does not reveal it to her as she is engaged to someone else. They soon learn that a criminal, Gas, has stolen the ring. They go to Gas to retrieve the ring but Harry gets thrashed by Gas 's men. Later, while looking for antiseptics in her bag for Harry, Sejal finds the ring and realizes that the ring was in her bag all along. However, she does not tell Harry about this.
The next day, Harry and Sejal fly to Frankfurt for the wedding of Mayank; Harry 's friend. After the wedding, Harry and Sejal get into an argument and she decides to leave for India.
At the airport, Sejal shows Harry the ring and tells him that it was in her bag all along. He asks her to take care and bids her goodbye.
She returns to India and he returns to his work, but begins to miss her and gets depressed. On Mayank 's insistence, Harry flies for Mumbai to go to her wedding. On reaching the venue, he learns that her marriage was called off and finds her sitting outside. They eventually share their feelings for each other, and go to Harry 's village, Nur Mahal, where he reunites with his family and marries Sejal.
Jab Harry Met Sejal was initially conceived about a man trying to commit suicide. However, after Khan met Ali, the former suggested to revitalise the story by making it a more jolly film.
Production began in April 2016 and plans to filming were announced in the first part of August 2016, when the film had the working title "Production No. 52 ''. Sharma required several months of diction training to prepare herself for her role, as her character is from Gujarat. She describes her character as "very superficial, does n't have any depth as a person. There is no similarity with me. But her morals and values of self - respect are something that I can relate to. But otherwise, the character is quite impulsive by nature. ''
The film underwent a lot of name changes throughout its production phase from The Ring to Rahnuma to Raula until it was finalized with Jab Harry Met Sejal. When the title of the film was finally revealed, it received considerable backlash from people who accused that it must be a copy of the 1989 Hollywood iconic film When Harry Met Sally... or that it must have been inspired by it. However, contrary to popular beliefs, the two films have no similarity or connection with one another except both falls under the same genre and the two protagonist start off as strangers. Khan explained, "When Harry Met Sally... is one of the greatest love stories ever made in the history of world cinema. Our film on the other hand, is quite original, a fun space love story by Imtiaz Ali. But it is a takeoff from there as that movie is a classic. It is a way to attribute. ''
In an interview with The Indian Express, Khan discussed about the possible epilogue of the movie; the couple had three children and moved to a small town for some time. Sejal then works as a lawyer while Harry takes time off and writes a book. The former takes the role of a working partner while the latter looks after the children.
Filming began in late August 2016 in Prague and continued in Amsterdam & Budapest from September 2016. Filming locations include multiple locations in Europe, as well as in Punjab.
Sony Music India
The music of the film is composed by Pritam while the lyrics have been penned by Irshad Kamil. The first song of the film titled as "Radha '' sung by Shahid Mallya and Sunidhi Chauhan was released on 21st June 2017. The second song "Beech Beech Mein '' sung by Arijit Singh, Shalmali Kholgade and Shefali Alvares was released on 3 July 2017. The third song "Safar '' sung by Arijit Singh was released on 10 July 2017. The fourth song "Butterfly '' sung by Dev Negi, Sunidhi Chauhan, Aman Trikha and Nooran Sisters was released on 13 August 2017. The fifth song "Hawayein '' sung by Arijit Singh was unveiled on 26 July 2017. The sixth and last song titled "Phurrr '' was composed by the American DJ Diplo and Pritam. It was sung by DJ Diplo, Pritam, Mohit Chauhan and Tushar Joshi and was released on 3 August 2017. The full soundtrack album of the film includes 14 songs and 6 remixes; total 20 songs and was released by Sony Music India on 4 August 2017.
Debarati S Sen of The Times of India commented that they have made an "enjoyable album '', "which captures the usual genres that characterises a typical Bollywood film, well enough ''. Joginder Tuteja of Bollywood Hungama rated 4 out of 5 stars to the album.
The film was initially set for an August 11, 2017 release. However, it was later moved a week earlier to August 4 to avoid the movie Toilet: Ek Prem Katha averting a possible box office clash. Its release date in Dubai and United Arab Emirates was pushed from early Thursday morning -- which has been the norm for Bollywood films -- to Friday evening to prevent pirated versions of the film or its spoilers from getting leaked. However, after a backlash, it was decided to release it on its original release date, August 3, at 6 PM GST.
The film was released on 3400 screens worldwide.
The film received mixed reviews from critics.
Anita Iyer of Khaleej Times rated the film 2.5 out of 5 stars and said, "The movie goes through its ebb and flow, and all you can do is enjoy the good bits, till they last. '' Manjusha Radhakrishnan of Gulf News also rated it 2.5 stars out of 5, saying "The climax is n't ground - breaking, however, the cinematography that highlights the beauty of a handful European countries is pleasing to watch. ''
Yahoo gave the movie 3.5 stars out of 5 calling it a complete entertainer. '' Koimoi gave Jab Harry Met Sejal 3.5 stars out of 5, praising the performances and direction. Times Of India gave the movie 3 stars of out 5 and wrote, "Sound advice here would be that you actually buy yourself a tour ticket to Europe and soak in the sights for real. But, if you want to settle for a cheaper option of touring the continent inside a cinema hall, buy yourself a JHMS ticket and get transported to the land of make - believe captured indulgently by cinematographer KU Mohanan, with the added advantage of a Punjabi ` munda ' playing your friend, philosopher, lover and guide. '' Filmfare Magazine gave the movie 3 stars out of 5 stating that, "JHMS is a happy romantic comedy that you can sing and dance along with. Pritam 's music is a stand out feature. The performances are really strong ''.
NDTV gave JHMS 2 / 5 and wrote, "It is cinema 's equivalent of a shiny bauble that glitters wholly in vain. Watch it only if you fancy a vicarious romp through Europe with an off - colour megastar trying hard to get going ''. Bollywood film critic and business trend analyst Taran Adarsh wrote on Facebook, "Good performances... Stunning locales... Bland and boring screenplay... Too many songs... With SRK - Anushka, Imtiaz Ali could 've hit the ball out of the park with a solid script. Sadly, he loses this golden opportunity. '' Shubhra Gupta, critic of Indian Express gave JHMS 1.5 stars out of 5 stars while calling it a dud. Giving Jab Harry Met Sejal 2 stars out of 5, Hindustan Times wrote, "Lethargic storytelling kills Shah Rukh Khan, Anushka Sharma 's film. It 's a big disappointment to see Shah Rukh Khan returning to his comfort zone and yet not performing on top of his powers. '' Bollywood Hungama gave the film 2 stars out of 5 and wrote, "Jab Harry Met Sejal has its moments. But the film is riddled with cliches and flaws that takes the film down, thanks to the poor script. ''
The film collected ₹ 15.25 crores on opening day, becoming the lowest opener for a Shah Rukh Khan film in three years. On the second day, it collected ₹ 15 crores, followed by its third day 's collection of ₹ 15.50 crores, bringing its first weekend 's collection to ₹ 45.75 crores, and making it 2017 's sixth highest first - weekend - collecting Bollywood film in the domestic market.
Nevertheless, the weekend box office collection of the film did not manage to cross ₹ 50 crores, and it emerged as one of the lowest openers of Shah Rukh Khan in recent years.
On first day, the film collected ₹ 50.57 lakh (US $79,000) from 27 screens in Australia, ₹ 20.83 lakh (US $32,000) from 20 screens in New Zealand, ₹ 1.10 crore (US $170,000) from 104 screens in the United Kingdom, ₹ 2.44 (3.8 ¢ US) from 252 screens in the United States and ₹ 58.26 lakh (US $91,000) from 26 screens in Canada. On second day, the film collected ₹ 18.96 lakh (US $30,000) from 10 screens in Australia, ₹ 16.01 lakh (US $25,000) from 16 screens in New Zealand, ₹ 1.17 crore (US $180,000) from 105 screens in the UK, ₹ 2.53 crore (US $390,000) from 251 screens in the US and ₹ 71.75 lakh (US $110,000) from 26 screens in Canada. On first Sunday, it collected ₹ 33.30 lakh (US $52,000) from 31 screens in Australia, ₹ 12.01 lakh (US $19,000) from 21 screens in New Zealand, ₹ 79.69 lakh (US $120,000) from 106 screens in the UK, ₹ 1.57 crore (US $240,000) from 249 screens in the US and ₹ 47.17 lakh (US $74,000) from 26 screens in Canada. On fourth day of release, the film collected ₹ 7.29 lakh (US $11,000) from 23 screens in Australia and ₹ 3.78 lakh (US $5,900) from 18 screens in New Zealand.
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who sang if you wanna be happy for the rest of your life | If You Wanna Be Happy - wikipedia
"If You Wanna Be Happy '' is a 1963 song recorded by Jimmy Soul, written by Joseph Royster, Carmella Guida and Frank Guida.
"If You Wanna Be Happy '' is based on the song "Ugly Woman '' by the Trinidadian calypsonian Roaring Lion recorded in 1934. It hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100 on May 18, 1963, as well as the R&B singles chart. It was issued on Guida 's S.P.Q.R. label and distributed by London Records, and in the United Kingdom on EMI 's Stateside label.
The original single lists a running time of 2: 14; some later releases are slightly longer due to a longer fade - out. The song was banned on many radio stations, due to the use of the words "Ugly Girl / Woman. '' Towards the end of the song, a brief dialogue takes place between Soul and a backup singer, based on Bo Diddley 's song "Say Man '': "Say Man!! '' / "Hey baby '' / "I saw your wife the other day. '' / "Yeah?? '' / "Yeah, and she 's ugly - y-y-y-y!!! '' / "Yeah, she 's ugly, but she sure can cook, baby ''. / "Yeah, alright. '' / Soul 's counterpoint melody in a falsetto is heard as the song fades out.
The song is featured in the films Clean and Sober (1988), Chances Are (1989), Mermaids (1990) Rocky and Bullwinkle (2014) and on the soundtrack of My Best Friend 's Wedding (1997). The song, or possibly Roaring Lion 's version, can also be heard in Tiger Bay (1959) sung by a group of street musicians at a wedding.
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what is the length of a black panther | Black Panther (film) - wikipedia
Black Panther is an upcoming American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is intended to be the eighteenth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. The film is directed by Ryan Coogler from a screenplay by him and Joe Robert Cole, and stars Chadwick Boseman as T'Challa / Black Panther alongside Michael B. Jordan, Lupita Nyong'o, Danai Gurira, Martin Freeman, Daniel Kaluuya, Letitia Wright, Winston Duke, Angela Bassett, Forest Whitaker, and Andy Serkis. In Black Panther, T'Challa returns home as king of Wakanda but finds his sovereignty challenged by a long - time adversary in a conflict that has global consequences.
Wesley Snipes first mentioned his intention to work on a Black Panther film in 1992, with that project going through multiple iterations over the next decade but never coming to fruition. A Black Panther film was announced as one of the ten films based on Marvel characters that would be developed by Marvel Studios and distributed by Paramount Pictures in September 2005, with Mark Bailey hired to write a script in January 2011. Black Panther was officially announced in October 2014, with Boseman first appearing in Captain America: Civil War. By the end of 2015, Cole and Coogler had both joined Black Panther, and additional cast members came on board beginning in May 2016. Principal photography for the film took place from January to April 2017, at EUE / Screen Gems Studios and Pinewood Atlanta Studios in the Atlanta metropolitan area, and Busan, South Korea.
Black Panther is set to be released in the United States on February 16, 2018, in IMAX and 3D.
After the events of Captain America: Civil War, King T'Challa returns home to Wakanda. But when two enemies conspire to bring down the kingdom, T'Challa must team up, as the Black Panther, with CIA agent Everett K. Ross and members of the Dora Milaje -- Wakanda 's special forces -- to prevent a world war.
Additionally, Florence Kasumba and John Kani reprise their roles as Ayo and T'Chaka respectively from Captain America: Civil War. Sterling K. Brown plays N'Jobu, a figure from T'Challa's past, Isaach de Bankolé plays the elder of one of the largest tribes in Wakanda, Nabiyah Be portrays the criminal Tilda Johnson, Sydelle Noel portrays Xoliswa, a member of the Dora Milaje, and Connie Chuene portrays a mining elder. Atandwa Kani was cast in an undisclosed role. Black Panther co-creator Stan Lee has a cameo in the film.
In June 1992, Wesley Snipes announced his intention to make a film about Black Panther, and he had begun work on one by that August. The next July, Snipes planned to begin The Black Panther after starring in Demolition Man, and the next month he expressed interest in making sequels to the film as well. In January 1994, Snipes entered talks with Columbia Pictures to portray Black Panther, and Stan Lee joined the film by March; it had entered early development by May. When the film had not progressed in January 1996, Lee explained that he had not been pleased with the scripts for the project.
In July 1997, Black Panther was listed as part of Marvel Comics ' film slate, and in March 1998, Marvel hired Joe Quesada and Jimmy Palmiotti to work on it. That August, corporate problems at Marvel had put the project on hold, while the next August, Snipes was set to produce, and possibly star, in the film. In May 2000, Artisan Entertainment announced a deal with Marvel to co-produce, finance, and distribute a film based on Black Panther. In March 2002, Snipes said he planned to do Blade 3 or Black Panther in 2003, and reiterated his interest five months later. In July 2004, Blade 3 director David S. Goyer said this was unlikely, as Snipes was "already so entrenched as Blade that another Marvel hero might be overkill. ''
In September 2005, Marvel chairman and CEO Avi Arad announced Black Panther as one of the ten Marvel films that would be developed by Marvel Studios and distributed by Paramount Pictures. In June 2006, Snipes said he hoped to have a director for the project soon. In February 2007, Kevin Feige, president of production for Marvel Studios, reiterated that Black Panther was on Marvel 's development slate. By July, John Singleton had been approached to direct the film. In March 2009, Marvel hired writers to help come up with creative ways to launch its lesser - known properties, including Black Panther, with Nate Moore, the head of the writers program, helping to oversee the development of the Black Panther film specifically. In January 2011, Marvel Studios hired documentary filmmaker Mark Bailey to write a script for Black Panther to be produced by Feige. In October 2013, Feige said "I do n't know when it will be exactly, but we certainly have plans to bring (Black Panther) to life some day '', noting that the Marvel Cinematic Universe had already introduced the metal vibranium, which comes from Black Panther 's home nation Wakanda.
In October 2014, Feige announced that Black Panther would be released on November 3, 2017, with Chadwick Boseman cast in the title role. Boseman did not audition before he was hired for the role, instead discussing it with Marvel and what he wanted to do with the part. The actor was set to first portray the character in Captain America: Civil War, before starring in his own film. Feige said that Marvel was considering minority filmmakers for the director and writer, but that they were focused on "looking for the best filmmakers, the best writers, the best directors possible. So I 'm not going to say for sure that we 're going to hire from any one demographic, but we 're meeting a lot of people. '' He added that they had met with former Black Panther comics writer Reginald Hudlin. In January 2015, Boseman said that the film was going through a "brainstorming phase '' and he was looking at the different stories in the comics and how they may be merged for the film. The next month, Marvel pushed back the release date to July 6, 2018. In April 2015, Feige said he would be meeting with directors after the release of Avengers: Age of Ultron at the end of the month, and that further casting was underway.
By May 2015, Marvel had discussions with Ava DuVernay to direct this film or Captain Marvel. In June, Feige confirmed that he had met with DuVernay alongside a number of other directors, and said that he expected a decision to be made by mid - to late 2015. By early July, DuVernay had passed on directing the film, explaining that "Marvel has a certain way of doing things and I think they 're fantastic and a lot of people love what they do. I loved that they reached out to me... (but) we had different ideas about what the story would be... we just did n't see eye to eye. Better for me to realize that now than cite creative differences later. '' Later in the month, DuVernay expanded,
"It was a process of trying to figure out, are these people I want to go to bed with? Because it 's really a marriage, and for this it would be three years. It 'd be three years of not doing other things that are important to me. So it was a question of, is this important enough for me to do? At one point, the answer was yes because I thought there was value in putting that kind of imagery into the culture in a worldwide, huge way... a black man as a hero -- that would be pretty revolutionary. These Marvel films go everywhere from Shanghai to Uganda, and nothing that I probably will make will reach that many people, so I found value in that... (but) it 's important to me that (my work) be true to who I was in this moment. And if there 's too much compromise, it really was n't going to be an Ava DuVernay film. ''
By October 2015, F. Gary Gray and Ryan Coogler had been considered to direct the film, though negotiations with Coogler had cooled, and Gray had chosen to direct Fast & Furious 8 instead. Joe Robert Cole, a member of the Marvel writers program, was in talks to write the screenplay, and Marvel changed the release date once again, moving it to February 16, 2018. By December, discussions with Coogler were reignited after the successful opening of his film Creed. Feige described Black Panther as "a big geopolitical action adventure that focuses on the family and royal struggle of T'Challa in Wakanda, and what it means to be a king '', while calling the film "a very important '' link to Avengers: Infinity War and its sequel. He added that the film would be the first Marvel Studios production to feature a "primarily African - American cast ''.
In January 2016, Coogler was confirmed as director, and explained that he grew up reading comics, so Black Panther "is just as personal to me as the last couple of films I was able to make. I feel really fortunate to be able to work on something I 'm this passionate about again. '' In agreeing to direct the film after being "wooed '' by Feige for months, Coogler insisted that he bring collaborators from his previous films to work on Black Panther to differentiate the film from others in the MCU that are often "shot, composed, and edited by the same in - house people ''. Coogler wanted to "put his own personal stamp '' on the film. People he brought back to work with him on the film include Fruitvale Station cinematographer Rachel Morrison, as well as production designer Hannah Beachler and composer Ludwig Göransson, who both worked with Coogler on Fruitvale Station and Creed.
Cole, speaking in February, called the film an historic opportunity to depict a black superhero "at a time when African - Americans are affirming their identities while dealing with vilification and dehumanization. '' He added that it was important to root the themes of the film in the actual cultures of Africa, and that they would be working with experts on the region of Africa that Wakanda is supposed to be located in. Elaborating on this, Cole noted that all the countries in Africa have "different histories, mythologies, and cultures (so) what we tried to do was hone in on some of the history, some of the cultural influences and then extrapolate out in our technology... we wanted to root it in reality first and then build out from there ''. Coogler wanted Wakanda to "feel like a country, as opposed to just one city or town '' by capturing the essence of actual African countries where there are "several tribes, who speak their own languages, have their own culture, and have distinct food and way of dress. '' Costume designer Ruth E. Carter referenced the Maasai, Himba, Dogon, Basotho, and Tuareg people in her designs for Wakanda. Beachler said her designs were "about honoring (the) comic, then filling in the holes '' with research concentrated on Sub-Saharan Africa, pulling inspiration from Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Ethiopia. Much of the architecture Beachler designed was inspired by "a lot of the different tribes, traditions, then figuring out a way to really make them technologically advanced, as if it would be very natural. Because we 're also looking at Wakanda as never having been colonized. '' While researching in South Africa, the visuals of mountains looking like rondavels at Blyde River Canyon were incorporated to the tops of Wakanda 's skyscrapers. Coogler compared the rarity of vibranium existing only in Wakanda to the real - life mineral coltan that can almost only be found in Congo.
In April 2016, Feige said that Coogler was working on the script with Cole, and that filming would begin at the "very beginning of next year ''. Feige noted that Civil War laid "the groundwork '' for T'Challa's morality, and established the "geopolitical landscape '' that he would have to deal with on returning to Wakanda for Black Panther. Civil War also introduced the Wakandan language, based on the Xhosa language which Boseman was taught by John Kani, who first appeared as T'Challa's father T'Chaka in that film. Lupita Nyong'o entered negotiations to star as T'Challa's love interest the next month, and Michael B. Jordan joined in an undisclosed role, after previously working with Coogler on Fruitvale Station and Creed. Coogler discussed working in with the MCU while still creating "a Ryan Coogler movie '', saying,
What Marvel 's doing... is making content that exists in a particular universe, where the characters tie in and crossover, and I think that 's a great creative challenge to me -- to make this movie as personal as possible. It 's going to be my most personal movie to date, which is crazy to say, but it 's completely the case. I 'm obsessed with this character and this story right now, and I think it 's going to be very unique and still fit into the overall narrative that they 're establishing. I grew up as a comic book fan, and the same things used to happen in the comic books. You 'd have Wolverine 's books, and they 'd be so much darker and more brutal than the X-Men books, but they 'd still fit in when you open the pages of the X-Men book. It 's new to movies, but it 's not new to storytelling.
Later in May, Nate Moore, now serving as a producer on the film, stated that filming would occur in Atlanta, Georgia, with Marvel "definitely investigating shooting in Africa '' as well. At San Diego Comic - Con International 2016, Nyong'o was confirmed for the film, in the role of Nakia, while Jordan 's role was revealed to be Erik Killmonger. Also announced was Danai Gurira as Okoye, while Coogler confirmed that filming would begin in January 2017. Coogler added that he and Cole were inspired by Ta - Nehisi Coates ' run on Black Panther, who was writing the comic at the time, saying, "You can really see his background as a poet in some of the dialogue. And what Brian Stelfreeze is doing with the visuals in that book. And some of the questions that it 's asking. '' They also looked at "almost every (other) run '' of Black Panther in the comics, including Jack Kirby, Christopher Priest (which Coogler felt most influenced the film), Jonathan Hickman, and Hudlin. Characters for the film were picked from throughout the comics, based on what worked best for the film 's story.
In September 2016, Winston Duke was cast as M'Baku, a role that Yahya Abdul - Mateen II also tested for. The following month, Forest Whitaker was cast as Zuri and Daniel Kaluuya as W'Kabi, with Florence Kasumba revealed to be reprising her role as Ayo from Captain America: Civil War. Letitia Wright was also cast in an unspecified role. Angela Bassett was cast as T'Challa's mother, Ramonda, in November, and by January 2017, Sterling K. Brown was cast as N'Jobu. At that time, Marvel received permission from the Oakland - based public transit agency AC Transit to use their logo in the film, for a bus that T'Challa rides in a 1990 flashback to commute to Saint Mary 's College High School in Berkeley, California. The setting was chosen due to Coogler 's Oakland roots.
Principal photography had begun by January 21, 2017, at EUE / Screen Gems Studios and Pinewood Atlanta Studios in the Atlanta metropolitan area, under the working title Motherland. Filming also took place in the Sweet Auburn neighborhood in Atlanta and Atlanta City Hall, the latter serving as a United Nations building. Additional filming also took place in South Korea, with the city of Busan serving as the setting of a car chase scene, involving 150 cars and over 700 people. Filming in Busan began on March 17, 2017, with shooting occurring at the Jagalchi Fish Market, and filming taking place by Gwangalli Beach on March 21. Additional filming locations included Marine City and at the Gwangandaegyo Bridge. The production crew also hired hundreds of local, current, and former film students from local universities as staff or assistant staff during the South Korea filming. Filming in the country wrapped up on March 27, while a Korean actor was expected to be cast for the film.
Shortly after filming started, Kani 's son Atandwa stated that he would appear in the film alongside his father, the latter reprising the role of T'Chaka, while on set photographs revealed that Martin Freeman would reprise his role as Everett K. Ross. Marvel announced the start of production on January 26, along with confirming the casting of Freeman, Wright, and John Kani, and revealing that Andy Serkis would reprise his role as Ulysses Klaue from Avengers: Age of Ultron. At CinemaCon 2017, Wright was revealed to be portraying Shuri in the film. Filming concluded on April 19, 2017.
At the end of June 2017, Sydelle Noel revealed she had been cast in the film as Xoliswa, a member of the Dora Milaje. In July 2017, Moore said Black Panther would be a cross between The Godfather and the James Bond films as a "big, operatic family drama centered around a world of international espionage. So hopefully we 're getting the best of both worlds. '' Coogler added that the film was influenced by "the films of the ' 70s '' such as the works of Francis Ford Coppola in that decade, as well as crime fiction. Coogler also watched the film A Prophet for inspiration. Feige called the film 's story "rich in culturally relevant ideas. These are conversations we were having two years ago because that is inherently the story within the comics. Now it 's going to seem like the most highly fluid thing we could have done. '' Boseman also indicated there were parallels to "pull from '' in the film in relation to Donald Trump becoming President of the United States after Barack Obama. In January 2018, Coogler hinted at the inclusion of post-credit scenes.
Ludwig Göransson was hired to compose the film 's score by April 2017. Göransson traveled to Senegal and South Africa to record local musicians to form the "base '' of his soundtrack. Kendrick Lamar produced the film 's curated soundtrack, titled Black Panther: The Album, along with Top Dawg Entertainment founder Anthony Tiffith. Coogler chose Lamar for the project because his "artistic themes align with those we explore in the film. '' Lamar released the first single for the album, "All the Stars '', in January 2018, in which he collaborated with fellow Top Dawg artist SZA. A second song by Lamar with Jay Rock, Future and James Blake called "King 's Dead '' was released later in the month. Black Panther: The Album is scheduled to be released on February 9, 2018.
Black Panther is scheduled to be released in the United Kingdom on February 9, 2018, and in the United States on February 16, 2018, in IMAX and 3D. The film will have a "cross-nation release '' in Africa, a first for a Disney film. It was originally scheduled to be released on November 3, 2017, before moving in February 2015 to July 6, 2018 to accommodate Spider - Man: Homecoming. In October 2015, it moved again to accommodate Ant - Man and the Wasp.
Marvel debuted early footage and concept art from the film in April 2017, at a press event for several of their Phase Three films. Kyle Buchanan at Vulture.com praised the cinematography, costume and production design, and focus on dark skinned actors and characters, saying "Black Panther does n't look like any of the other Marvel movies... If this is what the future of superhero movies looks like, deal me in. '' Feige believed the screened footage was the first time Marvel had shown raw dailies, a decision made because the company wanted to show off the film 's cast (which Feige called "the highest - class cast we 've had on a first movie '') and diversity, even though editing for it had not yet begun.
A teaser poster was released ahead of the first teaser trailer, which premiered during Game 4 of the 2017 NBA Finals. Fans felt the poster was poorly photoshopped, and tweets mentioning it were only 27 percent positive, and 27 percent negative, according to CNBC 's marketing technology firm Amobee. The poster was also compared to a real - life picture of Black Panther Party co-founder Huey P. Newton holding two gun spears. The trailer received a much more positive response, with Peter Sciretta of / Film saying it was "nothing like I was expecting this movie to look like and that 's refreshing. '' io9 's Charles Pulliam - Moore called the teaser "every bit as intense as you were hoping it would be '' and "epic as hell ''. Andrew Husband for Uproxx felt the single teaser "easily outshines Spider - Man: Homecoming 's big - from - the - beginning marketing campaign. '' Forbes 's Scott Mendelson felt that "Black Panther has the chance to be a seminal event in the same way we 're now seeing with Wonder Woman. '' The trailer was viewed 89 million times in 24 hours, and "dominated the conversation on social media for much of the night '' over Game 4, being the top - trending item on Twitter. The Hollywood Reporter noted that the teaser generated 349,000 Twitter mentions in 24 hours, also more than Game 4. The amount of mentions were second to the amount the Star Wars: The Last Jedi teaser received. comScore and its PreAct service noted 466,664 new social media conversations for the film after the trailer released, the most for the week. For the week ending on June 18, comScore and its PreAct service again noted social media conversations for the film, with over 33,000 new ones, the second-most for the week behind Spider - Man: Homecoming. The service also noted Black Panther produced a total of 566,865 conversations to date.
Costumes from the film were on display at D23 Expo 2017 and the 2017 San Diego Comic - Con. Also in July, Marvel Studios unveiled a partnership with Lexus, with the 2018 Lexus LC scheduled to be featured in the film. A graphic novel, Black Panther: Soul of the Machine, was released in December 2017 from writers Fabian Nicieza, Geoffrey Thorne and Chuck Brown, with cover illustrations by Scott "Rahzzah '' Wilson and Szymon Kudranski, in which Black Panther defeats a villain with the help of the Lexus LC 500. Lexus also unveiled the 2018 LC Inspiration Series production car and a concept coupe dubbed the Black Panther Inspired LC. Coogler, Boseman and other members of the cast presented exclusive footage of the film at the 2017 San Diego Comic - Con, which received a standing ovation from the audience. The footage segued into a montage featuring Kendrick Lamar 's song "DNA ''. Coogler called the lyrics "amazing '' and both literally and culturally appropriate for the footage and film. In September 2017, Coogler, Gurira, and Moore participated in a panel at the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation 's Annual Legislative Conference, where exclusive footage from the film was also shown and met with a positive response. Also speaking there, Science & Entertainment Exchange Director for the National Academy of Sciences Richard Loverd felt the film would increase interest in science, technology, and Africa for young black Americans, similarly to how The Hunger Games films and Brave sparked girls ' interest in archery.
On October 16, 2017, a full trailer was released. Dave Trumbore for Collider felt it was "a killer trailer. It not only shows off a ton of action sequences, outrageous costume design, and comic book goodies for fans out there, it also brings an unmistakable sense of style that 's all Black Panther 's own. '' Graeme McMillan of The Hollywood Reporter said the message of the trailer was clear: "this is n't like the other Marvel movies, this is something else ''. BamSmackPow 's Brendan Day said the trailer "does everything right '', showing "a lot of cool imagery and action scenes without giving us much context or story points '' and having unique music choices, featuring "BagBak '' by Vince Staples and "The Revolution Will Not Be Televised '' by Gil Scott - Heron. Writing for Rolling Stone, Tre Johnson felt the trailer showed T'Challa as "someone with the arrogance of (John) Shaft, the coolness of (Barack) Obama and the hot - headed impulsiveness of Kanye West. '' He continued, "After decades of trying to nail the modern black superhero, we may finally be getting what we 've asked for... Coogler has set out to do something with the modern black superhero that all previous iterations have fallen short of doing: making it respectable, imaginative and powerful. The Afro - punk aesthetic, the unapologetic black swagger, the miniscule appearances from non-black characters -- it 's an important resetting of a standard of what 's possible ''. A few days later, Marvel Comics published a prelude tie - in comic focusing on one of T'Challa's first missions as the Black Panther around the time of Iron Man.
In December 2017, a survey from Fandango indicated that Black Panther was the second most anticipated film in 2018 behind Avengers: Infinity War. Fandango reported that its first 24 hours of ticket presales for the film were the largest ever for a Marvel film, surpassing Captain America: Civil War in 2016. Early projections for the film have it earning between $80 -- 90 million in its opening weekend in the United States and Canada, with the potential to surpass $100 million, and earning $275 -- 335 million for its domestic total.
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who played blackbeard in pirates of the caribbean 4 | Ian McShane - wikipedia
Ian David McShane (born 29 September 1942) is an English actor and voice artist. He is known for his television roles, particularly the title role in Lovejoy (1986 -- 1994), Al Swearengen in Deadwood (2004 -- 2006), Tai Lung in Kung Fu Panda (2008), and Blackbeard in Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides. He portrays Mr. Wednesday in the Starz series American Gods.
McShane was born in Blackburn, Lancashire to Irene (née Cowley; b. 1921) and Scottish footballer Harry McShane (1920 -- 2012). His father was Scottish, and his mother, who was born in England, was of Irish and English descent. McShane grew up in Davyhulme, Manchester and attended Stretford Grammar School. He studied at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art and was still a student there when he appeared in his first film, The Wild and the Willing (1962). McShane was a member of the National Youth Theatre.
In the United Kingdom, McShane 's best known role may be that of antiques dealer Lovejoy in the eponymous series. He also enjoyed fame in the United States as British film director Don Lockwood in Dallas and as a British cockfighting aficionado in Roots. Even before Lovejoy, he was a pin - up as a result of appearances in television series, such as Wuthering Heights (1967, as Heathcliff), If It 's Tuesday, This Must Be Belgium (1969, as Charlie), Jesus of Nazareth (1977, as Judas Iscariot), and Disraeli (1978) -- as well as films like Sky West and Crooked (1965) and Battle of Britain (1969).
In the United States, he is perhaps best known for the role of historical figure Al Swearengen in the HBO series Deadwood, for which he won the 2005 Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Television Drama. He was also nominated at the 2005 Emmy Award and Screen Actors Guild Awards. Within the science fiction community, McShane is best known for playing the character Dr. Robert Bryson in Babylon 5: The River of Souls.
In 1985, he appeared as an iconic MC on Grace Jones ' Slave to the Rhythm, a concept album which featured his narration interspersed throughout and which sold over a million copies worldwide.
Other recent roles include Captain Hook in Shrek the Third, Iofur Raknison (known as Ragnar Sturlusson in the film) in The Golden Compass, Tai Lung in Kung Fu Panda (for which he received an Annie Award nomination), and Mr. Bobinsky in Coraline. In live - action, he has performed in Hot Rod, the action / thriller Death Race, and The Seeker. He has appeared in The West Wing as a Russian diplomat. During 2007 -- 08, he starred as Max in the 40th anniversary Broadway revival of Harold Pinter 's The Homecoming, co-starring Eve Best, Raúl Esparza, and Michael McKean, and directed by Daniel Sullivan, at the Cort Theatre (16 December 2007 -- 13 April 2008).
In 2009, McShane appeared in Kings, which was based on the biblical story of David. His portrayal of King Silas Benjamin, an analogue of King Saul, was highly praised, with one critic saying, "Whenever Kings seems to falter, McShane appears to put bite marks all over the scenery. ''
In 2010, McShane starred in The Pillars of the Earth as Bishop Waleran Bigod. The series was an historical drama set in 12th century England and adapted from Ken Follett 's eponymous novel.
Also in 2010, the Walt Disney Company confirmed that McShane would portray Blackbeard in the fourth installment of the Pirates of the Caribbean franchise, On Stranger Tides.
In 2013, McShane played King Brahmwell in Bryan Singer 's Jack the Giant Slayer.
Since 2010, McShane has narrated the opening teases for each round of ESPN 's coverage of The Open Championship. In 2012, McShane had a guest role for two episodes as Murder Santa, a sadistic serial killer in the 1960s in the second season of American Horror Story. In 2016, he joined the cast of Game of Thrones in Season 6 as Ray.
McShane announced on April 20, 2017 that a script for a two - hour Deadwood movie had been submitted by creator David Milch to HBO and that a film is as close as ever to happening. "(A) two - hour movie script has been delivered to HBO. If they do n't deliver (a finished product), blame them, '' McShane said.
McShane married and divorced actress Suzan Farmer in the 1960s. In 1977, he began a relationship with Sylvia Kristel after meeting her on the set of The Fifth Musketeer. The affair ended his marriage to his second wife, model Ruth Post, with whom he had two children, Kate and Morgan.
On 30 August 1980, McShane married actress Gwen Humble (born 4 December 1953). They live in Venice Beach, California.
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what was the number one song on november 24th 1986 | List of Billboard Hot 100 number - one singles of 1986 - wikipedia
This is a list of the U.S. Billboard magazine Hot 100 number - one singles of 1986. The longest running number - one singles of 1986 are "That 's What Friends Are For '' by Dionne and Friends and "Walk Like an Egyptian '' by The Bangles, which each logged four weeks at number - one. "Walk Like an Egyptian '' logged two weeks at number - one in 1986 and two more weeks at number - one in 1987, summing up to four weeks at the top. "Say You, Say Me '' by Lionel Richie concluded another four week run that began in 1985. 1986 is the year with the third largest number of number - one songs, with 30 songs reaching the # 1 spot.
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a steroscope provides the illusion of depth by | Stereoscopy - wikipedia
Stereoscopy (also called stereoscopics, or stereo imaging) is a technique for creating or enhancing the illusion of depth in an image by means of stereopsis for binocular vision. The word stereoscopy derives from Greek στερεός (stereos), meaning ' firm, solid ', and σκοπέω (skopeō), meaning ' to look, to see '. Any stereoscopic image is called a stereogram. Originally, stereogram referred to a pair of stereo images which could be viewed using a stereoscope.
Most stereoscopic methods present two offset images separately to the left and right eye of the viewer. These two - dimensional images are then combined in the brain to give the perception of 3D depth. This technique is distinguished from 3D displays that display an image in three full dimensions, allowing the observer to increase information about the 3 - dimensional objects being displayed by head and eye movements.
Stereoscopy creates the illusion of three - dimensional depth from given two - dimensional images. Human vision, including the perception of depth, is a complex process, which only begins with the acquisition of visual information taken in through the eyes; much processing ensues within the brain, as it strives to make sense of the raw information. One of the functions that occur within the brain as it interprets what the eyes see is assessing the relative distances of objects from the viewer, and the depth dimension of those objects. The cues that the brain uses to gauge relative distances and depth in a perceived scene include
(All but the first two of the above cues exist in traditional two - dimensional images, such as paintings, photographs, and television.)
Stereoscopy is the production of the illusion of depth in a photograph, movie, or other two - dimensional image by the presentation of a slightly different image to each eye, which adds the first of these cues (stereopsis). The two images are then combined in the brain to give the perception of depth. Because all points in the image produced by stereoscopy focus at the same plane regardless of their depth in the original scene, the second cue, focus, is not duplicated and therefore the illusion of depth is incomplete. There are also mainly two effects of stereoscopy that are unnatural for human vision: (1) the mismatch between convergence and accommodation, caused by the difference between an object 's perceived position in front of or behind the display or screen and the real origin of that light; and (2) possible crosstalk between the eyes, caused by imperfect image separation in some methods of stereoscopy.
Although the term "3D '' is ubiquitously used, the presentation of dual 2D images is distinctly different from displaying an image in three full dimensions. The most notable difference is that, in the case of "3D '' displays, the observer 's head and eye movement do not change the information received about the 3 - dimensional objects being viewed. Holographic displays and volumetric display do not have this limitation. Just as it is not possible to recreate a full 3 - dimensional sound field with just two stereophonic speakers, it is an overstatement to call dual 2D images "3D ''. The accurate term "stereoscopic '' is more cumbersome than the common misnomer "3D '', which has been entrenched by many decades of unquestioned misuse. Although most stereoscopic displays do not qualify as real 3D display, all real 3D displays are also stereoscopic displays because they meet the lower criteria also.
Most 3D displays use this stereoscopic method to convey images. It was first invented by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1838, and improved by Sir David Brewster who made the first portable 3D viewing device.
Wheatstone originally used his stereoscope (a rather bulky device) with drawings because photography was not yet available, yet his original paper seems to foresee the development of a realistic imaging method:
For the purposes of illustration I have employed only outline figures, for had either shading or colouring been introduced it might be supposed that the effect was wholly or in part due to these circumstances, whereas by leaving them out of consideration no room is left to doubt that the entire effect of relief is owing to the simultaneous perception of the two monocular projections, one on each retina. But if it be required to obtain the most faithful resemblances of real objects, shadowing and colouring may properly be employed to heighten the effects. Careful attention would enable an artist to draw and paint the two component pictures, so as to present to the mind of the observer, in the resultant perception, perfect identity with the object represented. Flowers, crystals, busts, vases, instruments of various kinds, &c., might thus be represented so as not to be distinguished by sight from the real objects themselves.
Stereoscopy is used in photogrammetry and also for entertainment through the production of stereograms. Stereoscopy is useful in viewing images rendered from large multi-dimensional data sets such as are produced by experimental data. Modern industrial three - dimensional photography may use 3D scanners to detect and record three - dimensional information. The three - dimensional depth information can be reconstructed from two images using a computer by correlating the pixels in the left and right images. Solving the Correspondence problem in the field of Computer Vision aims to create meaningful depth information from two images.
Anatomically, there are 3 levels of binocular vision required to view stereo images:
These functions develop in early childhood. Some people who have strabismus disrupt the development of stereopsis, however orthoptics treatment can be used to improve binocular vision. A person 's stereoacuity determines the minimum image disparity they can perceive as depth. It is believed that approximately 12 % of people are unable to properly see 3D images, due to a variety of medical conditions. According to another experiment up to 30 % of people have very weak stereoscopic vision preventing them from depth perception based on stereo disparity. This nullifies or greatly decreases immersion effects of stereo to them.
Stereoscopic viewing may be artificially created by the viewer 's brain, as demonstrated with the Van Hare Effect, where the brain perceives stereo images even when the paired photographs are identical. This "false dimensionality '' results from the developed stereoacuity in the brain, allowing the viewer to fill in depth information even when few if any 3D cues are actually available in the paired images.
Traditional stereoscopic photography consists of creating a 3D illusion starting from a pair of 2D images, a stereogram. The easiest way to enhance depth perception in the brain is to provide the eyes of the viewer with two different images, representing two perspectives of the same object, with a minor deviation equal or nearly equal to the perspectives that both eyes naturally receive in binocular vision.
To avoid eyestrain and distortion, each of the two 2D images should be presented to the viewer so that any object at infinite distance is perceived by the eye as being straight ahead, the viewer 's eyes being neither crossed nor diverging. When the picture contains no object at infinite distance, such as a horizon or a cloud, the pictures should be spaced correspondingly closer together.
The principal advantages of side - by - side viewers is the lack of diminution of brightness, allowing the presentation of images at very high resolution and in full spectrum color, simplicity in creation, and little or no additional image processing is required. Under some circumstances, such as when a pair of images are presented for freeviewing, no device or additional optical equipment is needed.
The principal disadvantage of side - by - side viewers is that large image displays are not practical and resolution is limited by the lesser of the display medium or human eye. This is because as the dimensions of an image are increased, either the viewing apparatus or viewer themselves must move proportionately further away from it in order to view it comfortably. Moving closer to an image in order to see more detail would only be possible with viewing equipment that adjusted to the difference.
Freeviewing is viewing a side - by - side image pair without using a viewing device.
Two methods are available to freeview:
Prismatic, self - masking glasses are now being used by some cross-eyed - view advocates. These reduce the degree of convergence required and allow large images to be displayed. However, any viewing aid that uses prisms, mirrors or lenses to assist fusion or focus is simply a type of stereoscope, excluded by the customary definition of freeviewing.
Stereoscopically fusing two separate images without the aid of mirrors or prisms while simultaneously keeping them in sharp focus without the aid of suitable viewing lenses inevitably requires an unnatural combination of eye vergence and accommodation. Simple freeviewing therefore can not accurately reproduce the physiological depth cues of the real - world viewing experience. Different individuals may experience differing degrees of ease and comfort in achieving fusion and good focus, as well as differing tendencies to eye fatigue or strain.
An autostereogram is a single - image stereogram (SIS), designed to create the visual illusion of a three - dimensional (3D) scene within the human brain from an external two - dimensional image. In order to perceive 3D shapes in these autostereograms, one must overcome the normally automatic coordination between focusing and vergence.
The stereoscope is essentially an instrument in which two photographs of the same object, taken from slightly different angles, are simultaneously presented, one to each eye. A simple stereoscope is limited in the size of the image that may be used. A more complex stereoscope uses a pair of horizontal periscope - like devices, allowing the use of larger images that can present more detailed information in a wider field of view.
Some stereoscopes are designed for viewing transparent photographs on film or glass, known as transparencies or diapositives and commonly called slides. Some of the earliest stereoscope views, issued in the 1850s, were on glass. In the early 20th century, 45x107 mm and 6x13 cm glass slides were common formats for amateur stereo photography, especially in Europe. In later years, several film - based formats were in use. The best - known formats for commercially issued stereo views on film are Tru - Vue, introduced in 1931, and View - Master, introduced in 1939 and still in production. For amateur stereo slides, the Stereo Realist format, introduced in 1947, is by far the most common.
The user typically wears a helmet or glasses with two small LCD or OLED displays with magnifying lenses, one for each eye. The technology can be used to show stereo films, images or games, but it can also be used to create a virtual display. Head - mounted displays may also be coupled with head - tracking devices, allowing the user to "look around '' the virtual world by moving their head, eliminating the need for a separate controller. Performing this update quickly enough to avoid inducing nausea in the user requires a great amount of computer image processing. If six axis position sensing (direction and position) is used then wearer may move about within the limitations of the equipment used. Owing to rapid advancements in computer graphics and the continuing miniaturization of video and other equipment these devices are beginning to become available at more reasonable cost.
Head - mounted or wearable glasses may be used to view a see - through image imposed upon the real world view, creating what is called augmented reality. This is done by reflecting the video images through partially reflective mirrors. The real world view is seen through the mirrors ' reflective surface. Experimental systems have been used for gaming, where virtual opponents may peek from real windows as a player moves about. This type of system is expected to have wide application in the maintenance of complex systems, as it can give a technician what is effectively "x-ray vision '' by combining computer graphics rendering of hidden elements with the technician 's natural vision. Additionally, technical data and schematic diagrams may be delivered to this same equipment, eliminating the need to obtain and carry bulky paper documents.
Augmented stereoscopic vision is also expected to have applications in surgery, as it allows the combination of radiographic data (CAT scans and MRI imaging) with the surgeon 's vision.
A virtual retinal display (VRD), also known as a retinal scan display (RSD) or retinal projector (RP), not to be confused with a "Retina Display '', is a display technology that draws a raster image (like a television picture) directly onto the retina of the eye. The user sees what appears to be a conventional display floating in space in front of them. For true stereoscopy, each eye must be provided with its own discrete display. To produce a virtual display that occupies a usefully large visual angle but does not involve the use of relatively large lenses or mirrors, the light source must be very close to the eye. A contact lens incorporating one or more semiconductor light sources is the form most commonly proposed. As of 2013, the inclusion of suitable light - beam - scanning means in a contact lens is still very problematic, as is the alternative of embedding a reasonably transparent array of hundreds of thousands (or millions, for HD resolution) of accurately aligned sources of collimated light.
There are two categories of 3D viewer technology, active and passive. Active viewers have electronics which interact with a display. Passive viewers filter constant streams of binocular input to the appropriate eye.
A shutter system works by openly presenting the image intended for the left eye while blocking the right eye 's view, then presenting the right - eye image while blocking the left eye, and repeating this so rapidly that the interruptions do not interfere with the perceived fusion of the two images into a single 3D image. It generally uses liquid crystal shutter glasses. Each eye 's glass contains a liquid crystal layer which has the property of becoming dark when voltage is applied, being otherwise transparent. The glasses are controlled by a timing signal that allows the glasses to alternately darken over one eye, and then the other, in synchronization with the refresh rate of the screen. The main drawback of active shutters is that most 3D videos and movies were shot with simultaneous left and right views, so that it introduces a "time parallax '' for anything side - moving: for instance, someone walking at 3.4 mph will be seen 20 % too close or 25 % too remote in the most current case of a 2x60 Hz projection.
To present stereoscopic pictures, two images are projected superimposed onto the same screen through polarizing filters or presented on a display with polarized filters. For projection, a silver screen is used so that polarization is preserved. On most passive displays every other row of pixels are polarized for one eye or the other. This method is also known as being interlaced. The viewer wears low - cost eyeglasses which also contain a pair of opposite polarizing filters. As each filter only passes light which is similarly polarized and blocks the opposite polarized light, each eye only sees one of the images, and the effect is achieved.
This technique uses specific wavelengths of red, green, and blue for the right eye, and different wavelengths of red, green, and blue for the left eye. Eyeglasses which filter out the very specific wavelengths allow the wearer to see a full color 3D image. It is also known as spectral comb filtering or wavelength multiplex visualization or super-anaglyph. Dolby 3D uses this principle. The Omega 3D / Panavision 3D system has also used an improved version of this technology In June 2012 the Omega 3D / Panavision 3D system was discontinued by DPVO Theatrical, who marketed it on behalf of Panavision, citing '' challenging global economic and 3D market conditions ''.
Anaglyph 3D is the name given to the stereoscopic 3D effect achieved by means of encoding each eye 's image using filters of different (usually chromatically opposite) colors, typically red and cyan. Red - cyan filters can be used because our vision processing systems use red and cyan comparisons, as well as blue and yellow, to determine the color and contours of objects. Anaglyph 3D images contain two differently filtered colored images, one for each eye. When viewed through the "color - coded '' "anaglyph glasses '', each of the two images reaches one eye, revealing an integrated stereoscopic image. The visual cortex of the brain fuses this into perception of a three dimensional scene or composition.
The ChromaDepth procedure of American Paper Optics is based on the fact that with a prism, colors are separated by varying degrees. The ChromaDepth eyeglasses contain special view foils, which consist of microscopically small prisms. This causes the image to be translated a certain amount that depends on its color. If one uses a prism foil now with one eye but not on the other eye, then the two seen pictures -- depending upon color -- are more or less widely separated. The brain produces the spatial impression from this difference. The advantage of this technology consists above all of the fact that one can regard ChromaDepth pictures also without eyeglasses (thus two - dimensional) problem - free (unlike with two - color anaglyph). However the colors are only limitedly selectable, since they contain the depth information of the picture. If one changes the color of an object, then its observed distance will also be changed.
The Pulfrich effect is based on the phenomenon of the human eye processing images more slowly when there is less light, as when looking through a dark lens. Because the Pulfrich effect depends on motion in a particular direction to instigate the illusion of depth, it is not useful as a general stereoscopic technique. For example, it can not be used to show a stationary object apparently extending into or out of the screen; similarly, objects moving vertically will not be seen as moving in depth. Incidental movement of objects will create spurious artifacts, and these incidental effects will be seen as artificial depth not related to actual depth in the scene.
Stereoscopic viewing is achieved by placing an image pair one above one another. Special viewers are made for over / under format that tilt the right eyesight slightly up and the left eyesight slightly down. The most common one with mirrors is the View Magic. Another with prismatic glasses is the KMQ viewer. A recent usage of this technique is the openKMQ project.
Autostereoscopic display technologies use optical components in the display, rather than worn by the user, to enable each eye to see a different image. Because headgear is not required, it is also called "glasses - free 3D ''. The optics split the images directionally into the viewer 's eyes, so the display viewing geometry requires limited head positions that will achieve the stereoscopic effect. Automultiscopic displays provide multiple views of the same scene, rather than just two. Each view is visible from a different range of positions in front of the display. This allows the viewer to move left - right in front of the display and see the correct view from any position. The technology includes two broad classes of displays: those that use head - tracking to ensure that each of the viewer 's two eyes sees a different image on the screen, and those that display multiple views so that the display does not need to know where the viewers ' eyes are directed. Examples of autostereoscopic displays technology include lenticular lens, parallax barrier, volumetric display, holography and light field displays.
Laser holography, in its original "pure '' form of the photographic transmission hologram, is the only technology yet created which can reproduce an object or scene with such complete realism that the reproduction is visually indistinguishable from the original, given the original lighting conditions. It creates a light field identical to that which emanated from the original scene, with parallax about all axes and a very wide viewing angle. The eye differentially focuses objects at different distances and subject detail is preserved down to the microscopic level. The effect is exactly like looking through a window. Unfortunately, this "pure '' form requires the subject to be laser - lit and completely motionless -- to within a minor fraction of the wavelength of light -- during the photographic exposure, and laser light must be used to properly view the results. Most people have never seen a laser - lit transmission hologram. The types of holograms commonly encountered have seriously compromised image quality so that ordinary white light can be used for viewing, and non-holographic intermediate imaging processes are almost always resorted to, as an alternative to using powerful and hazardous pulsed lasers, when living subjects are photographed.
Although the original photographic processes have proven impractical for general use, the combination of computer - generated holograms (CGH) and optoelectronic holographic displays, both under development for many years, has the potential to transform the half - century - old pipe dream of holographic 3D television into a reality; so far, however, the large amount of calculation required to generate just one detailed hologram, and the huge bandwidth required to transmit a stream of them, have confined this technology to the research laboratory.
In 2013, a Silicon valley Company LEIA Inc started manufacturing holographic displays well suited for mobile devices (watches, smartphones or tablets) using a multi-directional backlight and allowing a wide full - parallax angle view to see 3D content without the need of glasses.
Volumetric displays use some physical mechanism to display points of light within a volume. Such displays use voxels instead of pixels. Volumetric displays include multiplanar displays, which have multiple display planes stacked up, and rotating panel displays, where a rotating panel sweeps out a volume.
Other technologies have been developed to project light dots in the air above a device. An infrared laser is focused on the destination in space, generating a small bubble of plasma which emits visible light.
Integral imaging is a technique for producing 3D displays which are both autostereoscopic and multiscopic, meaning that the 3D image is viewed without the use of special glasses and different aspects are seen when it is viewed from positions that differ either horizontally or vertically. This is achieved by using an array of microlenses (akin to a lenticular lens, but an X -- Y or "fly 's eye '' array in which each lenslet typically forms its own image of the scene without assistance from a larger objective lens) or pinholes to capture and display the scene as a 4D light field, producing stereoscopic images that exhibit realistic alterations of parallax and perspective when the viewer moves left, right, up, down, closer, or farther away.
Wiggle stereoscopy is an image display technique achieved by quickly alternating display of left and right sides of a stereogram. Found in animated GIF format on the web. Online examples are visible in the New - York Public Library stereogram collection. The technique is also known as "Piku - Piku ''.
For general purpose stereo photography, where the goal is to duplicate natural human vision and give a visual impression as close as possible to actually being there, the correct baseline (distance between where the right and left images are taken) would be the same as the distance between the eyes. When images taken with such a baseline are viewed using a viewing method that duplicates the conditions under which the picture is taken then the result would be an image pretty much the same as what would be seen at the site the photo was taken. This could be described as "ortho stereo. ''
However, there are situations in which it might be desirable to use a longer or shorter baseline. The factors to consider include the viewing method to be used and the goal in taking the picture. The concept of baseline also applies to other branches of stereography, such as stereo drawings and computer generated stereo images, but it involves the point of view chosen rather than actual physical separation of cameras or lenses.
The concept of the stereo window is always important, since the window is the stereoscopic image of the external boundaries of left and right views constituting the stereoscopic image. If any object, which is cut off by lateral sides of the window, is placed in front of it, an effect results that is unnatural and is undesirable, this is called a "window violation ''. This can best be understood by returning to the analogy of an actual physical window. Therefore, there is a contradiction between two different depth cues: some elements of the image are hidden by the window, so that the window appears as closer than these elements, and the same elements of the image appear as closer than the window. So that the stereo window must always be adjusted to avoid window violations.
Some objects can be seen in front of the window, as far as they do n't reach the lateral sides of the window. But these objects can not be seen as too close, since there is always a limit of the parallax range for comfortable viewing.
If a scene is viewed through a window the entire scene would normally be behind the window, if the scene is distant, it would be some distance behind the window, if it is nearby, it would appear to be just beyond the window. An object smaller than the window itself could even go through the window and appear partially or completely in front of it. The same applies to a part of a larger object that is smaller than the window. The goal of setting the stereo window is to duplicate this effect.
Therefore, the location of the window versus the whole of the image must be adjusted so that most of the image is seen beyond the window. In the case of viewing on a 3D TV set, it is easier to place the window in front of the image, and to let the window in the plane of the screen.
On the contrary, in the case of projection on a much larger screen, it is much better to set the window in front of the screen (it is called "floating window ''), for instance so that it is viewed about two meters away by the viewers sit in the first row. Therefore, these people will normally see tha background of the image at the infinite. Of course the viewers seated beyond will see the window more remote, but if the image is made in normal conditions, so that the first row viewers see this background at the infinite, the other viewers, seated behind, will also see this background at the infinite, since the parallax of this background is equal to the average human interocular.
The entire scene, including the window, can be moved backwards or forwards in depth, by horizontally sliding the left and right eye views relative to each other. Moving either or both images away from the center will bring the whole scene away from the viewer, whereas moving either or both images toward the center will move the whole scene toward the viewer. This is possible, for instance, if two projectors are used for this projection.
In stereo photography window adjustments is accomplished by shifting / cropping the images, in other forms of stereoscopy such as drawings and computer generated images the window is built into the design of the images as they are generated.
The images can be cropped creatively to create a stereo window that is not necessarily rectangular or lying on a flat plane perpendicular to the viewer 's line of sight. The edges of the stereo frame can be straight or curved and, when viewed in 3D, can flow toward or away from the viewer and through the scene. These designed stereo frames can help emphasize certain elements in the stereo image or can be an artistic component of the stereo image.
While stereoscopic images have typically been used for amusement, including stereographic cards, 3D films, stereoscopic video games, printings using anaglyph and pictures, posters and books of autostereograms, there are also other uses of this technology.
Salvador Dalí created some impressive stereograms in his exploration in a variety of optical illusions. Red - and - cyan anaglyph stereoscopic images have also been painted by hand.
In the 19th Century, it was realized that stereoscopic images provided an opportunity for people to experience places and things far away, and many tour sets were produced, and books were published allowing people to learn about geography, science, history, and other subjects. Such uses continued till the mid 20th Century, with the Keystone View Company producing cards into the 1960s.
The Mars Exploration Rovers, launched by NASA in 2003 to explore the surface of Mars, are equipped with unique cameras that allow researchers to view stereoscopic images of the surface of Mars.
The two cameras that make up each rover 's Pancam are situated 1.5 m above the ground surface, and are separated by 30 cm, with 1 degree of toe - in. This allows the image pairs to be made into scientifically useful stereoscopic images, which can be viewed as stereograms, anaglyphs, or processed into 3D computer images.
The ability to create realistic 3D images from a pair of cameras at roughly human - height gives researchers increased insight as to the nature of the landscapes being viewed. In environments without hazy atmospheres or familiar landmarks, humans rely on stereoscopic clues to judge distance. Single camera viewpoints are therefore more difficult to interpret. Multiple camera stereoscopic systems like the Pancam address this problem with unmanned space exploration.
Stereogram cards and vectographs are used by optometrists, ophthalmologists, orthoptists and vision therapists in the diagnosis and treatment of binocular vision and accommodative disorders.
Stereopair photographs provided a way for 3 - dimensional (3D) visualisations of aerial photographs; since about 2000, 3D aerial views are mainly based on digital stereo imaging technologies. One issue related to stereo images is the amount of disk space needed to save such files. Indeed, a stereo image usually requires double of the space of a normal image. Recently, computer vision scientists tried to find techniques to attack the visual redundancy of stereopairs with the aim to define compressed version of stereopair files. Cartographers generate today stereopairs using computer programs in order to visualise topography in three dimensions. Computerised stereo visualisation applies stereo matching programs. In biology and chemistry, complex molecular structures are often rendered in stereopairs. The same technique can also be applied to any mathematical (or scientific, or engineering) parameter that is a function of two variables, although in these cases it is more common for a three - dimensional effect to be created using a ' distorted ' mesh or shading (as if from a distant light source).
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where does the ball get placed after a missed field goal | Field goal - wikipedia
A field goal (FG) is a means of scoring in American football and Canadian football. To score a field goal the team in possession of the ball must place kick, or drop kick, the ball through the goal, i.e., between the uprights and over the crossbar. American football requires that a field goal must only come during a play from scrimmage, while Canadian football retains open field kicks and thus field goals may be scored at any time from anywhere on the field and by any player. The vast majority of field goals, in both codes, are placed kicked. Drop kicked field goals were common in the early days of Gridiron football but are almost never done in modern times. In most leagues, a successful field goal awards three points (a notable exception is in six - man football where, due to the difficulty of making a successful field goal because of the small number of players available to stop the opposing team from attempting a block, a field goal is worth four points).
A field goal may also be scored through a fair catch kick, but this is extremely rare. Since a field goal is worth only three points, as opposed to a touchdown, which is worth six points, it is usually only attempted in specific situations (see Strategy).
The goal structure consists of a horizontal crossbar suspended 10 feet (3.0 m) above the ground, with two vertical goalposts 18 feet 6 inches (5.64 m) apart extending vertically from each end of the crossbar. In American football the goals are centered on each end line; in Canadian football the goals are centered on each goal line.
As a field goal is worth only three points, while a touchdown scores at least six (which usually becomes seven with a successful conversion, and potentially 8 with a two - point conversion), teams will generally attempt a field goal only in the following situations:
Except in desperate situations, a team will generally attempt field goals only when keeping a drive alive is unlikely, and its kicker has a significant chance of success, as a missed field goal results in a turnover at the spot of the kick (in the NFL) or at the line of scrimmage (in the NCAA). In American high school rules and Canadian football, where a missed field goal is treated the same as a punt, most teams still opt not to attempt field goals from very long range since field goal formations are not conducive to covering kick returns. Even under ideal conditions, the best professional kickers historically had difficulty making kicks longer than 50 yards consistently (the NFL record is 65 yards and the CFL record, 62 yards). If a team chooses not to attempt a field goal on their last down, they can punt to the other team. A punt can not score any points in American football unless the receiving team touches the ball first and the kicking team recovers it (though it can result in a single in Canadian football), but it may push the other team back toward its own end.
The longest field goal kick in NFL history is 64 yards, a record set by Matt Prater on December 8, 2013. The previous record was 63, originally set by Tom Dempsey and then matched by Jason Elam, Sebastian Janikowski, and David Akers. High school, college and most professional football leagues offer only a three - point field goal; however, some professional leagues have encouraged more rare kicks through four - point field goals. NFL Europe encouraged long field goals of 50 yards or more by making those worth four points instead of three (much like Australian rules ' Super Goal or basketball 's three - point line), a rule since adopted by the Stars Football League. Similarly, the sport of arena football sought (unsuccessfully) to repopularize the drop kick by making that worth four points; it failed, since only one kicker (Brian Mitchell) was able to do it with any semblance of proficiency. (In six - man football, where there is no offensive line, all field goals are worth four points instead of the usual three.)
The overall field goal percentage during the 2010 NFL season was 82.3. In comparison, Jan Stenerud, one of only two pure kickers in the Pro Football Hall of Fame (along with Ray Guy), had a career field goal percentage of 66.8 from 1967 to 1985.
When a team decides to attempt a field goal, it will generally line up in a very tight formation, with all but two players lined up along or near the line of scrimmage: the placekicker and the holder. The holder is usually the team 's punter or backup quarterback. Instead of the regular center, a team may have a dedicated long snapper trained especially to snap the ball on placekick attempts and punts.
The holder usually lines up seven to eight yards behind the line of scrimmage, with the kicker a few yards behind him. Upon receiving the snap, the holder holds the ball against the ground vertically, with the stitches away from the kicker. The kicker begins his approach during the snap, so the snapper and holder have little margin for error. A split - second mistake can disrupt the entire attempt.
The measurement of a field goal 's distance is from the goalpost to the point where the ball was positioned for the kick by the holder. In American football, where the goalpost is located at the back of the end zone (above the end line), the ten yards of the end zone are added to the yard line distance at the spot of the hold.
In the early days of the sport, placekickers approached the ball straight on, with the toe making first contact with the ball. The technique of kicking the ball "soccer - style '', by approaching the ball at an angle and kicking it with the instep, was introduced by kicker Pete Gogolak in the 1960s. The Hungarian - born Gogolak, reflecting his roots in European soccer, observed that kicking the ball at an angle could cover more distance than kicking straight on.
If there is any time left in the half, the method of resuming play after a successful field goal varies between leagues.
A missed field goal is said to be "no good '' if the kicked ball does not cross between the uprights and / or over the crossbar of the goal posts. If it misses to the posts ' left it may be called "wide left '' and "wide right '' if it misses to the posts ' right. A field goal attempt may be described as "short '' if it does not have sufficient distance to go over the cross bar. Some commentators will only describe a field goal attempt as being short if it appears to have been aimed correctly while others will describe an attempt appearing to lack both accuracy and distance as being both wide and short.
If a field goal attempt is missed and does not go out of bounds, a defensive player may catch the ball and return it, like a punt or kickoff. This type of play usually occurs during an extremely long field goal attempt due to the distance the defense must travel to reach the returner. If there is a significant likelihood of a miss and the strategic game situation warrants it, the defense places a player downfield, in or near their end zone, to catch the ball. The risk in this is that the return man may be tackled deep in his own territory, at a considerably worse position than he could have gotten by letting the ball go dead (see below); furthermore, should the returner fumble the ball, the kicking team can recover it and gain a new set of downs (the advantage is that the kicking team is lined up very close together to stop kick blockers, and not spread across the field like a kickoff or punt team, and is therefore in poor position to defend the return). Thus, teams will usually return a kick only towards the end of a half (when the kick will be the final play) or in a particularly desperate situation.
If a ball caroms off one of the goal posts or the crossbar, but lands in the field of play, the ball is considered dead and can not be returned. (This is not the case in arena football, where large "rebound nets '' surround the goal posts for the explicit purpose of keeping the ball in play.) However, if the ball caroms off one of the goal posts or the crossbar and continues into the goal, the score counts.
Situations where the defense does not return a missed field goal vary between leagues and levels of play:
Occasionally, the defense will succeed in blocking a field goal. If a blocked field goal is in or behind the neutral zone, it is treated like a fumble and can be advanced by either team. Beyond the neutral zone, a blocked kick is treated like a punt and can be advanced only by the defense, unless a defensive player fumbles the ball, after which an offensive player can advance it.
In the early days of football, kicking was highly emphasized. In 1883, the scoring system was devised, with field goals counting for 5 points, and touchdowns and conversions worth 4 apiece. In 1897, the touchdown was raised to 5 points while the conversion was lowered to 1 point. Field goals were devalued to 4 points in 1904, and then to the modern 3 points in 1909. The touchdown was changed to 6 points in 1912 in American football; the Canadian game followed suit in 1956.
The spot of the conversion has also changed through the years. In 1924, NCAA rules spotted the conversion at the 3 - yard line, before moving it back to the 5 - yard line in 1925. In 1929, the spot was moved up to the 2 - yard line, which the NFL had done until 2014. In 1968, the NCAA diverged from the NFL rules in moving the spot back to the original 3 - yard line. Canadian rules originally spotted the conversion at the 5 - yard line, which remains closer than in the American code as the goalposts are at the front of the end zone. In 2015, to make conversion kicks harder, the NFL and CFL moved the spot of the kick to the 15 and 25 - yard lines, respectively. In addition, the CFL moved the spot for a two - point conversion up to the 3 - yard line to entice more teams to go for 2 points as opposed to one.
The goalposts were originally located on the goal line; this led to many injuries and sometimes interfered with play. The NCAA moved the goal posts to the rear of the end zone in 1927. The NFL (still following NCAA rules at the time) followed suit, but moved the posts back to the goal line starting in the 1932 NFL Playoff Game, a change made necessary by the size of the indoor Chicago Stadium and kept when the NFL rules stopped mirroring the NCAA rules in 1933. The NFL kept the post at the goal line until 1974, when they were moved back to the rear of the end zone. This was partly a result of the narrowed hashmark distance made in 1972, which had made for easier field - goal angles. The Canadian game still has posts on the goal line.
The width of the goalposts and the hashmarks have also varied throughout the years. In 1959, the NCAA goalposts were widened to 23 feet 4 inches (7.11 m), the standard width for high school posts today. In 1991, the college goalposts were reduced in width to 18 ft 6 in (5.64 m), matching the NFL. For the 1991 and 1992 seasons, this meant potentially severe angles for short field goal attempts, since the hashmark width remained at 53 ft 4 in (16.26 m). In 1993, the NCAA narrowed the distance between the hashmarks to 40 ft (12.19 m), matching what was the width of hashmarks in the NFL from 1945 through 1971; the NFL narrowed the hashmarks in 1972 to goalpost width at 18.5 feet (5.64 m). In the CFL, the hashmarks are 51 feet (16 m), but the field is 195 feet (59 m) in width, 35 feet (11 m) wider than the American field.
The NFL increased the height of the uprights above the crossbar to 20 feet (6.10 m) in 1966 and 30 feet (9.14 m) in 1974. In 2014, they were raised five feet to 35 feet (10.67 m) after the adoption of a proposal by New England Patriots head coach Bill Belichick.
The "slingshot '' goalpost, with a single post curving to support the crossbar, was invented by Jim Trimble and Joel Rottman in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The first were built by Alcan and displayed at Expo 67, the World 's fair in Montreal. The NFL had standardized the goalposts in 1966 and adopted the slingshot for the 1967 season; the NCAA later adopted the same rule, but later allowed the use of "offset '' goalposts, with two posts rather than one (which were the norm prior to the invention of the "slingshot '' goalposts). The CFL was the first league to use the new goalposts; they made their debut in the 2nd game of the CFL 's Eastern Conference final in 1966 (which was played at Montreal 's Autostade as Landsdowne Park (now TD Place Stadium), the home of Ottawa Rough Riders, was undergoing renovations), and were used in the Grey Cup the next week at Vancouver 's Empire Stadium. Three schools in Division I FBS currently use dual - support posts: Florida State, LSU, and Washington State. A special exemption was allowed by the NFL for the New Orleans Saints to use the offset goalposts during the 2005 season, when they used LSU 's stadium for home games after Hurricane Katrina.
Goalposts at the professional level today are sometimes equipped with a camera mounted to the stanchion immediately behind the center of the crossbar. Since these cameras are both above and slightly behind the crossbar, a field goal attempt will be judged good if it strikes this equipment.
In 1989, the NCAA banned the kicking tee for field goals and extra points, requiring kicks from the ground.
During the 2011 NFL season, a record 90 field goals of 50 yards or longer were made. In 2012, this record was increased to 92 field goals of 50 yards or longer.
As recorded in Guinness World Records:
The record for a field goal at any level is 69 yards. It was kicked by Ove Johansson of the Abilene Christian University Wildcats in the 1976 game against East Texas State University Lions (now Texas A&M University -- Commerce) in Shotwell Stadium, Abilene, Texas.
The longest field goal made was 64 yards by Matt Prater of the Denver Broncos on December 8, 2013. The longest field goal attempt in an NFL game was 76 yards by Sebastian Janikowski on September 28, 2008.
In the history of the NFL regular season, only 18 field goals have been made from at least 60 yards:
Prior to Dempsey 's 1970 kick, the longest field goal in NFL history was a 56 - yard field goal by Bert Rechichar in 1953. A 55 - yard field goal, achieved by a drop kick, was recorded by Paddy Driscoll in 1924, and stood as the unofficial record until that point; some sources indicate a 54 - yarder by Glenn Presnell in 1934 as the record, due to the inability to precisely verify Driscoll 's 55 - yarder.
In a pre-season NFL game between the Denver Broncos and the Seattle Seahawks on August 29, 2002, Ola Kimrin kicked a 65 - yard field goal. However, because pre-season games are not counted toward official records, this accomplishment is not the official record.
All of the above kicks were successful with the use of a kicking tee, which was banned by the NCAA after the 1988 season.
The longest known drop - kicked field goal in college football was a 62 - yard kick from Pat O'Dea, an Australian kicker who played on the Wisconsin Badgers football team. O'Dea's kick took place in a blizzard against Northwestern on November 15, 1898.
The longest field goal in U Sports football history is 59 yards, by Niko Difonte of Calgary Dinos, playing against the UBC Thunderbirds on November 11, 2017. The field goal was the final and winning play of the 81st Hardy Cup.
Field goal returns are rare in the NFL, since an attempt with sufficient distance that misses the uprights will automatically be dead. Returns are possible when a field goal is short, but in that case returners will usually down the ball so as to scrimmage from the spot of the kick. Normally, a return will only be attempted when there is not enough time left in the half to run a play from scrimmage. Nevertheless, four field goals have been returned for at least 107 yards in the 21st century:
Because the goalposts in Canadian football are on the goal line, and because downing the ball in the end zone results in the kicking team scoring a single point, field goal returns are much more common. The longest missed field goal return in the CFL is 131 total yards. Against the Montreal Alouettes on August 22, 1958, the Toronto Argonauts ' Boyd Carter ran 15 yards, then threw a lateral to Dave Mann, who then returned it for the final 116 yards. This return, which started 21 yards behind the goal line, was during the era of 25 - yard end zones (which made the maximum theoretical missed field return distance 134 yards in those days) and therefore can not be met or exceeded on the modern field with 20 - yard end zones. Since the shortening of the end zones in the CFL in 1986, a field goal has been returned for the maximum 129 yards on two occasions: by Tristan Jackson of the Saskatchewan Roughriders on July 14, 2012 and by Trent Guy of the Montreal Alouettes on September 23, 2012.
In NCAA college football, only five missed field goals returns for touchdowns have ever been returned 100 yards or more:
In U Sports football, like in the CFL, the longest possible missed field goal return is 129 yards, and this has occurred three times.
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who headed indian army during bangladesh liberation 1971 | Bangladesh Liberation war - wikipedia
Provisional Government of Bangladesh
India
Pakistan
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (President of Provisional Government of Bangladesh) Tajuddin Ahmad (Prime Minister of Provisional Government of Bangladesh) M.A.G. Osmani (Cdr - in - C, Bangladesh Forces) Maj. K.M. Shafiullah (Commander, S Force) Maj. Ziaur Rahman (Commander, Z Force) Maj. Khaled Mosharraf (Commander, K Force)
Abdul Motaleb Malik (Governor of East Pakistan) Ghulam Azam (Chair, Nagorik Shanti Committee) Motiur Rahman Nizami (Emir of Jamaat - e-Islami) Abdul Quader Molla (Leader, Al - Badr) Abul Kalam Azad (Leader, Razakar) Fazlul Qadir Chaudhry (Leader, Al - Shams)
Systematic events
§ indicates events in the internal resistance movement linked to the Indo - Pakistani War. ‡ indicates events in the Indo - Pakistani War linked to the internal resistance movement in Bangladesh.
The Bangladesh Liberation War (Bengali: মুক্তিযুদ্ধ Muktijuddho), also known as the Bangladesh War of Independence, or simply the Liberation War in Bangladesh, was a revolution and armed conflict sparked by the rise of the Bengali nationalist and self - determination movement in what was then East Pakistan during the 1971 Bangladesh genocide. It resulted in the independence of the People 's Republic of Bangladesh. The war began after the Pakistani military junta based in West Pakistan launched Operation Searchlight against the people of East Pakistan on the night of 25 March 1971. It pursued the systematic elimination of nationalist Bengali civilians, students, intelligentsia, religious minorities and armed personnel. The junta annulled the results of the 1970 elections and arrested Prime minister - designate Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. The war ended on 16 December 1971 after West Pakistan surrendered.
Rural and urban areas across East Pakistan saw extensive military operations and air strikes to suppress the tide of civil disobedience that formed following the 1970 election stalemate. The Pakistan Army, which had the backing of Islamists, created radical religious militias -- the Razakars, Al - Badr and Al - Shams -- to assist it during raids on the local populace. Urdu - speaking Biharis in Bangladesh (ethnic minority) were also in support of Pakistani military. Members of the Pakistani military and supporting militias engaged in mass murder, deportation and genocidal rape. The capital Dhaka was the scene of numerous massacres, including the Operation Searchlight and Dhaka University massacre. An estimated 10 million Bengali refugees fled to neighboring India, while 30 million were internally displaced. Sectarian violence broke out between Bengalis and Urdu - speaking immigrants. An academic consensus prevails that the atrocities committed by the Pakistani military were a genocide.
The Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence was proclaimed from Chittagong by members of the Mukti Bahini -- the national liberation army formed by Bengali military, paramilitary and civilians. The East Bengal Regiment and the East Pakistan Rifles played a crucial role in the resistance. Led by General M.A.G. Osmani and eleven sector commanders, the Bangladesh Forces waged a mass guerrilla war against the Pakistani military. They liberated numerous towns and cities in the initial months of the conflict. The Pakistan Army regained momentum in the monsoon. Bengali guerrillas carried out widespread sabotage, including Operation Jackpot against the Pakistan Navy. The nascent Bangladesh Air Force flew sorties against Pakistani military bases. By November, the Bangladesh forces restricted the Pakistani military to its barracks during the night. They secured control of most parts of the countryside.
The Provisional Government of Bangladesh was formed on 17 April 1971 in Mujibnagar and moved to Calcutta as a government in exile. Bengali members of the Pakistani civil, military and diplomatic corps defected to the Bangladeshi provisional government. Thousands of Bengali families were interned in West Pakistan, from where many escaped to Afghanistan. Bengali cultural activists operated the clandestine Free Bengal Radio Station. The plight of millions of war - ravaged Bengali civilians caused worldwide outrage and alarm. The Indian state led by Indira Gandhi provided substantial diplomatic, economic and military support to Bangladeshi nationalists. British, Indian and American musicians organised the world 's first benefit concert in New York City to support the Bangladeshi people. Senator Ted Kennedy in the United States led a congressional campaign for an end to Pakistani military persecution; while US diplomats in East Pakistan strongly dissented with the Nixon administration 's close ties to the Pakistani military dictator Yahya Khan.
India joined the war on 3 December 1971, after Pakistan launched preemptive air strikes on North India. The subsequent Indo - Pakistani War witnessed engagements on two war fronts. With air supremacy achieved in the eastern theatre and the rapid advance of the Allied Forces of Bangladesh and India, Pakistan surrendered in Dacca on 16 December 1971.
The war changed the geopolitical landscape of South Asia, with the emergence of Bangladesh as the seventh-most populous country in the world. Due to complex regional alliances, the war was a major episode in Cold War tensions involving the United States, the Soviet Union and the People 's Republic of China. The majority of member states in the United Nations recognised Bangladesh as a sovereign nation in 1972.
Prior to the Partition of British India, the Lahore Resolution initially envisaged separate Muslim - majority states in the eastern and northwestern zones of British India. A proposal for an independent United Bengal was mooted by Prime Minister Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy in 1946, but was opposed by the colonial authorities. The East Pakistan Renaissance Society advocated the creation of a sovereign state in eastern British India. Eventually, political negotiations led, in August 1947, to the official birth of two states, Pakistan and India, giving presumably permanent homes for Muslims and Hindus respectively following the departure of the British. The Dominion of Pakistan comprised two geographically and culturally separate areas to the east and the west with India in between. The western zone was popularly (and for a period, also officially) termed West Pakistan and the eastern zone (modern - day Bangladesh) was initially termed East Bengal and later, East Pakistan. Although the population of the two zones was close to equal, political power was concentrated in West Pakistan and it was widely perceived that East Pakistan was being exploited economically, leading to many grievances. Administration of two discontinuous territories was also seen as a challenge. On 25 March 1971, after an election won by an East Pakistani political party (the Awami League) was ignored by the ruling (West Pakistani) establishment, rising political discontent and cultural nationalism in East Pakistan was met by brutal suppressive force from the ruling elite of the West Pakistan establishment, in what came to be termed Operation Searchlight. The violent crackdown by Pakistan Army led to Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman declaring East Pakistan 's independence as the state of Bangladesh on 26 March 1971. Most Bengalis threw their support behind this move although Islamists and Biharis opposed this and sided with the Pakistan Army instead. Pakistani President Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan ordered the Pakistani military to restore the Pakistani government 's authority, beginning the civil war. The war led to a sea of refugees (estimated at the time to be about 10 million) flooding into the eastern provinces of India. Facing a mounting humanitarian and economic crisis, India started actively aiding and organising the Bangladeshi resistance army known as the Mukti Bahini.
In 1948, Governor - General Muhammad Ali Jinnah declared that "Urdu, and only Urdu '' would be the federal language of Pakistan. However, Urdu was historically prevalent only in the north, central, and western region of the subcontinent; whereas in East Bengal, the native language was Bengali, one of the two most easterly branches of the Indo - European languages. The Bengali - speaking people of Pakistan constituted over 30 % of the country 's population. The government stand was widely viewed as an attempt to suppress the culture of the eastern wing. The people of East Bengal demanded that their language be given federal status alongside Urdu and English. The Language Movement began in 1948, as civil society protested the removal of the Bengali script from currency and stamps, which were in place since the British Raj. The movement reached its climax in 1952, when on 21 February, the police fired on protesting students and civilians, causing several deaths. The day is revered in Bangladesh as the Language Movement Day. Later, in memory of the deaths in 1952, UNESCO declared 21 February as International Mother Language Day in November 1999.
Although East Pakistan had a larger population, West Pakistan dominated the divided country politically and received more money from the common budget.
Bengalis were under - represented in the Pakistan military. Officers of Bengali origin in the different wings of the armed forces made up just 5 % of overall force by 1965; of these, only a few were in command positions, with the majority in technical or administrative posts. West Pakistanis believed that Bengalis were not "martially inclined '' unlike Pashtuns and Punjabis; the "Martial races '' notion was dismissed as ridiculous and humiliating by Bengalis. Moreover, despite huge defence spending, East Pakistan received none of the benefits, such as contracts, purchasing and military support jobs. The Indo - Pakistani War of 1965 over Kashmir also highlighted the sense of military insecurity among Bengalis, as only an under - strength infantry division and 15 combat aircraft without tank support were in East Pakistan to thwart any Indian retaliations during the conflict.
The only common bond between the two Pakistani wings was religion. But there were differences even in religious practices. Bengali Muslims tended to be less conservative in religious zeal, and had come to accept their Hindu minority and neighbours despite some communal clashes. Many Bengali Muslims strongly objected to the Islamist paradigm imposed by the Pakistani state. Most members of West Pakistan 's ruling elite also belonged to a liberal society, yet understood a common faith as the mobilising factor behind Pakistan 's creation and the subsuming of Pakistan 's multiple identities into one.
Cultural and linguistic differences between the two wings outweighed any religious unity. The Bengalis were very proud of their culture and language which with its Eastern nagari script and pali vocabulary was unacceptable to the West Pakistani elite who considered it to smack of Hindu culture.
The Bangladeshi liberation struggle against Pakistan was led by secular leaders. With this reality and the feeling of Islamic solidarity in the background, Islamists in East Pakistan viewed Bengali nationalism as unacceptable and instead sided with the Pakistani Army 's efforts to crush the Bengali independence movement. Secularists hailed the Bangladeshi victory as the triumph of secular Bengali nationalism over religion - centred Pakistani nationalism.
Most of the politically - active ulama of East Pakistan either remained neutral or sided with the Pakistani state, since they perceived the break - up of Pakistan as a loss for Islam.
Although East Pakistan accounted for a slight majority of the country 's population, political power remained in the hands of West Pakistanis. Since a straightforward system of representation based on population would have concentrated political power in East Pakistan, the West Pakistani establishment came up with the "One Unit '' scheme, where all of West Pakistan was considered one province. This was solely to counterbalance the East wing 's votes.
After the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan, Pakistan 's first prime minister, in 1951, political power began to devolve to the new President of Pakistan, which replaced the office of Governor General when Pakistan became a republic, and, eventually, the military. The nominal elected chief executive, the Prime Minister, was frequently sacked by the establishment, acting through the President.
The East Pakistanis observed that the West Pakistani establishment would swiftly depose any East Pakistanis elected Prime Minister of Pakistan, such as Khawaja Nazimuddin, Mohammad Ali Bogra, or Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy. Their suspicions were further aggravated by the military dictatorships of Ayub Khan (27 October 1958 -- 25 March 1969) and Yahya Khan (25 March 1969 -- 20 December 1971), both West Pakistanis. The situation reached a climax in 1970, when the Bangladesh Awami League, the largest East Pakistani political party, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won a landslide victory in the national elections. The party won 167 of the 169 seats allotted to East Pakistan, and thus a majority of the 313 seats in the National Assembly. This gave the Awami League the constitutional right to form a government. However, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (a former Foreign Minister), the leader of the Pakistan Peoples Party, refused to allow Rahman to become the Prime Minister of Pakistan. Instead, he proposed the idea of having two Prime Ministers, one for each wing. The proposal elicited outrage in the east wing, already chafing under the other constitutional innovation, the "One Unit scheme ''. Bhutto also refused to accept Rahman 's Six Points. On 3 March 1971, the two leaders of the two wings along with the President General Yahya Khan met in Dacca to decide the fate of the country. After their discussions yielded no satisfactory results, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called for a nationwide strike. Bhutto feared a civil war, therefore, he sent his trusted companion, Mubashir Hassan. A message was conveyed, and Rahman decided to meet Bhutto. Upon his arrival, Rahman met with Bhutto and both agreed to form a coalition government with Rahman as Premier and Bhutto as President. However, the military was unaware of these developments, and Bhutto increased his pressure on Rahman to reach a decision.
On 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (soon to be the prime minister) delivered a speech at the Racecourse Ground (now called the Suhrawardy Udyan). In this speech he mentioned a further four - point condition to consider at the National Assembly Meeting on 25 March:
He urged his people to turn every house into a fort of resistance. He closed his speech saying, "Our struggle is for our freedom. Our struggle is for our independence. '' This speech is considered the main event that inspired the nation to fight for its independence. General Tikka Khan was flown into Dacca to become Governor of East Bengal. East - Pakistani judges, including Justice Siddique, refused to swear him in.
Between 10 and 13 March, Pakistan International Airlines cancelled all their international routes to urgently fly "government passengers '' to Dacca. These "government passengers '' were almost all Pakistani soldiers in civilian dress. MV Swat, a ship of the Pakistan Navy carrying ammunition and soldiers, was harboured in Chittagong Port, but the Bengali workers and sailors at the port refused to unload the ship. A unit of East Pakistan Rifles refused to obey commands to fire on the Bengali demonstrators, beginning a mutiny among the Bengali soldiers.
The 1970 Bhola cyclone made landfall on the East Pakistan coastline during the evening of 12 November, around the same time as a local high tide, killing an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 people. Though the exact death toll is not known, it is considered the deadliest tropical cyclone on record. A week after the landfall, President Khan conceded that his government had made "slips '' and "mistakes '' in its handling of the relief efforts due to a lack of understanding of the magnitude of the disaster.
A statement released by eleven political leaders in East Pakistan ten days after the cyclone hit charged the government with "gross neglect, callous and utter indifference ''. They also accused the president of playing down the magnitude of the problem in news coverage. On 19 November, students held a march in Dacca protesting the slowness of the government 's response. Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani addressed a rally of 50,000 people on 24 November, where he accused the president of inefficiency and demanded his resignation.
As the conflict between East and West Pakistan developed in March, the Dacca offices of the two government organisations directly involved in relief efforts were closed for at least two weeks, first by a general strike and then by a ban on government work in East Pakistan by the Awami League. With this increase in tension, foreign personnel were evacuated over fears of violence. Relief work continued in the field, but long - term planning was curtailed. This conflict widened into the Bangladesh Liberation War in December and concluded with the creation of Bangladesh. This was one of the first times that a natural event helped trigger a civil war.
A planned military pacification carried out by the Pakistan Army -- codenamed Operation Searchlight -- started on 25 March 1971 to curb the Bengali independence movement by taking control of the major cities on 26 March, and then eliminating all opposition, political or military, within one month. The Pakistani state claimed to justify starting Operation Searchlight on the basis of anti-Bihari violence by Bengalis in early March.
Before the beginning of the operation, all foreign journalists were systematically deported from East Pakistan.
The main phase of Operation Searchlight ended with the fall of the last major town in Bengali hands in mid-May. The operation also began the 1971 Bangladesh genocide. These systematic killings served only to enrage the Bengalis, which ultimately resulted in the secession of East Pakistan later in the same year. Bangladeshi media and reference books in English have published casualty figures which vary greatly, from 5,000 -- 35,000 in Dacca, and 200,000 -- 3,000,000 for Bangladesh as a whole, although independent researchers, including the British Medical Journal, have put forward the figure ranging from between 125,000 and 505,000. American political scientist Rudolph Rummel puts total deaths at 1.5 million. The atrocities have been referred to as acts of genocide.
According to the Asia Times,
At a meeting of the military top brass, Yahya Khan declared: "Kill 3 million of them and the rest will eat out of our hands. '' Accordingly, on the night of 25 March, the Pakistani Army launched Operation Searchlight to "crush '' Bengali resistance in which Bengali members of military services were disarmed and killed, students and the intelligentsia systematically liquidated and able - bodied Bengali males just picked up and gunned down.
Although the violence focused on the provincial capital, Dacca, it also affected all parts of East Pakistan. Residential halls of the University of Dacca were particularly targeted. The only Hindu residential hall -- Jagannath Hall -- was destroyed by the Pakistani armed forces, and an estimated 600 to 700 of its residents were murdered. The Pakistani army denied any cold blooded killings at the university, though the Hamoodur Rahman Commission in Pakistan concluded that overwhelming force was used at the university. This fact, and the massacre at Jagannath Hall and nearby student dormitories of Dacca University, are corroborated by a videotape secretly filmed by Professor Nurul Ula of the East Pakistan University of Engineering and Technology, whose residence was directly opposite the student dormitories.
The scale of the atrocities was first made clear in the West when Anthony Mascarenhas, a Pakistani journalist who had been sent to the province by the military authorities to write a story favourable to Pakistan 's actions, instead fled to the United Kingdom and, on 13 June 1971, published an article in The Sunday Times describing the systematic killings by the military. The BBC wrote: "There is little doubt that Mascarenhas ' reportage played its part in ending the war. It helped turn world opinion against Pakistan and encouraged India to play a decisive role '', with Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi herself stating that Mascarenhas ' article has led her "to prepare the ground for India 's armed intervention ''.
Hindu areas suffered particularly heavy blows. By midnight, Dacca was burning, especially the Hindu - dominated eastern part of the city. Time magazine reported on 2 August 1971, "The Hindus, who account for three - fourths of the refugees and a majority of the dead, have borne the brunt of the Pakistani military hatred. ''
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested by the Pakistani Army. Yahya Khan appointed Brigadier (later General) Rahimuddin Khan to preside over a special tribunal prosecuting Rahman with multiple charges. The tribunal 's sentence was never made public, but Yahya caused the verdict to be held in abeyance in any case. Other Awami League leaders were arrested as well, while a few fled Dacca to avoid arrest. The Awami League was banned by General Yahya Khan.
The violence unleashed by the Pakistani forces on 25 March 1971 proved the last straw to the efforts to negotiate a settlement. Following these outrages, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman signed an official declaration that read:
Today Bangladesh is a sovereign and independent country. On Thursday night, West Pakistani armed forces suddenly attacked the police barracks at Razarbagh and the EPR headquarters at Pilkhana in Dacca. Many innocent and unarmed have been killed in Dhaka city and other places of Bangladesh. Violent clashes between E.P.R. and Police on the one hand and the armed forces of Pakistan on the other, are going on. The Bengalis are fighting the enemy with great courage for an independent Bangladesh. May Allah aid us in our fight for freedom. Joy Bangla (May Bangladesh be victorious).
Sheikh Mujib also called upon the people to resist the occupation forces through a radio message. Rahman was arrested on the night of 25 -- 26 March 1971 at about 1: 30 am (as per Radio Pakistan 's news on 29 March 1971).
A telegram containing the text of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman 's declaration reached some students in Chittagong. The message was translated to Bengali by Dr. Manjula Anwar. The students failed to secure permission from higher authorities to broadcast the message from the nearby Agrabad Station of Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation. However, the message was read several times by the independent Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendro Radio established by some rebel Bangali Radio workers in Kalurghat. Major Ziaur Rahman was requested to provide security of the station and he also read the Declaration on 27 March 1971. Major Ziaur Rahman broadcast announcement of the declaration of independence on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.
This is Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra. I, Major Ziaur Rahman, at the direction of Bangobondhu Mujibur Rahman, hereby declare that Independent People 's Republic of Bangladesh has been established. At his direction, I have taken the command as the temporary Head of the Republic. In the name of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, I call upon all Bengalees to rise against the attack by the West Pakistani Army. We shall fight to the last to free our motherland. Victory is, by the Grace of Allah, ours. Joy Bangla.
The Kalurghat Radio Station 's transmission capability was limited, but the message was picked up by a Japanese ship in the Bay of Bengal. It was then re-transmitted by Radio Australia and later by the British Broadcasting Corporation.
M.A. Hannan, an Awami League leader from Chittagong, is said to have made the first announcement of the declaration of independence over the radio on 26 March 1971.
26 March 1971 is considered the official Independence Day of Bangladesh, and the name Bangladesh was in effect henceforth. In July 1971, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi openly referred to the former East Pakistan as Bangladesh. Some Pakistani and Indian officials continued to use the name "East Pakistan '' until 16 December 1971.
At first, resistance was spontaneous and disorganised, and was not expected to be prolonged. However, when the Pakistani Army cracked down upon the population, resistance grew. The Mukti Bahini became increasingly active. The Pakistani military sought to quell them, but increasing numbers of Bengali soldiers defected to this underground "Bangladesh army ''. These Bengali units slowly merged into the Mukti Bahini and bolstered their weaponry with supplies from India. Pakistan responded by airlifting in two infantry divisions and reorganising their forces. They also raised paramilitary forces of Razakars, Al - Badrs and Al - Shams (who were mostly members of the Muslim League and other Islamist groups), as well as other Bengalis who opposed independence, and Bihari Muslims who had settled during the time of partition.
On 17 April 1971, a provisional government was formed in Meherpur District in western Bangladesh bordering India with Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who was in prison in Pakistan, as President, Syed Nazrul Islam as Acting President, Tajuddin Ahmad as Prime Minister, and General Muhammad Ataul Ghani Osmani as Commander - in - Chief, Bangladesh Forces. As fighting grew between the occupation army and the Bengali Mukti Bahini, an estimated 10 million Bengalis sought refuge in the Indian states of Assam and West Bengal.
Bangladesh forces command was set up on 11 July, with Col. M.A.G. Osmani as commander - in - chief (C - in - C) with the status of Cabinet Minister, Lt. Col., Abdur Rabb as chief of Staff (COS), Group Captain AK Khandker as Deputy Chief of Staff (DCOS) and Major AR Chowdhury as Assistant Chief of Staff (ACOS).
General Osmani had differences of opinion with the Indian leadership regarding the role of the Mukti Bahini in the conflict. Indian leadership initially envisioned Bengali forces to be trained into a small elite guerrilla force of 8,000 members, led by the surviving East Bengal Regiment soldiers operating in small cells around Bangladesh to facilitate the eventual Indian intervention, but with the Bangladesh government in exile, General Osmani favoured a different strategy:
Bangladesh was divided into eleven sectors in July, each with a commander chosen from defected officers of the Pakistani army who joined the Mukti Bahini to conduct guerrilla operations and train fighters. Most of their training camps were situated near the border area and were operated with assistance from India. The 10th Sector was directly placed under the Commander in Chief (C - in - C) General M.A.G. Osmani and included the Naval Commandos and C - in - C 's special force. Three brigades (11 Battalions) were raised for conventional warfare; a large guerrilla force (estimated at 100,000) was trained.
Three brigades (eight infantry battalions and three artillery batteries) were put into action between July and September. During June and July, Mukti Bahini had regrouped across the border with Indian aid through Operation Jackpot and began sending 2000 -- 5000 guerrillas across the border, the so - called Monsoon Offensive, which for various reasons (lack of proper training, supply shortage, lack of a proper support network inside Bangladesh) failed to achieve its objectives. Bengali regular forces also attacked BOPs in Mymensingh, Comilla and Sylhet, but the results were mixed. Pakistani authorities concluded that they had successfully contained the Monsoon Offensive, which proved a near - accurate observation.
Guerrilla operations, which slackened during the training phase, picked up after August. Economic and military targets in Dacca were attacked. The major success story was Operation Jackpot, in which naval commandos mined and blew up berthed ships in Chittagong, Mongla, Narayanganj and Chandpur on 15 August 1971.
Major battles
Bangladeshi conventional forces attacked border outposts. Kamalpur, Belonia and the Battle of Boyra are a few examples. 90 out of 370 BOPs fell to Bengali forces. Guerrilla attacks intensified, as did Pakistani and Razakar reprisals on civilian populations. Pakistani forces were reinforced by eight battalions from West Pakistan. The Bangladeshi independence fighters even managed to temporarily capture airstrips at Lalmonirhat and Shalutikar. Both of these were used for flying in supplies and arms from India. Pakistan sent another five battalions from West Pakistan as reinforcements.
Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had concluded that instead of taking in millions of refugees, it was economical to go to war against Pakistan. As early as 28 April 1971, the Indian Cabinet had asked General Manekshaw (Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee) to "Go into East Pakistan ''. Hostile relations in the past between India and Pakistan added to India 's decision to intervene in Pakistan 's civil war. Resultantly, the Indian government decided to support the creation of a separate state for ethnic Bengalis by supporting the Mukti Bahini. For this, RAW, helped to organise, train and arm these insurgents. Consequently, the Mukti Bahini succeeded in harassing Pakistani military in East Pakistan, thus creating conditions conducive for a full - scale Indian military intervention in early December.
The Pakistan Air Force (PAF) launched a pre-emptive strike on Indian Air Force bases on 3 December 1971. The attack was modelled on the Israeli Air Force 's Operation Focus during the Six - Day War, and intended to neutralise the Indian Air Force planes on the ground. The strike was seen by India as an open act of unprovoked aggression. This marked the official start of the Indo - Pakistani War. As a response to the attack, both India and Pakistan formally acknowledged the "existence of a state of war between the two countries '', even though neither government had formally issued a declaration of war.
Three Indian corps were involved in the liberation of East Pakistan. They were supported by nearly three brigades of Mukti Bahini fighting alongside them, and many more fighting irregularly. This was far superior to the Pakistani army of three divisions. The Indians quickly overran the country, selectively engaging or bypassing heavily defended strongholds. Pakistani forces were unable to effectively counter the Indian attack, as they had been deployed in small units around the border to counter guerrilla attacks by the Mukti Bahini. Unable to defend Dacca, the Pakistanis surrendered on 16 December 1971.
The Indian Air Force carried out several sorties against Pakistan, and within a week, IAF aircraft dominated the skies of East Pakistan. It achieved near - total air supremacy by the end of the first week as the entire Pakistani air contingent in the east, PAF No. 14 Squadron, was grounded because of Indian and Bangladesh airstrikes at Tejgaon, Kurmitolla, Lal Munir Hat and Shamsher Nagar. Sea Hawks from the carrier INS Vikrant also struck Chittagong, Barisal and Cox 's Bazar, destroying the eastern wing of the Pakistan Navy and effectively blockading the East Pakistan ports, thereby cutting off any escape routes for the stranded Pakistani soldiers. The nascent Bangladesh Navy (comprising officers and sailors who defected from the Pakistani Navy) aided the Indians in the marine warfare, carrying out attacks, most notably Operation Jackpot.
On 16 December 1971, Lt. Gen Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi, CO of Pakistan Army forces located in East Pakistan signed the Instrument of Surrender. At the time of surrender only a few countries had provided diplomatic recognition to the new nation. Over 93,000 Pakistani troops surrendered to the Indian forces & Bangladesh Liberation forces, making it the largest surrender since World War II, although the Pakistani Army had fought gallantly according to Indian Army Chief Sam Manekshaw. Bangladesh sought admission in the UN with most voting in its favour, but China vetoed this as Pakistan was its key ally. The United States, also a key ally of Pakistan, was one of the last nations to accord Bangladesh recognition. To ensure a smooth transition, in 1972 the Simla Agreement was signed between India and Pakistan. The treaty ensured that Pakistan recognised the independence of Bangladesh in exchange for the return of the Pakistani PoWs. India treated all the PoWs in strict accordance with the Geneva Convention, rule 1925. It released more than 93,000 Pakistani PoWs in five months. Further, as a gesture of goodwill, nearly 200 soldiers who were sought for war crimes by Bengalis were also pardoned by India. The accord also gave back 13,000 km (5,019 sq mi) of land that Indian troops had seized in West Pakistan during the war, though India retained a few strategic areas; most notably Kargil (which would in turn again be the focal point for a war between the two nations in 1999). This was done as a measure of promoting "lasting peace '' and was acknowledged by many observers as a sign of maturity by India. However, some in India felt that the treaty had been too lenient to Bhutto, who had pleaded for leniency, arguing that the fragile democracy in Pakistan would crumble if the accord was perceived as being overly harsh by Pakistanis.
Reaction to the defeat and dismemberment of half the nation was a shocking loss to top military and civilians alike. Few had expected that they would lose the formal war in under a fortnight, and there was also unsettlement over what was perceived as a meek surrender of the army in East Pakistan. Yahya Khan 's dictatorship collapsed and gave way to Bhutto, who took the opportunity to rise to power. General Niazi, who surrendered along with 93,000 troops, was viewed with suspicion and contempt upon his return to Pakistan. He was shunned and branded a traitor. The war also exposed the shortcomings of Pakistan 's declared strategic doctrine that the "defence of East Pakistan lay in West Pakistan ''.
During the war there were widespread killings and other atrocities -- including the displacement of civilians in Bangladesh (East Pakistan at the time) and widespread violations of human rights began with the start of Operation Searchlight on 25 March 1971. Members of the Pakistani military and supporting Islamist militias from Jamaat e Islami killed an estimated 300,000 to 3,000,000 people and raped between 200,000 and 400,000 Bangladeshi women in a systematic campaign of genocidal rape. Some Islamic clerics issued fatwas (a ruling on a point of Islamic law) in support of raping Bengali women, especially Hindu women, as they considered the conflict a holy war. During the war, a fatwa in Pakistan declared that the Bengali freedom fighters were Hindus and that their women could be taken as "the booty of war ''.
A large section of the intellectual community of Bangladesh were murdered, mostly by the Al - Shams and Al - Badr forces, at the instruction of the Pakistani Army. Just two days before the surrender, on 14 December 1971, Pakistan Army and Razakar militia (local collaborators) picked up at least 100 physicians, professors, writers and engineers in Dacca, and murdered them, leaving the dead bodies in a mass grave.
Many mass graves have been discovered in Bangladesh. The first night of war on Bengalis, which is documented in telegrams from the American Consulate in Dacca to the United States State Department, saw indiscriminate killings of students of Dacca University and other civilians. Numerous women were tortured, raped and killed during the war; the exact numbers are not known and are a subject of debate. The widespread rape of Bangladeshi women led to birth of thousands of war babies. The Pakistan Army also kept numerous Bengali women as sex - slaves inside the Dacca Cantonment. Most of the girls were captured from Dacca University and private homes. There was significant sectarian violence not only perpetrated and encouraged by the Pakistani army, but also by Bengali nationalists against non-Bengali minorities, especially Biharis. In June 1971, Bihari representatives stated that 500,000 Biharis were killed by Bengalis. R.J. Rummel gives a prudent estimate of 150,000 killed.
On 16 December 2002, the George Washington University 's National Security Archive published a collection of declassified documents, consisting mostly of communications between US embassy officials and United States Information Service centres in Dacca and India, and officials in Washington, D.C. These documents show that US officials working in diplomatic institutions within Bangladesh used the terms "selective genocide '' and "genocide '' (see The Blood Telegram) for information on events they had knowledge of at the time. Genocide is the term that is still used to describe the event in almost every major publication and newspaper in Bangladesh, although in Pakistan, the accusations against Pakistani forces continue to be disputed.
Following Sheikh Mujibur Rahman 's declaration of independence in March 1971, a worldwide campaign was undertaken by the Provisional Government of Bangladesh to drum up political support for the independence of East Pakistan as well as humanitarian support for the Bengali people.
Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi provided extensive diplomatic and political support to the Bangladesh movement. She toured many countries in a bid to create awareness of the Pakistani atrocities against Bengalis. This effort was to prove vital later during the war, in framing the world 's context of the war and to justify military action by India. Also, following Pakistan 's defeat, it ensured prompt recognition of the newly independent state of Bangladesh.
Though the United Nations condemned the human rights violations during and following Operation Searchlight, it failed to defuse the situation politically before the start of the war.
Following India 's entry into the war, Pakistan, fearing certain defeat, made urgent appeals to the United Nations to intervene and force India to agree to a ceasefire. The UN Security Council assembled on 4 December 1971 to discuss the hostilities in South Asia. After lengthy discussions on 7 December, the United States made a resolution for "immediate cease - fire and withdrawal of troops ''. While supported by the majority, the USSR vetoed the resolution twice. In light of the Pakistani atrocities against Bengalis, the United Kingdom and France abstained on the resolution.
On 12 December, with Pakistan facing imminent defeat, the United States requested that the Security Council be reconvened. Pakistan 's Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was rushed to New York City to make the case for a resolution on the cease fire. The council continued deliberations for four days. By the time proposals were finalised, Pakistan 's forces in the East had surrendered and the war had ended, making the measures merely academic. Bhutto, frustrated by the failure of the resolution and the inaction of the United Nations, ripped up his speech and left the council.
Most UN member nations were quick to recognise Bangladesh within months of its independence.
As the Bangladesh Liberation War approached the defeat of the Pakistan Army, the Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan became the first state in the world to recognise the newly independent country on 6 December 1971. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the first President of Bangladesh visited Bhutan to attend the coronation of Jigme Singye Wangchuck, the fourth King of Bhutan in June 1974.
The US government stood by its old ally Pakistan both politically and materially. US President Richard Nixon and his National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger feared Soviet expansion into South and Southeast Asia. Pakistan was a close ally of the People 's Republic of China, with whom Nixon had been negotiating a rapprochement and which he intended to visit in February 1972. Nixon feared that an Indian invasion of West Pakistan would mean total Soviet domination of the region, and that it would seriously undermine the global position of the United States and the regional position of America 's new tacit ally, China. To demonstrate to China the bona fides of the United States as an ally, and in direct violation of the US Congress - imposed sanctions on Pakistan, Nixon sent military supplies to Pakistan and routed them through Jordan and Iran, while also encouraging China to increase its arms supplies to Pakistan. The Nixon administration also ignored reports it received of the genocidal activities of the Pakistani Army in East Pakistan, most notably the Blood telegram.
Nixon denied getting involved in the situation, saying that it was an internal matter of Pakistan, but when Pakistan 's defeat seemed certain, Nixon sent the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise to the Bay of Bengal, a move deemed by the Indians as a nuclear threat. Enterprise arrived on station on 11 December 1971. On 6 and 13 December, the Soviet Navy dispatched two groups of ships, armed with nuclear missiles, from Vladivostok; they trailed US Task Force 74 in the Indian Ocean from 18 December until 7 January 1972.
The Soviet Union supported Bangladesh and Indian armies, as well as the Mukti Bahini during the war, recognising that the independence of Bangladesh would weaken the position of its rivals -- the United States and China. It gave assurances to India that if a confrontation with the United States or China developed, the USSR would take countermeasures. This was enshrined in the Indo - Soviet friendship treaty signed in August 1971. The Soviets also sent a nuclear submarine to ward off the threat posed by USS Enterprise in the Indian Ocean.
At the end of the war, the Warsaw Pact countries were among the first to recognise Bangladesh. The Soviet Union accorded recognition to Bangladesh on 25 January 1972. The United States delayed recognition for some months, before according it on 8 April 1972.
As a long - standing ally of Pakistan, the People 's Republic of China reacted with alarm to the evolving situation in East Pakistan and the prospect of India invading West Pakistan and Pakistani - controlled Kashmir. Believing that just such an Indian attack was imminent, Nixon encouraged China to mobilise its armed forces along its border with India to discourage it. The Chinese did not, however, respond to this encouragement, because unlike the 1962 Sino - Indian War when India was caught entirely unaware, this time the Indian Army was prepared and had deployed eight mountain divisions to the Sino - Indian border to guard against such an eventuality. China instead threw its weight behind demands for an immediate ceasefire.
When Bangladesh applied for membership to the United Nations in 1972, China vetoed their application because two United Nations resolutions regarding the repatriation of Pakistani prisoners of war and civilians had not yet been implemented. China was also among the last countries to recognise independent Bangladesh, refusing to do so until 31 August 1975.
Notes
Citations
This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies website http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/.
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can you play xbox 360 games on an xbox 1s | List of Xbox 360 games compatible with Xbox One - wikipedia
On June 15, 2015, backward compatibility with supported Xbox 360 games became available to eligible Xbox Preview program users with a beta update to the Xbox One system software. The dashboard update containing backward compatibility was released publicly on November 12, 2015. The following is a list of all Xbox 360 games compatible with the Xbox One under this functionality.
At its launch in November 2013, the Xbox One did not have native backward compatibility with original Xbox or Xbox 360 games. Xbox Live director of programming Larry "Major Nelson '' Hryb suggested users could use the HDMI - in port on the console to pass an Xbox 360 or any other device with HDMI output through Xbox One. Senior project management and planning director Albert Penello explained that Microsoft was considering a cloud gaming platform to enable backward compatibility, but he felt it would be "problematic '' due to varying internet connection qualities.
During Microsoft 's E3 2015 press conference on June 15, 2015, Microsoft announced plans to introduce Xbox 360 backward compatibility on the Xbox One at no additional cost. Supported Xbox 360 games will run within an emulator and have access to certain Xbox One features, such as recording and broadcasting gameplay. Games do not run directly from discs. A ported form of the game is downloaded automatically when a supported game is inserted, while digitally - purchased games will automatically appear for download in the user 's library once available. As with Xbox One titles, if the game is installed using physical media, the disc is still required for validation purposes.
Not all Xbox 360 games will be supported; 104 Xbox 360 games were available for the feature 's public launch on November 12, 2015 with Xbox One preview program members getting early access. Microsoft stated that publishers will only need to provide permission to the company to allow the repackaging, and they expect the list to grow significantly over time. Unlike the emulation of original Xbox games on the Xbox 360, the Xbox One does not require game modification, since it emulates an exact replica of its predecessor 's environment -- both hardware and software operating systems. The downloaded game is a repackaged version of the original that identifies itself as an Xbox One title to the console. At Gamescom, Microsoft revealed it has plans to ensure "all future Xbox 360 Games with Gold titles will be playable on Xbox One. '' On December 17, 2015 Microsoft made another sixteen Xbox 360 games compatible with Xbox One, including titles such as Halo: Reach, Fable III and Deus Ex: Human Revolution. On January 21, 2016, Microsoft made another ten Xbox 360 games compatible, including The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings and Counter-Strike: Global Offensive. On May 13, 2016, Microsoft made Xbox 360 titles with multiple discs compatible, starting with Deus Ex: Human Revolution Director 's Cut.
In January 2016, Microsoft announced that future titles would be added as they became available, instead of waiting until a specific day each month. Currently, there are 417 Xbox 360 games playable on Xbox One, including three titles available only in Japan.
At E3 2017, Microsoft announced Backward Compatibility with the original Xbox for the Xbox One.
Backwards compatible Xbox 360 titles will benefit from becoming Xbox One X enhanced with the following:
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those are pearls that were his eyes. look | Ariel 's Song - Wikipedia
"Ariel 's Song '' is a verse passage in Scene ii of Act I of William Shakespeare 's The Tempest. It consists of two stanzas to be delivered by the spirit Ariel, in the hearing of Ferdinand. In performance it is sometimes sung and sometimes spoken. There is an extant musical setting of the second stanza by Shakespeare 's contemporary Robert Johnson, which may have been used in the original production.
"Full Fathom Five '' is the second stanza of "Ariel 's song '', better known than the first, and often presented alone. It implicitly addresses Ferdinand, who with his father has just gone through a shipwreck in which the father supposedly drowned.
It is the origin of the identically worded catchphrase, which means "at a depth of five fathoms (of water) '', and thus, in most evocations, drowned and lost as the father is. Prior to modern diving technology, an object lost in five fathoms of water would be considered irretrievable.
Full fathom five thy father lies; Of his bones are coral made; Those are pearls that were his eyes; Nothing of him that doth fade, But doth suffer a sea - change Into something rich and strange. Sea - nymphs hourly ring his knell: Ding - dong. Hark! now I hear them -- Ding - dong, bell.
This stanza also provided the source of the contemporary English usage of "sea change ''. Modern usage of the phrase is seldom specific to the sea or drowning, but generally refers to any change that was unanticipated and seems "beyond recognition '' in degree.
The lines of Ariel 's Song do not indicate whether the "sea change '' was caused by the application of Prospero 's magical powers, or whether it was solely the result of a natural metamorphosis of the body as it rested in the environment of the deep sea.
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how many rounds did mayweather and guerrero go | Floyd Mayweather Jr vs. Robert Guerrero - wikipedia
Floyd Mayweather Jr. vs. Robert Guerrero, billed as May Day, was a boxing welterweight championship superfight for Mayweather 's World Boxing Council (WBC) Welterweight title and vacant Ring Welterweight title. The bout was held on May 4, 2013, in the MGM Grand Garden Arena at the MGM Grand Hotel & Casino in Las Vegas, Nevada, United States on Showtime PPV. The bout was the first major televised fight of Mayweather 's career to not be aired on HBO PPV. The card featured some of the rising stars of Mayweather Promotions: J'Leon Love, Badou Jack, Luis Arias, Ronald Gavril and Lanell Bellows. Mayweather won via unanimous decision with Guerrero winning the first 3 rounds, then Mayweather adjusted and won from the 4th to 12th round.
Mayweather 's assistant trainer (his father) advised him onto a very defensive strategy, saying that "the less you get hit, the longer you last ''. This style of fighting elicited boos from the crowd especially during the 11th and 12th round when Floyd may have believed he had the score "locked up '' already and did n't need to win any more rounds, saying that "When you 're up on the cards, box smart. ''
Floyd Mayweather equaled his own all time base purse record with a guaranteed $32 million. Robert Guerrero was guaranteed $3 million.
† The GMA News TV version cancelled due to low ratings of Floyd Mayweather Jr. vs. Robert Guerrero, billed as May Day † † AKTV on IBC coverage have stopped airing due to high blocktime costs of Mayweather - Guerrero fight during primetime telecast. The last AKTV sports block before its shut down on May 31, 2013.
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when was the last time we had a triple crown | Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing (United States) - wikipedia
In the United States, the Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing, commonly known as the Triple Crown, is a title awarded to a three - year - old Thoroughbred horse who wins the Kentucky Derby, Preakness Stakes, and Belmont Stakes. The three races were inaugurated in different years, the last being the Kentucky Derby in 1875. These races are now run annually in May and early June of each year. The Triple Crown Trophy, commissioned in 1950 but awarded to all previous winners as well as those after 1950, is awarded to a Triple Crown winner.
The first winner of all three Triple Crown races was Sir Barton in 1919. Some journalists began using the term Triple Crown to refer to the three races as early as 1923, but it was not until Gallant Fox won the three events in 1930 that Charles Hatton of the Daily Racing Form put the term into common use.
In the history of the Triple Crown, 13 horses have won all three races: Sir Barton (1919), Gallant Fox (1930), Omaha (1935), War Admiral (1937), Whirlaway (1941), Count Fleet (1943), Assault (1946), Citation (1948), Secretariat (1973), Seattle Slew (1977), Affirmed (1978), American Pharoah (2015), and Justify (2018). As of 2018, American Pharoah and Justify are the only living Triple Crown winners.
James E. "Sunny Jim '' Fitzsimmons was the first trainer to win the Triple Crown more than once; he trained both Gallant Fox and his son Omaha for the Belair Stud breeding farm. Gallant Fox and Omaha are the only father - son duo to win the Triple Crown. Bob Baffert became the second trainer to win the Triple Crown twice, training American Pharoah and Justify. Belair Stud and Calumet Farm are tied as the owners with the most Triple Crown victories with two apiece. Calumet Farms won with Whirlaway and Citation. Eddie Arcaro rode both of Calumet Farms ' Triple Crown champions and is the only jockey to win more than one Triple Crown.
Secretariat holds the stakes record time for each of the three races. His time of 2: 24 for 1 ⁄ miles in the 1973 Belmont Stakes also set a world record that still stands.
The three Triple Crown races had been run for decades before the series received its name; the Belmont Stakes was first run in 1867; the Preakness, in 1873; and the Kentucky Derby, in 1875. The term was in use at least by 1923, although Daily Racing Form writer Charles Hatton is commonly credited with originating the term in 1930.
Their order has varied. Before 1931, the Preakness was run before the Kentucky Derby eleven times. On May 12, 1917, and May 13, 1922, the Kentucky Derby and Preakness were run on the same day. Since 1931, the Kentucky Derby has been run first, followed by the Preakness, and then the Belmont.
Each Triple Crown race is open to both colts and fillies. Although fillies have won each of the individual Triple Crown races, none has won the Triple Crown itself. Despite attempts to develop a "Filly Triple Crown '' or a "Triple Tiara '' for fillies only, no set series of three races has consistently remained in the public eye, and at least four different configurations of races have been used. Two fillies won the series of the Kentucky Oaks, the Pimlico Oaks (now the Black - Eyed Susan Stakes), and the Coaching Club American Oaks, in 1949 and 1952, but the racing press did not designate either accomplishment as a "triple crown ''. In 1961, the New York Racing Association created a filly triple crown of in - state races only, but the races changed over the years. Eight fillies won the NYRA Triple Tiara between 1968 and 1993.
Gelded colts may run in any of the three races today, but they were prohibited from entering the Belmont between 1919 and 1957. Geldings have won each of the individual races, but like fillies, no gelding has ever won the Triple Crown. The closest was Funny Cide, who won the Derby and the Preakness in 2003.
All the races are held on dirt tracks, rather than the turf commonly used for important races in Europe.
At completion of the 2016 season, the three Triple Crown races have attracted 4,224 entrants. Of these, 292 horses have won a single leg of the Triple Crown, 52 horses have won two of the races (23 the Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes, 18 the Preakness Stakes and Belmont Stakes, and 11 the Kentucky Derby and Belmont Stakes), and 13 horses have won all three races. Pillory won both the Preakness Stakes and Belmont Stakes in 1922, a year when it was impossible to win the Triple Crown because the Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes were run on the same day.
10 of the 13 winners have been "homebreds '', owned at the time of their win by their breeders.
Jim Fitzsimmons and Bob Baffert are the only two trainers to have two horses win the Triple Crown, with Fitzsimmons training the sire / son combination of 1930 winner Gallant Fox and 1935 winner Omaha and Baffert training 2015 winner American Pharoah and 2018 winner Justify. The wins by Fitzsimmons were also the first time that an owner and the first time that a breeder, Belair Stud holding both duties, had a repeat win of the Triple Crown. Calumet Farm is the only other owner with two Triple Crown horses, 1941 winner Whirlaway and 1948 winner Citation. Eddie Arcaro is the only jockey to ride two horses to the Triple Crown, both for Calumet, Whirlaway and Citation. Those two horses ' trainers, Ben Jones and Jimmy Jones, were father and son.
All 13 horses, and most owners, trainers, and jockeys were born in the United States. The exceptions were jockey Johnny Longden, born in England and raised in Canada; French - born jockey Jean Cruguet; trainer Laz Barrera, from Cuba; and jockey Victor Espinoza, from Mexico. Secretariat 's trainer, Lucien Laurin and jockey, Ron Turcotte were both Canadians. Owner Fannie Hertz was married to John D. Hertz, who was born in Slovakia; owner Ahmed Zayat was born in Egypt. Jockey Willie Saunders is considered a Canadian jockey because he grew up and established his career there, but was born in Montana. The horse Sir Barton was foaled in the United States but had a Canadian owner, J.K.L. Ross, at the time of his Triple Crown win, while Justify 's owners were from both the United States and China.
Secretariat holds the stakes record for each of the Triple Crown races, the Kentucky Derby (1: 59 2 / 5), the Preakness Stakes (1: 53), and the Belmont Stakes (2: 24).
At 18, Steve Cauthen became the youngest jockey to win the Triple Crown, riding Affirmed in 1978. At 52, Mike Smith became the oldest jockey to win the Triple Crown, riding Justify in 2018.
Only one horse, Alydar, has placed (finished second) in all three races. He was defeated by Affirmed in all three races in 1978 by a combined margin of two lengths. His trainer John Veitch is the only trainer to have done this with one horse. In 1995, D. Wayne Lukas became the first and only major figure (owner, jockey, or trainer) to win all three Triple Crown races with different horses, Thunder Gulch in the Derby and Belmont, Timber Country in the Preakness. Lukas also is the only trainer to have won six straight Triple Crown races, adding his 1995 wins, having won the 1994 Preakness and Belmont with Tabasco Cat and the 1996 Derby with Grindstone.
Like Veitch, only with two different horses, Bob Baffert also had second - place finishes in all three legs of the Triple Crown, both owned by Ahmed Zayat: in 2012, Bodemeister finished second in the Kentucky Derby and Preakness stakes to I 'll Have Another, then Paynter was entered and finished second to Union Rags. Baffert and Zayat teamed up again for the 2015 Triple Crown victory of American Pharoah.
Gallant Fox is the only Triple Crown winner to sire another U.S. Triple Crown winner, Omaha. Affirmed sired Peteski, winner of the 1993 Canadian Triple Crown.
Whirlaway, in addition to winning the 1941 Triple Crown, also won the Travers Stakes that year, becoming the first and only horse to date to accomplish that feat.
American Pharoah, in addition to winning the 2015 Triple Crown, also won the Breeders ' Cup Classic that year. As the Breeders ' Cup was not established until 1984, American Pharoah was the first (and, as of 2018, only) horse to sweep all four races, a feat that came to be known as the Grand Slam.
After the first Triple Crown winner, Sir Barton, in 1919, there was not another winner until Gallant Fox in 1930, a gap of 11 years. Between 1930 and 1948, seven horses won the Triple Crown, with five years being the longest gap between winners. However, following the 1948 win of Citation, there was a considerable gap of 25 years before Secretariat ended the drought of Triple Crown champions in 1973. Between 1973 and 1978, there were three Triple Crown winners.
After Affirmed 's Triple Crown in 1978, the longest drought in Triple Crown history began in 1979 with Spectacular Bid 's failed Triple Crown attempt at the Belmont Stakes, and lasted until American Pharoah won in 2015. Between 1979 and 2014 thirteen horses won both the Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes, but either failed to win the Belmont Stakes or could not start in the race. Of those, Real Quiet came the closest to winning the Triple Crown, losing the Belmont Stakes by a nose in 1998. Spectacular Bid finished 3rd in 1979. Pleasant Colony finished 3rd in 1981. Alysheba finished 4th in 1987. Sunday Silence finished 2nd in 1989. Real Quiet finished 2nd in 1998. Charismatic finished 3rd in 1999. War Emblem finished 8th in 2002. Funny Cide finished 3rd in 2003. Smarty Jones finished 2nd in 2004. Big Brown did not finish in 2008. I 'll Have Another did not start (injury) 2012. California Chrome finished 4th in 2014.
In the 1979 - 2015 period, horses who contested all three races, losing the Kentucky Derby but winning the Preakness and the Belmont were Risen Star in 1988, Hansel in 1991, Tabasco Cat in 1994, Point Given in 2001, and Afleet Alex in 2005. In 1984, Swale and in 1995, Thunder Gulch ran all three races, winning the Derby and the Belmont, but not the Preakness.
The 37 - year gap between the Triple Crown wins of Affirmed and American Pharoah drew criticism of the system. As far back as 1986, reporters noted that horses who were fresh for the Belmont had an advantage. In 2003, Gary Stevens stated in an interview with Charlie Rose that he did not believe there would be another Triple Crown winner because of the tendency for owners to put fresh horses in the Preakness and Belmont Stakes. California Chrome co-owner Steve Coburn was particularly critical of the Triple Crown system in post-Belmont remarks in 2014; he considered the system to be unfair, arguing that there would never be another Triple Crown winner in his lifetime unless only horses that competed in the Kentucky Derby and Preakness competed at the Belmont. By 2014, six of the previous eight Belmont winners had not competed in either of the first two legs of the Triple Crown. Additionally, from 2006 to 2014, the Belmont winner was a horse who had not competed in the Preakness. American Pharoah was the first Belmont winner since Afleet Alex in 2005 to have run all three Triple Crown races.
Since all three races were inaugurated, as of 2017, 23 horses have won the Derby and Preakness but not the Belmont:
Originally, the three races largely organized their own nominations procedure, marketing and television broadcast rights. In 1985, Triple Crown Productions was created when the owner of Spend a Buck chose not to run in the other two Triple Crown races because of a financial incentive offered to any Kentucky Derby winner who could win a set of competing races in New Jersey. The organizers of the three races realized that they needed to work together.
Efforts to unify the sponsorship and marketing of all three Triple Crown races began in 1987 when ABC Sports negotiated a deal with Chrysler to pay $5 million to any horse that swept all three races, and $1 million each year there was no Triple Crown sweep to the horse with the highest combined Triple Crown finish. This sponsorship lasted until 1993. The end of the $1 million participation bonus was linked to the breakdown of Prairie Bayou at the Belmont Stakes that year and the uncomfortable situation that arose when the Kentucky Derby winner, Sea Hero, was given the bonus following a seventh - place finish.
In 1995, Visa USA took over the sponsorship with a 10 - year contract, naming the series the Visa Triple Crown and offering only the $5 million bonus to a horse that could sweep the Triple Crown. Along with sponsorship by VISA, NBC Sports paid $51.5 million for broadcast rights to all three races, with the revenue split giving 50 % of the total to Churchill Downs and 25 % each to Pimlico and to the New York Racing Association (NYRA).
The Visa deal -- and the cooperative effort -- ended after 2005. The NYRA felt that they did not get a fair share of the revenue, particularly when the Belmont had the highest ratings of all three races in the years where a Triple Crown was on the line. From 2001 through 2013, average viewership for the Belmont was 7 million when the Triple Crown was not at stake, whereas viewership averaged 13 million when it was. With the contract term ending, the NYRA went to ESPN on ABC for the 2006 Belmont, while the broadcasts of the Derby and Preakness remained with NBC. Visa chose to remain as a sponsor of only Kentucky Derby for the next five years. As a result of the divided broadcast, Triple Crown Productions was unable to obtain a new sponsor.
In February 2011, ABC / ESPN dropped out of the negotiations to renew broadcast rights to the Belmont Stakes. NBC obtained the contract through 2015, once again uniting all three races on the same network. In 2014, NBC extended their contract for the Kentucky Derby through 2025. As of August 2015, NBC obtained a broadcast contract for the Belmont through 2020 and the Preakness through 2022.
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where is tom in the godfather part 3 | Tom Hagen - wikipedia
Thomas "Tom '' Hagen is a fictional character in Mario Puzo 's novel Godfather and Francis Ford Coppola 's films The Godfather and The Godfather Part II. He is portrayed by Robert Duvall in the films.
Hagen is the informally adopted son of the mafia don Vito Corleone. He is a qualified lawyer and the consigliere to the Corleone mafia family. Mild - mannered and soft - spoken, he serves as the voice of reason within the family. The novel and first film establish that he is of German - Irish ancestry.
Sonny Corleone befriends 11 - year - old Tom, who was living on the street after running away from an orphanage. When Sonny brings Tom home and demands he be taken in, the Corleone family allows him to stay. Hagen considers Vito his true father, although Vito never formally adopts him, believing it would be disrespectful to Hagen 's deceased parents.
After law school, Hagen goes to work in the Corleone "family business ''. His non-Italian ancestry precludes his formal membership in the mafia family, but when the consigliere Genco Abbandando dies, Hagen is given his position. Consequently, the other New York families deride the Corleones as "The Irish Gang ''.
Though Hagen immerses himself in the Sicilian - American lifestyle and speaks Sicilian, he does not look Italian. In fact, his Northern European physical appearance is advantageous to his work, allowing him to travel and conduct family business openly without potential witnesses remembering him.
While Hagen loves all the Corleones, he idolizes Sonny and blames himself for Sonny 's murder. When Vito semi-retires in 1954 and his youngest son, Michael, succeeds him as the operating head of the family, Michael removes Hagen as consigliere, preferring his father informally assume the role; Michael claims Hagen is not a "war - time '' consigliere. Hagen is thus restricted to handling the family 's legitimate business.
The novel and first film portray Hagen aiding Vito and Michael Corleone in warring against the other ruling New York Mafia families. In The Godfather Part II, set in the late 1950s, Hagen serves as Michael 's right - hand man during his power struggle with Hyman Roth. In The Godfather Part III, set in 1979 - 1980, he is said to have died some years before in an unspecified manner. His role in the story between the second and third films, including his death, is portrayed in Mark Winegardner 's sequel novels, The Godfather Returns and The Godfather 's Revenge.
In both the novel and film, Hagen is introduced as an important member of the Corleone family. As a child he grew up in a broken family, the son of an abusive alcoholic. Sonny Corleone finds the orphaned Hagen living on the street and suffering from a bad eye infection, takes him home, and demands he live with the Corleone family. Vito Corleone becomes a surrogate father to Hagen, but never officially adopts him out of respect for the boy 's father.
In the novel, Hagen asks to work for Vito after graduating from law school, knowing full well that his adoptive father is the most powerful Mafia chief in the nation. Vito is more than willing to take Hagen into his employ, having often said that lawyers can steal more than a phalanx of gangsters. Hagen marries an Italian woman, Theresa, with whom he has two sons, Frank and Andrew, and a daughter, Gianna.
After Vito 's longtime consigliere Genco Abbandando is diagnosed with terminal cancer, Hagen becomes acting consigliere and succeeds to the post formally after Abbandando 's death. Vito is initially reluctant to give Hagen the post full - time, considering Hagen is not a Sicilian.
When famous singer / actor Johnny Fontane seeks his godfather Vito 's help in securing a movie role that could revitalize his sagging career, Vito dispatches Hagen to Hollywood to persuade Jack Woltz, a big - time movie producer, to cast Johnny in his new war film. Hagen offers his benefactor 's help with Woltz 's union problems and also informs him that one of his actors has graduated from marijuana to heroin; a deleted scene in the movie shows that this information would be used to damage Woltz 's studio. Woltz rebuffs Hagen but becomes cordial after learning he works for the Corleones. Woltz still refuses to cast Fontane, who slept with one of Woltz 's protégées, but offers to do any other favor for Vito Corleone. Hagen declines, and soon afterward, Woltz awakens in bed with his prized racing stallion 's severed head planted under the covers, intimidating him into casting Fontane in the film.
Tom arranges a meeting between Vito and drug kingpin Virgil Sollozzo. Sollozzo wants Vito to help finance his narcotics business and provide legal protection and political influence. Sollozzo commends Hagen for discovering that Sollozzo is also collaborating with the Tattaglia Family, a rival to the Corleones. Vito ultimately rejects the deal, however, on the grounds that Vito would lose his influence over the judges and police if they knew he was in the drug trade.
Sollozzo has Luca Brasi murdered, Vito shot, and Hagen kidnapped off the street. Sollozzo informs Hagen that Vito has been shot and killed outside his office and tasks Hagen to persuade Sonny to make peace and accept his narcotics deal. Hagen says he 'll do his best but warns Sollozzo that Luca Brasi, the Don 's fanatically loyal bodyguard and hitman, will launch a violent reprisal. Unbeknownst to Hagen, Sollozzo and Bruno Tattaglia have already murdered Brasi. The meeting is interrupted when Sollozzo receives word that Vito has survived the shooting, ruining Sollozzo 's original plan. It 's a testament to Hagen 's persuasive abilities that he manages to convince Sollozzo to allow him to leave unharmed, having convinced Sollozzo that he 'll still make the narcotics deal for him with the Corleones.
Tom meets with Sonny, Michael, and Corleone caporegimes Peter Clemenza and Salvatore Tessio, and advises that if Vito dies, Sonny should agree to Sollozzo 's deal, and that the other Mafia families will most likely support Sollozzo to avoid a long, bloody war. Two fish wrapped in Luca Brasi 's bulletproof vest arrive at the Corleone compound, an unmistakable message that Brasi has been murdered by Sollozzo. Sonny orders Clemenza to execute Vito 's possibly traitorous bodyguard Paulie Gatto.
After Michael stops a second assassination attempt on Vito by Sollozzo, he calls the Corleone compound to warn Sonny. Tom goes to the hospital with private detectives that are licensed to carry firearms to protect Vito and stops Captain Mark McCluskey, a corrupt NYPD officer on Sollozzo 's payroll, from taking Michael into police custody. Sonny then orders Bruno Tattaglia, son and underboss of Sollozzo 's ally Philip Tattaglia, to be murdered. Sollozzo requests a meeting and proposes that Michael be sent to broker a truce. Sonny, believing it is a trick, refuses and demands that the other Mafia families hand over Sollozzo to the Corleone family or else face war. Tom successfully convinces Sonny to wait because McCluskey has agreed to be Sollozzo 's bodyguard and warns Sonny that killing McCluskey would violate a long - standing Mafia rule to not kill members of law enforcement. Violation of the rule would cause severe backlash from rival Mafia families and law enforcement. Michael suggests they agree to Sollozzo 's meeting but insist it be held in a public place, to lull Sollozzo into a feeling of safety. Michasel plans to murder Sollozzo and McCluskey, with Michael arguing that their paid shills in the newspapers will be able to successfully convince everyone that the cop is fair game because he is corrupt. Sonny agrees and approves the hit.
Tom is cautious about putting Michael at risk but Sonny discovers the location of the meeting from a policeman on the Corleone payroll in McCluskey 's precinct. The killing of Sollozzo and McCluskey and the subsequent Mafia war between the Corleone family and the Five Families sparks a massive crackdown by law enforcement. Michael hides in Sicily and Vito returns home. Tom informs Vito that the police have cracked down on all Mafia operations. Tom informs Vito that it was Michael who killed Sollozzo and McCluskey and thus had to flee. As the choleric Sonny takes command of the Corleone family while his father recuperates, Tom advises caution while Sonny is hot for revenge. Impatient with Tom 's rationality, Sonny lashes out and belittles Tom 's abilities as a wartime consigliere, but immediately apologizes.
Tom again acts as intermediary when Michael 's fiancee Kay Adams arrives at the Corleone compound wanting to contact Michael. Tom denies knowledge of Michael 's whereabouts and refuses her letter. Tom advises she be patient and that Michael will eventually contact her.
Connie 's husband, Carlo Rizzi, helps Corleone rival Emilio Barzini set a trap for Sonny by savagely beating up a pregnant Connie, which he knows will inspire hotheaded Sonny to imprudently leave the Corleone compound in haste and without protection, to kill him. Barzini has set up an ambush for Sonny at the Long Beach Causeway toll plaza, and gun him down before Sonny 's bodyguards are able to catch up.
Tom is devastated after Sonny 's murder and tearfully informs Vito of his son 's death. Tom accompanies Vito to the funeral home of Amerigo Bonasera, where Vito has Bonasera repair Sonny 's body prior to his funeral. Vito orders no retaliation for Sonny 's murder and has Tom organize a meeting with the other Mafia bosses to end the war. Vito makes peace with Philip Tattaglia and gives his word he wo n't break the peace. After the meeting Tom asks Vito about the drug middlemen having clean records when he meets with the Tattaglia family but Vito corrects him saying Tattaglia was a pimp that never could 've beaten Sonny and that it was Emilio Barzini who masterminded Sonny 's murder.
Vito semi-retires in 1954 and Michael becomes operating head of the family. Michael removes Hagen as consigliere in favor of having Vito fill the position, restricting Tom to handling the family 's legal business in Nevada, Chicago, and Los Angeles. Michael and Vito explain that the Corleones risk inciting a fight with the planned move to Nevada, and they need a "wartime consigliere ''. Tom accepts the decision and remains loyal but is deeply hurt. In truth, Michael and Vito have been secretly continuing Sonny 's plan to wipe out the other New York Dons that will establish the Corleone family as the most powerful crime family in the country. Vito explains he advised Michael on removing Tom as consigliere and although Vito considered Tom a good consigliere and like Michael has all of Vito 's confidence, there are reasons why Tom must not have any part of the plan, and Tom accepts the decision. In the novel (and in a deleted scene from the film), Tom notices that bodyguard Rocco Lampone has been secretly promoted to caporegime and hitman Al Neri reports directly to Michael and rather than through Clemenza and Tessio. Vito reminds Michael that he warned him these details would n't escape Tom 's attention.
Tom is present when Tessio is taken away to be executed for betraying the family and is also present when Connie 's husband, Carlo Rizzi, is killed for his complicity in Sonny 's death years earlier. Although Tom is hardened to violence and accepts that treachery is never forgiven, in the novel he feels sickened by Tessio 's imminent death and had even asked if Tessio could be spared.
In the novel, Michael 's wife, Kay learns that Michael ordered his brother - in - law Carlo 's death and flees to her parents ' home in New Hampshire. Michael sends Tom there to persuade Kay to return. Tom ultimately risks his own life by "hypothetically '' revealing some family secrets to Kay so she can understand Michael 's motives.
In The Godfather Part II, Hagen remains Michael 's lawyer after their move to Nevada, but his role in the family has been reduced. For instance, he is excluded from the negotiations with Hyman Roth to legitimize the Corleone family by going into business with Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista. After an assassination attempt is made on Michael 's life, Michael realizes he can not trust anyone in his inner circle. Assuring their fraternal bond and explaining that he withholds information from him out of admiration, Michael proclaims Hagen acting Don while he leaves and attempts to uncover his betrayer. Hagen 's promotion marks his renewed influence in the family and secures the formerly abrasive Senator Pat Geary 's forced cooperation.
The fall of Batista 's regime in Cuba forces Michael to temporarily abandon his plans to become a legitimate businessman, and he resumes his role as the Don of the Corleone family. During the Senate hearings on the Mafia, Hagen is instrumental as the defense when Michael is interrogated. Near the end of the film, Hagen is unable to disguise his displeasure over Michael 's increasing ruthlessness and paranoia, questioning the need to kill an already dying Hyman Roth. In response, Michael confronts Hagen about his competing job offers, and obliquely threatens to inform Hagen 's wife about his mistress. Challenged point blank to confirm his loyalty to the Corleone Family, Hagen responds to Michael (in Sicilian) that he remains loyal. He dutifully fulfills his role as legal adviser, and also in the consigliere 's traditional role as dispassionate family envoy. He gives Frank Pentangeli, who had betrayed Michael, the "idea '' of committing suicide so that Pentangeli 's family will be taken care of, while agreeing with Pentangeli that at one point the Corleone Family "was like the Roman Empire ''.
In a deleted subplot, Sonny 's widow Sandra Corleone becomes Tom 's mistress, a fact that Michael uses to blackmail Hagen into remaining loyal despite Sandra urging Hagen to abandon the Corleone family.
According to The Godfather Part III, Hagen has already died before the timeframe of the film, 1979 -- 1980. There is no specific indication in the film as to when or how he died, except that it was prior to his son, Andrew, being ordained a Roman Catholic priest.
The Godfather Returns, Mark Winegardner 's 2004 sequel to Puzo 's original novel, portrays Hagen 's role as consigliere in the first few years after Michael ascends to the head of the family. The novel, which covers the period from 1955 - 1962, portrays Hagen once again acting as Michael 's right - hand adviser and taking an important role in the Corleones ' dealings with a powerful political family, the Sheas (analogous to the Kennedys). Hagen makes a deal with patriarch Mickey Shea (Joseph Kennedy) that the Corleone family would help get his son, James, (John F. Kennedy) elected President on condition that his youngest son, Danny (Robert Kennedy), the new attorney general, would take a soft stance on organized crime. Meanwhile, Hagen has sights on a political career, running for a Congressional seat in Nevada (which Hagen was initially appointed to) with the ultimate goal of becoming the state 's governor; he is badly defeated, however, and abandons any hopes of holding public office.
The novel also portrays Hagen covering up for Michael 's brother Fredo when he kills a man in San Francisco, and bailing him out of jail when he attacks his wife 's lover. Hagen and Fredo get into an intense argument over Fredo 's recklessness and Hagen 's blind loyalty to Michael. When Michael has Fredo killed (as originally portrayed in The Godfather Part II), Hagen guesses what really happened, but remains willfully ignorant.
Toward the end of the novel, Hagen personally murders Corleone rival Louie Russo, who conspired with the novel 's antagonist, traitorous Corleone caporegime Nick Geraci.
In Winegardner 's 2006 novel The Godfather 's Revenge, Hagen acts as Michael 's right - hand man in dealing with the Shea family, especially Attorney General Danny Shea, who publicly declares war on organized crime. When Hagen 's longtime mistress, Judy Buchanan, is murdered by thugs working for Don Carlo Tramonti, Hagen becomes a person of interest in the investigation.
In August 1964, Geraci kidnaps Hagen and drowns him in the Florida Everglades. Geraci then sends Michael a package containing a dead baby alligator along with Hagen 's wallet. This message is similar to the one Sonny received following Luca Brasi 's death, in which Brasi 's bulletproof vest containing two dead fish was delivered to the Corleone compound. Michael later has Geraci ambushed and murdered.
The novel also expands on how Hagen became an unofficial member of the Corleone family. Hagen recalls that when he was living on the streets, he saved Sonny Corleone from a pimp who was notorious for raping and murdering boys. Sonny was so grateful that he brought Hagen home to live with his family.
The Hagen character was originally intended to have been featured in The Godfather Part III, but was written out due to a salary dispute between Duvall and the film 's producers. Coppola has stated that Part III was to feature a split between Michael and Hagen as its central plot, as seeds of dissension were planted in the first two films.
Coppola stated in the film 's commentary that Duvall demanded the same salary as Al Pacino (who portrayed Michael Corleone). However, Duvall said in an interview that he was happy for Pacino to earn twice his salary, but not triple or quadruple it for the same film.
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is hela odin's daughter in the comics | Hela (Comics) - wikipedia
Hela (/ ˈhɛlə /) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The Asgardian goddess of death is based on the Norse goddess, Hel. The ruler of Hel and Niflheim, the character has been a frequent foe of Thor. Debuting in the Silver Age of comic books, Hela first appeared in Journey into Mystery # 102 and was adapted from Norse mythology by writer Stan Lee and artist Jack Kirby.
Hela is portrayed by Cate Blanchett in the 2017 film Thor: Ragnarok.
Hela was adapted from Norse Myths by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, and first appeared in Journey into Mystery # 102 (March 1964).
Hela was born in Jotunheim, the land of the giants. She is the child of Loki (albeit a different incarnation who died during a previous Asgardian Ragnarok) and the giantess Angrboða. When she came of age, Odin appointed her as the Goddess of the Dead, giving her rulership over the dead in the realms of Hel and Niflheim.
Hela often tried to expand her power to the dead who dwell in Valhalla as well. These attempts often brought Hela into conflict with Odin or his son Thor. She once appeared to Thor while he was on the verge of death after battling the Wrecker who knocked a building onto him while he was depowered. However, she failed to tempt Thor into entering Valhalla, despite an image of one that dwelled in Valhalla.
Later, she stole a portion of the sleeping Odin 's soul while he was on the Sea of Eternal Night due to Loki planning to take over Asgard, thus creating a powerful entity known as Infinity. Hela then unleashed Infinity upon the universe. Infinity even took control of Odin. Hela slew Thor, who was restored to life by the sacrifice of her servant, the Silent One. Hela was then slain by Odin to save Thor, but then returned to life by Odin after being convinced by Thor to restore the natural balance of life and death. Hela slew Thor after tracking him down by putting humans in danger, but restored him to life after Sif offered to die in his place.
Hela later battled the Olympian Death - god Pluto for the right to claim Odin 's soul, as Odin had been killed by the monster Mangog. As a result, Hela restored Odin to life to prevent Pluto from claiming him. Some time later, Hela confronted Thor. Some time after that, she confronted Odin. She then plotted with Loki to bring about Ragnarök by slaying the god Balder then attacking Asgard. She summoned Volla 's spirit before this to tell her and Loki about Ragnarok, after which she prepared an army of monsters to attack Asgard. However Odin used his powers to prevent Balder dying. Later Balder was restored after the Asgardian 's death and resurrection battling the Celestials.
Hela then summoned the Valkyrie to aid in a war against Ollerus, while Hela encountered the other Defenders. Hela was then forced to join a conspiracy of Loki and Tyr against Odin. She also unwillingly entered an alliance with the death - gods of other Earth pantheons, joining their realms together to create a vast hell. As a result, she was destroyed and devoured along with other Death - gods by Demogorge the God - Eater, though it happened to her last, who was wakened by the joining, but was restored to life with Demogorge 's defeat.
Hela later allied with Malekith, and took souls of Earth mortals to Hel using special food of the faerie. She then appeared in Asgard to claim Odin 's soul, but was driven off by Thor. She encountered the X-Men and New Mutants in Asgard. She appeared to claim Wolverine 's soul, but was driven off by the X-Men and Mirage. Hel was then invaded by Thor, Balder, the Executioner, and the Einherjar to rescue the captive mortal souls. Hela wrestled Thor for the captive mortal souls. Hela raised an army of the dead to stop Thor 's escape from Hel.
During this fight with Thor, in revenge for his defiance and invasion of her realm, Hela cursed Thor with a dark form of eternal life, making him incapable of dying while also making his bones weak and brittle so that they would break more easily and would n't heal from the damage inflicted, Hela reflecting in satisfaction at the image of Thor coming to long for death while she refuses to grant it. Hela then contested against Mephisto who attempted to possess Thor 's soul. Thor creates special mystical armor as protection, but after battling and defeating the Midgard Serpent, his body is pulverized into jelly. Thor eventually forces Hela to lift the curse by using the Destroyer as his host body to invade Hel, forcing Hela to restore his body to life and health before he could destroy her.
From time to time, Odin would enter a magical sleep in order to bolster his powers. It was during one of these sleeps that Hela made a plan for power. She corrupted the Valkyries, mentally and physically, transforming them into fire - demons. This also included Danielle Moonstar, of the New Mutants, who was on Earth at the time, who Hela set against the New Mutants. Dani and her team were eventually brought over to Asgard. Hela sent the Valkyries against the dwarves and New Mutants in Asgard. The New Mutants skirmished with Hela 's forces again and again, even rescuing the prisoner Hrimhari, a wolf - prince from a far away land. Hela forced the dwarf Eitri to forge a sword of Asgardian metal "uru ''. One of Hela 's spells split the group. This resulted in a more efficient recruitment of resistance force, which included the Warriors Three. Hela sent Mirage to kill the sleeping Odin. While most of the Asgardian forces battled Hela 's soldiers, the mutants ventured to Odin 's very bedchambers, saved Odin 's life and foiled Hela 's plans. Hela was defeated when the uru sword was destroyed.
Conflict with various forces brought Bruce Banner, a.k.a. the Hulk, and Agamemnon, the leader of the Pantheon, to Hela 's realm. After an undetermined time fighting Hela 's skeletal forces, Agamemnon pleaded, based on a vaguely hinted upon relationship, to allow the two to leave. Hela relented, reluctantly.
Hela was awakened from her mortal guise after Ragnarök by Thor, albeit due to Loki 's machinations. She now lives in Las Vegas, maintaining a lair where she can feed on the souls of random unlucky people, and agrees to use her powers to aid Loki in bringing him back in time to Asgard to complete his own sinister plans for Asgard.
She is seen attending a meeting with Mephisto, Blackheart, Satannish and Dormammu about a disturbance created by the newly resurrected Magik, who is looking for the soulsword and the original Bloodstone amulet. Belasco 's daughter, Witchfire appears during the meeting and reveals she is now the current owner of the original amulet and vows to take her father 's place as ruler of Limbo and seat at their table.
When Norman Osborn attempted to subdue the X-Men, Cyclops sends Danielle Moonstar to Las Vegas where she approaches Hela for a boon. Hela warns her that the price of the boon is a heavy one, but Dani accepts, requesting "a new ride home and a big ol ' sword. '' Later, Hela is summoned to Utopia by Hrimhari to save a pregnant Rahne and their child, which is neither human nor mutant. Faced with a moral dilemma, to save his child or Rahne; Hrimhari asks Hela to restore Elixir to full health so Elixir may heal them both and to take him instead. Hela agrees and takes Hrimhari away.
During the Siege of Asgard Loki appears before Hela asking if she has made arrangements for the dead. Hela points out she is without a Hel so she can not take them in and plans to let the dead wander Midgard forever. Loki provides her with proof of the Disir, banished, cannibalistic Valkyrie 's who once belonged to Bor whom he cursed for dining on the flesh of other Asgardians to only be able to feed on the souls of gods. Using his extraordinary swordsmanship skills Loki was able to make a group of 13 submit to him. Meeting with Mephisto, Loki strikes up a deal granting a portion of his netherworld to Hela for one thousand and one years, as her new Hel. In exchange for this, Hela erases Loki from the Books of Hel, thus he is no longer tied to Hel or Asgard, gaining absolute freedom. However, unknown to Hela, Loki had manipulated these events in his favor as he had the Disir in his services and had leased them out to Mephisto for one hundred and one days after demonstrating their skill to the demon lord. Hela summons Danielle Moonstar to repay her debt and to gather the spirits of the Asgardians that fell in battle with Norman Osborn 's forces as quickly as possible so they do not fall prey to the Disir.
The Disir, still hungry, attack Hela 's new Hel as it was not the true Hel they were banished from. Sensing the Disir 's assault on the dead Asgardians, Hela attempts to protect them using the sword Eir - Gram, but she is disarmed and her arm sliced off brutally. Hela is quickly overwhelmed and her own remaining power insufficient to counter theirs. Absorbing the dead into her body, Hela creates a fortress around herself to protect them and asks Thor for help through the recently deceased body of an Asgardian. With the help of Thor and Tyr, they manage to slay and banish the remaining Disir, whose souls are claimed by the triumphant Mephisto.
In the aftermath of the Siege of Asgard, Captain America, Iron Man, and Thor are mysteriously drawn into one of the other Nine Realms, eventually revealed to be the Hel - realm of Hela. Thor, after a fierce struggle with the Enchantress, engages in open combat with the Nightsword - armed Hela, and though managing to hold his own against her and her forces for some time, ultimately falls to her immense and evidently vastly enhanced power. Amora, after teleporting herself and Hela away to save Thor 's life, herself challenges Hela using all her strength, but Hela defeats her twice in quick succession, attempts and fails to destroy Mjolnir, despite summoning Bor himself to her aid, and apparently slays the Enchantress after revealing that she now wields the Twilight Sword of Surtur.
After Thor reunites with Iron Man and Captain America, he manages to persuade many of his former Asgardian enemies into rallying behind him into an army against Hela and her own forces. Hela attacks Thor and his allies, defeating and nearly slaying him with the power of the Twilight Sword, but the Enchantress intervenes and saves him, teleporting him away to re-claim Mjolnir and using her own powers to help Thor fight Hela. Thor ultimately manages to claim the Twilight Sword and uses it to restore the Nine Worlds back to their former harmony and order while banishing Hela, but refuses to set Asgard back into the sky, as Amora asks, claiming that using such unholy power for his own ends would make him the same as Hela herself. A grateful and healed Amora then returns Thor and his friends back to Midgard after Thor promises her that her allegiance will not be forgotten.
During the Chaos War storyline, Hela breaks into Pluto 's throne room in the Underworld to warn him of Amatsu - Mikaboshi 's army of thousands of alien deities decimating the death realms, joining forces with him in a desperate and a seemingly futile attempt to repel the massive assault on their domains. Hela, along with Pluto, Satannish, and many other rulers of Earth 's various netherworlds, are shown to be slaves of the Chaos King after he obliterates the realms of Hell itself.
During the 2011 "Fear Itself '' storyline, Cyclops sends Danielle Moonstar to what 's left of Las Vegas (after what Juggernaut in the form of Kuurth: Breaker of Stone did to it) to look for Hela while the X-Men fight Kuurth. Hela had taken to living in a Las Vegas casino. When Moonstar does find Hela, she teleports Moonstar to Hel in order to defend it. When her teammates try to invoke a dark magic to summon a portal to follow Danielle, they end up in Hell instead of Hel where they encounter Mephisto who says that he will get them to Hel if Magma goes out with him.
Following the death of her lover, Sera, Angela petitions Hela to free her soul. When Hela refuses, Angela launches a campaign to conquer her realm, assisted by Hela 's handmaiden, Leah. Angela eventually succeeds in besting Hela and takes her crown, becoming the new queen. However, she quickly abdicates her position and installs Balder as the ruler of Hel, while a bound Hela is taken prisoner.
A greatly weakened Hela later escapes captivity and makes her way to the Triskelion on Earth, where Thanos has been imprisoned after a recent battle with the Ultimates. Disguising her identity with a full hooded robe, she proposes an alliance with Thanos and is tasked with bringing him the Mjolnir of an alternate universe version of Thor as tribute. Accompanied by Proxima Midnight and Black Swan, Hela travels to the Collector 's fortress, where the hammer is being held. There, the trio battle Thor and Beta Ray Bill, and fail in retrieving the hammer. Upon returning to Thanos, Hela reveals her true identity and kills both Black Swan and Proxima Midnight to demonstrate her power. She then tells Thanos that she needs his help to reclaim rule of Hel, and offers to grant him the death he has long been seeking in exchange. Hela then kisses Thanos in a passionate embrace.
Hela possesses attributes common to Asgardian gods. She possesses superhuman strength, speed, stamina, agility and durability. When wearing her cloak, she is far stronger than the vast majority of her race. Her vast strength has allowed her to engage in sustained hand - to - hand combat with Thor. Like all Asgardians she has resistance to magic.
Hela has vast mystical powers which she can use for various effects like limitless astral projection while retaining many of her powers and abilities, firing deadly bolts of energy from her hands which can age or even kill Asgardians, levitation and the creation of illusions. Her most powerful ability is her Hand of Glory, a technique that uses mystical energy to enhance the strength of her punch to kill even an Asgardian.
As a Death Goddess, Hela has a pact with Death, allowing her to claim the souls of any worshipper of the Asgardians and the Asgardians themselves and take them to Hel or Niflheim, as well as able to travel nearly anywhere within the Nine Worlds in an instant. While Hela 's touch is fatal to mortals as well and she is capable of stealing their souls into Hel, she generally did not claim the souls of mortal heroes, leaving that task to the Valkyries who took the souls of heroes to Valhalla. Hela is usually willing to wait until a person has died before claiming the soul, but she can kill a healthy human or even Asgardian with a single touch, her "touch of death. '' Hela is also willing to use her illusions to kill living Asgardians. Hela also has the ability to restore a dead Asgardian to life provided their spirits have not passed on to the afterlife, but she rarely used these abilities.
Hela always wears her magical cloak which enhances her strength and keeps her young and healthy. The goddess has jet black hair and bright green eyes. Without the cloak, Hela reverts to her true form: in this form half of her body is healthy and beautiful, while the other half is decaying. Without the cloak Hela is very weak and can barely move, and her powers are greatly reduced; she is unable to levitate or even stand, and can not project mystical bolts. Hela does n't need to wear the cloak; simply touching it is enough to restore her to her stronger form. The left side of her body appears dead and decayed, though it appears alive and beautifully healthy while she wears her cloak.
Hela is often armed with her "Nightsword, '' and is a proficient swordswoman.
Hela can command all of the dead who dwell in Hel and Niflheim, but she has no power over the dead in Valhalla.
In the Marvel 2099 series of stories, the megacorporation Alchemax tried transforming people into false versions of the Norse Aesir in order to gain advantage of the worldwide worship of these beings. A supporting character in Ravage 2099 named Tiana, the love interest of the titular hero, was turned into Hela via technological means for this project.
In the Ultimate Marvel universe, Thor travels to Valhalla in order to retrieve the soul of the deceased Valkyrie. Hela tells him that if he manages to defeat her army, she will revive Valkyrie, but for a price. In Ultimatum # 3, after her army is defeated, she reveals that the price is Thor 's soul. He agrees, and the souls of both Valkyrie and the also - deceased Captain America are released.
She appears in Ultimate Comics: New Ultimates, telling Thor she will release him in exchange for giving her a son. The next issue has a vision shown to Valkyrie by Amora where Thor is making love with Hela, as he had no other choice. Thor then demands his freedom, however he is informed another deed is still required to release him. Thor, being incapable of killing Hela, is released instead by Valkyrie who is killed in battle with the Defenders, who now have superpowers due to Loki 's intervention. After she discovers that Thor had murdered their son, Modi, Hela displayed an immense fit of rage; Thor explained to her that Modi had been corrupted by the World Tree and that he had been left with no other option.
In X-Men: The End, an alternative reality focusing on the alternate future of the X-Men, Danielle Moonstar is separated and held in confinement in the mutant concentration camp Neverland situated on the Moon when Hela appears before her. Near death from torture and confinement, Moonstar 's struggling pleas are only heard by Hela. Materializing before Moonstar, Hela reminds her that she is a Valkyrie and as such, cherished by the Goddess of Death. After Moonstar invokes both Asgardian and Cheyenne chants, Hela revives her and grants her enhanced powers.
Hela appears in the four - issue series Loki, in which Loki has claimed leadership of Asgard. It is revealed that Hela was one of the Asgardians that helped him to the throne, but is now demanding payment for her assistance, along with the seductress Lorelei.
In the alternate Marvel Zombies universe, Loki seeking more mischief has induced a zombie wide apocalypse during World War II. A curious Odin makes the decision to investigate personally and is bitten by a zombie. As Odin shares a magical lifeblood with all Asgardians, they all also become zombies, including Hela.
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why are they called fannie mae and freddie mac | Fannie Mae - wikipedia
The Federal National Mortgage Association (FNMA), commonly known as Fannie Mae, is a United States government - sponsored enterprise (GSE) and, since 1968, a publicly traded company. Founded in 1938 during the Great Depression as part of the New Deal, the corporation 's purpose is to expand the secondary mortgage market by securitizing mortgages in the form of mortgage - backed securities (MBS), allowing lenders to reinvest their assets into more lending and in effect increasing the number of lenders in the mortgage market by reducing the reliance on locally based savings and loan associations (or "thrifts ''). Its brother organization is the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (FHLMC), better known as Freddie Mac.
Historically, most housing loans in the early 1900s in the USA were short term mortgages with balloon payments. The Great Depression wrought havoc on the U.S. housing market as people lost their jobs and were unable to make payments. By 1933, an estimated 20 to 25 % of the nation 's outstanding mortgage debt was in default. This resulted in foreclosures in which nearly 25 % of America 's homeowners lost their homes to banks. To address this, Fannie Mae was established by the U.S. Congress in 1938 by amendments to the National Housing Act as part of Franklin Delano Roosevelt 's New Deal. Originally chartered as the National Mortgage Association of Washington, the organization 's explicit purpose was to provide local banks with federal money to finance home mortgages in an attempt to raise levels of home ownership and the availability of affordable housing. Fannie Mae created a liquid secondary mortgage market and thereby made it possible for banks and other loan originators to issue more housing loans, primarily by buying Federal Housing Administration (FHA) insured mortgages. For the first thirty years following its inception, Fannie Mae held a monopoly over the secondary mortgage market. Other considerations may have motivated the New Deal focus on the housing market: about a third of the nation 's unemployed were in the building trade, and the government had a vested interest in getting them back to work by giving them homes to build.
Fannie Mae was acquired by the Housing and Home Finance Agency from the Federal Loan Agency as a constituent unit in 1950. In 1954, an amendment known as the Federal National Mortgage Association Charter Act made Fannie Mae into "mixed - ownership corporation, '' meaning that federal government held the preferred stock while private investors held the common stock; in 1968 it converted to a privately held corporation, to remove its activity and debt from the federal budget. In the 1968 change, arising from the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968, Fannie Mae 's predecessor (also called Fannie Mae) was split into the current Fannie Mae and the Government National Mortgage Association ("Ginnie Mae '').
Ginnie Mae, which remained a government organization, supports FHA - insured mortgages as well as Veterans Administration (VA) and Farmers Home Administration (FmHA) insured mortgages. As such, Ginnie Mae is the only home - loan agency explicitly backed by the full faith and credit of the United States government.
In 1970, the federal government authorized Fannie Mae to purchase conventional mortgages, the same year it went public on New York and Pacific Exchanges, (Residential Mortgage Loan Origination 2nd edition pg. 8, J. Keith Baker 2010), i.e. those not insured by the FHA, VA, or FmHA, and created the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (FHLMC), colloquially known as Freddie Mac, to compete with Fannie Mae and thus facilitate a more robust and efficient secondary mortgage market.
In 1981, Fannie Mae issued its first mortgage passthrough and called it a mortgage - backed security. The Fannie Mae laws did not require the Banks to hand out subprime loans in any way. Ginnie Mae had guaranteed the first mortgage passthrough security of an approved lender in 1968 and in 1971 Freddie Mac issued its first mortgage passthrough, called a participation certificate, composed primarily of private mortgages.
In 1992, President George H.W. Bush signed the Housing and Community Development Act of 1992. The Act amended the charter of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac to reflect the Democratic Congress ' view that the GSEs "have an affirmative obligation to facilitate the financing of affordable housing for low - and moderate - income families in a manner consistent with their overall public purposes, while maintaining a strong financial condition and a reasonable economic return ''. For the first time, the GSEs were required to meet "affordable housing goals '' set annually by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) and approved by Congress. The initial annual goal for low - income and moderate - income mortgage purchases for each GSE was 30 % of the total number of dwelling units financed by mortgage purchases and increased to 55 % by 2007.
In 1999, Fannie Mae came under pressure from the Clinton administration to expand mortgage loans to low and moderate income borrowers by increasing the ratios of their loan portfolios in distressed inner city areas designated in the Community Reinvestment Act (CRA) of 1977. In 1999, The New York Times reported that with the corporation 's move towards the subprime market "Fannie Mae is taking on significantly more risk, which may not pose any difficulties during flush economic times. But the government - subsidized corporation may run into trouble in an economic downturn, prompting a government rescue similar to that of the savings and loan industry in the 1980s. ''
In 2000, because of a re-assessment of the housing market by HUD, anti-predatory lending rules were put into place that disallowed risky, high - cost loans from being credited toward affordable housing goals. In 2004, these rules were dropped and high - risk loans were again counted toward affordable housing goals.
The intent was that Fannie Mae 's enforcement of the underwriting standards they maintained for standard conforming mortgages would also provide safe and stable means of lending to buyers who did not have prime credit. As Daniel Mudd, then President and CEO of Fannie Mae, testified in 2007, instead the agency 's underwriting requirements drove business into the arms of the private mortgage industry who marketed aggressive products without regard to future consequences:
We also set conservative underwriting standards for loans we finance to ensure the homebuyers can afford their loans over the long term. We sought to bring the standards we apply to the prime space to the subprime market with our industry partners primarily to expand our services to underserved families.
Unfortunately, Fannie Mae - quality, safe loans in the subprime market did not become the standard, and the lending market moved away from us. Borrowers were offered a range of loans that layered teaser rates, interest - only, negative amortization and payment options and low - documentation requirements on top of floating - rate loans. In early 2005 we began sounding our concerns about this "layered - risk '' lending. For example, Tom Lund, the head of our single - family mortgage business, publicly stated, "One of the things we do n't feel good about right now as we look into this marketplace is more homebuyers being put into programs that have more risk. Those products are for more sophisticated buyers. Does it make sense for borrowers to take on risk they may not be aware of? Are we setting them up for failure? As a result, we gave up significant market share to our competitors. ''
Alex Berenson of The New York Times reported in 2003 that Fannie Mae 's risk is much larger than is commonly held. Nassim Taleb wrote in The Black Swan: "The government - sponsored institution Fannie Mae, when I look at its risks, seems to be sitting on a barrel of dynamite, vulnerable to the slightest hiccup. But not to worry: their large staff of scientists deem these events ' unlikely ' ''.
On January 26, 2005, the Federal Housing Enterprise Regulatory Reform Act of 2005 (S. 190) was first introduced in the Senate by Sen. Chuck Hagel. The Senate legislation was an effort to reform the existing GSE regulatory structure in light of the recent accounting problems and questionable management actions leading to considerable income restatements by the GSEs. After being reported favorably by the Senate 's Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs in July 2005, the bill was never considered by the full Senate for a vote. Sen. John McCain 's decision to become a cosponsor of S. 190 almost a year later in 2006 was the last action taken regarding Sen. Hagel 's bill in spite of developments since clearing the Senate Committee. Sen. McCain pointed out that Fannie Mae 's regulator reported that profits were "illusions deliberately and systematically created by the company 's senior management '' in his floor statement giving support to S. 190.
At the same time, the House also introduced similar legislation, the Federal Housing Finance Reform Act of 2005 (H.R. 1461), in the Spring of 2005. The House Financial Services Committee had crafted changes and produced a Committee Report by July 2005 to the legislation. It was passed by the House in October in spite of President Bush 's statement of policy opposed to the House version, which stated: "The regulatory regime envisioned by H.R. 1461 is considerably weaker than that which governs other large, complex financial institutions. '' The legislation met with opposition from both Democrats and Republicans at that point and the Senate never took up the House passed version for consideration after that.
Following their mission to meet federal Housing and Urban Development (HUD) housing goals, GSEs such as Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac and the Federal Home Loan Banks (FHLBanks) had striven to improve home ownership of low and middle income families, underserved areas, and generally through special affordable methods such as "the ability to obtain a 30 - year fixed - rate mortgage with a low down payment... and the continuous availability of mortgage credit under a wide range of economic conditions ''. Then in 2003 -- 2004, the subprime mortgage crisis began. The market shifted away from regulated GSEs and radically toward Mortgage Backed Securities (MBS) issued by unregulated private - label securitization conduits, typically operated by investment banks.
As mortgage originators began to distribute more and more of their loans through private label MBSs, GSEs lost the ability to monitor and control mortgage originators. Competition between the GSEs and private securitizers for loans further undermined GSEs ' power and strengthened mortgage originators. This contributed to a decline in underwriting standards and was a major cause of the financial crisis.
Investment bank securitizers were more willing to securitize risky loans because they generally retained minimal risk. Whereas the GSEs guaranteed the performance of their MBSs, private securitizers generally did not, and might only retain a thin slice of risk. Often, banks would offload this risk to insurance companies or other counterparties through credit default swaps, making their actual risk exposures extremely difficult for investors and creditors to discern.
The shift toward riskier mortgages and private label MBS distribution occurred as financial institutions sought to maintain earnings levels that had been elevated during 2001 -- 2003 by an unprecedented refinancing boom due to historically low interest rates. Earnings depended on volume, so maintaining elevated earnings levels necessitated expanding the borrower pool using lower underwriting standards and new products that the GSEs would not (initially) securitize. Thus, the shift away from GSE securitization to private - label securitization (PLS) also corresponded with a shift in mortgage product type, from traditional, amortizing, fixed - rate mortgages (FRMs) to nontraditional, structurally riskier, nonamortizing, adjustable - rate mortgages (ARM 's), and in the start of a sharp deterioration in mortgage underwriting standards. The growth of PLS, however, forced the GSEs to lower their underwriting standards in an attempt to reclaim lost market share to please their private shareholders. Shareholder pressure pushed the GSEs into competition with PLS for market share, and the GSEs loosened their guarantee business underwriting standards in order to compete. In contrast, the wholly public FHA / Ginnie Mae maintained their underwriting standards and instead ceded market share.
The growth of private - label securitization and lack of regulation in this part of the market resulted in the oversupply of underpriced housing finance that led, in 2006, to an increasing number of borrowers, often with poor credit, who were unable to pay their mortgages -- particularly with adjustable rate mortgages (ARM), caused a precipitous increase in home foreclosures. As a result, home prices declined as increasing foreclosures added to the already large inventory of homes and stricter lending standards made it more and more difficult for borrowers to get mortgages. This depreciation in home prices led to growing losses for the GSEs, which back the majority of US mortgages. In July 2008, the government attempted to ease market fears by reiterating their view that "Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac play a central role in the US housing finance system ''. The US Treasury Department and the Federal Reserve took steps to bolster confidence in the corporations, including granting both corporations access to Federal Reserve low - interest loans (at similar rates as commercial banks) and removing the prohibition on the Treasury Department to purchase the GSEs ' stock. Despite these efforts, by August 2008, shares of both Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac had tumbled more than 90 % from their one - year prior levels.
On Oct 21, 2010 FHFA estimates revealed that the bailout of Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae will likely cost taxpayers $224 -- 360 billion in total, with over $150 billion already provided.
On July 11, 2008, The New York Times reported that U.S. government officials were considering a plan for the U.S. government to take over Fannie Mae and / or Freddie Mac should their financial situations worsen due to the U.S. housing crisis. Fannie Mae and smaller Freddie Mac owned or guaranteed a massive proportion of all home loans in the United States and so were especially hard hit by the slump. The government officials also stated that the government had also considered calling for explicit government guarantee through legislation of $5 trillion on debt owned or guaranteed by the two companies.
Fannie stock plunged. Some worried that Fannie lacked capital and might go bankrupt. Others worried about a government seizure. U.S. Treasury Secretary Henry M. Paulson as well as the White House went on the air to defend the financial soundness of Fannie Mae, in a last - ditch effort to prevent a total financial panic. Fannie and Freddie underpinned the whole U.S. mortgage market. As recently as 2008, Fannie Mae and the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (Freddie Mac) had owned or guaranteed about half of the U.S. 's $12 trillion mortgage market. If they were to collapse, mortgages would be harder to obtain and much more expensive. Fannie and Freddie bonds were owned by everyone from the Chinese Government, to money market funds, to the retirement funds of hundreds of millions of people. If they went bankrupt there would be mass upheaval on a global scale.
The Administration PR effort was not enough, by itself, to save the GSEs. Their government directive to purchase bad loans from private banks, in order to prevent these banks from failing, as well as the 20 top banks falsely classifying loans as AAA, caused instability. Paulson 's plan was to go in swiftly and seize the two GSEs, rather than provide loans as he did for AIG and the major banks; he told president Bush that "the first sound they hear will be their heads hitting the floor '', in a reference to the French revolution. The major banks have since been sued by the Feds for a sum of $200,000,000, and some of the major banks have already settled. In addition, a lawsuit has been filed against the federal government by the shareholders of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, for a) creating an environment by which Fannie and Freddie would be unable to meet their financial obligations b) forcing the executive management to sign over the companies to the conservator by (a), and c) the gross violation of the (fifth amendment) taking clause.
On September 7, 2008, James Lockhart, director of the Federal Housing Finance Agency (FHFA), announced that Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac were being placed into conservatorship of the FHFA. The action was "one of the most sweeping government interventions in private financial markets in decades ''. Lockhart also dismissed the firms ' chief executive officers and boards of directors, and caused the issuance to the Treasury new senior preferred stock and common stock warrants amounting to 79.9 % of each GSE. The value of the common stock and preferred stock to pre-conservatorship holders was greatly diminished by the suspension of future dividends on previously outstanding stock, in the effort to maintain the value of company debt and of mortgage - backed securities. FHFA stated that there are no plans to liquidate the company.
The authority of the U.S. Treasury to advance funds for the purpose of stabilizing Fannie Mae, or Freddie Mac is limited only by the amount of debt that the entire federal government is permitted by law to commit to. The July 30, 2008 law enabling expanded regulatory authority over Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac increased the national debt ceiling US $800 billion, to a total of US $10.7 Trillion in anticipation of the potential need for the Treasury to have the flexibility to support the federal home loan banks.
On June 16, 2010, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac announced their stocks would be delisted from the NYSE. The Federal Housing Finance Agency directed the delisting after Fannie 's stock traded below $1 a share for over 30 days. Since then the stocks have continued to trade on the Over-the - Counter Bulletin Board.
In May 2013, Fannie Mae announced that it is going to pay a dividend of $59.4 billion to the United States Treasury.
Fannie Mae 2014 financial results enabled them to pay $20.6 billion in dividends to Treasury for the year, resulting in a cumulative total of $134.5 billion in dividends through December 31, 2014 -- approximately $18 billion more than Fannie Mae received in support. As of March 31, 2015, Fannie Mae expects to have paid a total of $136.4 billion in payments to Treasury.
Fannie Mae makes money partly by borrowing at low rates, and then reinvesting its borrowings into whole mortgages and mortgage backed securities. It borrows in the debt markets by selling bonds, and provides liquidity to mortgage originators by purchasing whole loans. It purchases whole loans and then securitizes them for the investment market by creating MBS that are either retained or sold.
As a Government Sponsored Enterprise, or GSE, Fannie Mae is compelled by law to provide liquidity to mortgage originators in all economic conditions. It must legally ignore adverse market conditions which appear to be unprofitable. If there are loans available for purchase that meet its predetermined underwriting standards, it must purchase them if no other buyers are available. Due to the size, scale, and scope of the United States single - family residential and commercial residential markets, market participants viewed Fannie Mae corporate debt as having a very high probability of being repaid. Fannie Mae is able to borrow very inexpensively in the debt markets as a consequence of market perception. There usually exists a large difference between the rate at which it can borrow and the rate at which it can ' lend '. This was called "The big, fat gap '' by Alan Greenspan. By August 2008, Fannie Mae 's mortgage portfolio was in excess of $700 billion.
Fannie Mae also earns a significant portion of its income from guaranty fees it receives as compensation for assuming the credit risk on mortgage loans underlying its single - family Fannie Mae MBS and on the single - family mortgage loans held in its retained portfolio. Investors, or purchasers of Fannie Mae MBSs, are willing to let Fannie Mae keep this fee in exchange for assuming the credit risk; that is, Fannie Mae 's guarantee that the scheduled principal and interest on the underlying loan will be paid even if the borrower defaults.
Fannie Mae 's charter has historically prevented it from guaranteeing mortgages with a loan - to - values over 80 % without mortgage insurance or a repurchase agreement with the lender; however, in 2006 and 2007 Fannie Mae did purchase subprime and Alt - A loans as investments.
Fannie Mae is a purchaser of mortgages, which it packages into MBS. Fannie Mae buys loans from approved mortgage sellers and securitizes them; it then sells the resultant mortgage - backed security to investors in the secondary mortgage market, along with a guarantee that the stated principal and interest payments will be timely passed through to the investor.. In addition, Fannie MBS, like those of Freddie Mac MBS and Ginnie Mae MBS, are eligible to be traded in the "to - be-announced, '' or "TBA '' market. By purchasing the mortgages, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac provide banks and other financial institutions with fresh money to make new loans. This gives the United States housing and credit markets flexibility and liquidity.
In order for Fannie Mae to provide its guarantee to mortgage - backed securities it issues, it sets the guidelines for the loans that it will accept for purchase, called "conforming '' loans. Fannie Mae produced an automated underwriting system (AUS) tool called Desktop Underwriter (DU) which lenders can use to automatically determine if a loan is conforming; Fannie Mae followed this program up in 2004 with Custom DU, which allows lenders to set custom underwriting rules to handle nonconforming loans as well. The secondary market for nonconforming loans includes jumbo loans, which are mortgages larger than the maximum mortgage that Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac will purchase. In early 2008, the decision was made to allow TBA (To - be-announced) - eligible mortgage - backed securities to include up to 10 % "jumbo '' mortgages.
Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac have a limit on the maximum sized loan they will guarantee. This is known as the "conforming loan limit ''. The conforming loan limit for Fannie Mae, along with Freddie Mac, is set by Office of Federal Housing Enterprise Oversight (OFHEO), the regulator of both GSEs. OFHEO annually sets the limit of the size of a conforming loan based on the October to October changes in mean home price, above which a mortgage is considered a non-conforming jumbo loan. The conforming loan limit is 50 percent higher in Alaska and Hawaii. The GSEs only buy loans that are conforming to repackage into the secondary market, lowering the demand for non-conforming loans. By virtue of the law of supply and demand, then, it is harder for lenders to sell these loans in the secondary market; thus these types of loans tend to cost more to borrowers (typically 1 / 4 to 1 / 2 of a percent). Indeed, in 2008, since the demand for bonds not guaranteed by GSEs was almost non-existent, non-conforming loans were priced nearly 1 % to 1.5 % higher than conforming loans.
Originally, Fannie had an ' explicit guarantee ' from the government; if it got in trouble, the government promised to bail it out. This changed in 1968. Ginnie Mae was split off from Fannie. Ginnie retained the explicit guarantee. Fannie, however, became a private corporation, chartered by Congress and with a direct line of credit to the US Treasury. It was its nature as a Government Sponsored Enterprise (GSE) that provided the ' implied guarantee ' for their borrowing. The charter also limited their business activity to the mortgage market. In this regard, although they were a private company, they could not operate like a regular private company.
Fannie Mae received no direct government funding or backing; Fannie Mae securities carried no actual explicit government guarantee of being repaid. This was clearly stated in the law that authorizes GSEs, on the securities themselves, and in many public communications issued by Fannie Mae. Neither the certificates nor payments of principal and interest on the certificates were explicitly guaranteed by the United States government. The certificates did not legally constitute a debt or obligation of the United States or any of its agencies or instrumentalities other than Fannie Mae. During the sub-prime era, every Fannie Mae prospectus read in bold, all - caps letters: "The certificates and payments of principal and interest on the certificates are not guaranteed by the United States, and do not constitute a debt or obligation of the United States or any of its agencies or instrumentalities other than Fannie Mae. '' (Verbiage changed from all - caps to standard case for readability).
However, the implied guarantee, as well as various special treatments given to Fannie by the government, greatly enhanced its success.
For example, the implied guarantee allowed Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac to save billions in borrowing costs, as their credit rating was very good. Estimates by the Congressional Budget Office and the Treasury Department put the figure at about $2 billion per year. Vernon L. Smith, 2002 Nobel Laureate in economics, has called FHLMC and FNMA "implicitly taxpayer - backed agencies ''. The Economist has referred to "the implicit government guarantee '' of FHLMC and FNMA. In testimony before the House and Senate Banking Committee in 2004, Alan Greenspan expressed the belief that Fannie Mae 's (weak) financial position was the result of markets believing that the U.S. Government would never allow Fannie Mae (or Freddie Mac) to fail.
Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac were allowed to hold less capital than normal financial institutions: e.g., they were allowed to sell mortgage - backed securities with only half as much capital backing them up as would be required of other financial institutions. Regulations exist through the FDIC Bank Holding Company Act that govern the solvency of financial institutions. The regulations require normal financial institutions to maintain a capital / asset ratio greater than or equal to 3 %. The GSEs, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, are exempt from this capital / asset ratio requirement and can, and often do, maintain a capital / asset ratio less than 3 %. The additional leverage allows for greater returns in good times, but put the companies at greater risk in bad times, such as during the subprime mortgage crisis. FNMA is not exempt from state and local taxes. In addition, FNMA and FHLMC are exempt from SEC filing requirements; they file SEC 10 - K and 10 - Q reports, but many other reports, such as certain reports regarding their REMIC mortgage securities, are not filed.
Lastly, money market funds have diversification requirements, so that not more than 5 % of assets may be from the same issuer. That is, a worst - case default would drop a fund not more than five percent. However, these rules do not apply to Fannie and Freddie. It would not be unusual to find a fund that had the vast majority of its assets in Fannie and Freddie debt.
In 1996, the Congressional Budget Office wrote "there have been no federal appropriations for cash payments or guarantee subsidies. But in the place of federal funds the government provides considerable unpriced benefits to the enterprises... Government - sponsored enterprises are costly to the government and taxpayers... the benefit is currently worth $6.5 billion annually. ''.
FNMA is a financial corporation which uses derivatives to "hedge '' its cash flow. Derivative products it uses include interest rate swaps and options to enter interest rate swaps ("pay - fixed swaps '', "receive - fixed swaps '', "basis swaps '', "interest rate caps and swaptions '', "forward starting swaps ''). Duration gap is a financial and accounting term for the difference between the duration of assets and liabilities, and is typically used by banks, pension funds, or other financial institutions to measure their risk due to changes in the interest rate. "The company said that in April its average duration gap widened to plus 3 months in April from zero in March. '' "The Washington - based company aims to keep its duration gap between minus 6 months to plus 6 months. From September 2003 to March, the gap has run between plus to minus one month. ''
In late 2004, Fannie Mae was under investigation for its accounting practices. The Office of Federal Housing Enterprise Oversight released a report on September 20, 2004, alleging widespread accounting errors.
Fannie Mae was expected to spend more than $1 billion in 2006 alone to complete its internal audit and bring it closer to compliance. The necessary restatement was expected to cost $10.8 billion, but was completed at a total cost of $6.3 billion in restated earnings as listed in Fannie Mae 's Annual Report on Form 10 - K.
Concerns with business and accounting practices at Fannie Mae predate the scandal itself. On June 15, 2000, the House Banking Subcommittee On Capital Markets, Securities And Government - Sponsored Enterprises held hearings on Fannie Mae.
On December 18, 2006, U.S. regulators filed 101 civil charges against chief executive Franklin Raines; chief financial officer J. Timothy Howard; and the former controller Leanne G. Spencer. The three were accused of manipulating Fannie Mae earnings to maximize their bonuses. The lawsuit sought to recoup more than $115 million in bonus payments, collectively accrued by the trio from 1998 to 2004, and about $100 million in penalties for their involvement in the accounting scandal. After 8 years of litigation, in 2012, a summary judgment was issued clearing the trio, indicating the government had insufficient evidence that would enable any jury to find the defendants guilty.
In June 2008, the Wall Street Journal reported that two former CEOs of Fannie Mae, James A. Johnson and Franklin Raines had received loans below market rate from Countrywide Financial. Fannie Mae was the biggest buyer of Countrywide 's mortgages. The "Friends of Angelo '' VIP Countrywide loan program included many people from Fannie Mae; lawyers, executives, etc.
Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac have given contributions to lawmakers currently sitting on committees that primarily regulate their industry: The House Financial Services Committee; the Senate Banking, Housing & Urban Affairs Committee; or the Senate Finance Committee. The others have seats on the powerful Appropriations or Ways & Means committees, are members of the congressional leadership or have run for president.
In December 2011, six Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac executives including Daniel Mudd were charged by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission with securities fraud. "The SEC alleges they ' knew and approved of ' misleading statements claiming the companies had minimal exposure to subprime loans at the height of home mortgage bubble. '' Former Freddie chief financial officer Anthony "Buddy '' Piszel, who in February, 2011, was CFO of CoreLogic, "had received a notice from the SEC that the agency was considering taking action against him ''. He then resigned from CoreLogic. Piszel was not among the executives charged in December 2011. Piszel had been succeeded at Freddie by David Kellermann. Kellermann committed suicide during his tenure at Freddie.
A contemporaneous report on the SEC charges continued:
The SEC said Mudd 's misconduct included knowingly giving false testimony to Congress.
Mudd said last week that the government approved Fannie Mae 's disclosures during his tenure.
"Now it appears that the government has negotiated a deal to hold the government, and government - appointed executives who have signed the same disclosures since my departure, blameless -- so that it can sue individuals it fired years ago, '' he said in a statement last week.
In 2011, the agency had a number of other big banks in the crosshairs as well. JPMorgan (JPM) was one of 18 financial institutions the FHFA sued back in 2011, accusing them of selling Fannie and Freddie securities that "had different and more risky characteristics than the descriptions contained in the marketing and sales materials ''. Fannie and Freddie, the government - backed housing finance firms, sustained massive losses on mortgage - backed securities as the housing market imploded, requiring a bailout of over $187 billion. The firms have been controlled by the FHFA since their 2008 rescue. Swiss lender UBS has already reached an $885 million settlement with the FHFA in connection with losses Fannie and Freddie sustained on over $6.4 billion worth of mortgage securities. The agency also settled for undisclosed sums earlier this year with Citigroup (C) and General Electric (GE). The FHFA is reportedly seeking $4 billion from JPMorgan to resolve its claims over $33 billion worth of securities sold to Fannie and Freddie by JPMorgan, Bear and WaMu. Bank of America (BAC), which acquired Countrywide and Merrill Lynch during the crisis era, could be on the hook for even more. The Charlotte - based firm is facing claims from the FHFA over $57 billion worth of mortgage bonds. In all, the 18 FHFA lawsuits cover more than $200 billion in allegedly misrepresented securities. The question of whether any individual bankers will be held to account is another matter. Thus far, criminal cases related to the packaging and sale of mortgage - backed securities have been conspicuously absent. The proposed JPMorgan settlement covers only civil charges, and would not settle the question of whether any individual executives engaged in wrongdoing. There is an ongoing federal criminal probe based in Sacramento, Calif., the state where Washington Mutual was based. JPMorgan originally sought to be protected from any criminal charges as part of this deal, but that request was rejected by the government.
On May 29, 2013 the Los Angeles Times reported that a former foreclosure specialist at Fannie Mae has been charged but pleaded "not guilty '' to accepting a kickback from an Arizona real estate broker in a Santa Ana Federal court. Another lawsuit filed earlier in Orange County Superior Court, this one for wrongful termination, has been filed against Fannie Mae by an employee who claims she was fired when she tried to alert management to kickbacks. The employee claims that she started voicing her suspicions in 2009.
On May 8, 2013, Representative Scott Garrett introduced the Budget and Accounting Transparency Act of 2014 (H.R. 1872; 113th Congress) into the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress. The bill, if it were passed, would modify the budgetary treatment of federal credit programs, such as Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. The bill would require that the cost of direct loans or loan guarantees be recognized in the federal budget on a fair - value basis using guidelines set forth by the Financial Accounting Standards Board. The changes made by the bill would mean that Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac were counted on the budget instead of considered separately and would mean that the debt of those two programs would be included in the national debt. These programs themselves would not be changed, but how they are accounted for in the United States federal budget would be. The goal of the bill is to improve the accuracy of how some programs are accounted for in the federal budget.
On May 11, 2015 The Wall Street Journal reported that A U.S. District Court judge said Nomura Holdings Inc. was not truthful in describing mortgage - backed securities sold to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, giving a victory to the companies ' conservator, the Federal Housing Finance Agency (FHFA). Judge Denise Cote asked the FHFA to propose updated damages to be paid by Nomura and co-defendant RBS Securities Inc., which underwrote some of the investments. At the outset of the case, the FHFA asked for about $1.1 billion. The order brought to conclusion a rare trial addressing alleged mortgage - related infractions committed during the housing boom. Over the past few years, more than a dozen firms chose to settle similar allegations brought by the FHFA rather than face a court battle. The settlements have brought Fannie and Freddie $18 billion in penalties. In her decision, Judge Cote wrote that Nomura, in offering documents for mortgage - backed securities sold to Fannie and Freddie, did n't accurately describe the loans ' quality. "The magnitude of falsity, conservatively measured, is enormous, '' she wrote. During the boom, Fannie and Freddie invested billions of dollars in mortgage - backed securities issued by such companies as Nomura. Those investments bolstered profits but, in the bust, contributed to steep losses that ultimately resulted in the companies ' 2008 government takeover. Nomura and RBS were two of 18 financial institutions, including Bank of America Corp. and Goldman Sachs Group Inc., targeted in 2011 by the FHFA, which alleged that the companies lied about the quality of the loans underlying the securities. During the nonjury trial, lawyers for the FHFA said that Nomura and RBS inflated values of homes behind some mortgages and sometimes said a home was owner - occupied when it was not.
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the imperial march is only heard in one of the star wars films | The Imperial March - wikipedia
"The Imperial March (Darth Vader 's Theme) '', is a musical theme present in the Star Wars franchise. It was composed by John Williams for the film The Empire Strikes Back. Together with "Yoda 's Theme '', "The Imperial March '' was premiered on April 29, 1980, three weeks before the opening of the film, on the occasion of John Williams ' first concert as official conductor - in - residence of the Boston Pops Orchestra. '' One of the best known symphonic movie themes, it is an example of a leitmotif, a recurrent theme associated with characters or events in a drama.
"The Imperial March '' is sometimes referred to simply as "Darth Vader 's Theme. '' In the movies (except for the original Star Wars), the march is often played when Darth Vader appears. It is also played during Palpatine 's arrival on the Death Star in Return of the Jedi, though it does segue into the Emperor 's own theme as he appears.
"The Imperial March '' is first heard in The Empire Strikes Back in low piccolos as the Galactic Empire sends probe droids across the galaxy in search of Luke Skywalker. Its major opening occurs as Star Destroyers amass and Darth Vader is first presented in the film, 19 minutes into the movie. The theme and related motifs are also incorporated into tracks such as "The Battle of Hoth '' and "The Asteroid Field ''. Return of the Jedi makes similar use of the theme, though its final statement is significantly different, making quiet use of a harp as a redeemed Anakin Skywalker dies in his son 's arms.
"The Imperial March '' appears on a few occasions in the prequel trilogy, most often used to foreshadow Anakin Skywalker 's future as Darth Vader. An innocent theme for the nine - year - old Anakin in The Phantom Menace is thematically based on "The Imperial March ''. "The Imperial March '' is also heard towards the end, as Yoda acknowledges Anakin as Obi - Wan 's apprentice in saying "The chosen One, the boy may be. Nevertheless, grave danger I fear in his training ''. It is also heard softly at the end of the final credit roll, where it fades into the character 's signature breathing, showing the rest of the prequel trilogy will reveal how Anakin became Darth Vader. In the second prequel, Attack of the Clones, "The Imperial March '' is sometimes played subtly when an event foreshadows Anakin 's future: It is first played when Yoda senses Anakin slaughtering a tribe of Tusken Raiders to avenge his mother 's death and later with more force when Anakin tells Padmé Amidala what he did. It is played most prominently and recognizably during the final sequence when clone troopers assemble and depart Coruscant, foreshadowing that they will become the Imperial stormtroopers. Although "Across the Stars '' is featured most prominently in the film 's end credits, several notes from "The Imperial March '' are heard beneath it near the end.
In Revenge of the Sith "The Imperial March '' is first played when Anakin rebukes the Jedi Council for denying him the rank of Jedi Master, although being appointed to the Council. The track can also be heard when Anakin tells Mace Windu about Palpatine 's true identity. It is later played when Anakin is dubbed as the Sith Darth Vader, shortly after the death of Mace Windu. "The Imperial March '' is quoted when Clone Troopers find dead wookiees on Kashyyyk and when Padmé confronts Anakin on Mustafar. A few notes of the "March '' are played when Vader arrives on Mustafar to kill the Separatists. The piece is played more clearly during the "Battle of the Heroes '' scene between Obi - Wan and Darth Vader at the movie 's climax and in the simultaneous battle between Yoda and Palpatine. It is also played when Darth Vader receives his armor and when he looks up at the first Death Star.
"The Imperial March '' has influence in short but dark moments revolving around Anakin. For example, in episode 62 "Citadel Rescue '', Anakin and Captain Wilhuff Tarkin both mentioned during their escape their good relationship with the Supreme Chancellor Palpatine. Anakin shakes hands with Tarkin at the end of the episode, while Tarkin said he would inform the Chancellor of Anakin 's good performance. During that handshake, a hint is to be heard in the music referring to "The Imperial March ''. Other episodes that feature the theme include "Brain Invaders '' (when Anakin strangles Poggle), "Voyage of Temptation '' (when Anakin kills Merrik), "Overlords '' (multiple times), "Ghosts of Mortis '' (multiple times), "Kidnapped '' (when Obi - Wan talks with Anakin then Ashoka), "Deception '' (multiple times) and "Friends and Enemies '' (multiple times), "Crisis on Naboo '' (when Anakin argues with Obi - Wan), "The Lawless '' (during Darth Sidious scenes), "The Jedi Who Knew Too Much '' (multiple times). The theme is used prominently during the sixth and final season.
In "Empire Day '', the episode 's title referring to the Empire 's anniversary, "The Imperial Anthem '', an arrangement of "The Imperial March '', is heard during the parade. The march is also heard in "Call to Action '' when Grand Moff Tarkin arrives on Lothal, in the final scene of "Fire Across the Galaxy '' when Darth Vader arrives on Lothal, and multiple scenes in "The Siege of Lothal ''.
In the 2015 Star Wars: The Force Awakens, two bars from the brass motif of "The Imperial March '' are played after antagonist Kylo Ren clutches the charred remains of Darth Vader 's helmet, vowing to finally succeed where the Galactic Empire failed.
Trailers for Rogue One: A Star Wars Story featured the track prominently; the first notes of "The Imperial March '' can be heard at the end of the trailer as the letters turn to reveal the name of the upcoming movie. Prior to this, Darth Vader can be heard breathing and his appearance is seen in the reflection of the floor. In the film proper, scored by Michael Giacchino, the theme can be heard when Vader emerges from his sanctum to confer with Director Orson Krennic, and again after Vader warns Krennic about overstepping his bounds. The theme can be heard once more when Vader attacks the rebels trapped in a hallway; it is slowed down enough to not be obvious and married with a chorus reminiscent of that from Revenge of the Sith. The theme is finally heard outright when Vader witnesses the Tantive IV fleeing into hyperspace.
In the 2017 Star Wars: The Last Jedi, the track was briefly played after Supreme Leader Snoke compares antagonist Kylo Ren to Darth Vader, saying he saw the potential of "A new Vader ''.
The music has been used as emblematic of sporting rivalries. Numerous high school and college marching bands have taken to playing the march during football games, particularly when a home team 's defense is on the field or has made a big play or to question a penalty call made by the official.
The defensive cheer "Vader '' is an excerpt from "The Imperial March '' and is a popular stand tune played by the Auburn University Marching Band during football and basketball games.
The first regular use of "The Imperial March '' was in the 1980s, when John Thompson led the Georgetown Hoyas men 's basketball team onto the floor with "The Imperial March '' being played by the Georgetown band. Rather than shy away from the bad - guy persona, Georgetown embraced the image, perpetuating the sullen, intimidating identity of the Hoyas.
In January 2003, during Super Bowl XXXVII, ABC Sports took to using "The Imperial March '' as a leitmotif for the Oakland Raiders. It was used to introduce Roger Federer during the 2007 US Open. Three - time World Professional Darts Champion John Part uses the theme as entrance for his matches. The Montreal Canadiens of the NHL also use the theme when they go on the powerplay.
The song is also used for the visiting team 's intro during South Sydney Rabbitohs, Hokkaido Nippon - Ham Fighters, Chicago Bulls, Los Angeles Clippers, Cleveland Cavaliers, San Jose Earthquakes, and New York Yankees games at the Stadium Australia, Sapporo Dome, United Center, Staples Center, Quicken Loans Arena, Avaya Stadium, and Yankee Stadium respectively.
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when is game of thrones 7 coming out | Game of Thrones (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered on HBO on July 16, 2017, and concluded on August 27, 2017. Unlike previous seasons that consisted of ten episodes each, the seventh season consisted of only seven. Like the previous season, it largely consisted of original content not found in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series, while also incorporating material Martin revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series. The series was adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss.
The penultimate season focuses primarily on the convergence of the show 's main plotlines, featuring major events such as Daenerys Targaryen arriving in Westeros with her army and three dragons and waging war against the Lannisters, Jon Snow forging an alliance with Daenerys in an attempt to unite their forces against the White Walker army, Arya and Bran returning to Winterfell and reuniting with their sister Sansa, and the army of the dead breaching the Wall (with the help of a reanimated wight dragon) and entering the Seven Kingdoms.
HBO ordered the seventh season on April 21, 2016, three days before the premiere of the show 's sixth season, and began filming on August 31, 2016. The season was filmed primarily in Northern Ireland, Spain, Croatia and Iceland.
Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast, including Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington. The season introduces several new cast members, including Jim Broadbent and Tom Hopper.
The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 7. They are listed by the region in which they first appear.
Series creators and executive producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss serve as showrunners for the seventh season. The directors for the seventh season are Jeremy Podeswa (episodes 1 and 7), Mark Mylod (episodes 2 and 3), Matt Shakman (episodes 4 and 5) and Alan Taylor (episode 6). This marks Taylor 's return to the series after an absence since the second season. Shakman is a first - time Game of Thrones director, with the rest each having directed multiple episodes in previous seasons. Michele Clapton returned to the show as costume designer, after spending some time away from the show in the sixth season. She previously worked on the show for the first five seasons, as well as the end of the sixth season.
Depending upon the release of George R.R. Martin 's forthcoming The Winds of Winter, the seventh season may comprise original material not found in the A Song of Ice and Fire series. According to previous reports, some of the show 's sixth season had consisted of material revealed to the writers of the television series during discussions with Martin.
Filming began on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, and ended in February 2017. In an interview with the showrunners, it was announced that the filming of the seventh season would be delayed until later in the year due to necessary weather conditions for filming. The showrunners stated "We 're starting a bit later because, you know, at the end of this season, winter is here, and that means that sunny weather does n't really serve our purposes any more. We kind of pushed everything down the line so we could get some grim, gray weather even in the sunnier places that we shoot. ''
Girona, Spain did not return as one of the filming locations. Girona stood in for Braavos and parts of King 's Landing. It was later announced that the seventh season would film in Northern Ireland, Spain and Iceland, with filming in Northern Ireland beginning in August 2016. The series filmed in the Spanish cities Seville, Cáceres, Almodóvar del Río, Santiponce, Zumaia and Bermeo. Spanish sources announced that the series would be filming the seventh season on Muriola Beach in Barrika, Las Atarazanas, the Royal Dockyards of Seville and at the shores of San Juan de Gaztelugatxe, an islet belonging to the city of Bermeo. The series returned to film at The Dark Hedges in Stranocum, which was previously used as the Kingsroad in the second season. Some scenes were filmed in Iceland. Filming also occurred in Dubrovnik, Croatia, which is used for location of King 's Landing. The scene where Arya was reunited with Nymeria was filmed in Alberta, Canada.
Deadline reported on June 21, 2016, that the five main cast members, Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington had been in contract negotiations for the final two seasons. It was reported that the cast members have increased their salary to $500,000 per episode for the seventh and eighth season. It was later reported that the actors had gone through a renegotiation, for which they had increased their salary to $1.1 million per episode for the last two seasons.
On August 31, 2016, Entertainment Weekly reported that Jim Broadbent had been cast for the seventh season in a "significant '' role. It was announced that the role of Dickon Tarly has been recast, with Tom Hopper replacing Freddie Stroma, who had previously played the role in "Blood of My Blood ''. The seventh season sees the return of Mark Gatiss as Tycho Nestoris, who did not appear in the sixth season, Ben Hawkey as Hot Pie, who last appeared in the fourth season, and Joe Dempsie as Gendry, who last appeared in the third season and maintains his status as starring cast member. Members of the British indie pop band Bastille were reported to have filmed cameo appearances. British singer - songwriter Ed Sheeran also makes a cameo appearance in the season. Guitarist / vocalist of American heavy metal band Mastodon, Brent Hinds, has also revealed he would have a cameo appearance. This is Hinds ' second cameo in the series, following his appearance (along with bandmates Brann Dailor and Bill Kelliher) in the fifth season.
On April 21, 2016, HBO officially ordered the seventh season of Game of Thrones, just three days prior to the premiere of the show 's sixth season. According to an interview with co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the seventh season would likely consist of fewer episodes, stating at the time of the interview that they were "down to our final 13 episodes after this season. We 're heading into the final lap. '' Director Jack Bender, who worked on the show 's sixth season, said that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes. Benioff and Weiss stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show 's usual 12 to 14 month time frame, as Weiss said "It 's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule. '' HBO confirmed on July 18, 2016, that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes, and would premiere later than usual in mid-2017 because of the later filming schedule. Later it was confirmed that the season would debut on July 16. According to a report by Entertainment Weekly, the seventh season of the series includes its longest episode, with the finale running for 81 minutes. The penultimate episode also runs for 71 minutes -- around 16 minutes longer than an average Game of Thrones episode. The first five episodes mostly run longer than average (55 minutes), at 59, 59, 63, 50, and 59 minutes respectively. The previous longest episode in the series was the sixth - season finale, "The Winds of Winter '', which ran 69 minutes.
Ramin Djawadi returned as the composer of the show for the seventh season.
On Metacritic, the season (based on the first episode) has a score of 77 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the seventh season has a 96 % approval rating from 37 critics with an average rating of 8.2 out of 10, and a 93 % average episode score, with the site 's consensus reading "After a year - long wait, Game of Thrones roars back with powerful storytelling and a focused interest in its central characters -- particularly the female ones. ''
The series premiere surpassed 30 million viewers across all of the network 's domestic platforms weeks after its release. The show 's numbers continued to climb in other countries as well. In the UK, the premiere got up to 4.7 million viewers after seven days, setting a new record for Sky Atlantic. Compared to the previous season, HBO Asia saw an increases of between 24 percent to 50 percent. HBO Latin America saw a record viewership in the region, with a 29 percent climb. In Germany, the show went up 210 percent, in Russia it climbed 40 percent and in Italy it saw a 61 percent increase. In the United States, the finale was watched by 12.1 million viewers on its first airing on television, and 16.5 million when viewings on HBO Now and HBO Go apps are included. Over the season, the viewer numbers averaged at over 30 million per episode across all platform.
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
The season was simulcast around the world by HBO and its broadcast partners in 186 countries. While in some countries, it aired the day after its first release.
On July 23, 2016, a teaser production trailer was released by HBO at the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con. The trailer mostly consisted of voice overs, and shots of crew members creating sets and props. The first footage from the season was revealed in a new promotional video released by HBO highlighting its new and returning original shows for the coming year on November 28, 2016, showcasing Jon Snow, Sansa Stark and Arya Stark.
On March 1, 2017, HBO and Game of Thrones teamed up with Major League Baseball (MLB) for a cross-promotional partnership. At least 19 individual teams participate with this promotion. On March 8, 2017, HBO released the first promotional poster for the season ahead of the SXSW Festival in Austin, Texas, which teases the battle of "ice vs. fire ''. Showrunners Benioff and Weiss also spoke at the event, along with fellow cast members Sophie Turner and Maisie Williams.
On March 9, 2017, HBO hosted a live stream on the Game of Thrones Facebook page that revealed the premiere date for the seventh season as being July 16, 2017. It was accompanied by a teaser trailer. On March 30, 2017, the first official promo for the show was released, highlighting the thrones of Daenerys Targaryen, Jon Snow, and Cersei Lannister. On April 20, 2017, HBO released 15 official photos shot during the season. On May 22, 2017, HBO released several new photos from the new season. On May 23, 2017, HBO released the official posters featuring the Night King. The first official trailer for season 7 was released on May 24, 2017. The trailer set a world record for being the most viewed show trailer ever, being viewed 61 million times across digital platforms, in the first 24 hours. The second official trailer was released on June 21, 2017. The season premiere was screened at the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles on July 12, 2017.
The season was released on Blu - ray and DVD in region 1 on December 12, 2017.
The season premiere was pirated 90 million times in the first three days after it aired. On August 4, 2017, it was reported that, two days before its original broadcast, the fourth episode of the season was leaked online from Star India, one of HBO 's international network partners. The leaked copy has the "for internal viewing only '' watermark. On July 31, 2017, due to a security breach, HBO was the victim of 1.5 terabytes of stolen data. However, "this was not related to this episode leak '', according to The Verge. On August 16, 2017, four days before its intended release, it was reported that HBO Spain and HBO Nordic accidentally allowed the sixth episode of the series on - demand viewing for one hour before being removed.
Data from piracy monitoring firm MUSO indicates that season seven was pirated more than one billion times mostly by unauthorized streaming, with torrent and direct downloads accounting for about 15 percent of this piracy. On average, each episode is estimated to have been pirated 140 million times.
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if youre reading this it's too late book | If You 're Reading This, it 's Too Late (novel) - wikipedia
If You 're Reading This, It 's Too Late is the sequel to The Name of this Book is Secret in the Secret Series by Raphael Simon, writing as Pseudonymous Bosch. It was released in October 2008 and features the same characters as the first book.
For 500 years, the secret society of the Midnight Sun has been waiting for the homunculus, the man - made man, to rise, and now the evil Dr. L and Ms. Mauvais are going to throw Cass and Max - Ernest to the sharks unless they tell them where he resides. After going on an excursion with their science teacher, the two are tricked by Dr. L after receiving a note from Pietro saying he will meet them on a ship, from which they barely escaped. After finding out their teacher is really Owen, the accent changing member of the Terces Society, they are introduced to the great magician himself, Pietro, who gives them a mission. The mission is to find the homunculus before the Midnight Sun does. Max - Ernest also finds out that ' Terces ' is "secret '' backwards. Cass is grounded when she returns home, because she was missing for too long. While on the Midnight Sun ship, Cass and Max - Ernest discovers a strange ball (also called the sound prism), which enables her to hear all types of sounds by putting it to her ear and makes wonderful music when thrown in the air carefully. Cass also discovers a birth certificate. The name is unrecognizable, thus making Cass wonder if she was the wrong girl that the Terces Society wanted. She ignores it, even though it pains her, and continues her mission. Later Cass finds out she is really adopted and was delivered in a box on her grandfathers ' doorstep.
This time teaming up with a new classmate named Yoji (who prefers to be called Yo - Yoji), the three need to escape the grasp of their parents, and find the alchemist 's grave. Cass convinces her grandparents to take her, Max - Ernest, and Yo - Yoji camping to find the homunculus. When they find the homunculus, they take it back to Terces, but it runs away when he finds out they do n't have good food. Meanwhile, Amber gets to meet the Skelton Sisters, who are in cahoots with Midnight Sun, and they ask her to do something for her. Later that night, Amber is hidden in Cass ' bushes, and Cass hears noises. She goes outside and plays the Sound Prism, thinking it 's Mr. Cabbage Face. Amber records the song from the sound prism, which attracts the homunculus, and gives it to the Skelton Sisters. They play it at a concert, and end up trapping the homunculus and Cass. They end up back near Whisper Lake, where they went camping. The Midnight Sun took them there because Lord Pharaoh 's, the nasty man who created Mr. Cabbage Face, the homunculus, grave is there, and with it, all of his alchemist things, which is what Ms. Mauvais and Dr. L want in order to help their mission in receiving immortality. The Midnight Sun and Terces Society members engage in combat because the Midnight Sun had captured Cass and Mr. Cabbage Face, in the while Max - Ernest and Yo - Yoji are up on a mountain, with the Sound Prism and a whip. Their plan is to create a sonic boom with it, and make the mountain avalanche onto the Midnight Sun and seal the coffin in the ground. When a huge boulder falls off the mountain from the sonic boom, Cass and Mr. Cabbage Face, now freed, are trying their own efforts to put the coffin back in the grave, but Mr. Cabbage Face screams to Cass to get out of the way, because the boulder was heading towards her. He pushes her out of the way, and Mr. Cabbage Face gets crushed into the ground with the coffin. The homunculus dies, due to, and is sealed with his maker in that grave forever. Midnight Sun members disperse, not before Dr. L can have a nice chat (surprisingly) with his brother / old friend. At the end, Max - Ernest, Cass and Yo - Yoji take the Oath of Terces, created by the Jester, the homunculus ' only friend 500 years ago, and Cass ' real great, great, great, great... great grandfather.
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who played howard on the andy griffith show | Jack Dodson - Wikipedia
John S. "Jack '' Dodson (May 16, 1931 -- September 16, 1994) was an American television actor best remembered for the milquetoast character Howard Sprague on The Andy Griffith Show and its spin - off Mayberry R.F.D. From 1959 until his death in 1994, Dodson was married to television art director Mary Dodson.
In 1966, Andy Griffith hired Dodson for the Howard Sprague role, having previously seen him in Broadway 's Hughie. Dodson also portrayed insurance agent Ed Jenkins in the "Lost and Found '' episode of The Andy Griffith Show. Dodson also appeared in episodes of My Friend Flicka, Hazel, The Virginian, Maude, Barney Miller, Welcome Back Kotter, Archie Bunker 's Place, Newhart, Mr. Belvedere, Matlock, Mama 's Family, and St. Elsewhere, on which he had a recurring role.
Dodson appeared as an airplane passenger caught up in a murder plot in a 1973 episode of Hawaii 5 - 0. In 1967, Dodson appeared in the episode "A Mighty Hunter Before the Lord '' of NBC 's The Road West, which aired opposite The Andy Griffith Show. He played Norman Gresham in the 1969 film Angel in My Pocket, and also appeared in two Sam Peckinpah films, The Getaway (1972) and Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid (1973). He also had a small role in the 1974 film Thunderbolt and Lightfoot, which starred Clint Eastwood and Jeff Bridges. His other film appearances included roles in Something Wicked This Way Comes (1983) and A Climate for Killing (1991).
In the late 1970s, he had a recurring role as Mickey Malph, Ralph Malph 's optometrist dad on Happy Days.
In 1975 he was in the Barney Miller episode "Horse Thief ''. In 1979 - 80, Season 6 of Barney Miller, he appeared in the episode "Guns ''. He appeared again on Barney Miller in the two - part episode "Homicide '' in Season 7.
In January 1979, Dodson played Bernie, a hard of hearing acquaintance of Mark (David Spielberg), in a comic scene set in a restaurant in One Day at a Time.
In 1983, Dodson returned to Broadway in the revival of You Ca n't Take It with You. The actor reprised Howard Sprague in the 1986 NBC - TV movie Return to Mayberry, as well as in a 1990 episode of It 's Garry Shandling 's Show, "The Day Howard Moved In ''.
He died in Los Angeles, California, from heart failure, aged 63.
Dodson 's widow, art director Mary Dodson, younger sister of actor Fritz Weaver, died in February 2016.
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what's minimum wage in the state of oregon | Minimum wage in the United States - wikipedia
The minimum wage in the United States is set by US labor law and a range of state and local laws. Employers generally have to pay workers the highest minimum wage prescribed by federal, state, and local law. Since July 24, 2009, the federal government has mandated a nationwide minimum wage of $7.25 per hour. As of January 2017, there were 29 states with a minimum wage higher than the federal minimum. From 2016 to 2017, seven states increased their minimum wage levels through automatic adjustments, while increases in fourteen other states occurred through referendum or legislative action. Massachusetts and Washington have the highest state minimum wage at $11.00 per hour.
In real terms, the federal minimum wage peaked at $11.54 per hour in 1968, using 2017 inflation - adjusted dollars. If the minimum wage in 1968 had kept up with labor 's productivity growth, it would have reached $19.33 in 2017. There is a racial difference for support of a higher minimum wage with most black and Hispanic individuals supporting a $15.00 federal minimum wage, and 54 % of whites opposing it. In 2015, about three percent of white, Asian, and Hispanic or Latino workers earned the federal minimum wage or less. Among black workers, the percentage was about four percent.
In 1912, Massachusetts organized a commission to recommend non-compulsory minimum wages for women and children. Within eight years, at least thirteen U.S. states and the District of Columbia would pass minimum wage laws, with pressure being placed on state legislatures by the National Consumers League in a coalition with other women 's voluntary associations and organized labor. The United States Supreme Court of the Lochner era consistently invalidated compulsory minimum wage laws. Advocates for these minimum wage laws hoped that they would be upheld under the precedent of Muller v. Oregon, which upheld maximum working hours laws for women on the grounds that women required special protection that men did not. However, the Court did not extend this principle to minimum wage laws, considering the latter as interfering with the ability of employers to freely negotiate wage contracts with employees.
In 1933, the Roosevelt administration made the first attempt at establishing a national minimum wage, when a $0.25 per hour standard was set as part of the National Industrial Recovery Act. However, in the 1935 court case Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States (295 U.S. 495), the US Supreme Court declared the act unconstitutional, and the minimum wage was abolished. In 1938, the minimum wage was re-established pursuant to the Fair Labor Standards Act, once again at $0.25 per hour ($4.78 in 2017 dollars). In 1941, the Supreme Court upheld the Fair Labor Standards Act in United States v. Darby Lumber Co., holding that Congress had the power under the Commerce Clause to regulate employment conditions.
The 1938 minimum wage law only applied to "employees engaged in interstate commerce or in the production of goods for interstate commerce, '' but in amendments in 1961 and 1966, the federal minimum wage was extended (with slightly different rates) to employees in large retail and service enterprises, local transportation and construction, state and local government employees, as well as other smaller expansions; a grandfather clause in 1990 drew most employees into the purview of federal minimum wage policy, which now set the wage at $3.80.
In 2006, voters in six states (Arizona, Colorado, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, and Ohio) approved statewide increases in the state minimum wage. The amounts of these increases ranged from $1 to $1.70 per hour and all increases were designed to annually index to inflation. Some politicians in the United States have advocated linking the minimum wage to the Consumer Price Index, thereby increasing the wage automatically each year based on increases to the Consumer Price Index. So far, Ohio, Oregon, Missouri, Vermont and Washington have linked their minimum wages to the consumer price index. Minimum wage indexing also takes place each year in Florida, San Francisco, California, and Santa Fe, New Mexico.
The federal minimum wage in the United States was reset to its current rate of $7.25 per hour in July 2009. Some U.S. territories (such as American Samoa) are exempt. Some types of labor are also exempt: employers may pay tipped labor a minimum of $2.13 per hour, as long as the hour wage plus tip income equals at least the minimum wage. Persons under the age of 20 may be paid $4.25 an hour for the first 90 calendar days of employment (sometimes known as a youth, teen, or training wage) unless a higher state minimum exists. The 2009 increase was the last of three steps of the Fair Minimum Wage Act of 2007, which was signed into law as a rider to the U.S. Troop Readiness, Veterans ' Care, Katrina Recovery, and Iraq Accountability Appropriations Act, 2007, a bill that also contained almost $5 billion in tax cuts for small businesses.
Since 2012, a growing protest and advocacy movement called "Fight for $15 '', initially growing out of fast food worker strikes, has advocated for an increase in the minimum wage to a living wage. On March 27, 2014, Connecticut passed legislation to raise the minimum wage from $8.70 to $10.10 per hour by 2017, making it one of about six states to aim at or above $10.00 per hour. In 2014 and 2015, several cities, including San Francisco, Seattle, Los Angeles, and Washington passed ordinances that gradually increase the minimum wage to $15.00 per hour. In 2016, New York and California passed legislation that would gradually raise the minimum wage to $15 per hour in each state.
In April 2014, the U.S. Senate debated the Minimum Wage Fairness Act (S. 1737; 113th Congress). The bill would have amended the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (FLSA) to increase the federal minimum wage for employees to $10.10 per hour over the course of a two - year period. The bill was strongly supported by President Barack Obama and many of the Democratic Senators, but strongly opposed by Republicans in the Senate and House. Later in 2014, voters in the Republican - controlled states of Alaska, Arkansas, Nebraska and South Dakota considered ballot initiatives to raise the minimum wage above the national rate of $7.25 per hour, which were successful in all four states. The results provided evidence that raising minimum wage has support across party lines.
In April 2017, Senator Bernie Sanders and Senator Patty Murray, backed by 28 of the Senate 's Democrats, introduced new legislation which would raise the minimum wage to $15 per hour by 2024 and index it to inflation. The Raise the Wage Act of 2017, which was simultaneously introduced in the House of Representatives with 166 Democratic cosponsors, would raise the minimum wage to $9.25 immediately, and then gradually increase it to $15 by 2024, while simultaneously raising the minimum wage for tipped workers and phasing it out. The legislation was introduced according to Senator Bernie Sanders to make sure that every worker has at least a modest and decent standard of living.
As of 2017, recent legislation passed in multiple states that raised the minimum wage a certain amount in a certain time. California is set to raise their minimum wage to $15.00 per hour by January 1, 2023. Colorado is set to raise their minimum wage from $9.30 per hour to $12 per hour by January 1, 2020, raising $0.90 per year. Seattle passed legislation in 2015 for a raise in minimum wage. For employers of 500 or more employees without health benefits, the minimum wage rose to $15.00 per hour in 2017. For employees with health benefits, the minimum wage will raise to $15.00 per hour by 2018. For smaller employees, the $15.00 per hour wage takes effect at different times. Seattle is one of the first cities with a plan that after the minimum $15.00 per hour wage takes effect, they increase minimum wage by a certain percentage every year based on inflation. New York has also recently passed legislation to increase their minimum wage to $15.00 per hour over time, certain counties and larger companies are set on faster plans than others. As there have only been a few places mentioned, cities and states across the United States are putting in place certain legislation to increase the minimum wage for minimum wage workers to a livable wage.
On June 2, 2014, the City Council of Seattle, Washington was the first city to pass a local ordinance to increase the minimum wage of the city to $15.00 per hour, which will be phased in over seven years, to be fully implemented by 2021. Numerous cities have followed Seattle 's example since. San Francisco is expected to become the first U.S. city to reach a minimum wage of $15.00 per hour on July 1, 2018. New York City 's minimum wage will be $15.00 per hour by the end of 2018. The minimum wage in Los Angeles and Washington, D.C., will be $15.00 per hour in 2020. A growing number of California cities have enacted local minimum wage ordinances, including Los Angeles, San Francisco, Oakland, Berkeley, Emeryville, Mountain View, Richmond, and San Jose.
In September 2014, the Los Angeles City Council approved a minimum salary for hotel workers of $15.37 per hour. In April 2016, The Los Angeles Times reported that there is an exemption for unionised workers, and interviewed longtime workers at unionised Sheraton Universal who make $10.00 per hour, whereas non-union employees at a non-union Hilton less than 500 feet away make at least the $15.37 mandated by law for non-unionised employees. Similar exemptions have been adopted in San Francisco, San Jose, Oakland, and Santa Monica.
On August 18, 2015, the El Cerrito City Council directed city staff to draft a local minimum wage ordinance based on a template provided by a coalition for a county - wide minimum wage effort. The details are not final, but the Council discussed an initial increase of roughly 28 -- 36 % ($11.52 -- $12.25 or more) by January 1, 2016, with annual increases that will result in a $15.00 hourly wage rate by 2018 -- 2020. The Council did not direct staff to create small business exemptions (or any other exemptions), but a slower phase - in rate may be considered for employees of small businesses. The city will have outreach for residents and business owners to discuss details of the proposed ordinance. Staff hopes to present a draft for The Council 's approval as early as October or November 2015.
As of December 2014, unions were exempt from recent minimum wage increases in Chicago, Illinois, SeaTac, Washington, and Milwaukee County, Wisconsin, as well as the California cities of Los Angeles, San Francisco, Long Beach, San Jose, Richmond, and Oakland. In 2016, the Washington, D.C. Council passed a minimum wage ordinance that included a union waiver, but Mayor Vincent Gray vetoed it. Later that year, the council approved an increase without the union waiver.
Since its inception the purchasing power of the minimum wage has fluctuated. The minimum wage had its highest purchasing power in 1968, when it was $1.60 per hour ($11.49 in 2017 dollars). From January 1981 to April 1990, the minimum wage was frozen at $3.35 per hour, then a record - setting minimum wage freeze. From September 1, 1997 through July 23, 2007, the federal minimum wage remained constant at $5.15 per hour, breaking the old record. From the United States Department of Labor. Employment Standards Administration. Wage and Hour Division, the source page has a clickable US map with current and projected state - by - state minimum wage rates for each state. Some government entities, such as counties and cities, observe minimum wages that are higher than the state as a whole. One notable example of this is Santa Fe, New Mexico, whose $9.50 per hour minimum wage was the highest in the nation, until San Francisco increased its minimum wage to $9.79 in 2009. Another device to increase wages, living wage ordinances, generally apply only to businesses that are under contract to the local government itself.
Since 1984, the purchasing power of the federal minimum wage has decreased. Measured in real terms (adjusted for inflation) using 1984 dollars, the real minimum wage was $3.35 in 1984, $2.33 in 1994, $1.84 in 2004, and $1.46 in 2014. If the minimum wage had been raised to $10.10 in 2014, that would have equated to $4.40 in 1984 dollars. This would have been equal to a 31 % increase in purchasing power, despite the nominal value of the minimum wage increasing by 216 % in the same time period.
The economic effects of raising the minimum wage are controversial. Adjusting the minimum wage may affect current and future levels of employment, prices of goods and services, economic growth, income inequality, and poverty. The interconnection of price levels, central bank policy, wage agreements, and total aggregate demand creates a situation in which conclusions drawn from macroeconomic analysis are highly influenced by the underlying assumptions of the interpreter.
The law of demand states that -- all else being equal -- raising the price of any particular good or service reduces the quantity demanded. Thus, neoclassical economics argues that -- all else being equal -- raising the minimum wage will have adverse affects on employment.
Conceptually, if an employer does not believe a worker generates value equal to or in excess of the minimum wage, they do n't hire or retain that worker.
Despite this law there are many people that believe that an increase in minimum wage would increase the number of jobs available. Economist David Cooper believes that a higher minimum wage would support the creation of at least 85,000 new jobs in the United States. Empirical work on fast food workers in the 1990s challenged the neoclassical model. In 1994, economists David Card and Alan Krueger studied employment trends among 410 restaurants in New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania following New Jersey 's minimum wage hike (from $4.25 to $5.05) in April 1992. They found "no indication that the rise in the minimum wage reduced employment. '' However, a 1995 re-analysis of the evidence by David Neumark found that the increase in New Jersey 's minimum wage actually resulted in a 4.6 % decrease in employment. Neumark 's study relied on payroll records from a sample of large fast - food restaurant chains, whereas the Card - Krueger study relied on business surveys.
Additional research conducted by David Neumark and William Wascher (which surveyed over 100 studies related to the employment effects of minimum wages) found that the majority of peer - reviewed economic research (about two - thirds) showed a positive correlation between minimum wage hikes and increased unemployment -- especially for young and unskilled workers. Neumark 's analysis further found that, when looking at only the most credible research, 85 % of studies showed a positive correlation between minimum wage hikes and increased unemployment. Neumark was also part of a study that compared areas that have received minimum wage hikes that were in proximity to each other and areas that are farther apart and they concluded that there is always net job loss experienced.
In February 2014, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) reported the theoretical effects of a federal minimum wage increase under two scenarios: an increase to $9.00 and an increase to $10.10. According to the report, approximately 100,000 jobs would be lost under the $9.00 option, whereas 500,000 jobs would be lost under the $10.10 option (with a wide range of possible outcomes).
A 2013 Center for Economic and Policy Research (CEPR) review of multiple studies since 2000 indicated that there was "little or no employment response to modest increases in the minimum wage. '' Another CEPR study in 2014 found that job creation within the United States is faster within states that raised their minimum wage. In 2014, the state with the highest minimum wage in the nation, Washington, exceeded the national average for job growth in the United States. Washington had a job growth rate 0.3 % faster than the national average job growth rate.
A 2012 study led by Joseph Sabia, professor of economics at the University of New Hampshire, estimated that the 2004 - 6 New York State minimum wage increase (from $5.15 to $6.75) resulted in a 20.2 % to 21.8 % reduction in employment for less - skilled, less - educated workers. Another study conducted by Joseph Sabia, then an assistant professor at American University, found that minimum wages were ineffective at alleviating poverty for single mothers. The study further concluded that a 10 % increase in the minimum wage was associated with an 8.8 % reduction in employment and an 11.8 % reduction in hours for uneducated single mothers.
Research conducted by Richard Burkhauser, professor emeritus of Policy Analysis at Cornell University, concluded that minimum wage increases "significantly reduce the employment of the most vulnerable groups in the working - age population -- young adults without a high school degree (aged 20 - 24), young black adults and teenagers (aged 16 - 24), and teenagers (aged 16 - 19). ''
A 2007 study by Daniel Aaronson and Eric French concluded that a 10 % increase in the minimum wage decreased low - skill employment by 2 - 4 % and total restaurant employment by 1 - 3 %.
The Economist wrote in December 2013: "A minimum wage, providing it is not set too high, could thus boost pay with no ill effects on jobs... Some studies find no harm to employment from federal or state minimum wages, others see a small one, but none finds any serious damage... High minimum wages, however, particularly in rigid labour markets, do appear to hit employment. France has the rich world 's highest wage floor, at more than 60 % of the median for adults and a far bigger fraction of the typical wage for the young. This helps explain why France also has shockingly high rates of youth unemployment: 26 % for 15 - to 24 - year - olds. ''
Conceptually, raising the minimum wage increases the cost of labor, ceteris paribus. Thus, employers may accept lower profits, raise their prices, or both. If prices increase, consumers may demand a lesser quantity of the product, substitute other products, or switch to imported products, due to the effects of price elasticity of demand. Marginal producers (those who are barely profitable enough to survive) may be forced out of business if they can not raise their prices sufficiently to offset the higher cost of labor. Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago research from 2007 has shown that restaurant prices rise in response to minimum wage increases. However, there are studies that show that higher prices for products due to increased labor cost are usually only by about 0.4 % of the original price.
A 2016 White House report based on "back of envelope calculations and literature review '' argued that higher hourly wages led to less crime.
A report by the Council of Economic Advisers claimed that "raising the minimum wage reduces crime by 3 to 5 percent. '' To get those numbers, the study assumed that "such a minimum wage increase would have no employment impacts, with an employment elasticity of 0.1 the benefits would be somewhat lower. ''
However, in a 1987 journal article based on actual study data, Masanori Hashimoto noted that minimum wage hikes lead to increased levels of property crime in areas affected by the minimum wage after its increase. According to the article, by decreasing employment in poor communities, total legal trade and production are curtailed. The report also claimed that to compensate for the decrease in legal avenues for production and consumption, poor communities increasingly turn to illegal trade and activity.
Whether growth (GDP, a measure of both income and production) increases or decreases depends significantly on whether the income shifted from owners to workers results in an overall higher level of spending. The tendency of a consumer to spend their next dollar is referred to as the marginal propensity to consume or MPC. The transfer of income from higher income owners (who tend to save more, meaning a lower MPC) to lower income workers (who tend to save less, with a higher MPC) can actually lead to an increase in total consumption and higher demand for goods, leading to increased employment. Recent research has shown that higher wages lead to greater productivity.
The CBO reported in February 2014 that income (GDP) overall would be marginally higher after raising the minimum wage, indicating a small net positive increase in growth. Raising the minimum wage to $10.10 and indexing it to inflation would result in a net $2 billion increase in income during the second half of 2016, while raising it to $9.00 and not indexing it would result in a net $1 billion increase in income.
An increase in the minimum wage is a form of redistribution from higher - income persons (business owners or "capital '') to lower income persons (workers or "labor '') and therefore should reduce income inequality. The CBO estimated in February 2014 that raising the minimum wage under either scenario described above would improve income inequality. Families with income more than 6 times the poverty threshold would see their incomes fall (due in part to their business profits declining with higher employee costs), while families with incomes below that threshold would rise.
Among hourly - paid workers In 2016, 701,000 earned the federal minimum wage and about 1.5 million earned wages below the minimum. Together, these 2.2 million workers represented 2.7 % of all hourly - paid workers.
CBO estimated in February 2014 that raising the minimum wage would reduce the number of persons below the poverty income threshold by 900,000 under the $10.10 option versus 300,000 under the $9.00 option.
Research conducted by David Neumark and colleagues found that minimum wages are associated with reductions in the hours and employment of low - wage workers. A separate study by the same researchers found that minimum wages tend to increase the proportion of families with incomes below or near the poverty line. Similarly, a 2002 study led by Richard Vedder, professor of economics at Ohio University, concluded that "The empirical evidence is strong that minimum wages have had little or no effect on poverty in the U.S. Indeed, the evidence is stronger that minimum wages occasionally increase poverty... ''
The CBO reported in February 2014 that "(T) he net effect on the federal budget of raising the minimum wage would probably be a small decrease in budget deficits for several years but a small increase in budget deficits thereafter. It is unclear whether the effect for the coming decade as a whole would be a small increase or a small decrease in budget deficits. '' On the cost side, the report cited higher wages paid by the government to some of its employees along with higher costs for certain procured goods and services. This might be offset by fewer government benefits paid, as some workers with higher incomes would receive fewer government transfer payments. On the revenue side, some would pay higher taxes and others less.
According to a survey conducted by economist Greg Mankiw, 79 % of economists agreed that "a minimum wage increases unemployment among young and unskilled workers. ''
A 2015 survey conducted by the University of New Hampshire Survey Center found that a majority of economists believes raising the minimum wage to $15 per hour would have negative effects on youth employment levels (83 %), adult employment levels (52 %), and the number of jobs available (76 %). Additionally, 67 % of economists surveyed believed that a $15 minimum wage would make it harder for small businesses with less than 50 employees to stay in business.
A 2006 survey conducted by economist Robert Whaples of a sample of 210 Ph. D. economists randomly selected from the American Economic Association, found that, regarding the U.S. minimum wage:
In 2014, over 600 economists signed a letter in support of increasing the minimum wage to $10.10 with research suggesting that a minimum wage increase could have a small stimulative effect on the economy as low - wage workers spend their additional earnings, raising demand and job growth. Also, seven recipients of the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences were among 75 economists endorsing an increase in the minimum wage for U.S. workers and said "the weight '' of economic research shows higher pay does n't lead to fewer jobs.
According to a February 2013 survey of the University of Chicago IGM Forum, which includes approximately 40 economists:
According to a fall 2000 survey conducted by Fuller and Geide - Stevenson, 73.5 % (27.9 % of which agreed with provisos) of American economists surveyed agreed that minimum wage laws increase unemployment among unskilled and young workers, while 26.5 % disagreed with the statement.
Economist Paul Krugman advocated raising the minimum wage moderately in 2013, citing several reasons, including:
Democratic candidates, elected officials, and activists support an increase in the minimum wage. In his 2013 State of the Union Address, President Barack Obama called for an increase in the federal minimum wage to $9 an hour; several months later, Democrats Tom Harkin and George Miller proposed legislation to increase the federal minimum wage to $10.10; and in 2015, congressional Democrats introduced a proposal to increase the federal minimum wage to $12 an hour. These efforts did not succeed, but increases in city and state minimum wages prompted congressional Democrats to continue fighting for an increase on the federal level. After much internal party debate, the party 's official platform adopted at the 2016 Democratic National Convention stated: "We should raise the federal minimum wage to $15 an hour over time and index it, give all Americans the ability to join a union regardless of where they work, and create new ways for workers to have power in the economy so every worker can earn at least $15 an hour. ''
Most Republican elected officials oppose action to increase the minimum wage, and have blocked Democratic efforts to increase the minimum wage. Republican leadership such as Speakers of the House John Boehner and Paul Ryan have opposed minimum wage increases. Some Republicans oppose having a minimum wage altogether, while a few, conversely, have supported minimum wage increases or indexing the minimum wage to inflation.
Former President Bill Clinton advocated raising the minimum wage in 2014: "I think we ought to raise the minimum wage because it does n't just raise wages for the three or four million people who are directly affected by it, it bumps the wage structure everywhere... The estimates are that 35 million Americans would get a pay raise if the federal minimum wage was raised... If you (raise the minimum wage) in a phased way, it always creates jobs. Why? Because people who make the minimum wage or near it are struggling to get by, they spend every penny they make, they turn it over in the economy, they create jobs, they create opportunity, and they take better care of their children. It 's just the right thing to do, but it 's also very good economics. ''
The Pew Center reported in January 2014 that 73 % of Americans supported raising the minimum wage from $7.25 to $10. By party, 53 % of Republicans and 90 % of Democrats favored this action. Pew found a racial difference for support of a higher minimum wage in 2017 with most blacks and Hispanics supporting a $15.00 federal minimum wage, and 54 % of whites opposing it.
A Lake Research Partners poll in February 2012 found the following:
This is a list of the minimum wages (per hour) in each state and territory of the United States, for jobs covered by federal minimum wage laws. If the job is not subject to the federal Fair Labor Standards Act, then state, city, or other local laws may determine the minimum wage. A common exemption to the federal minimum wage is a company having revenue of less than $500,000 per year while not engaging in any interstate commerce.
Under the federal law, workers who receive a portion of their salary from tips, such as waitstaff, are required only to have their total compensation, including tips, meet the minimum wage. Therefore, often, their hourly wage, before tips, is less than the minimum wage. Seven states, and Guam, do not allow for a tip credit. Additional exemptions to the minimum wage include many seasonal employees, student employees, and certain disabled employees as specified by the FLSA.
In addition, some counties and cities within states may implement a higher minimum wage than the rest of their state. Sometimes this higher wage applies only to businesses that contract with the local government, while in other cases the higher minimum applies to all work.
The average US minimum wage per capita (2017) is $8.49 based on the population size of each state and generally represents the average minimum wage experienced by a person working in one of the fifty US states. Cities, counties, districts, and territories are not included in the calculation. As of October 2016, there have been 29 states with a minimum wage higher than the federal minimum. From 2014 to 2015, nine states increased their minimum wage levels through automatic adjustments, while increases in 11 other states occurred through referendum or legislative action. Beginning in January 2017, Massachusetts and Washington state have the highest minimum wages in the country, at $11.00 per hour. New York City 's minimum wage will be $15.00 per hour by the end of 2018.
For employees working in Prince George 's County, the minimum wage is $10.75 per hour, effective October 1, 2016, and increases to $11.50 on October 1, 2017.
For employees working in Montgomery County, the minimum wage is $11.50 per hour starting July 1, 2017. County Council bill 12 - 16 was enacted on January 17, 2017 to adjust the minimum wage to $15 and base future adjustments on the Consumer Price Index, but was later vetoed by the County Executive.
A 2016 law changed the minimum wage over the following six years. "Large '' employers have 11 or more employees, and "small '' have between 1 and 10. "Downstate '' includes Nassau, Suffolk, and Westchester Counties. NYC large employers: $11.00, NYC small employers: $10.50, Downstate employers: $10.00, Upstate employers: $9.70. As of December 31, 2017: NYC large employers: $13.00; NYC small employers: $12.00; Downstate employers: $11.00; Upstate employers: $10.40. As of December 31, 2018: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $13.50; Downstate employers: $12.00; Upstate employers: $11.10. As of December 31, 2019: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $13.00; Upstate employers: $12.50. As of December 31, 2020: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $14.00; Upstate employers: $12.50. As of December 31, 2021: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $15.00; Upstate employers: Set by Commissioner of Labor based on economic conditions, up to $15.00.
Tipped food service workers will be paid $7.50 per hour, or two - thirds of the applicable minimum wage rate rounded to the nearest $0.05, whichever is higher.
($ / h)
The minimum wage for tipped - employees will increase to $4.17 per hour as of July 1, 2018; $4.87 per hour as of July 1, 2019; and $5.55 per hour as of July 1, 2020.
The minimum wage established by the federal government may be paid to newly hired individuals during their first 90 calendar days of employment, students employed by colleges and universities, and individuals under 18 years of age.
Jobs that a minimum wage is most likely to directly affect are those that pay close to the minimum.
According to the May 2006 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates, the four lowest - paid occupational sectors in May 2006 (when the federal minimum wage was $5.15 per hour) were the following:
Two years later, in May 2008, when the federal minimum wage was $5.85 per hour and was about to increase to $6.55 per hour in July 2008, these same sectors were still the lowest - paying, but their situation (according to Bureau of Labor Statistics data) was:
In 2006, workers in the following 13 individual occupations received, on average, a median hourly wage of less than $8.00 per hour:
In 2008, only two occupations paid a median wage less than $8.00 per hour:
According to the May 2009 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates, the lowest - paid occupational sectors in May 2009 (when the federal minimum wage was $7.25 per hour) were the following:
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ms dhoni the untold story meaning in hindi | MS Dhoni: the Untold Story - Wikipedia
M.S. Dhoni: The Untold Story is a 2016 Indian bollywood biographical sports film written and directed by Neeraj Pandey. It is based on the life of former Test, ODI and T20I captain of the Indian national cricket team, Mahendra Singh Dhoni. The film stars Sushant Singh Rajput as Dhoni, along with Disha Patani, Kiara Advani, and Anupam Kher. The film chronicles the life of Dhoni from a young age through a series of life events.
The idea of the biopic was put forward by Dhoni 's manager, Arun Pandey, after encountering an incident at an airport after the 2011 Cricket World Cup Final. Development began two years later, with the consent of Dhoni. Neeraj Pandey was later approached to helm the film while he was working on Baby. Pandey recruited a number of people for researching into Dhoni 's background and his life events. Dhoni eventually became a consultant on the film
The film was released on 30 September 2016 by Fox Star Studios and received the widest release ever for a Bollywood film across 61 countries. In addition to being released in Hindi language, it was also dubbed in Tamil, Telugu, and Marathi languages, although the Marathi release was later cancelled due to opposition. Upon release, the film became a critical and commercial success. It is currently the fifth highest - grossing Bollywood film of 2016 in India with ₹ 1.16 billion (US $18 million).
In the pre-credits sequence there is a scene of the 2011 Cricket World Cup Final. MS Dhoni, India 's captain, walks out to bat after Kohli 's wicket.
The film begins in Ranchi, 7 July 1981. At the hospital maternity unit, Pan Singh is confused whether he has got a girl or boy. He later names his baby boy Dhoni. Fourteen years later, Dhoni is spotted by a cricket coach while goalkeeping in a football game. He invites him to try out for the school cricket team as a wicketkeeper and selects him after being impressed. Dhoni 's father is a pump operator who waters the practice ground. Dhoni improves his batting and becomes a regular member of the team.
Three years later, Dhoni helps win an inter-school cricket match. After achieving much fame, Dhoni is selected for the Ranji Trophy but his draft notice is late due to which he is late in reaching Kolkata despite his friend 's help. But Dhoni does not give up and to please his father, he joins the Kharagpur Station as a ticket collector. Years later, Dhoni 's sister Jayanti is married.
After sometime, Dhoni is depressed with his job. After the insistence of his manager, Dhoni decides to play cricket alongside his job. He attends his day - shift then goes to practice cricket. He participates in different tournaments and as a result he gets selected for the Railways team. After a good performance, he tries - out for the U-19 team selections. Bihar loses to Punjab where Yuvraj Singh scores 301 and Dhoni does not succeed though he is selected for the Duleep Trophy.
Dhoni leaves his job and admits to his father that cricket is his only ambition and he wants to become a professional cricketer. He works hard and is selected in the national team and makes his debut. He meets and befriends Priyanka Jha, an office consultant. He scores a century after meeting her. She buys a watch for him as a Valentines ' Day present but dies in a truck accident on her way. Dhoni again goes into depression and has bad form in the 2007 World Cup. He later wins the 2007 T - 20 World Cup as a captain. He succeeds as a captain and India reaches the ranking of no. 1 in test matches.
In 2010, Dhoni arrives at a hotel. Sakshi Rawat, a hotel official fails to recognize him and later apologizes to him. They soon start dating and Dhoni eventually proposes marriage to her after she mentions buying him a Valentines ' Day 's gift which he refuses. They marry and Dhoni begins training for the 2011 World Cup. He eventually develops the team with new players.
The film returns back to the 2011 World Cup final where Dhoni eases the pressure with a crucial innings. With 4 runs required, Dhoni hits a six and India wins the final. His family, friends and coaches watching the match cry happy tears.
After the credits, the real Dhoni walks by the boundaries.
-- Director Neeraj Pandey
Development of a Dhoni biopic began after the 2011 Cricket World Cup Final and the discussion about the idea went on over the following years but remained dormant. Then, after a few years, Dhoni was at an airport when a child approached him and asked him a question on motivation. Dhoni sat down with the young boy and spent 5 minutes answering the question. His manager, Arun Pandey, asked why he spent that much time and Dhoni replied how his answer was pivotal in benefiting and motivating the boy. This incident then prompted Pandey to make a film about him saying (to Dhoni) that his story has the power to motivate millions of children like him. After the idea coalesced, Pandey began to convince Dhoni himself in order to adapt his life into a full - length feature film. When he was first approached on the idea of the adaptation, he became a little worried and questioned the need for it. But after being convinced by his peers, all he said was, "Do n't misrepresent me. Show me as I am. '' It took Dhoni two years to finally agree. According to International Business Times, the film carries a production budget of around ₹ 1.04 billion (US $15.6 million).
Pandey was attracted to Dhoni 's story not because of his successful cricket career, saying that "it 's foolish to chase MS Dhoni 's life story only because it 's about cricket, '' but rather to instances and factors that made him the person he is today. Dhoni was n't involved in writing the script. Pandey recruited a team of researchers who collated data and background information while the director was busy directing Baby (2015). The filmmakers decided that they would only green - light the film once they had a convincing story to tell after the research. Pandey met with Dhoni numerous times over a span of eight months and by the eighth month of their meetings, in 2014, the main arc of the story began to form. Their first meeting took place in Delhi during a cricket match. During their sporadic meetings, Pandey chose not to record and tape their conversations which prompted Dhoni to open up more.
Arun Pandey says 98 % of the content in the film is reality. The team undertook two years of research on the various incidents and how they took place. Pandey says "such authenticity would be hard to find even in Hollywood. '' Pandey revealed several prominent aspects of Dhoni 's life that were hidden before including the fact that Dhoni initially disdained cricket and had a predilection for football instead, his signature "helicopter shot '' was taught to him by his friend Santosh Lal, he likes women who do n't recognise him, he and Yuvraj Singh had close ties even before their respective stardom and it was Dhoni who ousted Sourav Ganguly and Rahul Dravid from the team since he wanted to build a young team for the 2011 World Cup with better fielders and he was n't too happy with the ' fitness ' levels of the aforementioned cricketers.
Pandey decided to end the film with the 2011 Cricket World Cup Final since he felt "the arc of the story had a natural high at the 2011 World Cup win. '' He knew that they were chronicling almost 30 years of a sportsman 's life "in a highly compressed manner '' and said that had he extended the script to his sudden retirement during an ongoing series, the run time of the film would shoot up to six hours.
Neeraj Pandey was in the midst of shooting Baby (2015) when Arun Pandey, the manager of Dhoni, offered him an opportunity of making a biopic based on Mahendra Singh Dhoni. However, Pandey was sceptical and did n't wish to tackle such a subject until he met Dhoni himself. It was only after meeting Dhoni personally -- during the second schedule of Baby -- that he was convinced to helm the film. Although, to him, he treated the project not as a biopic, but more as an inspiring story. Pandey admits that he is not a fan of Dhoni and does n't feel guilty about it. But he does have a predilection for cricket and other renowned cricketers like AB de Villiers and Sachin Tendulkar. He explained how not being a fan helped him direct the movie impartially, "I think if you are fan, as a director it would be difficult to be objective and impartial. A fan would only see positives. Even negatives will look like positives for him. So not being a fan helped me direct the movie impartially. '' It is the director 's first biopic film.
Every question that came from the director or any member of the team working on the script was directly answered by Dhoni. He would clear any doubts of the director and Rajput. However, he did not want the film to serve as a whitewash of his life, "One thing I told (Neeraj) Pandey is that this movie should not be to glorify me. It 's about the journey of a professional sportsperson and that 's what it should depict. ''
Director Pandey, who has not seen any of Sushant Singh Rajput 's films, followed his intuition when it came to casting him. Rajput was always his first choice given how both Dhoni and Rajput hail from the same part of India, which made it easy for him to get the dialect right and the fact he has a predilection for sports like Dhoni. When he met Rajput and chatted with him for 15 minutes, he knew that the accent, the setting and the milieu they needed to capture would not be a problem. Rajput admits that he is a fan of Dhoni, and describes himself as an "ardent '' cricket fan. Rajput 's sister is a professional cricketer who once made it to the women 's national team, while he himself was n't very good at the sport no matter how hard he tried, even failing to get selected for the school team.
He found it difficult to get Dhoni 's mannerisms right. He said that he did not pretend to be Dhoni, but actually felt like the cricketer while essaying the title role. In order to prepare for his role, he had to go through an exhaustive prolonged training for a period of 18 months before shooting began and watched his videos for hours, to a point that he subconsciously started picking up some of his traits. For instance, in order to grasp Dhoni 's trademark "Helicopter shot, '' the team would carefully analyse it and fix the bowling machine into one spot and then play the same shot at least 200 to 300 times a day for a week to a point that it came naturally to him. He also met Dhoni thrice before filming commenced. Former wicketkeeper Kiran More personally coached Rajput for thirteen months, including wicket - keeping and batting before he started learning Dhoni 's body language. He practiced for four hours, starting at 6: 00 every morning. Rajput described More as a "tough taskmaster, '' who treated him like a professional cricketer rather than an actor. Dhoni 's batting style was scientifically analysed, learnt and practised and an analyst was called on board for this. Training sessions were recorded and compared with the cricketer 's real game. It took a further six months for Rajput to feel confident that he looked and played like Dhoni.
The film was shot mainly in authentic and real - life locations where Dhoni spent much of his childhood and teenage years, with Pandey saying that 95 % of the locations in the film were authentic. In an effort to stay true to the crux of the biopic, Neeraj also shot scenes from the film in Dhoni 's real home in Ranchi, Jharkhand where his parents and brother Narendra currently live. Shooting also took place at Kharagpur railway station where Dhoni once worked as a Travelling Ticket Examiner (TTE), his old school, Jawahar Vidya Mandir and at the quarter number 142 of Mecon Limited he shared with his four roommates while studying engineering. The filmmakers were also shown his former social hangout as well as introduced to the food he liked eating whilst growing up. Dhoni 's real school teacher was cast in the film.
Filming also took place in Aurangabad.
Rajput learned Dhoni 's signature ' helicopter ' shot by the end of the first day, but suffered a hairline fracture and had to leave for two weeks.
M.S. Dhoni: The Untold Story received the widest release for a Bollywood film receiving a day - and - date release both in India and internationally in a total of 61 countries across approximately 4,500 screens worldwide on the week ending October 2, 2016.
However, the film was not released in Pakistan due to problems following the 2016 Uri attack. Sabina Islam, media and marketing manager of the distributor IMGC Global Entertainment in Pakistan told The Express Tribune, "We would n't want to release anything that can aggravate the current situation of the two countries. Dhoni is India 's hero so it 's risky. '' The film was also not released in Punjabi and Marathi languages. This was because Fox had wanted to release the film on the same day - and - date but a dubbed version in the two aforementioned languages could not be produced at that time.
Even though attempts were made later to dub and release the film in the Marathi language in the state of Maharashtra, this was however not possible. This was because Amey Khopkar, chief of Chitrapat Karmachari Sena, the film affairs wing of regional political party Maharashtra Navnirman Sena told the filmmakers that releasing the film in the language would cause unfair competition for regional movies by giving rise to a scenario where more filmmakers will release Hindi films dubbed in Marathi, prompting Pandey to scrap the plan.
The film was declared tax - free in Uttar Pradesh by Chief Minister Akhilesh Yadav a day after its release, and in Dhoni 's home state, Jharkhand, a few days later. Maharashtra was also declared tax - free on October 5 by chief minister Devendra Fadnavis.
The filmmakers organised large promotions, which later helped the movie register good advance booking. A teaser trailer was released on March 15, 2016, in conjunction with the commencement of the 2016 ICC World Twenty20. The first official poster was released on July 7, 2016, on Dhoni 's 35th birthday. A second poster was unveiled on August 6. On September 12, Fox Star Studios released a promotional video entitled "Captain Curious '', which shows Dhoni and Sushant Rajput engaging in a conversation. The short clip was written by What Works, shot by Shiraz Bhattacharya and released by Fox. In late September 2016, the cast flew to Chennai to promote the film where Dhoni and Rajput met veteran actor Rajinikanth at his residence and discussed the film.
Maruti Suzuki released two MS Dhoni inspired special edition of Alto cars -- the Alto 800 and Alto K10 -- as part of the company 's association with the film. The two cars were unveiled by Dhoni and RS Kalsi, Maruti Suzuki India Executive Director of Marketing and Sales in Hyderabad on September 24. As a part of the association, Maruti Suzuki ran a series of customer engagement activities on social media.
The film recouped around ₹ 900 million (US $13.5 million) before its release via multiple platforms and ancillary; ₹ 550 million (US $8.2 million) from satellite rights; ₹ 200 million (US $3 million) from endorsement brands; ₹ 100 million (US $1.5 million) for overseas distribution rights; and ₹ 50 million (US $750,920) for music rights.
Internationally, the film was released in 60 countries across 1,000 screens in conjunction with its Indian premiere. According to Vijay Singh, that marks the biggest - ever release for a Hindi film in Tamil and Telugu and one of the widest for any Indian film internationally. It was released in key markets including the United States and Canada and the U.K. and in the other regular Bollywood diaspora markets in South East Asia, Africa and Europe. Through a chain of distributors the film also went out in non-regular Bollywood territories such as Japan, Spain, France, Hungary, Poland, the Philippines and the West Indies.
The film was released on Friday, September 30, across approximately 3,500 screens and delivered an opening of ₹ 213 million (US $3.3 million) on its first day, occupying 45 -- 50 % of the total marketplace which is the biggest opener of Sushant 's career. Buoyed by positive reviews, the film earned a total of ₹ 660 million (US $10 million) net the second biggest opening for a Hindi release in 2016 behind Sultan. The Tamil version of the film collected ₹ 70 million (US $1.1 million) in its opening weekend in Tamil Nadu, which is the highest for a film dubbed from Hindi in the state.
Following its weekend debut, the film witnessed a sharp fall on Monday earning ₹ 85.1 million (US $1.3 million) and ₹ ₹ 75.2 million (US $1.2 million) on Tuesday. By October 11, the film had grossed a total of ₹ 1.16 billion (US $18 million) in India and is currently the fifth highest - grossing Hindi film of 2016 in India.
Internationally, the film made an estimated ₹ 219.2 million (US $3.4 million) in its opening weekend from 60 countries. It had successful debuts in many markets, including $1.1 million in the U.S., $995,000 in the Middle East, $263,000 in the U.K. where it ranked at No. 9, and $194,000 in Australia for tenth spot. The film received a limited release in the U.S. and Canada across 256 theaters and earned $1,108,650 at an average of $4,331 per theater, debuting at number 14 at the box office, becoming the third Bollywood film of 2016 to debut above $1 million, following Sultan and Fan.
The film received mainly positive reviews from critics.
The film was noted for omitting certain aspects of Dhoni 's life and in the realm of cricket that were deemed noteworthy such as the 2009 ICC World Twenty20 press conference, where Dhoni brought the entire team and read out a statement of unity, the 2013 Indian Premier League spot - fixing and betting case and the alleged rift with Virender Sehwag and Gautam Gambhir. The film also does not include Dhoni 's take on the two - year ban imposed on Chennai Super Kings from playing in the Twenty20 which he captained at that time, which ultimately led to the Supreme Court asking N. Srinivasan to step aside as BCCI President The film also does not provide any explanation to Dhoni 's purchase (and eventual sale) of the 15 % stake in the player management firm Rhiti Sports, or why he was named the vice-president of India Cements. While the film featured his sister Jayanti, there was no mention about his real life elder brother, Narendra Singh Dhoni, who is a politician. Chanchal Bhattacharya, a specialised cricket coach who used to train young cricketers in Dhoni 's school campus pinpointed at a pivotal incident during Dhoni 's days which was absent in the movie: Dhoni once scored a century for East Zone in a Deodhar Trophy against Central Zone. Karsan Ghavri, who was the coach of East Zone at that time, praised Dhoni 's century saying that "this lad will represent the country one day. ''
The Hindu said, "of course such sanitisation makes the film lose out on interesting layers and complexity, but, curiously, the focused, unwavering eulogising of Dhoni also helps it get an unmistakeable emotional acuity. '' In a more positive take, Andy Bull of The Guardian said that not every aspect of Dhoni 's life could be included in the three - hour - and - 10 - minute - long biopic. He quoted John Briley 's famous line from the script he wrote for Richard Attenborough 's Gandhi: "No man 's life can be encompassed in one telling. There is no way to give each year its allotted weight, to include each event, each person who helped to shape a lifetime. ''
Veteran actor Rishi Kapoor gave a positive review of the film, praising the performance of Rajput in particular. Several professional Indian sportsmen and sportswomen such as cricketer Mohammad Kaif, and badminton player Saina Nehwal had high regards for the film.
Rachel Saltz of The New York Times gave a negative review of the film saying that "you do n't have to understand cricket to enjoy a good cricket movie '', e.g. Lagaan (2001), but one does "have to be a cricket fan, and an indulgent one at that '' for M.S. Dhoni: The Untold Story. She found the term "hagiographic '' unfit for the film and labelled the film as "long and languid. '' She concluded saying "I learned more about Mr. Dhoni -- his enigmatic character and what marked him as a great captain -- by reading about him after watching this movie than I did during three long hours. ''
Amaal Mallik composed the soundtrack for M.S. Dhoni. Rochak Kohli composed one song as a guest composer. T - Series acquired the music rights for the film. The 10 song album features the voices of singers Armaan Malik, Arijit Singh, Siddharth Basrur, Rochak Kohli and Palak Muchhal; it was released in three different language versions: Tamil, Telugu & Marathi. Tamil lyrics were penned by P. Vijay, Telugu by Chaitanya Prasad & Marathi by Guru Thakur. The background music was composed by Sanjoy Chowdhury.
All lyrics written by Manoj Muntashir.
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why is the public key for a given certificate always a fixed set of bytes | Public key certificate - wikipedia
In cryptography, a public key certificate, also known as a digital certificate or identity certificate, is an electronic document used to prove the ownership of a public key. The certificate includes information about the key, information about the identity of its owner (called the subject), and the digital signature of an entity that has verified the certificate 's contents (called the issuer). If the signature is valid, and the software examining the certificate trusts the issuer, then it can use that key to communicate securely with the certificate 's subject. In email encryption, code signing, and e-signature systems, a certificate 's subject is typically a person or organization. However, in Transport Layer Security (TLS) a certificate 's subject is typically a computer or other device, though TLS certificates may identify organizations or individuals in addition to their core role in identifying devices. TLS, sometimes called by its older name Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), is notable for being a part of HTTPS, a protocol for securely browsing the web.
In a typical public - key infrastructure (PKI) scheme, the certificate issuer is a certificate authority (CA), usually a company that charges customers to issue certificates for them. By contrast, in a web of trust scheme, individuals sign each other 's keys directly, in a format that performs a similar function to a public key certificate.
The most common format for public key certificates is defined by X. 509. Because X. 509 is very general, the format is further constrained by profiles defined for certain use cases, such as Public Key Infrastructure (X. 509) as defined in RFC 5280.
In TLS (an updated replacement for SSL), a server is required to present a certificate as part of the initial connection setup. A client connecting to that server will perform the certification path validation algorithm:
The primary hostname (domain name of the website) is listed as the Common Name in the Subject field of the certificate. A certificate may be valid for multiple hostnames (multiple websites). Such certificates are commonly called Subject Alternative Name (SAN) certificates or Unified Communications Certificates (UCC). These certificates contain the field Subject Alternative Name, though many CAs will also put them into the Subject Common Name field for backward compatibility. If some of the hostnames contain an asterisk (*), a certificate may also be called a wildcard certificate.
A TLS server may be configured with a self - signed certificate. When that is the case, clients will generally be unable to verify the certificate, and will terminate the connection unless certificate checking is disabled.
Client certificates are less common than server certificates, and are used to authenticate the client connecting to a TLS service, for instance to provide access control. Because most services provide access to individuals, rather than devices, most client certificates contain an email address or personal name rather than a hostname. Also, because authentication is usually managed by the service provider, client certificates are not usually issued by a public CA that provides server certificates. Instead, the operator of a service that requires client certificates will usually operate their own internal CA to issue them. Client certificates are supported by many web browsers, but most services use passwords and cookies to authenticate users, instead of client certificates.
Client certificates are more common in RPC systems, where they are used to authenticate devices to ensure that only authorized devices can make certain RPC calls.
In the S / MIME protocol for secure email, senders need to discover which public key to use for any given recipient. They get this information from an email certificate. Some publicly trusted certificate authorities provide email certificates, but more commonly S / MIME is used when communicating within a given organization, and that organization runs its own CA, which is trusted by participants in that email system.
Certificates can also be used to validate signatures on programs to ensure they were not tampered with during delivery.
A certificate identifying an individual, typically for electronic signature purposes. These are most commonly used in Europe, where the eIDAS regulation standardizes them and requires their recognition.
A self - signed certificate used to sign other certificates. Also sometimes called a trust anchor.
A certificate used to sign other certificates. An intermediate certificate must be signed by another intermediate certificate, or a root certificate.
Any certificate that can not be used to sign other certificates. For instance, TLS / SSL server and client certificates, email certificates, code signing certificates, and qualified certificates are all end - entity certificates.
A certificate with a subject that matches its issuer, and a signature that can be verified by its own public key. Most types of certificate can be self - signed. Self - signed certificates are also often called snake oil certificates to emphasize their untrustworthiness.
These are some of the most common fields in certificates. Most certificates contain a number of fields not listed here. Note that in terms of a certificate 's X. 509 representation, a certificate is not "flat '' but contains these fields nested in various structures within the certificate.
In the European Union, electronic signatures on legal documents are commonly performed using digital signatures with accompanying identity certificates. This is largely because such signatures are granted the same enforceability as handwritten signatures under eIDAS, an EU regulation.
In the X. 509 trust model, a certificate authority (CA) is responsible for signing certificates. These certificates act as an introduction between two parties, which means that a CA acts as a trusted third party. A CA processes requests from people or organizations requesting certificates (called subscribers), verifies the information, and potentially signs an end - entity certificate based on that information. To perform this role effectively, a CA needs to have one or more broadly trusted root certificates or intermediate certificates and the corresponding private keys. CAs may achieve this broad trust by having their root certificates included in popular software, or by obtaining a cross-signature from another CA delegating trust. Other CAs are trusted within a relatively small community, like a business, and are distributed by other mechanisms like Windows Group Policy.
Certificate authorities are also responsible for maintaining up - to - date revocation information about certificates they have issued, indicating whether certificates are still valid. They provide this information through Online Certificate Status Protocol (OCSP) and / or Certificate Revocation Lists (CRLs).
Some major software contains a list of certificate authorities that are trusted by default. This makes it easier for end - users to validate certificates, and easier for people or organizations that request certificates to know which certificate authorities can issue a certificate that will be broadly trusted. This is particularly important in HTTPS, where a web site operator generally wants to get a certificate that is trusted by nearly all potential visitors to their web site.
The policies and processes a provider uses to decide which certificate authorities their software should trust are called root programs. The most influential root programs are:
Browsers other than Firefox generally use the operating system 's facilities to decide which certificate authorities are trusted. So, for instance, Chrome on Windows trusts the certificate authorities included in the Microsoft Root Program, while on macOS or iOS, Chrome trusts the certificate authorities in the Apple Root Program. Edge and Safari use their respective operating system trust stores as well, but each is only available on a single OS. Firefox uses the Mozilla Root Program trust store on all platforms.
The Mozilla Root Program is operated publicly, and its certificate list is part of the open source Firefox web browser, so it is broadly used outside Firefox. For instance, while there is no common Linux Root Program, many Linux distributions, like Debian, include a package that periodically copies the contents of the Firefox trust list, which is then used by applications.
Root programs generally provide a set of valid purposes with the certificates they include. For instance, some CAs may be considered trusted for issuing TLS server certificates, but not for code signing certificates. This is indicated with a set of trust bits in a root certificate storage system.
The most common use of certificates is for HTTPS - based web sites. A web browser validates that an HTTPS web server is authentic, so that the user can feel secure that his / her interaction with the web site has no eavesdroppers and that the web site is who it claims to be. This security is important for electronic commerce. In practice, a web site operator obtains a certificate by applying to a certificate authority with a certificate signing request. The certificate request is an electronic document that contains the web site name, company information and the public key. The certificate provider signs the request, thus producing a public certificate. During web browsing, this public certificate is served to any web browser that connects to the web site and proves to the web browser that the provider believes it has issued a certificate to the owner of the web site.
As an example, when a user connects to https://www.example.com/ with their browser, if the browser does not give any certificate warning message, then the user can be theoretically sure that interacting with https://www.example.com/ is equivalent to interacting with the entity in contact with the email address listed in the public registrar under "example.com '', even though that email address may not be displayed anywhere on the web site. No other surety of any kind is implied. Further, the relationship between the purchaser of the certificate, the operator of the web site, and the generator of the web site content may be tenuous and is not guaranteed. At best, the certificate guarantees uniqueness of the web site, provided that the web site itself has not been compromised (hacked) or the certificate issuing process subverted.
A certificate provider can opt to issue three types of certificates, each requiring its own degree of vetting rigor. In order of increasing rigor (and naturally, cost) they are: Domain Validation, Organization Validation and Extended Validation. These rigors are loosely agreed upon by voluntary participants in the CA / Browser Forum.
A certificate provider will issue a Domain Validation (DV) class certificate to a purchaser if the purchaser can demonstrate one vetting criterion: the right to administratively manage a domain name.
A certificate provider will issue an Organization Validation (OV) class certificate to a purchaser if the purchaser can meet two criteria: the right to administratively manage the domain name in question, and perhaps, the organization 's actual existence as a legal entity. A certificate provider publishes its OV vetting criteria through its Certificate Policy.
To acquire an Extended Validation (EV) certificate, the purchaser must persuade the certificate provider of its legal identity, including manual verification checks by a human. As with OV certificates, a certificate provider publishes its EV vetting criteria through its Certificate Policy.
Browsers will generally offer users a visual indication of the legal identity when a site presents an EV certificate. Most browsers show the legal name before the domain, and use a bright green color to highlight the change. In this way, the user can see the legal identity of the owner has been verified.
A web browser will give no warning to the user if a web site suddenly presents a different certificate, even if that certificate has a lower number of key bits, even if it has a different provider, and even if the previous certificate had an expiry date far into the future. However a change from an EV certificate to a non-EV certificate will be apparent as the green bar will no longer be displayed. Where certificate providers are under the jurisdiction of governments, those governments may have the freedom to order the provider to generate any certificate, such as for the purposes of law enforcement. Subsidiary wholesale certificate providers also have the freedom to generate any certificate.
All web browsers come with an extensive built - in list of trusted root certificates, many of which are controlled by organizations that may be unfamiliar to the user. Each of these organizations is free to issue any certificate for any web site and have the guarantee that web browsers that include its root certificates will accept it as genuine. In this instance, end users must rely on the developer of the browser software to manage its built - in list of certificates and on the certificate providers to behave correctly and to inform the browser developer of problematic certificates. While uncommon, there have been incidents in which fraudulent certificates have been issued: in some cases, the browsers have detected the fraud; in others, some time passed before browser developers removed these certificates from their software.
The list of built - in certificates is also not limited to those provided by the browser developer: users (and to a degree applications) are free to extend the list for special purposes such as for company intranets. This means that if someone gains access to a machine and can install a new root certificate in the browser, that browser will recognize websites that use the inserted certificate as legitimate.
For provable security, this reliance on something external to the system has the consequence that any public key certification scheme has to rely on some special setup assumption, such as the existence of a certificate authority.
In spite of the limitations described above, certificate - authenticated TLS is considered mandatory by all security guidelines whenever a web site hosts confidential information or performs material transactions. This is because, in practice, in spite of the weaknesses described above, web sites secured by public key certificates are still more secure than unsecured http: / / web sites.
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Computer Security Division provides guidance documents for Public Key Certificates:
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how many states allow 1st cousins to marry | Cousin marriage law in the United States by state - wikipedia
Cousin marriage acceptance differs from one U.S. state to another ranging from being legal to a criminal offense.
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who played terry benedict in ocean's eleven | List of Ocean 's Eleven characters - wikipedia
This is a list of characters from Steven Soderbergh 's Ocean 's Eleven film series, starting in 2001 with Ocean 's Eleven, followed by 2004 's Ocean 's Twelve and finalized in 2007 with Ocean 's Thirteen.
A gentleman - thief from New York City, who is the ringleader and idea man of the crew that robs three casinos in Ocean 's Eleven, a Fabergé egg in Ocean 's Twelve and award diamonds in Ocean 's Thirteen, in addition to conning a businessman into losing millions of dollars on the opening night of his new casino.
Danny is played by George Clooney.
Rusty is Danny 's right - hand man, although it is more than implied in Twelve that Rusty is the logistical heart of all the crew 's operations, handling the details of the day - to - day operations while Danny is more big picture. Very often shown eating some kind of fast food, his skills are used more in the planning phase of the heists, although he takes on disguises in Eleven and Thirteen. His ex-girlfriend Isabel is what gets the team in trouble in Twelve, despite Rusty condemning Danny 's efforts to win back an ex-wife in Eleven.
Rusty is played by Brad Pitt.
The son of a legendary con artist, Bobby Caldwell, Linus is one of two newcomers to Danny 's crew, recruited by Danny in person. Having witnessed Linus ' pickpocket skills grifting in Chicago, he offers him a key slot on his crew for one of the essential parts of the elaborate heist. Throughout the trilogy, Linus repeatedly makes attempts to live up to the reputation of his family and gain respect within the crew. At various times, he seems to succeed: he backs up Danny in Eleven by bringing extra batteries for the explosives, which turn out to be crucial, and in Twelve gets a chance to run the con when half the crew end up in prison. In Thirteen, he offers to seduce a key, female mark -- despite the team 's doubts in his ability. He is successful, though the team assists him with a "Gilroy, '' a chemical aid, for this con. Eager to prove himself, he frequently offers to tackle difficult parts of the con and assert himself as a leader within the team. As such, he is frequently the subject of good - natured pranks by the team, most notably in the meeting with Matsui in Twelve where they trick Linus into believing he offended Matsui with his Kashmir lyrics.
While talented in his own right, Linus ' family connections frequently became useful backup players when events did not unfold according to plan, notably in Twelve when Linus ' mother creates an escape for the team in Italy, and in Thirteen when Linus ' father, Bobby Caldwell, helps him steal Willy Bank 's "Five Diamond '' awards.
Linus is played by Matt Damon.
A flamboyant business kingpin, Reuben is an old school business tycoon who gets muscled out of his Vegas hotel by Terry Benedict, which is the reason he finances the expensive casino - caper. He appears to be pushed over again in Thirteen, when he is forced out of a partnership by Willy Bank, leading to a breakdown that ignites Ocean 's revenge plot against Bank. His cunning business instinct is illustrated by the fact that he was the only one to make money out of his take in the Bellagio heist (on the stock market) rather than lose money. While his good - hearted nature may have cost him these two business ventures, it appears to be exactly his appeal amongst the thieves, who make very clear in Thirteen their appreciation, with Danny and Rusty going so far as to imply Reuben was a mentor to them.
Tishkoff is played by Elliott Gould.
Saul is an ulcerous old pro, who is brought out of retirement to play a crucial role in the casino - heist, playing "Lyman Zerga '', an arms dealer with a special delivery he needs to be located in the casino - vault. His presence ensures the team of a member watching the security cameras and getting the explosives into the vault. In Twelve, Saul initially refuses to go along with the pan-European caper, but ultimately shows up as a Swiss doctor in the Lookie - loo con. In Thirteen, Saul plays "Kensington Chubb '', a British hotel reviewer.
He is portrayed by Carl Reiner.
Basher is the munitions expert of the team. Talking with a heavy cockney accent, often in rhyming slang, Basher is more in it for the thrills than for the money, even calling Rusty and Danny ' proper villains ' as opposed to the fools he unsuccessfully tries to rob a bank with in Eleven. He is brought in to create the blackout necessary for Danny and Linus to get down the elevator shaft in Eleven, and simulates an earthquake with a drilling machine in Thirteen.
Basher is played by Don Cheadle.
An old acquaintance of Danny and Rusty, Frank is an experienced card dealer who has left his mark in various Vegas casinos. He is the first to be recruited for the Bellagio - plan. He is shown to have an affinity for manicures, which even leads to his arrest in Twelve. His lack of participation in Twelve is made up for by his central role in the two casino - heists: first as the inside man at the Bellagio, later as a game host in Bank 's casino. The simulated quarrel with Linus ' NGC - persona results in the latter pick pocketing the vault codes out of Benedict 's jacket.
Frank is played by Bernie Mac.
Livingston is the tech - guy, a surveillance specialist who moonlights for the FBI. While a genius with computers, and surveillance equipment, Livingston 's anxiety threatens the success of the Bellagio heist. Despite his nervousness, he passes a polygraph test in Thirteen, although he fails to rig the card shuffling machines and secretly calls Roman Nagel for help.
Livingston is played by Eddie Jemison.
Living in Provo, Utah, "the Mormon twins '' Virgil and Turk Malloy are brought in by Rusty to aid in the scheme in Eleven. Recruited as "drivers '' in the first movie but are also used in many other parts of the schemes. Both are shown to be talented mechanics as well as adept at disguises for many situations. Despite their relationship being an antagonistic one of constant arguing they are useful together and the arguing often helps when in disguise or creating distractions. Their knowledge of remote controlled cars is used in Eleven.
Virgil and Turk are played by Casey Affleck and Scott Caan, respectively.
The Chinese acrobat Yen is the second of two newbies in the group, called a "grease man '' by Danny and Rusty, brought in for his flexibility and short posture. He is the first to actually enter the heavily guarded and secured casino - vault, brought into the underground backstage tunnels while confined in a money - cart cunningly delivered by the Malloy brothers, while being watched by Saul 's Lyman Zerga character. Once inside, Yen places the explosives from Zerga 's briefcase on the vault door, waiting for Danny and Linus to trigger it from the outside. His newfound wealth after the heist results in him inhabiting a huge Florida mansion, dressing up with a lot of bling. His specific skills are much less necessary in the subsequent heists, though in Thirteen he is responsible for climbing up an elevator shaft.
Yen, played by real life acrobat Qin Shaobo, only generally speaks in Mandarin, which almost everyone in the gang can understand, and can understand English. His only lines in the movies that are English are filled with curse words, such as in Eleven when he shouts to Danny and Linus "Where the fuck you been? '', and in Thirteen, where the only word he says in English, repeated several times, is "Shit. ''
Benedict is the slick owner of three Las Vegas casinos (Bellagio, MGM Grand Las Vegas and The Mirage). Having a romantic relationship with Tess Ocean makes him the perfect target for Danny 's big plan. After the major heist, he vows to get those responsible. It is not until he gets help from the mysterious "Night Fox '' that he actually does, and reluctantly offers them two weeks to cough up all the money they owe him (plus interest) before hurting them. While still an antagonist of the team, he is recruited in Thirteen (and therefore possibly the twelfth member of the crew in this particular scheme) after Danny 's crew runs out of money halfway through the Bank - con. Fearing Willy Bank 's competition, Benedict agrees to back the operation financially, with his own demands -- yet sets up the Night Fox to double cross the team. Terry 's ruthlessness, exemplified most by his choice for his lost vault money over Tess, is ironically opposed by his forced performance as a philanthropist on The Oprah Winfrey Show.
Benedict is loosely based on Steve Wynn. In addition to owning and developing two of the same casinos as Wynn (The Mirage and the Bellagio), Benedict also has an extensive art collection. Benedict also alludes to the way that Kevyn Wynn 's kidnappers were caught.
Benedict is played by Andy García.
Best known alias, "Night Fox '', Toulour is a French Baron and master thief, whose skills are rivaled only by Danny Ocean. He is LeMarc 's protégé, mentioned by Europol as the only one worthy to be mentioned in the same breath as LeMarc. His ego triggers him to force Ocean 's crew into a competition. He sets the team up by telling Terry Benedict of their whereabouts, and challenges the team to determine who is the best thief, promising to pay off their debt to Benedict if he loses. While he manages to steal the target, a Fabergé egg, he later learns the egg he stole was fake and the team beat him to it. Toulour is humiliated, but pays off Benedict. He reappears in Benedict 's service, attempting to foil Danny 's heist of the diamond awards in The Bank Hotel. The opposite of Ocean, Toulour specializes as a cat burglar; as such, his jobs are more physically demanding and seemingly carried out by him alone, whereas Ocean prefers using the ' Long Con ' approach to slowly manipulate the situation to his favor.
Toulour is played by Vincent Cassel.
Bank is a successful and experienced hotel owner, whose every previous hotel has won a prestigious award. He serves as the main antagonist of the third film. He thinks of himself as a credible old - timer, for he once shook Sinatra 's hand. After backstabbing Reuben, his soon - to - be-opened hotel - casino becomes the final target for Ocean 's eleven.
Bank is played by Al Pacino.
Having filed for divorce during her husband 's four - year prison term, Tess moves away from New York and becomes the curator of the Bellagio art gallery. She also begins a relationship with Terry Benedict, resulting in the jealousy of her ex-husband Danny. Unknowingly, she plays a small part in the casino heist when a cell phone is put in her coat. After realizing Danny loves her more than Terry, she goes back to him and awaits him coming out of his second prison sentence (for violating his parole). In Twelve, although Tess seems to accept her husband 's never - ending search for potential targets, she still demands that her husband take their lives more seriously. However, she is drawn into the planned theft by invitation of Linus, who needs her in the museum heist as she bears a striking resemblance to actress Julia Roberts. After she and Danny are reunited she makes him apologize for forcing her into doing something wrong.
Tess is played by Julia Roberts and is generally considered to be Ocean 's twelfth member in the second film.
Only mentioned in Eleven as Rusty 's ex-girlfriend, Isabel appears in Twelve as an agent for Europol living in Amsterdam specializing in major robberies, on the hunt for the Night Fox while admirably commemorating the all time master thief Gaspar LeMarque. Her expertise, it appears, comes from her estranged father, who was, in fact, LeMarque himself, a negative legacy Isabel seems to want to break away from. However, she loved Rusty too much to give him up -- before he runs off. At their next meeting, when Rusty 's in Amsterdam doing a job with the Ocean crew, she is much less forgiving, and eventually chases the men all the way to Rome.
Isabel is played by Catherine Zeta - Jones. Isabel and Tess do not appear in Thirteen, as Danny states it is "not their fight '' (referring to the revenge on Willy Bank).
Miss Sponder is Willy Bank 's right - hand - woman, appearing to be cold and strict, only to be seduced by Linus (in disguise) wearing a chemical substance. She deeply appreciates Bank on a platonic level, although the sentiments are not reciprocated.
Abigail is played by Ellen Barkin.
The following helpers of the Ocean 's crew generally do not know the entire master plan of each film 's con, or do not share in the final loot (or so it is implied). Nevertheless, many of them could take claim to being a member of Ocean 's evergrowing team, going as far as sixteen known associates in Ocean 's Thirteen, rather than the 13 the title implies.
Next to Ocean 's original eleven, Denny Shields and Terry Benedict, Bruiser is the only character to appear in all three films, each time as a small aide in the plan, presumably without knowing the magnitude of the overall scheme. In Eleven, he is paid $2 million by Danny to fake beating him up. In Twelve, he appears in Amsterdam as a lawyer getting Frank Catton out of jail. In Thirteen, he plays a high roller.
Bruiser is played by Scott L. Schwartz.
Roman Nagel is a British master thief whom Rusty and Frank had worked with in the past. A technological genius, he makes the holographic Fabergé egg in Twelve, and comes back in Thirteen for advice on nearly all the cons planned for the reversed big store. Nagel provides key information about the Greco security system that leads to the use of a magnetron to disable the system, and an earthquake to provide an exit plan. Further, after Livingston is "caught '', he swaps out all of the shuffling machines, allowing them to run the blackjack cheat.
Nagel is played by Eddie Izzard.
When Rusty tricks the gang into going to Amsterdam for a job, Danny, Rusty and Linus meet up with Matsui to hear the details -- hoping for a better paying job once the first one is executed. Matsui, however, was recruited by Toulour to send the Ocean - team on a heist the Night Fox performs himself. The meeting with Matsui, taking place in coffee shop De Dampkring, is composed of seemingly senseless phrases -- or so it appears. It is later revealed the sign language is a practical joke ("Lost in Translation '') pulled on Linus as a reminder for him not to be too eager on the team 's leadership.
Matsui is played by Robbie Coltrane.
When the Ocean - crew is in jail in Italy after the failed theft of the Coronation egg in Twelve, the local justiciary hands them over to an American official demanding their extradition. It is revealed after the prison scene that Molly is in fact Linus ' mother.
Molly Stark is played by Cherry Jones.
The mysterious all time master thief mentioned by Isabel as an example for all active robbers, LeMarque actually plays a crucial part in the entire operation carried out by Ocean 's eleven in Twelve. He pits the Night Fox against the Ocean crew with his master plan, which results in him getting back the Coronation Egg he once stole but gave back because his wife insisted on it; the Ocean crew getting their money from the Night Fox needed to pay back Benedict; and LeMarque getting reacquainted with his estranged daughter.
LeMarque is played by Albert Finney.
She is a conceirge at The Bank in Thirteen, and after being promised a managing function in a hotel in Macau, agrees to help the crew in a variety of small ways in their elaborate con, thus functioning as an inside - (wo) man.
Debbie is played by Olga Sosnovska.
Mentioned in the first two films as a legendary con artist and personal friend of the likes of Ruben and Danny, Bobby Caldwell is Linus 's father. It is revealed in Thirteen that he works as an FBI - agent specializing in casino fraud cases. This provides what his son Linus calls "the greatest cover of all time. '' He uses this cover to assist the team in placing rigged gaming equipment in the Bank Casino and assist his son to steal the "Five Diamond '' necklaces.
Caldwell is played by Bob Einstein.
The film actor is one of several TV - stars making a cameo appearance in Eleven as poker - students being taught the game by Rusty, but makes another small appearance as himself in Twelve as a visitor of Rusty 's ill - fated west coast hotel, having trashed his room and appearing under the influence of drugs or alcohol, stating he "totally phoned in that Dennis Quaid - movie '' (a reference to In Good Company, the trailer of which was shown before Ocean 's Twelve.)
Casino - manager in Benedict 's casino, who stays with Lyman Zerga during his heart attack.
Played by Michael Delano in Eleven and Twelve.
He refuses Isabel the necessary arrest papers for the Ocean 's crew, after which she forges them. This will prove useful later on, when Giordano denies Lahiri any rights to interrogate the thieves, rather turning them over to a US official.
Played by Mattia Sbragia in Twelve.
Plays himself visiting Rome, and running into Tess - as - Julia Roberts. After many characters comment to Willis they foresaw the surprise twist of his most successful movie, Willis himself claims to have known the museum con (the "Lookie - loo with a Bundle of Joy '') all along.
Played by Jerry Weintraub, the producer of the trilogy. He merely makes a cameo as a high roller in Eleven, but this was turned into a more significant role in the sequels. In Twelve, in flashback, we see him (still unnamed) bragging to LeMarque about Danny 's Bellagio - heist, calling him the best thief he has ever seen. In hindsight, this remark may be the kick start of all events in the second movie, as François Toulour is witness to the remark, and because of his jealousy begins to stage the complex "steal - off '' with Danny, involving Terry Benedict along the way. In Thirteen, Weintraub returns as this character, this time called Shields, being more involved in Ocean 's heist on Willie Bank, partially out of guilt for getting Ocean 's group in trouble in Twelve.
Short for Very Unimportant Person, he is the real Five Diamond reviewer, who is the unwilling target of harassment and embarrassment by Danny 's team in order for him to give Willy Bank 's casino a disastrous review -- tricking the casino owner into believing Kensington Chubb (see Saul Bloom) is the actual reviewer. Rusty does make it up to the poor man at the airport by rigging a slot machine, which gives him eleven million dollars.
Played by David Paymer.
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what is the most babies born at one time | List of people with the most children - wikipedia
This article lists people who are known to have parented the most number of children.
This section lists females who gave birth to at least 20 children. Numbers in bold and italics are likely to be inexact, some of them having been recorded before the 19th century. Due to females bearing the pregnancy and usually being monogamous, their records are often shared with or exceeded by their partners.
This section lists men who have parented at least 25 children, usually with many different women. Men who have parented large numbers of children through medical sperm donation are difficult to record. Numbers in italics are inexact, particularly those of rulers of antiquity.
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stuck inside mobile with the memphis blues again lyrics | Stuck Inside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again - wikipedia
"Stuck Inside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again '' is a song written by Bob Dylan that appears on his 1966 album Blonde on Blonde. The album version also appears on 1971 's Bob Dylan 's Greatest Hits Vol. II. An early studio take, done in a faster cut - time, was released on The Bootleg Series Vol. 7: No Direction Home: The Soundtrack in 2005. As the recording indicates, Dylan had difficulty fitting the words to the tempo, and evidently this led to its rearrangement, as heard on Blonde on Blonde, in a more "rock '' - oriented 4 / 4 time.
A live version of this song appears on the 1976 album Hard Rain, and was also released as a single with "Rita May '' as the B - side.
All twenty takes of "Stuck Inside of Mobile '' were recorded in the early hours of February 17, 1966, in Columbia 's Music Row Studios in Nashville. Dylan continuously reworked the song in the studio, revising lyrics and changing the song 's structure as he recorded different takes. Eventually, after recording for three hours, a master take, the twentieth and final take, was chosen. Take five would eventually be released on The Bootleg Series Vol. 7.
The entire recording session was released on the 18 - disc Collector 's Edition of The Bootleg Series Vol. 12: The Cutting Edge 1965 -- 1966 in 2015, with highlights from the outtakes appearing on the 6 - disc and 2 - disc versions of that album.
The Grateful Dead covered the song in their live shows during the 1980s and 1990s, and performed it when Dylan himself toured with them in 1987. Cat Power covered the song on the soundtrack of the film I 'm Not There. Spanish artist Kiko Veneno covered this song in a rumba (a subgenre of Flamenco) version. North Mississippi Allstars cover it on their 2011 album Keys to the Kingdom. Elvis Costello performed a solo version of the song live in Mobile, AL on March 13, 2015. Old Crow Medicine Show covered the song on their 2017 tribute album 50 Years of Blonde on Blonde.
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how many times order for zakat came in quran | Zakat - wikipedia
Sunni theological traditions
Seven pillars of Ismailism
Other Shia concepts of Aqidah
Zakat (Arabic: زكاة zakāh (zaˈkaː), "that which purifies '', also Zakat al - mal (zaˈkaːt alˈmaːl) زكاة المال, "zakat on wealth '', or Zakah) is a form of alms - giving treated in Islam as a religious obligation or tax, which, by Quranic ranking, is next after prayer (salat) in importance.
As one of the Five Pillars of Islam, zakat is a religious obligation for all Muslims who meet the necessary criteria of wealth. It is a mandatory charitable contribution, the right of the poor to find relief from the rich, and is considered to be a tax, or obligatory alms. The payment and disputes on zakat have played a major role in the history of Islam, notably during the Ridda wars.
Zakat is based on income and the value of all of one 's possessions. It is customarily 2.5 % (or 1 / 40) of a Muslim 's total savings and wealth above a minimum amount known as nisab, but Islamic scholars differ on how much nisab is and other aspects of zakat. The collected amount is paid to the poor, the needy, Zakat collectors, those sympathetic to Islam, to free from slavery, debtors, in the cause of Allah and the stranded traveller. No established order of importance is consented upon amongst Islamic scholars (see Distribution section).
Today, in most Muslim - majority countries, zakat contributions are voluntary, while in a handful (Libya, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, and Yemen), zakat is mandated and collected by the state.
Shias, unlike Sunnis, traditionally regarded zakat as a private and voluntary decision, and they give zakat to imam - sponsored rather than state - sponsored collectors.
Zakat literally means "that which purifies ''. Zakat is considered a way to purify one 's income and wealth from sometimes worldly, impure ways of acquisition. According to Sachiko Murata and William Chittick, "Just as ablutions purify the body and salat purifies the soul (in Islam), so zakat purifies possessions and makes them pleasing to God. ''
The Quran discusses charity in many verses, some of which relate to zakat. The word zakat, with the meaning used in Islam now, is found, for example, in suras: 7: 156, 19: 31, 19: 55, 21: 73, 23: 4, 27: 3, 30: 39, 31: 4 and 41: 7. Zakat is found in the early Medinan suras and described as obligatory for Muslims. It is given for the sake of salvation. Muslims believe those who give zakat can expect reward from God in the afterlife, while neglecting to give zakat can result in damnation. Zakat is considered part of the covenant between God and a Muslim.
Verse 2.177 (Picktall translation) sums up the Quranic view of charity and alms giving (Another name for Zakat is the "Poor Due ''):
It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces to the East and the West; but righteous is he who believeth in Allah and the Last Day and the angels and the Scripture and the Prophets; and giveth his wealth, for love of Him, to kinsfolk and to orphans and the needy and the wayfarer and to those who ask, and to set slaves free; and observeth proper worship and payeth the poor due. And those who keep their treaty when they make one, and the patient in tribulation and adversity and time of stress. Such are they who are sincere. Such are the God fearing. - 2: 177
According to Yusuf al - Qaradawi, verse 9.5 of the Quran makes zakat one of three prerequisites for pagans to become Muslims: "but if they repent, establish prayers, and practice zakat they are your brethren in faith ''. Although, this verse seems to generally list qualities that identify a "brethren in faith '' to a Muslim.
The Quran also lists who should receive the benefits of zakat, discussed in more detail below.
Each of the most trusted hadith collections in Islam have a book dedicated to zakat. Sahih Bukhari 's Book 24, Sahih Muslim 's Book 5, and Sunan Abu - Dawud 's Book 9 discuss various aspects of zakat, including who must pay, how much, when and what. The 2.5 % rate is also mentioned in the hadiths.
The hadiths admonish those who do not give the zakat. According to the hadith, refusal to pay or mockery of those who pay zakat is a sign of hypocrisy, and God will not accept the prayers of such people. The sunna also describes God 's punishment for those who refuse or fail to pay zakat. On the day of Judgment, those who did not give the zakat will be held accountable and punished.
The hadith contain advice on the state - authorized collection of the zakat. The collectors are required not to take more than what is due, and those who are paying the zakat are asked not to evade payment. The hadith also warn of punishment for those who take zakat when they are not eligible to receive it (see Distribution below).
The amount of zakat to be paid by an individual depends on the amount of money and the type of assets the individual possesses. The Quran does not provide specific guidelines on which types of wealth are taxable under the zakat, nor does it specify percentages to be given. But the customary practice is that the amount of zakat paid on capital assets (e.g. money) is 2.5 % (1 / 40). Zakat is additionally payable on agricultural goods, precious metals, minerals, and livestock at a rate varying between 2.5 % and 20 % (1 / 5), depending on the type of goods.
Zakat is usually payable on assets continuously owned over one lunar year that are in excess of the nisab, a minimum monetary value. However, Islamic scholars have disagreed on this issue. For example, Abu Hanifa did not regard the nisab limit to be a pre-requisite for zakat, in the case of land crops, fruits and minerals. Other differences between Islamic scholars on zakat and nisab are acknowledged as follows by Yusuf al - Qaradawi,
Unlike prayers, we observe that even the ratio, the exemption, the kinds of wealth that are zakatable are subject to differences among scholars. Such differences have serious implications for Muslims at large when it comes to their application of the Islamic obligation of zakat. For example, some scholars consider the wealth of children and insane individuals zakatable, others do n't. Some scholars consider all agricultural products zakatable, others restrict zakat to specific kinds only. Some consider debts zakatable, others do n't. Similar differences exist for business assets and women 's jewelry. Some require certain minimum (nisab) for zakatability, some do n't. etc. The same kind of differences also exist about the disbursement of zakat. -- Shiekh Mahmud Shaltut
Some classical jurists have held the view that any Muslim who consciously refuses to pay zakat is an apostate, since the failure to believe that it is a religious duty (fard) is a form of unbelief (kufr), and should be killed. However, prevailing opinion among classical jurists prescribed sanctions such as fines, imprisonment or corporal punishment. Additionally, those who failed to pay the zakat would face God 's punishment in the afterlife on the day of Judgment.
The consequence of failure to pay zakat has been a subject of extensive legal debate, particularly when a Muslim is willing to pay zakat but refuses to pay it to a certain group or the state. According to classical jurists, if the collector is unjust in the collection of zakat but just in its distribution, the concealment of property from him is allowed. If, on the other hand, the collector is just in the collection but unjust in the distribution, the concealment of property from him is an obligation (wajib). Furthermore, if the zakat is concealed from a just collector because the property owner wanted to pay his zakat to the poor himself, they held that he should not be punished for it. If collection of zakat by force was not possible, use of military force to extract it was seen as justified, as was done by Abu Bakr during the Ridda Wars, on the argument that refusing to submit to just orders is a form of treason. However, Abu Hanifa, the founder of the Hanafi school, disapproved of fighting when the property owners undertake to distribute the zakat to the poor themselves.
Some classical and contemporary scholars such as Ishaq Ibn Rahwayh and Yusuf al - Qaradawi have stated that the person who fails to pay Zakat should have the payment taken from them, along with half of his wealth.
In modern states where zakat payment is compulsory, failure to pay is regulated by state law similarly to tax evasion.
According to the Quran 's Surah Al - Tawba, there are eight categories of people (asnaf) who qualify to benefit from zakat funds.
"Alms are for the poor and the needy, and those employed to administer the (funds); for those whose hearts have been (recently) reconciled (to Truth); for those in bondage and in debt; in the cause of Allah; and for the wayfarer: (thus is it) ordained by Allah, and Allah is full of knowledge and wisdom. ''
Scholars have traditionally interpreted this verse as identifying the following eight categories of Muslim causes to be the proper recipients of zakat:
Zakat should not be given to one 's own parents, grandparents, children, grandchildren, spouses or the descendants of the Prophet Muhammad.
Neither the Quran nor the Hadiths specify the relative division of zakat into the above eight categories. According to the Reliance of the Traveller, the Shafi'i school requires zakat is to be distributed equally among the eight categories of recipients, while the Hanafi school permits zakat to be distributed to all the categories, some of them, or just one of them. Classical schools of Islamic law, including Shafi'i, are unanimous that collectors of zakat are to be paid first, with the balance to be distributed equally amongst the remaining seven categories of recipients, even in cases where one group 's need is more demanding.
Muslim scholars disagree whether zakat recipients can include non-Muslims. Islamic scholarship, historically, has taught that only Muslims can be recipients of zakat. In recent times, some state that zakat may be paid to non-Muslims after the needs of Muslims have been met, finding nothing in the Quran or sunna to indicate that zakat should be paid to Muslims only.
Additionally, the zakat funds may be spent on the administration of a centralized zakat collection system. Representatives of the Salafi movement include propagation of Islam and any struggle in righteous cause among permissible ways of spending, while others argue that zakat funds should be spent on social welfare and economic development projects, or science and technology education. Some hold spending them for defense to be permissible if a Muslim country is under attack. Also, it is forbidden to disburse zakat funds into investments instead of being given to one of the above eight categories of recipients.
The zakat is considered by Muslims to be an act of piety through which one expresses concern for the well - being of fellow Muslims, as well as preserving social harmony between the wealthy and the poor. Zakat promotes a more equitable redistribution of wealth and fosters a sense of solidarity amongst members of the Ummah.
Zakat, an Islamic practice initiated by the Islamic prophet Muhammad, was first collected on the first day of Muharram. It has played an important role throughout its history. Schact suggests that the idea of zakat may have entered Islam from Judaism, with roots in the Hebrew and Aramaic word zakut. However, some Islamic scholars disagree that the Qur'anic verses on zakat (or zakah) have roots in Judaism.
The caliph Abu Bakr, believed by Sunni Muslims to be Muhammad 's successor, was the first to institute a statutory zakat system. Abu Bakr established the principle that the zakat must be paid to the legitimate representative of the Prophet 's authority (i.e. himself). Other Muslims disagreed and refused to pay zakat to Abu Bakr, leading to accusations of apostasy and, ultimately, the Ridda wars.
The second and third caliphs, Umar bin Al - Khattab and Usman ibn Affan, continued Abu Bakr 's codification of the zakat. Uthman also modified the zakat collection protocol by decreeing that only "apparent '' wealth was taxable, which had the effect of limiting zakat to mostly being paid on agricultural land and produce. During the reign of Ali ibn Abu Talib, the issue of zakat was tied to legitimacy of his government. After Ali, his supporters refused to pay zakat to Muawiyah I, as they did not recognize his legitimacy.
The practice of Islamic state - administered zakat was short - lived in Medina. During the reign of Umar bin Abdul Aziz (717 -- 720 A.D.), it is reported that no one in Medina needed the zakat. After him, zakat came more to be considered as an individual responsibility. This view changed over Islamic history. Sunni Muslims and rulers, for example, considered collection and disbursement of zakat as one of the functions of an Islamic state; this view has continued in modern Islamic countries.
Zakat is one of the five pillars of Islam, and in various Islamic polities of the past was expected to be paid by all practising Muslims who have the financial means (nisab). In addition to their zakat obligations, Muslims were encouraged to make voluntary contributions (sadaqat). The zakat was not collected from non-Muslims, although they were required to pay the jizyah tax. Depending on the region, the dominant portion of zakat went typically to Amil (the zakat collectors) or Sabīlillāh (those fighting for religious cause, the caretaker of local mosque, or those working in the cause of God such as proselytizing non-Muslims to convert to Islam).
According to the researcher Russell Powell in 2010, zakat was mandatory by state law in Libya, Malaysia, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, and Yemen. There were government - run voluntary zakat contribution programs in Bahrain, Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, and the United Arab Emirates.
Today, in most Muslim countries, zakat is at the discretion of Muslims over how and whether to pay, typically enforced by peer pressure, fear of God, and an individual 's personal feelings. Among the Sunni Muslims, zakat committees are established, linked to a religious cause or local mosque, which collect zakat. Among the Shia Muslims, deputies on behalf of Imams collect the zakat.
In six of the 47 Muslim - majority countries -- Libya, Malaysia, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan and Yemen -- zakat is obligatory and collected by the state. In Jordan, Bahrain, Kuwait, Lebanon, and Bangladesh, the zakat is regulated by the state, but contributions are voluntary.
The states where zakat is compulsory differ in their definition of the base for zakat computation. Zakat is generally levied on livestock (except in Pakistan) and agricultural produce, although the types of taxable livestock and produce differ from country to country. Zakat is imposed on cash and precious metals in four countries with different methods of assessment. Income is subject to zakat in Saudi Arabia and Malaysia, while only Sudan imposes zakat on "wealth that yields income ''. In Pakistan, property is exempt from the zakat calculation basis, and the compulsory zakat is primarily collected from the agriculture sector.
Under compulsory systems of zakat tax collection, such as Malaysia and Pakistan, evasion is very common and the alms tax is regressive. A considerable number of Muslims accept their duty to pay zakat, but deny that the state has a right to levy it, and they may pay zakat voluntarily while evading official collection. In discretion - based systems of collection, studies suggest zakat is collected from and paid only by a fraction of Muslim population who can pay.
In the United Kingdom, which has a Muslim minority, more than three out of ten Muslims gave to charity (Zakat being described as "the Muslim practice of charitable donations ''), according to a 2013 poll of 4000 people. According to the self - reported poll, British Muslims, on average, gave US $567 to charity in 2013, compared to $412 for Jews, $308 for Protestants, $272 for Catholics and $177 for atheists.
The primary sources of sharia also do not specify to whom the zakat should be paid -- to zakat collectors claiming to represent one class of zakat beneficiary (for example, poor), collectors who were representing religious bodies, or collectors representing the Islamic state. This has caused significant conflicts and allegations of zakat abuse within the Islamic community, both historically and in modern times.
Fi Sabillillah is the most prominent asnaf in Southeast Asian Muslim societies, where it broadly construed to include funding missionary work, Quranic schools and anything else that serves the Islamic community (ummah) in general.
In 2012, Islamic financial analysts estimated annual zakat spending exceeded US $200 billion per year, which they estimated at 15 times global humanitarian aid contributions. Islamic scholars and development workers state that much of this zakat practice is mismanaged, wasted or ineffective. About a quarter of the Muslim world continues to live on $1.25 a day or less, according to the 2012 report.
A 1999 study of Sudan and Pakistan, where zakat is mandated by the state, estimated that zakat proceeds ranged between 0.3 and 0.5 percent of GDP, while a more recent report put zakat proceeds in Malaysia at 0.1 % of GDP. These numbers are far below what was expected when the governments of these countries tried to Islamize their economies, and the collected amount is too small to have a sizeable macroeconomic effect.
In a 2014 study, Nasim Shirazi states widespread poverty persists in Islamic world despite zakat collections every year. Over 70 % of the Muslim population in most Muslim countries is impoverished and lives on less than US $2 per day. In over 10 Muslim - majority countries, over 50 % of the population lived on less than $1.25 per day income, states Shiraz. In Indonesia -- the world 's most populous and predominantly Muslim country -- 50 % of Muslims live on less than $2 per day. This suggest large scale waste and mismanagement by those who collect and spend zakat funds. Given the widespread poverty among Muslim - majority countries, the impact of zakat in practice, despite the theoretical intent and its use for centuries, has been questioned by scholars. Zakat has so far failed to relieve large scale absolute poverty among Muslims in most Muslim countries.
Zakat is required of Muslims only. For non-Muslims living in an Islamic state, sharia was historically seen as mandating jizya (poll tax). Other forms of taxation on Muslims or non-Muslims, that have been used in Islamic history, include kharaj (land tax), khums (tax on booty and loot seized from non-Muslims, sudden wealth), ushur (tax at state border, sea port, and each city border on goods movement, customs), kari (house tax) and chari (sometimes called maara, pasture tax).
There are differences in the interpretation and scope of zakat and other related taxes in various sects of Islam. For example, khums is interpreted differently by Sunnis and Shi'ites, with Shia expected to pay one fifth of their excess income after expenses as khums, and Sunni do n't. At least a tenth part of zakat and khums every year, among Shi'ites, after its collection by Imam and his religious deputies under its doctrine of niyaba, goes as income for its hierarchical system of Shia clergy. Among Ismaili sub-sect of Shias, the mandatory taxes which includes zakat, is called dasond, and 20 % of the collected amount is set aside as income for the Imams. Some branches of Shia Islam treat the right to lead as Imam and right to receive 20 % of collected zakat and other alms as a hereditary right of its clergy.
Sadaqah is another related term for charity, usually construed as a discretionary counterpart to zakat.
Zakat al - Fitr or Sadaqat al - Fitr is another, smaller charitable obligation, mandatory for all Muslims -- male or female, minor or adult as long as he / she has the means to do so -- that is traditionally paid at the end of the fasting in the Islamic holy month of Ramadan. The collected amount is used to pay the zakat collectors and to the poor Muslims so that they may be provided with a means to celebrate ' Eid al - Fitr (the festival of breaking the fast) following Ramadan, along with the rest of the Muslims.
Zakat al - Fitr is a fixed amount assessed per person, while Zakat al mal is based on personal income and property. According to one source, the Hidaya Foundation, the suggested Zakat al Fitr donation is based on the price of 1 Saa (approx. 3 kg) of rice or wheat at local costs, (as of 2015, approximately $7.00 in the U.S.).
Charity practices in other religions:
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cast of harry potter and the cursed child movie | Harry Potter and the Cursed Child - wikipedia
Harry Potter and the Cursed Child is a two - part stage play written by Jack Thorne based on an original new story by Thorne, J.K. Rowling and John Tiffany. Previews of the play began at the Palace Theatre, London on 7 June 2016, and it officially premiered on 30 July 2016.
The play officially opened on Broadway on 22 April 2018 at the Lyric Theatre, with previews starting on 16 March 2018. Its cast is similar to that of the first year on West End, with returning actors Anthony Boyle, Sam Clemmett, Noma Dumezweni, Poppy Miller, Jamie Parker, Alex Price, and Paul Thornley.
The rehearsal script, which was not a novelisation of the play, was published.
The story begins nineteen years after the events of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows and follows Harry Potter, now a Ministry of Magic employee, and his younger son Albus Severus Potter, who is about to attend Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry.
At the 2017 Laurence Olivier Awards, the London production received a record - breaking eleven nominations and an again record - breaking nine awards, including Best New Play, Best Actor, Best Actor in a Supporting Role, Best Actress in a Supporting Role and Best Director.
The play 's official summary was released by the publisher (Pottermore) on 23 October 2015:
It was always difficult being Harry Potter and it is n't much easier now that he is an overworked employee of the Ministry of Magic, a husband, and the father of three school - age children.
While Harry grapples with a past that refuses to stay where it belongs, his youngest son Albus must struggle with the weight of a family legacy he never wanted. As past and present fuse ominously, both father and son learn the uncomfortable truth: sometimes, darkness comes from unexpected places.
In the opening scene, set during the epilogue of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in the year 2017, Harry Potter and Ginny Weasley send their second son, Albus Severus Potter, on the Hogwarts Express to begin his first year at Hogwarts. Harry is now working in a desk job as the Head of Magical Law Enforcement at the Ministry of Magic, while Ginny is the editor of the sports section of the Daily Prophet. Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger also send their daughter Rose Granger - Weasley on the train. Hermione is now Minister of Magic, while Ron manages Weasley 's Wizard Wheezes in Diagon Alley. Albus makes an unlikely friend in Slytherin with Scorpius Malfoy, the son of Harry 's former nemesis Draco Malfoy and Astoria Greengrass. The school is stunned when, in a break with the tradition of Potters being sorted into Gryffindor, Albus is sorted into Slytherin house alongside Scorpius. Both boys are bullied by other students over the next few years, Albus due to his perceived failure to live up to his parents, Scorpius due to unproven rumours that he is the son of Lord Voldemort. In addition, Albus and Harry begin to drift apart, owing to Albus 's struggles with his father 's shadow and Harry 's uncertainty on how to deal with his son 's issues. Albus also drifts apart from Rose, with whom he was friends before meeting Scorpius. Prior to Albus and Scorpius 's fourth year, Albus gets into a fight with his father after he is given Harry 's baby blanket and a love potion from Ron. During the fight, Harry accidentally says that he sometimes wishes Albus was not his son, and Albus spills potion on the blanket.
Harry obtains a prototype of a more powerful version of the Time Turner that allows one to travel back several years into the past and change history. Simultaneously, Harry 's scar begins to hurt again, causing him to become concerned that Voldemort may somehow be returning. Amos Diggory, who has become old and is cared for by his niece, Delphi Diggory, asks Harry to use the Time Turner to prevent Cedric Diggory 's death. After overhearing Harry refuse to help the Diggorys, Albus is inspired to do so himself, and convinces Scorpius to help him. The two escape from the Hogwarts Express and the trolley operator, who is revealed to be a monster placed on the train to prevent students from escaping. The two arrive at St. Oswald 's Home for Old Witches and Wizards in Yorkshire, where Amos lives, and team up with Delphi to steal the Time Turner from Hermione 's office while disguised with Polyjuice Potion.
Knowing that Cedric 's death was the result of him winning the Triwizard Tournament alongside Harry, the boys use the Time Turner to travel back to the first challenge of the Triwizard Tournament in 1994, and sabotage Cedric during the tournament 's first task in the hope of preventing his victory. Instead, they only succeed in creating an alternate reality in which Ron and Hermione never married, and thus Rose was never born, and Albus was sorted into Gryffindor. Albus discovers that this was because they chose to disguise themselves as Durmstrang students, causing Hermione to become suspicious of Viktor Krum and go to the Yule Ball with Ron instead of Viktor. As a result, Ron never experienced the jealousy fundamental to his relationship with Hermione, fell in love with Padma Patil at the Ball, and eventually became married to her, having a son named Panju. Hermione, in turn, became a frustrated and mean professor at Hogwarts.
At around the same time, Harry 's fear that Voldemort may return increases as his scar continues to hurt and as he has Voldemort - related nightmares. After speaking with a portrait of Dumbledore, he becomes convinced that Scorpius is a threat to Albus and tries to have the boys kept apart at Hogwarts by forcing a reluctant McGonagall to keep tabs on Albus using the Marauders ' Map. Albus and Scorpius 's friendship is destroyed, but the two eventually reconcile after Albus steals Harry 's old Invisibility Cloak from James (Albus ' older brother), and after McGonagall refuses to enforce Harry 's request. Harry himself is persuaded to relent after a conversation with Draco and Ginny. Meanwhile, Albus and Scorpius decide to make another attempt to use the Time Turner to change Cedric 's fate, this time by humiliating him during the Triwizard Tournament 's second task. When Scorpius returns to the present day however, Albus is not with him, and Scorpius finds himself in a reality in which Harry is dead and Voldemort rules the wizarding world.
Scorpius discovers that - as a result of his actions - an embittered Cedric joined the Death Eaters and killed Neville Longbottom during the events of Deathly Hallows, preventing him from killing Nagini and allowing Voldemort to win the Battle of Hogwarts. With Harry now dead, Albus subsequently never existed, while Voldemort was able to completely consolidate power and transform the Ministry of Magic into a dictatorial regime. In the new timeline, Scorpius became a popular Head Boy and Quidditch star, helping the staff and students torment Muggle - borns. Dolores Umbridge became the new Headmistress of Hogwarts, and patrols the school with Dementors and a revived Inquisitorial Squad led by Scorpius. Draco Malfoy occupies Harry 's old position as the Head of Magical Law Enforcement, using his post to encourage routine attacks on Muggles and bribe the Prime Minister to remain silent on the actions of the Death Eaters. With help from Ron, Hermione, and Severus Snape, now the final members of a dwindling anti-Voldemort resistance movement, Scorpius is able to use the Time Turner to prevent the interference of Albus and his past self and restore the events of the original timeline, the alternate Ron, Hermione, and Snape sacrificing themselves to the Dementors in order to allow him to do so. Scorpius reunites with Albus, and the two boys are eventually found by their parents, as well as Ron and Hermione. Following these events, Harry scolds Albus for his actions, but the two nevertheless begin to reconcile.
Realising the danger the Time Turner poses, and deciding their parents will continue to keep it, Scorpius and Albus attempt to destroy it themselves, but they are joined by Delphi. Scorpius realizes Delphi was in charge of the Ministry of Magic in the alternate timeline, and she takes them captive, later revealing her intention of restoring the alternate timeline. After the adults learn Albus and Scorpius were seen disappearing with Delphi, they confront Amos, only to discover Delphi is not his niece, but the daughter of Voldemort and Bellatrix Lestrange. Searching her room, they discover she is following a prophecy that, if fulfilled, would lead to Voldemort 's return. Delphi takes the boys to the final challenge of the Triwizard Tournament, but Albus and Scorpius prevent her from acting, and Delphi uses the Time Turner to travel further back in time. She inadvertently takes the boys with her, and destroys the Time Turner to leave them stranded in time.
Abandoned by Delphi, Albus and Scorpius discover they have been taken back to the night Harry 's parents were killed, and assume Delphi is planning to kill Harry before Voldemort can do so. Albus and Scorpius write an invisible message on Harry 's baby blanket, knowing in the present, the blanket would become stained with love potion and expose the message to Harry. Meanwhile, Draco reveals the Time - Turner was actually a prototype for a perfected model owned by him, but they remain unable to rescue the boys due to their uncertainty over which time period they have entered. After Harry receives the message from the boys, he and his allies use Draco 's Time Turner to travel back in time to save them and stop Delphi. While waiting for Delphi, they deduce she intends to convince Voldemort to abandon his doomed attempt to kill Harry, ensuring her father 's survival and allowing her to be with him.
Harry disguises himself as Voldemort using Transfiguration to distract Delphi, and the group subdues her. They allow the murder of Harry 's parents to play out, unwilling to risk the consequences of altering the past. After returning to the present day, Delphi is sent to Azkaban Prison. Albus and Scorpius now decide to be more active at Hogwarts, with Scorpius expressing interest in trying out for Quidditch and asking Rose on a date. Harry and Albus visit Cedric 's grave, with Harry apologizing for his role in Cedric 's death.
In December 2013, it was revealed that a stage play based on Harry Potter had been in development for around a year, with the view to bringing it to the stage sometime in 2016. At the time of the announcement, Rowling revealed that the play would "explore the previously untold story of Harry 's early years as an orphan and outcast ''. The following May, Rowling began establishing the creative team for the project.
On 26 June 2015, the project was officially confirmed under the title of Harry Potter and the Cursed Child, and it was revealed it would receive its world premiere in mid-2016 at London 's Palace Theatre. The announcement marked the eighteenth anniversary of the publication of the first Harry Potter novel, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, published on 26 June 1997.
On announcing plans for the project, Rowling stated that the play would not be a prequel. In response to queries regarding the choice of a play rather than a new novel, Rowling has stated that she "is confident that when audiences see the play they will agree that it is the only proper medium for the story ''. Rowling has also assured audiences that the play will contain an entirely new story and will not be a rehashing of previously explored content. On 24 September 2015, Rowling announced that the play had been split into two parts. The parts are designed to be viewed on the same day or consecutively over two evenings.
On 23 October, it was confirmed the plays were set nineteen years after the conclusion of the final novel Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, and would open at London 's Palace Theatre in July 2016. The plays principally follow Harry, now Head of the Department of Magical Law Enforcement, and his younger son Albus Severus Potter. As of 22 July, little more had been revealed about the plot even by those who had attended the previews since 7 June.
Harry Potter and the Cursed Child, a two - part play, was written by British playwright Jack Thorne based on an original story by Thorne, John Tiffany and Rowling. Some websites were listing all three as authors of the script but by 26 July 2016, the official web site for the play and many others (including the BBC) were listing Thorne as the sole script writer.
Harry Potter and the Cursed Child is directed by John Tiffany with choreography by Steven Hoggett, set design by Christine Jones, costume design by Katrina Lindsay, lighting design by Neil Austin, music by Imogen Heap, and sound design by Gareth Fry. In addition, special effects were created by Jeremy Chernick, with illusions by Jamie Harrison, and musical supervision by Martin Lowe.
Previews at the West End Palace Theatre, London began on 7 June 2016, with the official opening night for both parts on 30 July, and originally booking until 18 September 2016. Tickets went on sale to pre-registered priority bookers on 28 October 2015, with a public sale scheduled to commence on 30 October. In just under 8 hours of priority booking 175,000 tickets were sold for the world premiere production, with the play 's booking period extended to January 2017. On commencement of the public sale booking was extended until 30 April 2017, with a further extension issued the same day to 27 May 2017. At opening tickets were priced from £ 30 up to £ 130 for a ticket for both parts, although ticket resale agencies were selling seats for up to £ 3,000. Ticket resale has been banned by the producers, with tickets no longer valid if sold on. In mid-July 2016, the theatre began holding a ticket lottery at 1pm each Friday, releasing 40 for sale on their website for ' some of the best seats ' in the theatre for the lowest price, advertised at £ 20 per part. For example, the "Friday Forty '' tickets sold on 29 July 2016 were for performances on 3, 5, 6 and 7 August. On 20 December 2015, initial casting was announced with Jamie Parker playing Harry Potter, Noma Dumezweni playing Hermione Granger and Paul Thornley playing Ron Weasley. The casting of the dark - skinned Noma Dumezweni as Hermione sparked fervent discussion, to which Rowling responded that Hermione 's skin was never specified as white. Further notable casting includes Poppy Miller as Ginny Potter and Sam Clemmett as Albus Severus Potter. The production features an overall cast of 42.
The production began previews on 16 March 2018 and opened on 22 April 2018 at the Lyric Theatre. Clemmett, Boyle, Dumezweni, Miller, Parker, Price and Thornley reprised their roles. The theatre removed 400 seats from the auditorium and moved the entrance to 43rd Street. The production is produced by Sonia Friedman Productions, Sir Colin Callender, and Harry Potter Theatrical Productions. The initial ticket block went on sale through Ticketmaster Verified Fan on 18 October 2017 for performances from 16 March through 18 November 2018.
On 24 October 2017, the Michael Cassel Group announced that it will be producing the Australian premiere of Harry Potter and the Cursed Child. The production will begin performances early 2019 in Melbourne 's Princess Theatre. No casting or ticketing information has been announced.
In May 2017, Jamie Glover took over from Jamie Parker as Harry Potter, while Emma Lowndes will play his wife Ginny Potter. Thomas Aldridge is to play Ron Weasley, replacing Paul Thornley, while Rakie Ayola will play Hermione Granger, replacing Noma Dumezweni. Annabel Baldwin, previously playing Moaning Myrtle will take over from Esther Smith as Delphi.
Original cast members Helen Aluko and James Howard play Rose Granger - Weasley and Draco Malfoy respectively. Samuel Blenkin and Theo Ancient made their professional debut, playing Scorpius Malfoy and Albus Potter, respectively.
The lead cast are joined by new cast members David Annen, Ruthxjiah Bellenea, Danny Dalton, Leah Haile, Rupert Henderson, Elizabeth Hill, April Hughes, James McGregor, Sarah Miele, Jordan Paris, James Phoon, Henry Rundle, Ged Simmons, Mark Theodore, Gideon Turner and Ed White.
Original cast members who will continue include Nicola Alexis, Rosemary Annabella, Phoebe Austen, Annabel Baldwin, Jabez Cheeseman, Morag Cross, Esme Grace, Lowri James, Martin Johnston, Alfred Jones, Barry McCarthy, Sandy McDade, Tom Mackley, Harrison Noble, Ben Roberts, Nuno Silva, Hope Sizer and Joshua Wyatt.
The new cast took over on 24 May 2017, with the original cast having their final performance on 21 May 2017.
A new cast took over on 23rd May 2018.
Both parts of the stage play 's script have been released in print and digital formats as Harry Potter and the Cursed Child Parts I & II.
The first edition, entitled "Special Rehearsal Edition '', corresponded to the script used in the preview shows and was scheduled to be published on 31 July 2016, the date of Harry 's birthday in the series and Rowling 's birthday, as well. Since revisions to the script continued after the book was printed, an edited version was released on 25 July 2017, as the "Definitive Collector 's Edition ''. According to CNN, this was the most preordered book of 2016.
In the United States and Canada, the book sold over 2 million copies in its first two days of release. 847,885 copies were sold during the book 's first week of release in the United Kingdom. By June 2017, the book had sold over 4.5 million copies in the United States.
Harry Potter and the Cursed Child has received critical acclaim. Audiences and critics have complimented the casting and performances, while many debate the quality of the piece and how it compares to entries in the main Harry Potter series.
Publications awarding five star ratings included The Independent, the London Evening Standard, The Stage and WhatsOnStage.com. The Telegraph also gave five, although "there are some quibbles, '' while The Guardian 's Michael Billington awarded four stars.
Anthony Boyle 's performance as Scorpius Malfoy garnered particular acclaim. WhatsOnStage.com wrote that "Boyle gives a career - making performance, '' while The Wall Street Journal described him as "the break - out performance. '' Variety 's critic, Matt Trueman, agreed, writing, "it 's Boyle who really stands out '', and both Trueman and Henry Hitchings, in the Evening Standard, noted that his performance was sure to be a fan favourite.
The response to the play within the Harry Potter fandom was mixed, although many have called it unquestionably negative, some even calling it ' like a work of fan fiction '. Some fans claim that the story diverged from previously established rules of the universe, criticising the play 's characterization. Some also took issue with the style and plot of the play, with some complaining that the Time Turner storylines had already been used, as had Cedric Diggory 's death, and that the writers were merely using old storylines. These criticisms have led much of the fandom to reject the play as separate from the Potter canon. Many have noticed significant plot holes to be found in the story, such as the likelihood of Lord Voldemort 's infertility, the speed at which Polyjuice Potion is created, the unexplained non-operation of the Fidelius Charm, Cedric Diggory 's supposedly nonsensical turn to becoming a Death Eater (in addition to other character flaws noted, such as in Ron, Hermione and Albus) and Dolores Umbridge 's support of dark magic, amongst others. Others have argued that the play is successful on stage owing to its special effects, yet does not succeed on paper owing to the above reasons.
However, some fans responded positively to the play and its characters, with Scorpius Malfoy being particularly popular. Notably, the published script was voted Best Fantasy in Good Reads Choice Awards 2016. Some fans commented that the dialogue between the familiar characters was "spot on. '' Others celebrated it as a faithful continuation of the books. Others have noted that the play sheds light on some of the relationships between the characters, such as Harry and Dumbledore 's. The response had been particularly positive among fans who watched the play on stage.
Rowling met with Warner Bros. about the possibility of a film adaptation of the play in 2018. Producer Lionel Wigram said in a interview, "Whatever she wants, as far as I 'm concerned, is right. I think Cursed Child would make a great movie. Maybe at some point she 'll be ready to do that. I think it 's got a wonderful, long, theatrical run... it works brilliantly as a piece of theater. I love the fact that there 's another aspect of the Harry Potter world which is completely different from everything else. I think it 's very special as it is and there will be a time when she 's maybe ready to do it (as a movie). ''
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who were the baby boy twins in full house | List of Full House and Fuller House characters - wikipedia
This is a list of the characters from the American television sitcom Full House and its sequel series Fuller House. The former ran for eight seasons on ABC from September 22, 1987 to May 23, 1995. Fuller House followed 21 years later, airing on Netflix beginning February 26, 2016. The first nine episodes of the third season were released on September 22, 2017, and the back nine was released on December 22, 2017.
^ Note 1: Scott Weinger, John Brotherton, Ashley Liao and Adam Hagenbuch are credited after the opening credits and only for the episodes in which they appear.
^ Note 2: Scott Weinger is credited as a Special Guest Star in the sixth episode of season two but as starring in all of his other appearances.
Jesse Katsopolis (portrayed by John Stamos; the character 's last name in season one was Cochran, but was changed reportedly due to John Stamos wanting his character to better reflect his Greek heritage) is Danny 's brother - in - law, Pam 's younger brother, husband of Rebecca Donaldson and father of twin sons Nicky and Alex. Born Hermes Katsopolis (as revealed in the season five episode "The Legend of Ranger Joe ''), he was named after his great - grandfather, who in turn is named after the Greek god of swiftness. However, he did not like his birth name, as other kids teased him for it; so when he was in kindergarten, he begged his parents to have his name changed to Jesse, thinking that one had to have a "cool name '' to be in the in - crowd. As an adult, he was more confident with his true name, telling the girls about the Greek god of speed, and how his great - grandfather saved a village from a volcano, but still goes by Jesse.
In contrast with Danny, Jesse is portrayed as being irresponsible most of the time, but occasionally serves as a responsible adult when a responsible adult is needed (such as when he discovers Stephanie 's classmate is a child abuse victim in the season 6 episode "Silence is Not Golden ''). Jesse is revealed as a high school dropout in season six 's "Educating Jesse '', though in an earlier plot (in season four 's "One Last Kiss '') about a high school reunion, he mentions not wearing his cap to his graduation because he did not want to mess up his hair.
Jesse 's obsession with his hair becomes a major trait of his throughout the series, as well as his obsession with Elvis Presley. His obsession with the former is fully established in the season two premiere "Cutting it Close '', which focuses on Jesse 's tough time coping when Stephanie accidentally cuts off a hunk of his mullet, which leads to him getting into a motorcycle accident that lands him in a full arm cast; later episodes reveal that he has a special comb called Mr. Goodpart (which gets damaged in a melee to purchase a Mighty Mutant Super Kids Super Fortress for Michelle in season eight 's "I 've Got a Secret '') and that he gives pep talks to his hair (as revealed in season seven 's "Wrong - Way Tanner '').
Jesse first moves into the house with virtually no experience in taking care of young children or babies, but starts to learn the ropes along the way. He becomes closer to all of his nieces over the course of the series, especially Michelle, whom he affectionately nicknames "munchkin '' and "shorty '', among others. In the first season, Jesse works for his father Nick 's exterminating business before leaving to pursue work in advertising, frequently working with Joey. He later works with Joey as co-hosts of an afternoon drive time show on local radio station KFLH called The Rush Hour Renegades. Further along in the series, in season seven 's "Smash Club: The Next Generation '', Jesse becomes the new owner of The Smash Club. Although he was shown to be a sports fan as well as a good athlete in the earlier seasons, it is revealed in later seasons that Jesse hated all sports (especially basketball, as revealed in "Air Jesse '' from season eight) and was not very athletic. Jesse 's main passion is music, and struggles to "hit it big '' with his band, Jesse and the Rippers (in the earlier part of the series). However, his increasing responsibilities to his family, radio job, and as owner of a club, lead his band members to kick him out of the band (in the season eight premiere "Comet 's Excellent Adventure ''); in "Making Out is Hard to Do '', he briefly decides to quit being a musician until he has a nightmare in which he appears on Downbeat (a Behind the Music - style show - within - a-dream - sequence) has him dream that his family hates him, Rebecca has divorced him (and moved on with Joey) and Jesse himself was a mechanic, as well as overweight and balding (because of a scalp infection), with Kimmy Gibbler (dressed in the attire of the Married... with Children character Peggy Bundy) as a wife. Two episodes later in "To Joey, With Love, '' he subsequently starts a new band called Hot Daddy and the Monkey Puppets.
In Fuller House Jesse, Becky, and Danny all move to Los Angeles. Jesse becomes the music composer for General Hospital while Becky and Danny start a new nationally syndicated talk show called, Wake Up USA. In the season two finale, Jesse and Becky adopt a baby girl whom they name Pamela after his sister. Somewhere along the line Jesse became a stay at home dad. When Becky and Danny get fired from Wake Up USA, they try to get their old jobs back but the station only wanted her back to co-host an all women 's talk show. Jesse, Becky and Pamela are all moving back to San Francisco, and he also bought back the Smash Club (which is now a laundromat mat) along with Joey.
Daniel Ernest "Danny '' Tanner (portrayed by Bob Saget, John Posey in the unaired pilot) is left with three young daughters to raise after his wife, Pam, dies in a car accident caused by a drunk driver. At the beginning of the series, he works as a sportscaster for Channel 8 News. In the season two episode "Tanner vs. Gibbler '', he is chosen by his station 's general manager Mr. Strowbridge to be the co-host for the station 's new morning talk show, Wake Up, San Francisco, alongside Rebecca Donaldson. In season one 's "The Big Three - O, '' Danny 's beloved car, "Bullet, '' is severely damaged after another driver rear - ends the vehicle, leading it roll out of park and become submerged in the San Francisco Bay as Jesse and Joey shop for new seat covers for the car to surprise Danny with as a present for his 30th birthday; Jesse and Joey end up bidding for a new car that is identical in appearance, unknowingly competing with Danny, who purchases the car (and later named it "Walter '') after he calls the car dealership that Jesse and Joey are and places a bid over the phone.
Danny goes on his first date since his wife 's death in the season one episode "Sea Cruise, '' as part of a fishing trip that was intended to only include himself, Jesse and Joey; he is seen going out on dates on select occasions throughout the series. While Rebecca goes on maternity leave in season five just before giving birth to his nephews Nicky and Alex, Danny ends up falling in love with her co-host replacement, Vicky Larson. The two of them begin dating in season five 's "Easy Rider, '' becoming Danny 's most serious relationship since he became a widower, and the two later become engaged in the season six finale "The House Meets the Mouse ''. However, their relationship turned into a long - distance situation as Vicky was assigned various reporting jobs away from San Francisco. In season seven 's "The Perfect Couple, '' Vicky ended up getting her dream job of anchoring the network news in New York City, but a long - distance relationship did not work for either of them, so Danny decides to break up with her; this leads him to a mass feng shui habit in the following episode, "Is It True About Stephanie?, '' to which his family acknowledges was his way of trying to cope with his breakup. Danny eventually meets fellow single parent Claire Mahan in season eight episode "Making Out Is Hard to Do, '' and go on a date in the episode "Claire and Present Danger. ''
Although he is not established with this trait early on (season one 's "The Return of Grandma '' depicts him as begrudgingly trying to clean the messy house with Jesse and Joey after their mothers threaten to move in if they can not keep the place clean), much of the humor surrounding Danny 's character comes from his obsession with cleaning and cleanliness. Danny can often be found cleaning for cleaning 's sake, sometimes even cleaning his cleaning products (in a version of the original season three opening titles, seen during episodes in which Lori Loughlin does not appear as Rebecca Donaldson, Danny is even shown to be cleaning his floor vacuum with a handheld vacuum). He says the family motto is "clean is good, dirt is bad ''. Danny views spring cleaning as his equivalent to Christmas and home movies as his New Year 's Eve (as revealed in the season two episode "Goodbye, Mr. Bear ''). His quirkiness and generally "unhip dad '' personality are also targets for humor. He is a skilled pool, dart player and guitarist (as respectively revealed in season four 's, "Girls Just Wanna Have Fun, '' and season eight 's, "To Joey, with Love '').
Like most other characters, he generally can not stand Kimmy Gibbler, considering her as "an annoying, obnoxious nuisance ''; at times, urging D.J. to make new friends whenever Kimmy does something that irritates him. Danny also has one brother and one sister, and his parents are divorced. Unlike his brother - in - law Jesse (who is more into rock - and - roll), Danny has a taste for 1970s Disco music; one of his favorite songs is "Play That Funky Music '' by Wild Cherry.
In the first episode of Fuller House, Danny and Becky relocate to Los Angeles for their new talk show, Wake Up USA, and it is revealed that Danny got remarried to a woman named Teri. During the second season Danny goes through a little bit of a mid-life crisis since he just turned 60. In season three Danny reveals that him and Teri got divorced. Danny and Becky asked for raises on their show but since they asked for too much they are fired and replaced by Mario Lopez. After feeling sorry for themselves they go back to Wake Up San Francisco to ask for their old jobs back but the station only wants Becky back. To cheer him up, the girls somehow tracked down Vicky and surprised him with her. He invites her to the 30th "Dadiversary '' party the girls threw for him, Jesse and Joey. Since Becky, Jesse and Joey are all moving back to San Francisco, Danny announces he 's moving back too, and back into the house.
Joseph Alvin "Joey '' Gladstone (portrayed by Dave Coulier) is the childhood best friend of Danny Tanner, and adulthood best friend of Jesse Katsopolis. Joey moved in with Danny shortly after the death of Danny 's wife, Pam, to help raise D.J., Stephanie, and Michelle. Joey works as a stand - up comedian, whose act usually includes vocal imitations of cartoon characters such as Popeye, Bullwinkle J. Moose, Pepé Le Pew and others. Joey initially slept in the alcove of Danny 's living room. However, after complaining of not being able to find privacy, Danny reconstructs his basement garage into a bedroom for him in the season one episode "Joey 's Place '' (prior to the reveal, Joey contemplates moving out after the family 's behavior makes him believe that Jesse and Danny can handle taking care of the girls and that he is not needed). Joey nearly quits comedy in the season one episode "But Seriously, Folks, '' after Phyllis Diller (who was there as an audience member) hogs his slot at a comedy club, deciding to change his name to Joe and become a serious businessman. He reverses his decision after D.J. decides to quit practicing the guitar, realizing that he is not setting a good example. Although there was some tension between Joey and Jesse when they first move in with the Tanners, they quickly become good friends to the point where Jesse asks Joey to be his best man at his wedding. Even so, Joey 's perceived immaturity does irritate Jesse at times. Joey usually handles the day - to - day raising of the kids by doing chores like making meals, driving the kids to school appointments, and after school activities, taking care of Michelle as a baby, and helping the kids with their homework. Joey also buys D.J. her first car for her 16th birthday in the season six episode "Grand Gift Auto, '' which ends up getting repossessed after the police discover that the car had been stolen; Joey nearly moves out again after the family 's attempts to try illustrate that Joey is not capable of committing a crime make him believe that the rest of the family thinks of him as a big joke. It is in this episode that Joey reveals that he had wished to have siblings as he grew up as an only child (even imaging that he was part of The Brady Bunch), and that being part of the Tanner family gave him the extended family he always wanted. In season four 's "Viva Las Joey, '' Joey is reunited with his estranged father (at the arrangement of Stephanie and D.J.), a former serviceman in the Armed Forces, with whom Joey did not get along with growing up due to his strict parenting style and his disapproval of Joey 's dream of being a comedian; his father realizes that Joey made the right career decision when he sees his son 's routine when Joey is invited as an opening act for Wayne Newton in Las Vegas.
Joey has held various jobs in addition to his work as a stand - up comic. For a while during seasons two and three, Joey and Jesse run an advertising business, J&J Creative Services, in which they partnered to compose jingles for television and radio commercials. In season four 's "Joey Goes Hollywood, '' Joey wins a role he secretly auditions for in a sitcom co-starring Frankie Avalon and Annette Funicello called Surf 's Up. Joey 's most successful job was portraying "Ranger Joe, '' on an afternoon children 's variety television show. He was given the job to replace retiring original host "Ranger Roy '' in season five 's "The Legend of Ranger Joe, '' only to be fired after triggering Roy 's acute physical paranoia when hugging him as a thank you; after Danny informs Joey of this while telling him of his firing, Joey ends up saving Roy from a "hug - o - gram '' that he had sent to gratitude for the job; he then gets rehired after Roy becomes impressed with Joey 's hosting skills when he takes over for Roy on his last show. Ranger Joe 's sidekick is his wise - cracking woodchuck marionette puppet "Mr. Woodchuck '' (first seen in "The Legend of Ranger Joe '' and last seen in "Michelle Rides Again ''). Joey quits his job in season six 's "Radio Days, '' after he becomes disgruntled with his boss Mr. Strowbridge 's wife as his co-host. Jesse and Joey subsequently become co-hosts of a successful afternoon show on radio station KFLH called, Rush Hour Renegades. Besides his impressions, much of Joey 's humor comes from his depiction as a man child, particularly the fact that he still watches cartoons as an adult and has an extensive knowledge of animation.
Joey has moved to Las Vegas in Fuller House, and is now married with four kids. His wife Ginger is a magician, and their kids, Phyllis, Lewis, Joan, and Jerry are very loud and obnoxious kids. Joey and his kids are moving back to San Francisco since his wife will be working as a magician on a cruise ship for six months. He also bought back the Smash Club with Jesse.
Donna Jo Margaret "D.J. '' Tanner (portrayed by Candace Cameron Bure) is Danny and Pam 's oldest child. Over the course of the show 's run, D.J. attends Frasier Street Elementary, Van Atta Junior High and Bayview High School. In the pilot episode "Our Very First Show, '' she ends up having to share her bedroom with Stephanie in order to allow Jesse to move into Stephanie 's old bedroom; due to problems with privacy regarding Stephanie, in the season five episode "Take My Sister, Please, '' she sells Danny on an idea to switch rooms with Michelle, who in turn would move in with Stephanie (only after convincing Michelle to move in with Stephanie, after she rejects the offer to move in with her older sister).
D.J. is typically the daughter who acts the most practical, often giving advice to her younger sisters, Michelle and Stephanie. Although she sometimes bickers with them, she cares for them deeply. As D.J. entered into middle school, she started to deal with more serious issues like puberty and dating. She has her first serious relationship with Steve Hale (who was first introduced in the season five episode "Sisters in Crime ''), who later becomes a real fixture in her life (and a regular character beginning in season six) when their characters return from a summer abroad in Spain. Their relationship lasts until they break up in the season seven episode "Love on the Rocks, '' when they realize that the passion in their relationship is gone, but they agree to remain friends. D.J. has on - and - off relationships (during the show 's final season) with guitarist Viper (a member of Jesse 's new band Hot Daddy and the Monkey Puppets) and rich kid Nelson, but both relationships do not last (the two end up vying for D.J. 's affections in the season eight episode "D.J. 's Choice, '' only for D.J. to reject them both after their fighting gets to be too much for her to bear). In the series finale "Michelle Rides Again, '' Steve shows up at the Tanner house to take D.J. to her senior prom and they share a kiss. Her best friend throughout the show was next - door neighbor Kimmy Gibbler, who was the complete opposite of D.J. in every way. In season eight, D.J. gets accepted to University of California, Berkeley and it is implied she will go to college there after graduating high school (after she was rejected from her first choice, Stanford University).
In Fuller House, D.J. is a recent widow and mother of three kids; Jackson, Max and Tommy, and moves in with Stephanie and Kimmy. D.J. has since become a veterinarian. When her boss retires he has his son, Matt Harmon and D.J. take over the pet clinic. Matt and Steve fight for D.J. 's affection but they both end up dating other people when she 's not ready to commit someone new yet. Realizing they have feelings for each other, Matt breaks up with his girlfriend, and starts dating D.J. On the way to Steve 's wedding in Japan, D.J. who 's preparing to fall asleep, and wearing a sleeping mask reveals to Kimmy that she was going to pick Steve not Matt, and feels like she 's losing her soulmate. Unbeknownst to her Steve was the one who heard her confession not Kimmy. Steve tells Kimmy what she said, and he was going to confront D.J. but he saw Matt proposing to her. The next day before the wedding starts Kimmy tells D.J. that Steve was the one who heard what she said on the plane. At the alter Steve calls off the wedding, and D.J. breaks off her engagement to Matt. Back home the two wait a month before they will start dating again. After her their third first date, Steve tells her that the Lakers want him to be the team 's foot doctor. He chooses to stay with her but D.J. called the team and said that he will take the job.
Stephanie Judith Tanner (portrayed by Jodie Sweetin) is the witty, sarcastic middle child of Danny and Pam, the younger sister of D.J., and the older sister of Michelle. Her mother died when she was five years old. Her catchphrases during the early seasons of the series include "how rude!, '' "well, pin a rose on your nose! '' and "hot dog ''. She eventually evolved into something of a tomboy in seasons four and five. Stephanie has a habit of spying on D.J. 's life by reading her diary and eavesdropping on her telephone calls (having been caught in the act several times), and is generally the most athletic and nosiest of the Tanner girls. Her best friends in school are Gia Mahan and Mickey, whom she meets in season seven (the former is the only one who appears through to season eight). Of the three sisters, Stephanie has dealt with the toughest issues, such as peer pressure into smoking (in season seven 's "Fast Friends ''), "make - out '' parties (in season eight 's "Making Out is Hard to Do ''), joyriding (in season eight 's "Stephanie 's Wild Ride ''), and uncovering a classmate 's child abuse (in season six 's "Silence is Not Golden ''), as well as the death of her mother when she was only five. In her early years, she is very sentimental about Mr. Bear, a stuffed animal that her mother gave to her after Michelle was born (this was the focal point of the season two episode "Goodbye Mr. Bear ''). She and Jesse are the most abrasive when it comes to how they feel about Kimmy Gibbler.
In Fuller House, Stephanie volunteers to give up her life in London to move back into her childhood home to help take care of her sister 's three kids. Kimmy volunteers to move in as well much to Stephanie 's dismay but she soon puts her abrasive feelings aside, and becomes friends with her. Stephanie confesses to D.J. that she ca n't have kids but wants to. Stephanie starts a relationship with Kimmy 's younger brother Jimmy. Becky schedules Stephanie for a pelvic exam and turns out she has three vivable eggs and can have a baby via surrogacy. Since she has n't been dating Jimmy for that long she does n't want to put pressure on him for being the father, and throwing him into a life long commitment so soon in their relationship. He wants to be the father. They are able to make embryos and Kimmy volunteers to be the surrogate mother. Kimmy is able to get pregnant with the embryos.
Michelle Elizabeth Tanner (played by twins Mary - Kate and Ashley Olsen), is Danny and Pam 's youngest daughter. Danny is more overprotective of Michelle than the other girls. Michelle was just a baby when Pam died, so she hardly remembers her mom. Jesse and Joey 's misadventures in taking care of her when she was a baby provided a great deal of humor. Once Michelle started to grow up, she became the focus of more of the show 's storylines. Her best friends, Teddy and Denise, appear frequently in later seasons. She also has other friends, such as Derek Boyd, Lisa Leeper, and bossy Aaron Bailey, who Michelle has an uneasy friendship with. Her favorite toys (in earlier seasons) are Barney, a plush bear who hangs on the wall above her bed, and her stuffed pig. It is apparent that Jesse is somewhat closer to her than her sisters, and he gives her nicknames such as "munchkin '', "shorty '' and "rugrat ''. She is known for her many recurring catchphrases such as "you got it, dude! '', "you 're in big trouble, mister! '', "oh, puh - lease! '', "aw, nuts! '', "duh! '', and "no way, José! ''
Michelle does not appear in Fuller House but it is mentioned that she is now living in New York, and owns a fashion company.
Rebecca Donaldson Katsopolis (portrayed by Lori Loughlin), is the sarcastic, practical, but very loving and well - educated woman who becomes the love interest and later wife of Jesse Katsopolis. Becky was born in Valentine, Nebraska and decided to pursue journalism as a career while she was in high school. Becky moves to San Francisco to become the co-host of Wake Up, San Francisco, being paired with Danny as her co-host; the two become close friends, although she often quips about Danny 's quirks and tendency to ramble in his conversations. She was reluctant to admit her feelings for Jesse at first, but she eventually falls in love with him. The two almost elope in Lake Tahoe in the season two finale "Luck Be a Lady '', but backed out when Becky realized that she and Jesse were not really ready to get married. They eventually get married (in the second part of the season four episode "The Wedding '') on Valentine 's Day.
After Jesse has a bittersweet farewell to the rest of the family when he decides to move into Rebecca 's apartment in the season four episode "Fuller House '', Rebecca agrees to move in with the Tanners and Joey when she discovers how much Jesse misses them, living together in the attic (which Jesse and Joey have converted into an apartment). Becky helps to transform Jesse, although she still teases him about his obsession with his hair and love of Elvis. She also serves as a mother figure to the girls at times; most prominently giving advice to D.J. as she becomes a teenager. Becky gives birth to twin boys Nicholas and Alexander on Michelle 's fifth birthday in part two of the season five episode "Happy Birthday, Babies ''. She and Jesse name Alexander after a teacher who inspired her to become a journalist and Nicholas after Jesse 's father. Becky is offered a producer role on Wake Up, San Francisco in the season eight episode "The Producer '', which results in Danny briefly quitting the show due to him being passed over for such a promotion.
In Fuller House, she, Jesse, and Danny all move to Los Angeles to start their new jobs. She and Danny now host a nationally syndicated talk show called, Wake Up USA. Becky gets baby fever when around D.J. 's youngest son, Tommy. She and Jesse end up adopting a baby girl whom they name Pamela. Becky and Danny get fired from Wake Up USA when they asked for too much money. They ask for their old jobs back at Wake Up San Francisco but the station only wants her back. They want her to host an all women 's talk show called The Gab. She, Jesse and Pamela are moving back to San Francisco.
Kimberly Louise "Kimmy '' Gibbler (portrayed by Andrea Barber, recurring since season one and upgraded to a series regular in season five) is D.J. 's best friend and the Tanners ' annoying but well - meaning next - door neighbor. Kimmy and D.J. have been best friends since they attended kindergarten together, despite their differing personalities; the two have temporarily ended their friendship multiple times during the show 's run due to disputes over various situations, but always end up reconciling and forgiving each other. Most of the Tanner family can not stand her (Danny, Stephanie and Jesse are especially annoyed by her, with Stephanie often making jabs at her lack of intelligence and other unusual quirks and Danny urging D.J. to make new friends and often asking Kimmy to leave the house). She is often known to be a poor student in school, and had copied D.J. 's homework during most of the early seasons. Kimmy is the subject of a recurring gag in the series, regarding her terrible foot odor, which becomes noticeable to other people mainly once she removes her shoes; Kimmy also becomes aware of this in a scene in the season seven episode "The Apartment '', in which she accidentally grabs one of her shoes while searching for her phone when Danny calls her to find out the whereabouts of D.J. (who had fallen asleep on her boyfriend Steve 's couch while watching a movie in his apartment). She is also known to be addicted to shopping.
In the episode "Another Opening, Another No Show '', Jesse and Kimmy get locked in a closet on the night of the grand re-opening of The Smash Club, after the door handle breaks off in Jesse 's hand; while there, Kimmy finally tells Jesse how much it hurts when he and the other Tanners (except for D.J.) pick on her. He finally tries to stop picking on her and tells the Tanners to try to go easy on her. However, their behavior towards her remains the same in later episodes, although she never seems to mind it anymore.
Kimmy 's only serious relationship is with Duane (who is introduced in season eight episode "Taking the Plunge ''), a very air - headed boy who was only known to say "whatever ''. Ironically, he was shown to have a fondness for Shakespearean works as he passionately quoted a line from Shakespeare 's 18th sonnet. In "Taking the Plunge, '' Kimmy decides to run off to Reno and elope with Duane after she was rejected by the colleges that she had applied to, and is afraid that D.J. will go off to school and forget her. When D.J., Jesse, and Danny arrive at the chapel to stop her from getting married too young, D.J. tells her that she will always be her best friend no matter what. In the two - part series finale "Michelle Rides Again, '' she tries to find D.J. a blind date for prom, and ends up surprising her with her ex-boyfriend Steve instead.
Sometime after high school Kimmy got married to a race car driver named Fernando, and has a daughter named Ramona. In the sequel series she and Ramona move into the Tanner family home after D.J 's husband passed away. She moved in to help her along with Stephanie. Kimmy has become a party planner. Kimmy volunteers to be Stephanie and Jimmy 's surrogate mother,
Steven "Steve '' Hale (originally introduced as Steve Peters; portrayed by Scott Weinger) is D.J. 's first steady boyfriend. He is introduced in the season five episode "Sisters in Crime '' as D.J. 's date to a movie that she ends up taking Michelle and Stephanie to, and returns to the series as a regular character in the sixth - season premiere "Come Fly With Me '' (which establishes the character as played by Weinger in his original appearance the season prior). Steve is two years older than D.J. and is a star member of the high school wrestling team. He is known for having a healthy appetite, and often eats at the Tanners ' when he visits.
In "A Very Tanner Christmas, '' Steve receives an acceptance letter to a party school in Florida that he had applied to (this causes the two to briefly break up due to D.J. 's concern that she would miss him), but decides to go to a local community college in order to improve his grades and continue his relationship with D.J. In the season six episode "Prom Night, '' both he and D.J. attend Steve 's prom where he is elected prom king (although his ex-girlfriend -- whose affections he later rejects -- is named prom queen). Steve and D.J. break up in the season seven episode "Love on the Rocks, '' after they realize that their relationship was not as passionate as it used to be, but they decide to remain friends. When D.J. needs a date for her senior prom, Kimmy surprises her and gets Steve to be her date.
After college Steve becomes a podiatrist. In Fuller House Steve is a divorcee and his ex took half what he 's worth. With him and D.J. both now single he tries to start a relationship with her again. He ends up later getting engaged to woman named C.J. who is just like D.J. On the way to Japan, thinking that Kimmy is sitting next to her, D.J. confesses that she was going to pick Steve not Matt, and feels like she is losing her soulmate. Steve was the one who actually heard it. At the alter he realizes he still loves D.J. and ca n't marry C.J. so he calls the wedding off. D.J who still has feelings for Steve break up with Matt. A month after the almost wedding they start dating again. There is bad news for the reunited couple when the Lakers want him to be their foot doctor. He declines to stay with D.J. but she calls the team to say he will take the job. Steve tells her they will back together in six months.
Nicholas "Nicky '' and Alexander "Alex '' Katsopolis, (played by Daniel and Kevin Renteria as babies during season 5; Blake and Dylan Tuomy - Wilhoit as toddlers for seasons 6 -- 8) are the twin sons of Jesse and Becky Katsopolis. The two were born in the season five episode "Happy Birthday, Babies, '' on the date of Michelle 's fifth birthday. Becky named Alex after a high school teacher who inspired her to venture into a career in journalism, while Jesse chose to name Nicky after his father, for giving him great hair. They have strawberry - blond hair and are fun - loving toddlers, with minor distinctions between them. Nicky is more quiet and sweet, while Alex is more outspoken and mischievous. They often repeat each other 's words.
In Fuller House, the twins follow their parents to Los Angeles, and decide to run a fish taco food truck.
Jackson Fuller (portrayed by Michael Campion) is D.J. 's oldest son. When Kimmy and her daughter, Ramona moves in Jackson has to give up his room and move in with his brother Max. Jackson and Ramona do n't get along at first but become like brother and sister. Jackson has shown to be a good older brother to Max and Tommy. Jackson likes to do stunts, and joins the football team to impress Ramona 's friend, Lola. He likes to call himself "J. Money '' and "Action Jackson ''. He breifly dates Lola but she breaks up with him for being too clingy. While attending summer school he becomes friends with Gia 's daughter Rocki, much to D.J 's dislike.
Max Fuller (portrayed by Elias Harger) is D.J. 's well dressed and intelligent middle child. He likes science, and is shown to be a clean freak like his grandfather. Max has rivalries with Kimmy 's fiancé Fernando and classmate Taylor. Max 's girlfriend is Rose, the daughter of Steve 's fiancée C.J.
Ramona Gibbler (portrayed by Soni Nicole Bringas) is the daughter of Kimmy Gibbler and her ex husband / fiancé, Fernando. She is not thrilled when she has to move into the Tanner family home and change schools. Ramona quickly befriends one of the popular girls in school, Lola Wong, and briefly dates Jackson 's friend, Bobby Popko. She is an aspiring dancer.
Tommy Fuller, Jr. (portrayed by twins, Dashiell and Fox Messitt) is D.J. 's youngest son. Like his aunt Michelle he also loses a parent as a baby.
Fernando Hernandez - Guerrero - Fernandez - Guerrero (portrayed by Juan Pablo Di Pace), is Kimmy Gibbler 's race car driving ex-husband / fiancé. At the start of Fuller House, him and Kimmy are separated due to his unfaithfulness to her. Fernando begins to miss her and tries to win her back. It works but he ends up finally signing their divorce papers. Though he only does this to repropose which she accepts. Fernando retires from his racing career, and moves in. Ten months after moving in, he buys Kimmy 's childhood home and moves in with her brother.
Matt Harmon (portrayed by John Brotherton) is D.J. 's partner at the Harmon / Fuller Pet Care. He originally intended to fill in for his dad while he was away on a trip to India but decides to stay in San Francisco. When his dad retires he has Matt and D.J. take over the business. Matt and Steve fight for D.J. 's affection. She and him eventually begin dating. While in Japan for Steve and C.J 's wedding, Matt proposed to D.J. and she says yes. The next day at the wedding Steve calls off his wedding, and D.J. breaks her engagement. A heartbroken Matt walks off. He goes on a eight day vacation and when he comes back to work he tells D.J. he does n't know how he able to work with her if their not together anymore. He takes some time off to think, and when he returns he tells her that he will be opening up a new pet clinic two doors down.
Lola Wong (portrayed by Ashley Liao) is Ramona 's best friend and Jackson 's ex girlfriend. Lola 's father gets a job in Fresno and she moves.
Jimmy Gibbler (portrayed by Adam Hagenbuch) is Kimmy 's younger brother. One day he walks into the family 's backyard and hears Stephanie singing. The two end up kissing, and are interrupted by Kimmy who informs Stephanie that he is her brother. Jimmy and Stephanie begin dating. When Stephanie gets the news that she can have a baby via surrogacy, she thinks it 's too soon in their relationship to ask him to be the father. After finding that out from Kimmy, he tells her that he wants to be her baby 's father. Kimmy volunteers to be his and Stephanie 's surrogate.
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who wrote all god's creatures have a place in the choir | Bill Staines - wikipedia
Bill Staines (born February 6, 1947 in Medford, Massachusetts) is an American folk musician and singer - songwriter from New Hampshire, who writes and performs songs about a wide array of topics. He has also written and recorded children 's songs.
Raised in Lexington, Massachusetts, Staines began his professional career in the early 1960s in the Cambridge area. He began touring nationwide a few years later. In 1975 he won the National Yodeling Championship at the Kerrville Folk Festival. He performs about 200 times a year and has appeared on A Prairie Home Companion, Mountain Stage, and The Good Evening Show.
Staines 's songs include "Bridges '', "Crossing the Water '', "Sweet Wyoming Home '', "The Roseville Fair '', "A Place in the Choir '', "Child of Mine '', and "River ''.
His songs have been recorded by many other artists, including Peter, Paul and Mary, Makem and Clancy, Nanci Griffith, Mason Williams, The Highwaymen, Glenn Yarbrough, Jerry Jeff Walker, Schooner Fare, Grandpa Jones, The Grace Family, Hank Cramer, Coty Hogue and Priscilla Herdman. Staines has recorded 22 of his own albums, 15 of which were still in print as of 2005. Staines 's songs have been published in four songbooks, If I Were a Word, Then I 'd Be a Song; River; Music to Me: The Songs of Bill Staines, and All God 's Critters Got a Place in the Choir.
Staines is left - handed and plays a right - handed guitar upside - down, with the bass strings on the bottom. Consequently, he has developed his own fingerings and picking style.
In 2004 his memoir, The Tour: A Life Between the Lines, was published.
Staines currently lives in the town of Rollinsford, New Hampshire with his wife, Karen; his son, Bowen; and his springer spaniel, Andy, who was featured on the cover of his album Old Dogs. His son also pursues a career as folk singer.
All references from the Acoustic Music Bill Staines Discography except when noted.
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how many moons are there in the jupiter | Moons of Jupiter - wikipedia
There are 69 known moons of Jupiter. This gives Jupiter the largest number of moons with reasonably stable orbits of any planet in the Solar System. The most massive of the moons are the four Galilean moons, which were independently discovered in 1610 by Galileo Galilei and Simon Marius and were the first objects found to orbit a body that was neither Earth nor the Sun. From the end of the 19th century, dozens of much smaller Jovian moons have been discovered and have received the names of lovers or daughters of the Roman god Jupiter or his Greek equivalent Zeus. The Galilean moons are by far the largest and most massive objects to orbit Jupiter, with the remaining 65 known moons and the rings together comprising just 0.003 % of the total orbiting mass.
Of Jupiter 's moons, eight are regular satellites with prograde and nearly circular orbits that are not greatly inclined with respect to Jupiter 's equatorial plane. The Galilean satellites are nearly spherical in shape due to their planetary mass, and so would be considered (dwarf) planets if they were in direct orbit around the Sun. The other four regular satellites are much smaller and closer to Jupiter; these serve as sources of the dust that makes up Jupiter 's rings. The remainder of Jupiter 's moons are irregular satellites whose prograde and retrograde orbits are much farther from Jupiter and have high inclinations and eccentricities. These moons were probably captured by Jupiter from solar orbits. Eighteen of the irregular satellites have not yet been named, and nine of them do not have their orbits known well enough to be numbered.
The physical and orbital characteristics of the moons vary widely. The four Galileans are all over 3,100 kilometres (1,900 mi) in diameter; the largest Galilean, Ganymede, is the ninth largest object in the Solar System, after the Sun and seven of the planets, Ganymede being larger than Mercury. All other Jovian moons are less than 250 kilometres (160 mi) in diameter, with most barely exceeding 5 kilometres (3.1 mi). Their orbital shapes range from nearly perfectly circular to highly eccentric and inclined, and many revolve in the direction opposite to Jupiter 's spin (retrograde motion). Orbital periods range from seven hours (taking less time than Jupiter does to spin around its axis), to some three thousand times more (almost three Earth years).
Jupiter 's regular satellites are believed to have formed from a circumplanetary disk, a ring of accreting gas and solid debris analogous to a protoplanetary disk. They may be the remnants of a score of Galilean - mass satellites that formed early in Jupiter 's history.
Simulations suggest that, while the disk had a relatively high mass at any given moment, over time a substantial fraction (several tenths of a percent) of the mass of Jupiter captured from the solar nebula was passed through it. However, only 2 % the proto - disk mass of Jupiter is required to explain the existing satellites. Thus there may have been several generations of Galilean - mass satellites in Jupiter 's early history. Each generation of moons might have spiraled into Jupiter, because of drag from the disk, with new moons then forming from the new debris captured from the solar nebula. By the time the present (possibly fifth) generation formed, the disk had thinned so that it no longer greatly interfered with the moons ' orbits. The current Galilean moons were still affected, falling into and being partially protected by an orbital resonance with each other, which still exists for Io, Europa, and Ganymede. Ganymede 's larger mass means that it would have migrated inward at a faster rate than Europa or Io.
The outer, irregular moons are thought to have originated from captured asteroids, whereas the protolunar disk was still massive enough to absorb much of their momentum and thus capture them into orbit. Many are believed to have broken up by mechanical stresses during capture, or afterward by collisions with other small bodies, producing the moons we see today.
The first claimed observation of one of Jupiter 's moons is that of Chinese astronomer Gan De around 364 BC. However, the first certain observations of Jupiter 's satellites were those of Galileo Galilei in 1609. By January 1610, he had sighted the four massive Galilean moons with his 30 × magnification telescope, and he published his results in March 1610. Simon Marius had independently discovered them one day after Galileo, though he did not publish his book on the subject until 1614, and the names Marius assigned are used today: Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa. No additional satellites were discovered until E.E. Barnard observed Amalthea in 1892. With the aid of telescopic photography, further discoveries followed quickly over the course of the twentieth century. Himalia was discovered in 1904, Elara in 1905, Pasiphae in 1908, Sinope in 1914, Lysithea and Carme in 1938, Ananke in 1951, and Leda in 1974. By the time that Voyager space probes reached Jupiter around 1979, 13 moons had been discovered, not including Themisto which had been observed in 1975, but was lost until 2000 due to insufficient initial observation data. The Voyager spacecraft discovered an additional three inner moons in 1979: Metis, Adrastea, and Thebe.
No additional moons were discovered for two decades but, between October 1999 and February 2003, researchers found and later named another 34 moons using sensitive ground - based detectors. These are tiny moons, in long, eccentric, generally retrograde orbits, and averaging 3 km (1.9 mi) in diameter, with the largest being just 9 km (5.6 mi) across. All of these moons are thought to have been captured asteroidal or perhaps comet bodies, possibly fragmented into several pieces; but very little is known about them. Since 2003, 18 additional moons have been discovered but not yet named, bringing the total number of known moons of Jupiter to 69. As of 2017, this is the most of any planet in the Solar System; but additional undiscovered, tiny moons may exist.
Some of the 69 known satellites of Jupiter are considered lost because they have not been observed since their discovery and hence their orbits are not well - known enough to pinpoint their current locations. Work has been done to recover many of them in surveys from 2009 onwards (in which some new moons were also discovered), but six -- S / 2003 J 12, S / 2003 J 10, S / 2003 J 19, S / 2003 J 4, S / 2003 J 2, and S / 2011 J 1 -- still remain lost today. Follow - up observations in 2018 are planned to secure their orbits and perhaps find new moons.
The Galilean moons of Jupiter (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) were named by Simon Marius soon after their discovery in 1610. However, these names fell out of favor until the 20th century. The astronomical literature instead simply referred to "Jupiter I '', "Jupiter II '', etc., or "the first satellite of Jupiter '', "Jupiter 's second satellite '', and so on. The names Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto became popular in the 20th century, whereas the rest of the moons remained unnamed and were usually numbered in Roman numerals V (5) to XII (12). Jupiter V was discovered in 1892 and given the name Amalthea by a popular though unofficial convention, a name first used by French astronomer Camille Flammarion.
The other moons were simply labeled by their Roman numeral (e.g. Jupiter IX) in the majority of astronomical literature until the 1970s. In 1975, the International Astronomical Union 's (IAU) Task Group for Outer Solar System Nomenclature granted names to satellites V -- XIII, and provided for a formal naming process for future satellites still to be discovered. The practice was to name newly discovered moons of Jupiter after lovers and favorites of the god Jupiter (Zeus) and, since 2004, also after their descendants. All of Jupiter 's satellites from XXXIV (Euporie) are named after daughters of Jupiter or Zeus. Names ending with "a '' or "o '' are used for prograde irregular satellites (the latter for highly inclined satellites), and names ending with "e '' are used for retrograde irregulars. The most recently confirmed moons Jupiter LI through LX (with the exception of Jupiter LIII Dia) have not received names.
Some asteroids share the same names as moons of Jupiter: 9 Metis, 38 Leda, 52 Europa, 85 Io, 113 Amalthea, 239 Adrastea. Two more asteroids previously shared the names of Jovian moons until spelling differences were made permanent by the IAU: Ganymede and asteroid 1036 Ganymed; and Callisto and asteroid 204 Kallisto.
These have prograde and nearly circular orbits of low inclination and are split into two groups:
The irregular satellites are substantially smaller objects with more distant and eccentric orbits. They form families with shared similarities in orbit (semi-major axis, inclination, eccentricity) and composition; it is believed that these are at least partially collisional families that were created when larger (but still small) parent bodies were shattered by impacts from asteroids captured by Jupiter 's gravitational field. These families bear the names of their largest members. The identification of satellite families is tentative, but the following are typically listed:
The moons of Jupiter are listed below by orbital period. Moons massive enough for their surfaces to have collapsed into a spheroid are highlighted in bold. These are the four Galilean moons, which are comparable in size to the Moon. The four inner moons are much smaller, the fourth most massive being more than 7000 times more massive than the fifth-most. The irregular captured moons are shaded light gray when prograde and dark gray when retrograde.
The first spacecrafts to visit Jupiter were Pioneer 10 in 1973, and Pioneer 11 a year later, taking low - resolution images of the four Galilean moons. The Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 probes visited Jupiter in 1979, discovering the volcanic activity on Io and the presence of water ice on the surface of Europa. The Cassini probe to Saturn flew by Jupiter in 2000 and collected data on interactions of the Galilean moons with Jupiter 's extended atmosphere. The New Horizons spacecraft flew by Jupiter in 2007 and made improved measurements of its satellites ' orbital parameters.
The Galileo spacecraft was the first to enter orbit around Jupiter, arriving in 1995 and studying it until 2003. During this period, Galileo gathered a large amount of information about the Jovian system, making close approaches to all of the Galilean moons and finding evidence for thin atmospheres on three of them, as well as the possibility of liquid water beneath the surfaces of Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. It also discovered a magnetic field around Ganymede.
In 2016, the Juno spacecraft imaged the Galilean moons from above their orbital plane as it approached Jupiter orbit insertion, creating a time - lapse movie of their motion.
Solar System → Local Interstellar Cloud → Local Bubble → Gould Belt → Orion Arm → Milky Way → Milky Way subgroup → Local Group → Virgo Supercluster → Laniakea Supercluster → Observable universe → Universe Each arrow (→) may be read as "within '' or "part of ''.
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who was the north and south in the civil war | American Civil War - Wikipedia
Union victory
Abraham Lincoln Ulysses S. Grant William T. Sherman David Farragut George B. McClellan Henry Halleck George Meade
Jefferson Davis Robert E. Lee J.E. Johnston G.T. Beauregard A.S. Johnston † Braxton Bragg
2,200,000:
750,000 -- 1,000,000:
110,000 + killed in action / died of wounds 230,000 + accident / disease deaths 25,000 -- 30,000 died in Confederate prisons
365,000 + total dead 282,000 + wounded 181,193 captured
94,000 + killed in action / died of wounds 26,000 -- 31,000 died in Union prisons
290,000 + total dead 137,000 + wounded 436,658 captured
The American Civil War was fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The result of a long - standing controversy over slavery, war broke out in April 1861, when Confederates attacked Fort Sumter in South Carolina, shortly after President Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated. The nationalists of the Union proclaimed loyalty to the U.S. Constitution. They faced secessionists of the Confederate States, who advocated for states ' rights to expand slavery.
Among the 34 U.S. states in February 1861, seven Southern slave states individually declared their secession from the U.S. to form the Confederate States of America, or the South. The Confederacy grew to include eleven slave states. The Confederacy was never diplomatically recognized by the United States government, nor was it recognized by any foreign country (although the United Kingdom and France granted it belligerent status). The states that remained loyal to the U.S. (including the border states where slavery was legal) were known as the Union or the North.
The Union and Confederacy quickly raised volunteer and conscription armies that fought mostly in the South over four years. The Union finally won the war when General Robert E. Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant at the Battle of Appomattox Court House followed by a series of surrenders by Confederate generals throughout the southern states. Four years of intense combat left 620,000 to 750,000 people dead, a higher number than the number of U.S. military deaths in all other wars combined. Much of the South 's infrastructure was destroyed, especially the transportation systems, railroads, mills and houses. The Confederacy collapsed, slavery was abolished, and 4 million slaves were freed. The Reconstruction Era (1863 -- 1877) overlapped and followed the war, with the process of restoring national unity, strengthening the national government, and granting civil rights to freed slaves throughout the country. The Civil War is the most studied and written about episode in U.S. history.
In the 1860 presidential election, Republicans, led by Abraham Lincoln, supported banning slavery in all the U.S. territories. The Southern states viewed this as a violation of their constitutional rights and as the first step in a grander Republican plan to eventually abolish slavery. The three pro-Union candidates together received an overwhelming 82 % majority of the votes cast nationally: Republican Lincoln 's votes centered in the north, Democrat Stephen A. Douglas ' votes were distributed nationally and Constitutional Unionist John Bell 's votes centered in Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. The Republican Party, dominant in the North, secured a plurality of the popular votes and a majority of the electoral votes nationally, so Lincoln was constitutionally elected president. He was the first Republican Party candidate to win the presidency. However, before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton - based economies declared secession and formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, a total of 49 percent. The first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51 % and Louisiana with 55 %. Alabama had voted 46 % for those unionists, Mississippi with 40 %, Florida with 38 %, Texas with 25 %, and South Carolina cast Electoral College votes without a popular vote for president. Of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession.
Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession. Outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincoln 's March 4, 1861, inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war. Speaking directly to the "Southern States '', he attempted to calm their fears of any threats to slavery, reaffirming, "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. '' After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed and both sides prepared for war. The Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on "King Cotton '' that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America.
Hostilities began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter. While in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive from 1861 -- 1862. Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, and seized New Orleans. The 1863 Union Siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lee 's Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg. Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grant 's command of all Union armies in 1864. Inflicting an ever - tightening naval blockade of Confederate ports, the Union marshaled the resources and manpower to attack the Confederacy from all directions, leading to the fall of Atlanta to William T. Sherman and his march to the sea. The last significant battles raged around the Siege of Petersburg. Lee 's escape attempt ended with his surrender at Appomattox Court House, on April 9, 1865. While the military war was coming to an end, the political reintegration of the nation was to take another 12 years, known as the Reconstruction Era.
The American Civil War was one of the earliest true industrial wars. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships and iron - clad ships, and mass - produced weapons were employed extensively. The mobilization of civilian factories, mines, shipyards, banks, transportation and food supplies all foreshadowed the impact of industrialization in World War I, World War II and subsequent conflicts. It remains the deadliest war in American history. From 1861 to 1865, it is estimated that 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers died, along with an undetermined number of civilians. By one estimate, the war claimed the lives of 10 percent of all Northern males 20 -- 45 years old, and 30 percent of all Southern white males aged 18 -- 40.
The causes of secession were complex and have been controversial since the war began, but most academic scholars identify slavery as a central cause of the war. James C. Bradford wrote that the issue has been further complicated by historical revisionists, who have tried to offer a variety of reasons for the war. Slavery was the central source of escalating political tension in the 1850s. The Republican Party was determined to prevent any spread of slavery, and many Southern leaders had threatened secession if the Republican candidate, Lincoln, won the 1860 election. After Lincoln won, many Southern leaders felt that disunion was their only option, fearing that the loss of representation would hamper their ability to promote pro-slavery acts and policies.
Slavery was a major cause of disunion. Although there were opposing views even in the Union States, most northern soldiers were largely indifferent on the subject of slavery, while Confederates fought the war largely to protect a southern society of which slavery was an integral part. From the anti-slavery perspective, the issue was primarily about whether the system of slavery was an anachronistic evil that was incompatible with republicanism. The strategy of the anti-slavery forces was containment -- to stop the expansion and thus put slavery on a path to gradual extinction. The slave - holding interests in the South denounced this strategy as infringing upon their Constitutional rights. Southern whites believed that the emancipation of slaves would destroy the South 's economy, due to the large amount of capital invested in slaves and fears of integrating the ex-slave black population.
Slavery was illegal in much of the North, having been outlawed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was also fading in the border states and in Southern cities, but it was expanding in the highly profitable cotton districts of the rural South and Southwest. Subsequent writers on the American Civil War looked to several factors explaining the geographic divide.
Sectionalism refers to the different economies, social structure, customs and political values of the North and South. It increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the North, which phased slavery out of existence, industrialized, urbanized, and built prosperous farms, while the deep South concentrated on plantation agriculture based on slave labor, together with subsistence farming for poor freedmen. In the 1840s and 50s, the issue of accepting slavery (in the guise of rejecting slave - owning bishops and missionaries) split the nation 's largest religious denominations (the Methodist, Baptist and Presbyterian churches) into separate Northern and Southern denominations.
Historians have debated whether economic differences between the industrial Northeast and the agricultural South helped cause the war. Most historians now disagree with the economic determinism of historian Charles A. Beard in the 1920s and emphasize that Northern and Southern economies were largely complementary. While socially different, the sections economically benefited each other.
Historically, southern slave - holding states, because of their low cost manual labor, had little perceived need for mechanization, and supported having the right to sell cotton and purchase manufactured goods from any nation. Northern states, which had heavily invested in their still - nascent manufacturing, could not compete with the full - fledged industries of Europe in offering high prices for cotton imported from the South and low prices for manufactured exports in return. Thus, northern manufacturing interests supported tariffs and protectionism while southern planters demanded free trade.
The Democrats in Congress, controlled by Southerners, wrote the tariff laws in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, and kept reducing rates so that the 1857 rates were the lowest since 1816. The Whigs and Republicans complained because they favored high tariffs to stimulate industrial growth, and Republicans called for an increase in tariffs in the 1860 election. The increases were only enacted in 1861 after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress. The tariff issue was and is sometimes cited -- long after the war -- by Lost Cause historians and neo-Confederate apologists. In 1860 -- 61 none of the groups that proposed compromises to head off secession raised the tariff issue. Pamphleteers North and South rarely mentioned the tariff, and when some did, for instance, Matthew Fontaine Maury and John Lothrop Motley, they were generally writing for a foreign audience.
The South argued that each state had the right to secede -- leave the Union -- at any time, that the Constitution was a "compact '' or agreement among the states. Northerners (including President Buchanan) rejected that notion as opposed to the will of the Founding Fathers who said they were setting up a perpetual union. Historian James McPherson writes concerning states ' rights and other non-slavery explanations:
While one or more of these interpretations remain popular among the Sons of Confederate Veterans and other Southern heritage groups, few professional historians now subscribe to them. Of all these interpretations, the states ' - rights argument is perhaps the weakest. It fails to ask the question, states ' rights for what purpose? States ' rights, or sovereignty, was always more a means than an end, an instrument to achieve a certain goal more than a principle.
Between 1803 and 1854, the United States achieved a vast expansion of territory through purchase, negotiation, and conquest. At first, the new states carved out of these territories entering the union were apportioned equally between slave and free states. It was over territories west of the Mississippi that the proslavery and antislavery forces collided.
With the conquest of northern Mexico west to California in 1848, slaveholding interests looked forward to expanding into these lands and perhaps Cuba and Central America as well. Northern "free soil '' interests vigorously sought to curtail any further expansion of slave territory. The Compromise of 1850 over California balanced a free soil state with stronger fugitive slave laws for a political settlement after four years of strife in the 1840s. But the states admitted following California were all free: Minnesota (1858), Oregon (1859) and Kansas (1861). In the southern states the question of the territorial expansion of slavery westward again became explosive. Both the South and the North drew the same conclusion: "The power to decide the question of slavery for the territories was the power to determine the future of slavery itself. ''
By 1860, four doctrines had emerged to answer the question of federal control in the territories, and they all claimed they were sanctioned by the Constitution, implicitly or explicitly. The first of these "conservative '' theories, represented by the Constitutional Union Party, argued that the Missouri Compromise apportionment of territory north for free soil and south for slavery should become a Constitutional mandate. The Crittenden Compromise of 1860 was an expression of this view.
The second doctrine of Congressional preeminence, championed by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party, insisted that the Constitution did not bind legislators to a policy of balance -- that slavery could be excluded in a territory as it was done in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 at the discretion of Congress, thus Congress could restrict human bondage, but never establish it. The Wilmot Proviso announced this position in 1846.
Senator Stephen A. Douglas proclaimed the doctrine of territorial or "popular '' sovereignty -- which asserted that the settlers in a territory had the same rights as states in the Union to establish or disestablish slavery as a purely local matter. The Kansas -- Nebraska Act of 1854 legislated this doctrine. In Kansas Territory, years of pro and anti-slavery violence and political conflict erupted; the congressional House of Representatives voted to admit Kansas as a free state in early 1860, but its admission in the Senate was delayed until January 1861, after the 1860 elections when southern senators began to leave.
The fourth theory was advocated by Mississippi Senator Jefferson Davis, one of state sovereignty ("states ' rights ''), also known as the "Calhoun doctrine '', named after the South Carolinian political theorist and statesman John C. Calhoun. Rejecting the arguments for federal authority or self - government, state sovereignty would empower states to promote the expansion of slavery as part of the Federal Union under the U.S. Constitution. "States ' rights '' was an ideology formulated and applied as a means of advancing slave state interests through federal authority. As historian Thomas L. Krannawitter points out, the "Southern demand for federal slave protection represented a demand for an unprecedented expansion of federal power. '' These four doctrines comprised the major ideologies presented to the American public on the matters of slavery, the territories and the U.S. Constitution prior to the 1860 presidential election.
Beginning in the American Revolution and accelerating after the War of 1812, the people of the United States grew in the sense that their country was a national republic based on the belief that all people had inalienable political liberty and personal rights which could serve as an important example to the rest of the world. Previous regional independence movements such as the Greek revolt in the Ottoman Empire, the division and redivision of the Latin American political map, and the British - French Crimean triumph leading to an interest in redrawing Europe along cultural differences, all conspired to make for a time of upheaval and uncertainty about the basis of the nation - state.
In the world of 19th century self - made Americans, growing in prosperity, population and expanding westward, "freedom '' could mean personal liberty or property rights. The unresolved difference would cause failure -- first in their political institutions, then in their civil life together.
Nationalism was a powerful force in the early 19th century, with famous spokesmen such as Andrew Jackson and Daniel Webster. While practically all Northerners supported the Union, Southerners were split between those loyal to the entire United States (called "unionists '') and those loyal primarily to the southern region and then the Confederacy. C. Vann Woodward said of the latter group,
A great slave society... had grown up and miraculously flourished in the heart of a thoroughly bourgeois and partly puritanical republic. It had renounced its bourgeois origins and elaborated and painfully rationalized its institutional, legal, metaphysical, and religious defenses... When the crisis came it chose to fight. It proved to be the death struggle of a society, which went down in ruins.
Perceived insults to Southern collective honor included the enormous popularity of Uncle Tom 's Cabin (1852) and the actions of abolitionist John Brown in trying to incite a slave rebellion in 1859.
While the South moved towards a Southern nationalism, leaders in the North were also becoming more nationally minded, and they rejected any notion of splitting the Union. The Republican national electoral platform of 1860 warned that Republicans regarded disunion as treason and would not tolerate it: "We denounce those threats of disunion... as denying the vital principles of a free government, and as an avowal of contemplated treason, which it is the imperative duty of an indignant people sternly to rebuke and forever silence. '' The South ignored the warnings: Southerners did not realize how ardently the North would fight to hold the Union together.
The election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession. Efforts at compromise, including the "Corwin Amendment '' and the "Crittenden Compromise '', failed. Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction. The slave states, which had already become a minority in the House of Representatives, were now facing a future as a perpetual minority in the Senate and Electoral College against an increasingly powerful North. Before Lincoln took office in March 1861, seven slave states had declared their secession and joined to form the Confederacy.
According to Lincoln, the people of the United States had shown that they can be successful in establishing and administering a republic, but a third challenge faced the nation, maintaining the republic, based on the people 's vote. The people must now show: "... successful maintenance (of the Republic) against a formidable internal attempt to overthrow it. It is now for them to demonstrate to the world that those who can fairly carry an election can also suppress a rebellion; that ballots are the rightful and peaceful successors of bullets; and that when ballots have fairly and constitutionally decided, there can be no successful appeal back to bullets; that there can be no successful appeal, except to ballots themselves, at succeeding elections. Such will be a great lesson of peace; teaching men that what they can not take by an election, neither can they take it by a war... ''
The election of Lincoln caused the legislature of South Carolina to call a state convention to consider secession. Prior to the war, South Carolina did more than any other Southern state to advance the notion that a state had the right to nullify federal laws and, even, secede from the United States. The convention summoned unanimously voted to secede on December 20, 1860, and adopted the "Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union ''. It argued for states ' rights for slave owners in the South, but contained a complaint about states ' rights in the North in the form of opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act, claiming that Northern states were not fulfilling their federal obligations under the Constitution. The "cotton states '' of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed suit, seceding in January and February 1861.
Among the ordinances of secession passed by the individual states, those of three -- Texas, Alabama, and Virginia -- specifically mentioned the plight of the ' slaveholding states ' at the hands of northern abolitionists. The rest make no mention of the slavery issue, and are often brief announcements of the dissolution of ties by the legislatures. However, at least four states -- South Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia, and Texas -- also passed lengthy and detailed explanations of their causes for secession, all of which laid the blame squarely on the movement to abolish slavery and that movement 's influence over the politics of the northern states. The southern states believed slaveholding was a constitutional right because of the Fugitive slave clause of the Constitution.
These states agreed to form a new federal government, the Confederate States of America, on February 4, 1861. They took control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries with little resistance from outgoing President James Buchanan, whose term ended on March 4, 1861. Buchanan said that the Dred Scott decision was proof that the South had no reason for secession, and that the Union "... was intended to be perpetual, '' but that "The power by force of arms to compel a State to remain in the Union '' was not among the "... enumerated powers granted to Congress. '' One quarter of the U.S. Army -- the entire garrison in Texas -- was surrendered in February 1861 to state forces by its commanding general, David E. Twiggs, who then joined the Confederacy.
As Southerners resigned their seats in the Senate and the House, Republicans were able to pass bills for projects that had been blocked by Southern Senators before the war, including the Morrill Tariff, land grant colleges (the Morrill Act), a Homestead Act, a transcontinental railroad (the Pacific Railway Acts), the National Banking Act and the authorization of United States Notes by the Legal Tender Act of 1862. The Revenue Act of 1861 introduced the income tax to help finance the war.
On December 18, 1860, the Crittenden Compromise was proposed to re-establish the Missouri Compromise line by constitutionally banning slavery in territories to the north of the line while guaranteeing it to the south. The adoption of this compromise likely would have prevented the secession of every southern state apart from South Carolina, but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected it. It was then proposed to hold a national referendum on the compromise. The Republicans again rejected the idea, although a majority of both Northerners and Southerners would have voted in favor of it. A pre-war February Peace Conference of 1861 met in Washington, proposing a solution similar to that of the Crittenden compromise, it was rejected by Congress. The Republicans proposed an alternative compromise to not interfere with slavery where it existed but the South regarded it as insufficient. Nonetheless, the remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy following a two - to - one no - vote in Virginia 's First Secessionist Convention on April 4, 1861.
On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called any secession "legally void ''. He had no intent to invade Southern states, nor did he intend to end slavery where it existed, but said that he would use force to maintain possession of Federal property. The government would make no move to recover post offices, and if resisted, mail delivery would end at state lines. Where popular conditions did not allow peaceful enforcement of Federal law, U.S. Marshals and Judges would be withdrawn. No mention was made of bullion lost from U.S. mints in Louisiana, Georgia and North Carolina. In Lincoln 's inaugural address, he stated that it would be U.S. policy to only collect import duties at its ports; there could be no serious injury to the South to justify armed revolution during his administration. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union, famously calling on "the mystic chords of memory '' binding the two regions.
The South sent delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with Confederate agents because he claimed the Confederacy was not a legitimate government, and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government. Secretary of State William Seward who at that time saw himself as the real governor or "prime minister '' behind the throne of the inexperienced Lincoln, engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed. President Lincoln was determined to hold all remaining Union - occupied forts in the Confederacy, Fort Monroe in Virginia, in Florida, Fort Pickens, Fort Jefferson, and Fort Taylor, and in the cockpit of secession, Charleston, South Carolina 's Fort Sumter.
Fort Sumter was located in the middle of the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, where the U.S. fort 's garrison had withdrawn to avoid incidents with local militias in the streets of the city. Unlike Buchanan, who allowed commanders to relinquish possession to avoid bloodshed, Lincoln required Maj. Anderson to hold on until fired upon. Jefferson Davis ordered the surrender of the fort. Anderson gave a conditional reply that the Confederate government rejected, and Davis ordered P.G.T. Beauregard to attack the fort before a relief expedition could arrive. Troops under Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12 -- 13, forcing its capitulation.
The attack on Fort Sumter rallied the North to the defense of American nationalism. Historian Allan Nevins said:
However, much of the North 's attitude was based on the false belief that only a minority of Southerners were actually in favor of secession and that there were large numbers of southern Unionists that could be counted on. Had Northerners realized that most Southerners really did favor secession, they might have hesitated at attempting the enormous task of conquering a united South.
Lincoln called on all the states to send forces to recapture the fort and other federal properties. With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln called for only 75,000 volunteers for 90 days. The governor of Massachusetts had state regiments on trains headed south the next day. In western Missouri, local secessionists seized Liberty Arsenal. On May 3, 1861, Lincoln called for an additional 42,000 volunteers for a period of three years.
Four states in the middle and upper South had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures, but now Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina refused to send forces against their neighbors, declared their secession, and joined the Confederacy. To reward Virginia, the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond.
Maryland, Delaware, Missouri, and Kentucky were slave states that were opposed to both secession and coercing the South. West Virginia then joined them as an additional border state after it separated from Virginia and became a state of the Union in 1863.
Maryland 's territory surrounded the United States ' capital of Washington, DC and could cut it off from the North. It had numerous anti-Lincoln officials who tolerated anti-army rioting in Baltimore and the burning of bridges, both aimed at hindering the passage of troops to the South. Maryland 's legislature voted overwhelmingly (53 -- 13) to stay in the Union, but also rejected hostilities with its southern neighbors, voting to close Maryland 's rail lines to prevent them from being used for war. Lincoln responded by establishing martial law, and unilaterally suspending habeas corpus, in Maryland, along with sending in militia units from the North. Lincoln rapidly took control of Maryland and the District of Columbia, by seizing many prominent figures, including arresting 1 / 3 of the members of the Maryland General Assembly on the day it reconvened. All were held without trial, ignoring a ruling by the Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Roger Taney, a Maryland native, that only Congress (and not the president) could suspend habeas corpus (Ex parte Merryman). Indeed, federal troops imprisoned a prominent Baltimore newspaper editor, Frank Key Howard, Francis Scott Key 's grandson, after he criticized Lincoln in an editorial for ignoring the Supreme Court Chief Justice 's ruling.
In Missouri, an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union. When pro-Confederate Governor Claiborne F. Jackson called out the state militia, it was attacked by federal forces under General Nathaniel Lyon, who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state. (See also: Missouri secession). In the resulting vacuum, the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the Unionist provisional government of Missouri.
Kentucky did not secede; for a time, it declared itself neutral. When Confederate forces entered the state in September 1861, neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its Union status, while trying to maintain slavery. During a brief invasion by Confederate forces, Confederate sympathizers organized a secession convention, inaugurated a governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy. The rebel government soon went into exile and never controlled Kentucky.
After Virginia 's secession, a Unionist government in Wheeling asked 48 counties to vote on an ordinance to create a new state on October 24, 1861. A voter turnout of 34 percent approved the statehood bill (96 percent approving). The inclusion of 24 secessionist counties in the state and the ensuing guerrilla war engaged about 40,000 Federal troops for much of the war. Congress admitted West Virginia to the Union on June 20, 1863. West Virginia provided about 20,000 -- 22,000 soldiers to both the Confederacy and the Union.
A Unionist secession attempt occurred in East Tennessee, but was suppressed by the Confederacy, which arrested over 3,000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union. They were held without trial.
The Civil War was a contest marked by the ferocity and frequency of battle. Over four years, 237 named battles were fought, as were many more minor actions and skirmishes, which were often characterized by their bitter intensity and high casualties. In his book The American Civil War, John Keegan writes that "The American Civil War was to prove one of the most ferocious wars ever fought ''. Without geographic objectives, the only target for each side was the enemy 's soldier.
As the first seven states began organizing a Confederacy in Montgomery, the entire U.S. army numbered 16,000. However, Northern governors had begun to mobilize their militias. The Confederate Congress authorized the new nation up to 100,000 troops sent by governors as early as February. By May, Jefferson Davis was pushing for 100,000 men under arms for one year or the duration, and that was answered in kind by the U.S. Congress.
In the first year of the war, both sides had far more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip. After the initial enthusiasm faded, reliance on the cohort of young men who came of age every year and wanted to join was not enough. Both sides used a draft law -- conscription -- as a device to encourage or force volunteering; relatively few were actually drafted and served. The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for young men aged 18 to 35; overseers of slaves, government officials, and clergymen were exempt. The U.S. Congress followed in July, authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers. European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland.
When the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863, ex-slaves were energetically recruited by the states, and used to meet the state quotas. States and local communities offered higher and higher cash bonuses for white volunteers. Congress tightened the law in March 1863. Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or, until mid-1864, pay commutation money. Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home. There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, especially in Catholic areas. The great draft riot in New York City in July 1863 involved Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the vote of the city 's Democratic political machine, not realizing it made them liable for the draft. Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted.
In both the North and South, the draft laws were highly unpopular. In the North, some 120,000 men evaded conscription, many of them fleeing to Canada, and another 280,000 soldiers deserted during the war. At least 100,000 Southerners deserted, or about 10 percent. In the South, many men deserted temporarily to take care of their distressed families, then returned to their units. In the North, "bounty jumpers '' enlisted to get the generous bonus, deserted, then went back to a second recruiting station under a different name to sign up again for a second bonus; 141 were caught and executed.
From a tiny frontier force in 1860, the Union and Confederate armies had grown into the "largest and most efficient armies in the world '' within a few years. European observers at the time dismissed them as amateur and unprofessional, but British historian John Keegan 's assessment is that each outmatched the French, Prussian and Russian armies of the time, and but for the Atlantic, would have threatened any of them with defeat.
Perman and Taylor (2010) say that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years:
Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology, holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty, Union, or state rights, or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery. Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight, such as the defense of one 's home and family, or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men. Most historians agree that no matter what a soldier thought about when he went into the war, the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes altered his reasons for continuing the fight.
At the start of the civil war, a system of paroles operated. Captives agreed not to fight until they were officially exchanged. Meanwhile, they were held in camps run by their own army where they were paid but not allowed to perform any military duties. The system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners. After that, about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons during the war, accounting for nearly 10 percent of the conflict 's fatalities.
The small U.S. Navy of 1861 was rapidly enlarged to 6,000 officers and 45,000 men in 1865, with 671 vessels, having a tonnage of 510,396. Its mission was to blockade Confederate ports, take control of the river system, defend against Confederate raiders on the high seas, and be ready for a possible war with the British Royal Navy. Meanwhile, the main riverine war was fought in the West, where a series of major rivers gave access to the Confederate heartland, if the U.S. Navy could take control. In the East, the Navy supplied and moved army forces about, and occasionally shelled Confederate installations.
By early 1861, General Winfield Scott had devised the Anaconda Plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible. Scott argued that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy. Lincoln adopted parts of the plan, but he overruled Scott 's caution about 90 - day volunteers. Public opinion, however, demanded an immediate attack by the army to capture Richmond.
In April 1861, Lincoln announced the Union blockade of all Southern ports; commercial ships could not get insurance and regular traffic ended. The South blundered in embargoing cotton exports in 1861 before the blockade was effective; by the time they realized the mistake, it was too late. "King Cotton '' was dead, as the South could export less than 10 percent of its cotton. The blockade shut down the ten Confederate seaports with railheads that moved almost all the cotton, especially New Orleans, Mobile, and Charleston. By June 1861, warships were stationed off the principal Southern ports, and a year later nearly 300 ships were in service.
The Civil War occurred during the early stages of the industrial revolution and subsequently many naval innovations emerged during this time, most notably the advent of the ironclad warship. It began when the Confederacy, knowing they had to meet or match the Union 's naval superiority, responded to the Union blockade by building or converting more than 130 vessels, including twenty - six ironclads and floating batteries. Only half of these saw active service. Many were equipped with ram bows, creating "ram fever '' among Union squadrons wherever they threatened. But in the face of overwhelming Union superiority and the Union 's own ironclad warships, they were unsuccessful.
The Confederacy experimented with a submarine, which did not work well, and with building an ironclad ship, the CSS Virginia, which was based on rebuilding a sunken Union ship, the Merrimack. On its first foray on March 8, 1862, the Virginia inflicted significant damage to the Union 's wooden fleet, but the next day the first Union ironclad, the USS Monitor, arrived to challenge it in the Chesapeake Bay. The resulting three hour battle between the Ironclads was a draw, but it marked the worldwide transition to ironclad warships. Not long after the battle the Confederacy was forced to scuttle the Virginia to prevent its capture, while the Union built many copies of the Monitor. Lacking the technology and infrastructure to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Britain.
British investors built small, fast, steam - driven blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Britain through Bermuda, Cuba, and the Bahamas in return for high - priced cotton. Many of the ships were designed for speed and were so small that only a small amount of cotton went out. When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were condemned as a Prize of war and sold, with the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen were mostly British and they were simply released. The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war. There were multiple reasons for this: the severe deterioration of food supplies, especially in cities, the failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the seizure of animals and crops by Confederate armies. Most historians agree that the blockade was a major factor in ruining the Confederate economy; however, Wise argues that the blockade runners provided just enough of a lifeline to allow Lee to continue fighting for additional months, thanks to fresh supplies of 400,000 rifles, lead, blankets, and boots that the homefront economy could no longer supply.
Surdam argues that the blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy, at the cost of few lives in combat. Practically, the entire Confederate cotton crop was useless (although it was sold to Union traders), costing the Confederacy its main source of income. Critical imports were scarce and the coastal trade was largely ended as well. The measure of the blockade 's success was not the few ships that slipped through, but the thousands that never tried it. Merchant ships owned in Europe could not get insurance and were too slow to evade the blockade; they simply stopped calling at Confederate ports.
To fight an offensive war, the Confederacy purchased ships from Britain, converted them to warships, and raided American merchant ships in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Insurance rates skyrocketed and the American flag virtually disappeared from international waters. However, the same ships were reflagged with European flags and continued unmolested. After the war, the U.S. demanded that Britain pay for the damage done, and Britain paid the U.S. $15 million in 1871.
The 1862 Union strategy called for simultaneous advances along four axes:
Ulysses Grant used river transport and Andrew Foote 's gunboats of the Western Flotilla to threaten the Confederacy 's "Gibraltar of the West '' at Columbus, Kentucky. Though rebuffed at Belmont, Grant cut off Columbus. The Confederates, lacking their own gunboats, were forced to retreat and the Union took control of western Kentucky in March 1862.
In addition to ocean - going warships coming up the Mississippi, the Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats. Shipyards at Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis built new boats or modified steamboats for action. They took control of the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers after victories at Fort Henry (February 6, 1862) and Fort Donelson (February 11 to 16, 1862), and supplied Grant 's forces as he moved into Tennessee. At Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), in Tennessee in April 1862, the Confederates made a surprise attack that pushed Union forces against the river as night fell. Overnight, the Navy landed additional reinforcements, and Grant counter-attacked. Grant and the Union won a decisive victory -- the first battle with the high casualty rates that would repeat over and over. Memphis fell to Union forces on June 6, 1862, and became a key base for further advances south along the Mississippi River. On April 24, 1862, U.S. Naval forces under Farragut ran past Confederate defenses south of New Orleans. Confederate forces abandoned the city, giving the Union a critical anchor in the deep South.
Naval forces assisted Grant in the long, complex Vicksburg Campaign that resulted in the Confederates surrendering at Vicksburg, Mississippi in July 1863, and in the Union fully controlling the Mississippi River soon after.
In one of the first highly visible battles, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell on the Confederate forces near Washington was repulsed.
Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 (he was briefly general - in - chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck), and the war began in earnest in 1862. Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River, southeast of Richmond. Although McClellan 's army reached the gates of Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign, Johnston halted his advance at the Battle of Seven Pines, then General Robert E. Lee and top subordinates James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson defeated McClellan in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat. The Northern Virginia Campaign, which included the Second Battle of Bull Run, ended in yet another victory for the South. McClellan resisted General - in - Chief Halleck 's orders to send reinforcements to John Pope 's Union Army of Virginia, which made it easier for Lee 's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops.
Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North. General Lee led 45,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope 's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in United States military history. Lee 's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee 's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation.
When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. Burnside was soon defeated at the Battle of Fredericksburg on December 13, 1862, when more than 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye 's Heights. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker.
Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee 's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863. Gen. Stonewall Jackson was shot in the arm by accidental friendly fire during the battle and subsequently died of complications. Gen. Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. George Meade during Lee 's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1 to 3, 1863). This was the bloodiest battle of the war, and has been called the war 's turning point. Pickett 's Charge on July 3 is often considered the high - water mark of the Confederacy because it signaled the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory. Lee 's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade 's 23,000). However, Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee 's retreat, and after Meade 's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western Theater for new leadership. At the same time, the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy, and producing the new leader Lincoln needed, Ulysses S. Grant.
While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern Theater, they were defeated many times in the West. They were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the Battle of Pea Ridge. Leonidas Polk 's invasion of Columbus, Kentucky ended Kentucky 's policy of neutrality and turned that state against the Confederacy. Nashville and central Tennessee fell to the Union early in 1862, leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization.
The Mississippi was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee with the taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee. In April 1862, the Union Navy captured New Orleans, which allowed Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi. Only the fortress city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river.
General Braxton Bragg 's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Perryville, although Bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat due to lack of support for the Confederacy in that state. Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River in Tennessee.
The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga. Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet 's corps (from Lee 's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas. Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged.
The Union 's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry and Donelson (by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers); the Battle of Shiloh; and the Battle of Vicksburg, which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning points of the war. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga, driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.
Extensive guerrilla warfare characterized the trans - Mississippi region, as the Confederacy lacked the troops and the logistics to support regular armies that could challenge Union control. Roving Confederate bands such as Quantrill 's Raiders terrorized the countryside, striking both military installations and civilian settlements. The "Sons of Liberty '' and "Order of the American Knights '' attacked pro-Union people, elected officeholders, and unarmed uniformed soldiers. These partisans could not be entirely driven out of the state of Missouri until an entire regular Union infantry division was engaged.
By 1864, these violent activities harmed the nationwide anti-war movement organizing against the re-election of Lincoln. Missouri not only stayed in the Union, Lincoln took 70 percent of the vote for re-election.
Numerous small - scale military actions south and west of Missouri sought to control Indian Territory and New Mexico Territory for the Union. The Union repulsed Confederate incursions into New Mexico in 1862, and the exiled Arizona government withdrew into Texas. In the Indian Territory, civil war broke out within tribes. About 12,000 Indian warriors fought for the Confederacy, and smaller numbers for the Union. The most prominent Cherokee was Brigadier General Stand Watie, the last Confederate general to surrender.
After the fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, General Kirby Smith in Texas was informed by Jefferson Davis that he could expect no further help from east of the Mississippi River. Although he lacked resources to beat Union armies, he built up a formidable arsenal at Tyler, along with his own Kirby Smithdom economy, a virtual "independent fiefdom '' in Texas, including railroad construction and international smuggling. The Union in turn did not directly engage him. Its 1864 Red River Campaign to take Shreveport, Louisiana was a failure and Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war.
At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, and put Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of total war and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war. This was total war not in killing civilians but rather in taking provisions and forage and destroying homes, farms, and railroads, that Grant said "would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion. This policy I believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end. '' Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions. Generals George Meade and Benjamin Butler were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General Franz Sigel (and later Philip Sheridan) were to attack the Shenandoah Valley, General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the sea (the Atlantic Ocean), Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture Mobile, Alabama.
Grant 's army set out on the Overland Campaign with the goal of drawing Lee into a defense of Richmond, where they would attempt to pin down and destroy the Confederate army. The Union army first attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles, notably at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor. These battles resulted in heavy losses on both sides, and forced Lee 's Confederates to fall back repeatedly. An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the Bermuda Hundred river bend. Each battle resulted in setbacks for the Union that mirrored what they had suffered under prior generals, though unlike those prior generals, Grant fought on rather than retreat. Grant was tenacious and kept pressing Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. While Lee was preparing for an attack on Richmond, Grant unexpectedly turned south to cross the James River and began the protracted Siege of Petersburg, where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months.
Grant finally found a commander, General Philip Sheridan, aggressive enough to prevail in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Sheridan was initially repelled at the Battle of New Market by former U.S. Vice President and Confederate Gen. John C. Breckinridge. The Battle of New Market was the Confederacy 's last major victory of the war. After redoubling his efforts, Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at the Battle of Cedar Creek. Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia.
Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John Bell Hood along the way. The fall of Atlanta on September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as president. Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman 's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the Franklin - Nashville Campaign. Union Maj. Gen. John Schofield defeated Hood at the Battle of Franklin, and George H. Thomas dealt Hood a massive defeat at the Battle of Nashville, effectively destroying Hood 's army.
Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman 's army marched with an unknown destination, laying waste to about 20 percent of the farms in Georgia in his "March to the Sea ''. He reached the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah, Georgia in December 1864. Sherman 's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; there were no major battles along the March. Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south, increasing the pressure on Lee 's army.
Lee 's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant 's. One last Confederate attempt to break the Union hold on Petersburg failed at the decisive Battle of Five Forks (sometimes called "the Waterloo of the Confederacy '') on April 1. This meant that the Union now controlled the entire perimeter surrounding Richmond - Petersburg, completely cutting it off from the Confederacy. Realizing that the capital was now lost, Lee decided to evacuate his army. The Confederate capital fell to the Union XXV Corps, composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west after a defeat at Sayler 's Creek.
Initially, Lee did not intend to surrender, but planned to regroup at the village of Appomattox Court House, where supplies were to be waiting, and then continue the war. Grant chased Lee and got in front of him, so that when Lee 's army reached Appomattox Court House, they were surrounded. After an initial battle, Lee decided that the fight was now hopeless, and surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at the McLean House. In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant 's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse, Traveller.
On April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth, a Southern sympathizer. Lincoln died early the next morning, and Andrew Johnson became the president. Meanwhile, Confederate forces across the South surrendered as news of Lee 's surrender reached them. On April 26, 1865, General Joseph E. Johnston surrendered nearly 90,000 men of the Army of Tennessee to Major General William T. Sherman at the Bennett Place near present - day Durham, North Carolina. It proved to be the largest surrender of Confederate forces, effectively bringing the war to an end. President Johnson officially declared a virtual end to the insurrection on May 9, 1865; President Jefferson Davis was captured the following day. On June 2, Kirby Smith officially surrendered his troops in the Trans - Mississippi Department. On June 23, Cherokee leader Stand Watie became the last Confederate General to surrender his forces.
Though the Confederacy hoped that Britain and France would join them against the Union, this was never likely, and so they instead tried to bring Britain and France in as mediators. The Union, under Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. Seward worked to block this, and threatened war if any country officially recognized the existence of the Confederate States of America. In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war to get cotton, but this did not work. Worse, Europe developed other cotton suppliers, which they found superior, hindering the South 's recovery after the war.
Cotton diplomacy proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860 -- 62 crop failures in Europe made the North 's grain exports of critical importance. It also helped to turn European opinion further away from the Confederacy. It was said that "King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton '', as U.S. grain went from a quarter of the British import trade to almost half. When Britain did face a cotton shortage, it was temporary, being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and India. Meanwhile, the war created employment for arms makers, ironworkers, and British ships to transport weapons.
Lincoln 's foreign policy was deficient in 1861 in terms of appealing to European public opinion. Diplomats had to explain that United States was not committed to the ending of slavery, but instead they repeated legalistic arguments about the unconstitutionality of secession. Confederate spokesmen, on the other hand, were much more successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for liberty, their commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy. In addition, the European aristocracy (the dominant factor in every major country) was "absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed. European government leaders welcomed the fragmentation of the ascendant American Republic. ''
U.S. minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams proved particularly adept and convinced Britain not to boldly challenge the blockade. The Confederacy purchased several warships from commercial shipbuilders in Britain (CSS Alabama, CSS Shenandoah, CSS Tennessee, CSS Tallahassee, CSS Florida, and some others). The most famous, the CSS Alabama, did considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes. However, public opinion against slavery created a political liability for politicians in Britain, where the antislavery movement was powerful.
War loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. and Britain over the Trent affair, involving the U.S. Navy 's boarding of the British ship Trent and seizure of two Confederate diplomats. However, London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln released the two. In 1862, the British considered mediation between North and South -- though even such an offer would have risked war with the U.S. British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston reportedly read Uncle Tom 's Cabin three times when deciding on this.
The Union victory in the Battle of Antietam caused them to delay this decision. The Emancipation Proclamation over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France 's own seizure of Mexico ultimately deterred them from war with the Union. Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris. After 1863, the Polish revolt against Russia further distracted the European powers, and ensured that they would remain neutral.
The causes of the war, the reasons for its outcome, and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering contention today. The North and West grew rich while the once - rich South became poor for a century. The national political power of the slaveowners and rich southerners ended. Historians are less sure about the results of the postwar Reconstruction, especially regarding the second class citizenship of the Freedmen and their poverty.
Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most scholars, including James McPherson, argue that Confederate victory was at least possible. McPherson argues that the North 's advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely but not guaranteed. He also argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics, they would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union.
Confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win, but only needed to fight a defensive war to convince the North that the cost of winning was too high. The North needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate armies to win. Lincoln was not a military dictator, and could only continue to fight the war as long as the American public supported a continuation of the war. The Confederacy sought to win independence by out - lasting Lincoln; however, after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated McClellan in the election of 1864, all hope for a political victory for the South ended. At that point, Lincoln had secured the support of the Republicans, War Democrats, the border states, emancipated slaves, and the neutrality of Britain and France. By defeating the Democrats and McClellan, he also defeated the Copperheads and their peace platform.
Many scholars argue that the Union held an insurmountable long - term advantage over the Confederacy in industrial strength and population. Confederate actions, they argue, only delayed defeat. Civil War historian Shelby Foote expressed this view succinctly: "I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back... If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I do n't think the South ever had a chance to win that War. ''
A minority view among historians is that the Confederacy lost because, as E. Merton Coulter put it, "people did not will hard enough and long enough to win. '' Marxist historian Armstead Robinson agrees, pointing to a class conflict in the Confederates army between the slave owners and the larger number of non-owners. He argues that the non-owner soldiers grew embittered about fighting to preserve slavery, and fought less enthusiastically. He attributes the major Confederate defeats in 1863 at Vicksburg and Missionary Ridge to this class conflict. However, most historians reject the argument. James M. McPherson, after reading thousands of letters written by Confederate soldiers, found strong patriotism that continued to the end; they truly believed they were fighting for freedom and liberty. Even as the Confederacy was visibly collapsing in 1864 -- 65, he says most Confederate soldiers were fighting hard. Historian Gary Gallagher cites General Sherman who in early 1864 commented, "The devils seem to have a determination that can not but be admired. '' Despite their loss of slaves and wealth, with starvation looming, Sherman continued, "yet I see no sign of let up -- some few deserters -- plenty tired of war, but the masses determined to fight it out. ''
Also important were Lincoln 's eloquence in rationalizing the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the Union cause. The Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of the President 's war powers. The Confederate government failed in its attempt to get Europe involved in the war militarily, particularly Britain and France. Southern leaders needed to get European powers to help break up the blockade the Union had created around the Southern ports and cities. Lincoln 's naval blockade was 95 percent effective at stopping trade goods; as a result, imports and exports to the South declined significantly. The abundance of European cotton and Britain 's hostility to the institution of slavery, along with Lincoln 's Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico naval blockades, severely decreased any chance that either Britain or France would enter the war.
Historian Don Doyle has argued that the Union victory had a major impact on the course of world history. The Union victory energized popular democratic forces. A Confederate victory, on the other hand, would have meant a new birth of slavery, not freedom. Historian Fergus Bordewich, following Doyle, argues that:
The North 's victory decisively proved the durability of democratic government. Confederate independence, on the other hand, would have established an American model for reactionary politics and race - based repression that would likely have cast an international shadow into the twentieth century and perhaps beyond. ''
Scholars have debated what the effects of the war were on political and economic power in the South. The prevailing view is that the southern planter elite retained its powerful position in the South. However, a 2017 study challenges this, noting that while some Southern elites retained their economic status, the turmoil of the 1860s created greater opportunities for economic mobility in the South than in the North.
The war resulted in at least 1,030,000 casualties (3 percent of the population), including about 620,000 soldier deaths -- two - thirds by disease, and 50,000 civilians. Binghamton University historian J. David Hacker believes the number of soldier deaths was approximately 750,000, 20 percent higher than traditionally estimated, and possibly as high as 850,000. The war accounted for more American deaths than in all other U.S. wars combined.
Based on 1860 census figures, 8 percent of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6 percent in the North and 18 percent in the South. About 56,000 soldiers died in prison camps during the War. An estimated 60,000 men lost limbs in the war.
Union army dead, amounting to 15 percent of the over two million who served, was broken down as follows:
In addition there were 4,523 deaths in the Navy (2,112 in battle) and 460 in the Marines (148 in battle).
Black troops made up 10 percent of the Union death toll, they amounted to 15 percent of disease deaths but less than 3 percent of those killed in battle. Losses among African Americans were high, in the last year and a half and from all reported casualties, approximately 20 percent of all African Americans enrolled in the military lost their lives during the Civil War. Notably, their mortality rate was significantly higher than white soldiers:
(We) find, according to the revised official data, that of the slightly over two millions troops in the United States Volunteers, over 316,000 died (from all causes), or 15.2 percent. Of the 67,000 Regular Army (white) troops, 8.6 percent, or not quite 6,000, died. Of the approximately 180,000 United States Colored Troops, however, over 36,000 died, or 20.5 percent. In other words, the mortality "rate '' amongst the United States Colored Troops in the Civil War was thirty - five percent greater than that among other troops, notwithstanding the fact that the former were not enrolled until some eighteen months after the fighting began.
Confederate records compiled by historian William F. Fox list 74,524 killed and died of wounds and 59,292 died of disease. Including Confederate estimates of battle losses where no records exist would bring the Confederate death toll to 94,000 killed and died of wounds. Fox complained, however, that records were incomplete, especially during the last year of the war, and that battlefield reports likely under - counted deaths (many men counted as wounded in battlefield reports subsequently died of their wounds). Thomas L. Livermore, using Fox 's data, put the number of Confederate non-combat deaths at 166,000, using the official estimate of Union deaths from disease and accidents and a comparison of Union and Confederate enlistment records, for a total of 260,000 deaths. However, this excludes the 30,000 deaths of Confederate troops in prisons, which would raise the minimum number of deaths to 290,000.
The United States National Park Service uses the following figures in its official tally of war losses:
Union: 853,838
Confederate: 914,660
While the figures of 360,000 army deaths for the Union and 260,000 for the Confederacy remained commonly cited, they are incomplete. In addition to many Confederate records being missing, partly as a result of Confederate widows not reporting deaths due to being ineligible for benefits, both armies only counted troops who died during their service, and not the tens of thousands who died of wounds or diseases after being discharged. This often happened only a few days or weeks later. Francis Amasa Walker, Superintendent of the 1870 Census, used census and Surgeon General data to estimate a minimum of 500,000 Union military deaths and 350,000 Confederate military deaths, for a total death toll of 850,000 soldiers. While Walker 's estimates were originally dismissed because of the 1870 Census 's undercounting, it was later found that the census was only off by 6.5 %, and that the data Walker used would be roughly accurate.
Analyzing the number of dead by using census data to calculate the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm suggests that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000, but most likely 761,000 soldiers, died in the war. This would break down to approximately 350,000 Confederate and 411,000 Union military deaths, going by the proportion of Union to Confederate battle losses.
Deaths among former slaves has proven much harder to estimate, due to the lack of reliable census data at the time, though they were known to be considerable, as former slaves were set free or escaped in massive numbers in an area where the Union army did not have sufficient shelter, doctors, or food for them. University of Connecticut Professor James Downs states that tens to hundreds of thousands of slaves died during the war from disease, starvation, exposure, or execution at the hands of the Confederates, and that if these deaths are counted in the war 's total, the death toll would exceed 1 million.
Losses were far higher than during the recent defeat of Mexico, which saw roughly thirteen thousand American deaths, including fewer than two thousand killed in battle, between 1846 and 1848. One reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the continued use of tactics similar to those of the Napoleonic Wars at the turn of the century, such as charging. With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, Minié balls and (near the end of the war for the Union army) repeating firearms such as the Spencer Repeating Rifle and the Henry Repeating Rifle, soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open. This led to the adoption of trench warfare, a style of fighting that defined much of World War I.
The wealth amassed in slaves and slavery for the Confederacy 's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended when Union armies arrived; they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied before the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 6, 1865) by the Thirteenth Amendment.
The war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South. All accumulated investment Confederate bonds was forfeit; most banks and railroads were bankrupt. Income per person in the South dropped to less than 40 percent of that of the North, a condition that lasted until well into the 20th century. Southern influence in the U.S. federal government, previously considerable, was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century. The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar era known as Reconstruction.
While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting to preserve slavery, most of the officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee 's army had close family ties to slavery. To Northerners, in contrast, the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery. Abraham Lincoln consistently made preserving the Union the central goal of the war, though he increasingly saw slavery as a crucial issue and made ending it an additional goal. Lincoln 's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation angered both Peace Democrats ("Copperheads '') and War Democrats, but energized most Republicans. By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the 1862 elections, but they did not gain control of Congress. The Republicans ' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with the Democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the northern state of Ohio when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment.
The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African - Americans, both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army. About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery.
During the Civil War, sentiment concerning slaves, enslavement and emancipation in the United States was divided. In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, and that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game. '' Copperheads and some War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union.
At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont (in Missouri) and David Hunter (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his gradual plan based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected. But only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln 's gradual plan, which was enacted by Congress. When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat ''. Lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published in abolitionist Horace Greeley 's newspaper.
In September 1862, the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity, and the subsequent War Governors ' Conference added support for the proclamation. Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, and his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. In his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me. ''
Lincoln 's moderate approach succeeded in inducing border states, War Democrats and emancipated slaves to fight for the Union. The Union - controlled border states (Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia) and Union - controlled regions around New Orleans, Norfolk and elsewhere, were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. All abolished slavery on their own, except Kentucky and Delaware.
Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President 's war powers, it only included territory held by Confederates at the time. However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union 's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union 's definition of liberty. The Emancipation Proclamation greatly reduced the Confederacy 's hope of getting aid from Britain or France. By late 1864, Lincoln was playing a leading role in getting Congress to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment, which made emancipation universal and permanent.
In Texas v. White, 74 U.S. 700 (1869) the United States Supreme Court ruled that Texas had remained a state ever since it first joined the Union, despite claims that it joined the Confederate States; the court further held that the Constitution did not permit states to unilaterally secede from the United States, and that the ordinances of secession, and all the acts of the legislatures within seceding states intended to give effect to such ordinances, were "absolutely null '', under the constitution.
Reconstruction began during the war, with the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, and it continued until 1877. It comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the outstanding issues of the war 's aftermath, the most important of which were the three "Reconstruction Amendments '' to the Constitution, which remain in effect to the present time: the 13th (1865), the 14th (1868) and the 15th (1870). From the Union perspective, the goals of Reconstruction were to consolidate the Union victory on the battlefield by reuniting the Union; to guarantee a "republican form of government for the ex-Confederate states; and to permanently end slavery -- and prevent semi-slavery status.
President Johnson took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865, when each ex-rebel state repudiated secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment. Radical Republicans demanded proof that Confederate nationalism was dead and that the slaves were truly free. They came to the fore after the 1866 elections and undid much of Johnson 's work. In 1872 the "Liberal Republicans '' argued that the war goals had been achieved and that Reconstruction should end. They ran a presidential ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated. In 1874, Democrats, primarily Southern, took control of Congress and opposed any more reconstruction. The Compromise of 1877 closed with a national consensus that the Civil War had finally ended. With the withdrawal of federal troops, however, whites retook control of every Southern legislature; the Jim Crow period of disenfranchisement and legal segregation was about to begin.
The Civil War is one of the central events in American collective memory. There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books and archival collections. The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, in the war 's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war. The last theme includes moral evaluations of racism and slavery, heroism in combat and heroism behind the lines, and the issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an "Empire of Liberty '' influencing the world.
Professional historians have paid much more attention to the causes of the war, than to the war itself. Military history has largely developed outside academe, leading to a proliferation of solid studies by non-scholars who are thoroughly familiar with the primary sources, pay close attention to battles and campaigns, and write for the large public readership, rather than the small scholarly community. Bruce Catton and Shelby Foote are among the best - known writers. Practically every major figure in the war, both North and South, has had a serious biographical study. Deeply religious Southerners saw the hand of God in history, which demonstrated His wrath at their sinfulness, or His rewards for their suffering. Historian Wilson Fallin has examined the sermons of white and black Baptist preachers after the War. Southern white preachers said:
God had chastised them and given them a special mission -- to maintain orthodoxy, strict biblicism, personal piety, and traditional race relations. Slavery, they insisted, had not been sinful. Rather, emancipation was a historical tragedy and the end of Reconstruction was a clear sign of God 's favor.
In sharp contrast, Black preachers interpreted the Civil War as:
God 's gift of freedom. They appreciated opportunities to exercise their independence, to worship in their own way, to affirm their worth and dignity, and to proclaim the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man. Most of all, they could form their own churches, associations, and conventions. These institutions offered self - help and racial uplift, and provided places where the gospel of liberation could be proclaimed. As a result, black preachers continued to insist that God would protect and help him; God would be their rock in a stormy land.
Memory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the "Lost Cause '', shaping regional identity and race relations for generations. Alan T. Nolan notes that the Lost Cause was expressly "a rationalization, a cover - up to vindicate the name and fame '' of those in rebellion. Some claims revolve around the insignificance of slavery; some appeals highlight cultural differences between North and South; the military conflict by Confederate actors is idealized; in any case, secession was said to be lawful. Nolan argues that the adoption of the Lost Cause perspective facilitated the reunification of the North and the South while excusing the "virulent racism '' of the 19th century, sacrificing African - American progress to a white man 's reunification. He also deems the Lost Cause "a caricature of the truth. This caricature wholly misrepresents and distorts the facts of the matter '' in every instance.
The interpretation of the Civil War presented by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard in The Rise of American Civilization (1927) was highly influential among historians and the general public until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s. The Beards downplayed slavery, abolitionism, and issues of morality. They ignored constitutional issues of states ' rights and even ignored American nationalism as the force that finally led to victory in the war. Indeed, the ferocious combat itself was passed over as merely an ephemeral event. Much more important was the calculus of class conflict. The Beards announced that the Civil War was really:
(A) social cataclysm in which the capitalists, laborers, and farmers of the North and West drove from power in the national government the planting aristocracy of the South.
The Beards themselves abandoned their interpretation by the 1940s and it became defunct among historians in the 1950s, when scholars shifted to an emphasis on slavery. However, Beardian themes still echo among Lost Cause writers.
The first efforts at Civil War battlefield preservation and memorialization came during the war itself with the establishment of National Cemeteries at Gettysburg, Mill Springs and Chattanooga. Soldiers began erecting markers on battlefields beginning with the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861, but the oldest surviving monument is the Hazen monument, erected at Stones River near Murfreesboro, Tennessee, in the summer of 1863 by soldiers in Union Col. William B. Hazen 's brigade to mark the spot where they buried their dead in the Battle of Stones River. In the 1890s, the United States government established five Civil War battlefield parks under the jurisdiction of the War Department, beginning with the creation of the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park in Tennessee and the Antietam National Battlefield in Maryland in 1890. The Shiloh National Military Park was established in 1894, followed by the Gettysburg National Military Park in 1895 and Vicksburg National Military Park in 1899. In 1933, these five parks and other national monuments were transferred to the jurisdiction of the National Park Service.
The modern Civil War battlefield preservation movement began in 1987 with the founding of the Association for the Preservation of Civil War Sites (APCWS), a grassroots organization created by Civil War historians and others to preserve battlefield land by acquiring it. In 1991, the original Civil War Trust was created in the mold of the Statue of Liberty / Ellis Island Foundation, but failed to attract corporate donors and soon helped manage the disbursement of U.S. Mint Civil War commemorative coin revenues designated for battlefield preservation. Although the two organizations joined forces on a number of battlefield acquisitions, ongoing conflicts prompted the boards of both organizations to facilitate a merger, which happened in 1999 with the creation of the Civil War Preservation Trust. In 2011, the organization was renamed The Civil War Trust. From 1987 through late 2017, The Trust and its predecessor organizations saved more than 40,000 acres at 126 Civil War battlefields and sites in 21 states.
The American Civil War has been commemorated in many capacities ranging from the reenactment of battles, to statues and memorial halls erected, to films being produced, to stamps and coins with Civil War themes being issued, all of which helped to shape public memory. This varied advent occurred in greater proportions on the 100th and 150th anniversary. Hollywood 's take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory, as seen in such film classics as Birth of a Nation (1915), Gone with the Wind (1939), and more recently Lincoln (2012). Ken Burns produced a notable PBS series on television titled The Civil War (1990). It was digitally remastered and re-released in 2015.
There were numerous technological innovations during the Civil War that had a great impact on 19th century science. The Civil War was one of the earliest examples of an "industrial war '', in which technological might is used to achieve military supremacy in a war. New inventions, such as the train and telegraph, delivered soldiers, supplies and messages at a time when horses were considered to be the fastest way to travel. It was also in this war when countries first used aerial warfare, in the form of reconnaissance balloons, to a significant effect. It saw the first action involving steam - powered ironclad warships in naval warfare history. Repeating firearms such as the Henry rifle, Spencer rifle, Colt revolving rifle, Triplett & Scott carbine and others, first appeared during the Civil War; they were a revolutionary invention that would soon replace muzzle - loading and single - shot firearms in warfare, as well as the first appearances of rapid - firing weapons and machine guns such as the Agar gun and the Gatling gun.
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how many versions of the tardis are there | TARDIS - Wikipedia
The TARDIS (UK: / ˈtɑːdɪs /; US: / ˈtɑːrdɪs /; Time And Relative Dimension In Space) is a fictional time machine and spacecraft that appears in the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who and its various spin - offs.
The TV Show Doctor Who mainly features a single TARDIS owned by the central character the Doctor. However, in the series other TARDIS are sometimes seen or used. The Doctor 's TARDIS has a number of features peculiar to it, notably due to its age and personality. Other TARDIS have the ability to change their appearance to ' blend in ' however the chameleon circuit in The Doctor 's TARDIS is broken meaning that it always resembles a police box.
Doctor Who has become so much a part of British popular culture that the shape of the police box has become associated with the TARDIS rather than with its real - world inspiration the original police box. The name TARDIS is a registered trademark of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). The police box design has also been registered as a trademark by the BBC, despite the design having been created by the Metropolitan Police.
When Doctor Who was being developed in 1963, the production staff discussed what the Doctor 's time machine would look like. To keep the design within budget, it was decided to make it resemble a police telephone box. This was explained in the context of the series as a disguise created by the ship 's "chameleon circuit '', a mechanism which is responsible for changing the outside appearance of the ship the millisecond it lands in order to fit in with its environment. The First Doctor explains that if it were to land in the middle of the Indian Mutiny, it might take on the appearance of a howdah (the carrier on the back of an elephant). The Ninth Doctor explains that if, for example, a TARDIS (with a working chameleon circuit) were to materialise in ancient Rome it might disguise itself as a statue on a plinth. Within the context of the series, the Doctor 's TARDIS has a faulty chameleon circuit that keeps it permanently stuck in the police box form. Despite being shown several times trying to repair it, the Doctor claims to have given up the attempt as he has grown accustomed to its appearance.
The idea for the police - box disguise came from BBC staff writer Anthony Coburn, who rewrote the programme 's first episode from a draft by C.E. Webber. In the first episode, "An Unearthly Child '' (1963), the TARDIS is first seen in a 1963 junkyard. It subsequently malfunctions, retaining the police box shape in a prehistoric landscape.
The first police box prop to be built for the programme was designed by Peter Brachacki, who worked as designer on the first episode. Nevertheless, one story has it the box came from Z - Cars, while Doctor Who producer Steven Moffat has said that the original TARDIS prop was reused from Dixon of Dock Green, although this is explicitly contradicted by the research cited on the BBC 's own website. Despite changes in the prop, the TARDIS has become the show 's most consistently recognisable visual element.
The dimensions and colour of the TARDIS props used in the series have changed many times, as a result of damage and the requirements of the show, and none of the BBC props has been a faithful replica of the original MacKenzie Trench model. This was referenced on - screen in the episode "Blink '' (2007), when the character Detective Inspector Shipton says the TARDIS "is n't a real (police box). The phone 's just a dummy, and the windows are the wrong size. ''
The production team conceived of the TARDIS travelling by dematerialising at one point and rematerialising elsewhere, although sometimes in the series it is shown also to be capable of conventional space travel. In the 2006 Christmas special, "The Runaway Bride '', the Doctor remarks that for a spaceship, the TARDIS does remarkably little flying. The ability to travel simply by fading into and out of different locations became one of the trademarks of the show, allowing for a great deal of versatility in setting and storytelling without a large expense in special effects. The distinctive accompanying sound effect -- a cyclic wheezing, groaning noise -- was originally created in the BBC Radiophonic Workshop by Brian Hodgson. He produced the effect by dragging a set of house keys along the strings of an old, gutted piano. The resulting sound was recorded and electronically processed with echo and reverb. When employed in the series, the sound is usually synchronised with the flashing light on top of the police box, or the fade - in and fade - out effects of a TARDIS (see "Controls '' below). Writer Patrick Ness has described the ship 's distinctive dematerialisation noise as "a kind of haunted grinding sound '', while the Doctor Who Magazine comic strips traditionally use the onomatopoeic phrase "vworp vworp vworp ''.
In 1996, the BBC applied to the UK Patent Office to register the TARDIS as a trademark. This was challenged by the Metropolitan Police, who felt that they owned the rights to the police box image. However, the Patent Office found that there was no evidence that the Metropolitan Police -- or any other police force -- had ever registered the image as a trademark. In addition, the BBC had been selling merchandise based on the image for over three decades without complaint by the police. The Patent Office issued a ruling in favour of the BBC in 2002.
TARDISes are grown, as stated by the Tenth Doctor in "The Impossible Planet '' (2006), and new TARDISes can not be grown to replace a missing TARDIS unless the Doctor is on his home planet, Gallifrey. They draw their power from several sources, but primarily from the Eye of Harmony, said to be the nucleus of a black hole created by the early Time Lords; a singularity. In The Edge of Destruction (1964), the power source of the TARDIS (referred to as the "heart of the TARDIS '') is said to be beneath the central column of the console. They are also said to draw power from the entire universe as revealed in the episode "Rise of the Cybermen '' (2006), in which the TARDIS is brought to a parallel universe and can not function without the use of a crystal power source from within the TARDIS, charged by the Doctor 's life force.
Other elements needed for the proper functioning of the TARDIS and requiring occasional replenishment include mercury (used in its fluid links), the rare ore Zeiton 7 (Vengeance on Varos, 1985), a trachoid time crystal (The Hand of Fear, 1976) and "artron energy ''. Artron energy is said to be the "residue of TARDIS engines '', and is also found in Time Lord brains and bodies as well as other species of time traveller (The Deadly Assassin, 1976; Four to Doomsday, 1982; The Wedding of Sarah Jane Smith, 2009; Death of the Doctor, 2010; "The Doctor 's Wife '', 2011; "The Power of Three '', 2012). Another form of energy, "huon energy '', is found in the heart of the TARDIS and (apart from the activities of the Torchwood Institute) nowhere else in the universe ("The Runaway Bride '', 2006).
Before a TARDIS becomes fully functional, it must be primed with the biological imprint of a Time Lord, normally done by simply having a Time Lord operate the TARDIS for the first time. This imprint comes from the Rassilon Imprimatur, part of the biological make - up of Time Lords, which gives them both a symbiotic link to their TARDISes and the ability to withstand the physical stresses of time travel (The Two Doctors, 1985). Without the Imprimatur, molecular disintegration would result; this serves as a safeguard against misuse of time travel even if the TARDIS technology were copied. Once a time machine is properly primed, however, with the imprint stored on a device called a "briode nebuliser '', it can be used safely by any species. According to Time Lord law, unauthorised use of a TARDIS carries "only one penalty '', implied to be death ("The Invasion of Time '', 1978).
A TARDIS usually travels by dematerialising in one spot, traversing the time vortex, and then rematerialising at its destination, without physically travelling through the intervening space. However, the Doctor 's TARDIS has been seen to be able to fly through physical space, first in Fury from the Deep (1968) and at repeated times throughout the revived series, most notably in "The Runaway Bride '' (2006), in which the TARDIS is shown launching into space (most previous incidents show the TARDIS flying only after it has dematerialised from a location). In "The Runaway Bride '', extended flight of this nature puts a strain on the TARDIS 's systems. While a TARDIS can materialise inside another, if both TARDISes occupy exactly the same space and time, a Time Ram will occur, resulting in their mutual annihilation (The Time Monster). In Logopolis, the Master tricked the Doctor into materialising his TARDIS around the Master 's, creating a dimensionally recursive loop, each TARDIS appearing inside the other 's console room. In the mini-episodes "Space '' and "Time '' (2011), an accident results in the TARDIS automatically materialising in "the safest spot available '', which turns out to be inside its own control room.
Apart from the ability to travel in space and time (and, on occasion, to other dimensions), the most remarkable characteristic of a TARDIS is that its interior is much larger than it appears from the outside. The explanation is that a TARDIS is "dimensionally transcendental '', meaning that its exterior and interior exist in separate dimensions. In The Robots of Death (1977), the Fourth Doctor tried to explain this to his companion Leela, using the analogy of how a larger cube can appear to be able to fit inside a smaller one if the larger cube is farther away, yet immediately accessible at the same time (see Tesseract). According to the Doctor, transdimensional engineering was "a key Time Lord discovery ''. To those unfamiliar with this aspect of a TARDIS, stepping inside the ship for the first time usually results in a reaction of shocked disbelief as they see the interior dimensions ("It 's bigger on the inside! ''). The Eleventh Doctor is particularly fond of this reaction, and is surprised and confused when Clara Oswald (in "The Snowmen '') inverts the usual response by saying "It 's smaller on the outside. ''
In An Unearthly Child (1963), Susan Foreman, the Doctor 's granddaughter, claimed to have coined the acronym TARDIS, saying that she "made (it) up from the initials '', while the Twelfth Doctor claims in "The Zygon Inversion '' (2015) that he came up with the term from the initials, mentioning an entirely different set of words to Susan as to what "TARDIS '' acronym stands for. The word TARDIS is used to describe other Time Lords ' travel capsules as well. The Discontinuity Guide, written by Paul Cornell, Keith Topping, and Martin Day, suggests that "(she) was a precocious young Time Lady, and her name for travel capsules caught on. '' The Virgin New Adventures novel Lungbarrow by Marc Platt records Susan telling the First Doctor that she gave him the idea when he was, implicitly, the "Other ''.
As seen in The Trial of a Time Lord (1986), the experiences of the TARDIS and its crew can be recorded and played back from the Matrix, the Time Lord computer network that is the repository of all their knowledge, as well as the memories and experiences of deceased Time Lords. The Doctor implies in this serial, with his protestations of being "bugged '', that the TARDIS is not normally connected to the Matrix in this manner.
The TARDIS has been shown to be incredibly rugged, withstanding gunfire (the 1996 television movie, Doctor Who; "The Runaway Bride ''), temperatures of 3000 degrees without even scorching ("42 ''), atmospheric re-entry ("Voyage of the Damned ''), falls of several miles ("The Satan Pit '') and sinking into pooling acid ("The Almost People ''). In The Curse of Peladon, after the TARDIS falls down the side of a cliff, the Third Doctor remarks that it "may have its faults, but it is indestructible. '' This does not apply when facing certain extremely advanced weaponry, often created after the Doctor 's Type 40 TARDIS, such as Dalek missiles ("The Parting of the Ways ''), for which the TARDIS requires additional shielding. Another piece of advanced Dalek technology which comes near to destroying the TARDIS is the power source of the "Crucible '' in "Journey 's End '' (2008). In Frontios (1984), the Fifth Doctor believes the TARDIS to have been destroyed in a meteorite bombardment, apparently contradicting the earlier claim of indestructibility. It explodes in The Mind Robber (1968) and the crew end up "out of the time space dimension. Out of reality. '' In 2007 's Christmas special "Voyage of the Damned '', the TARDIS is hit in mid-flight, creating a large hole in the interior wall, although its shields are down at the time. The Doctor later activates some controls and the TARDIS again becomes able to withstand an atmospheric re-entry. Also in the 2013 episode "The Name of the Doctor '' the TARDIS is shown to be able to withstand immense speeds, pressure and heat by being pulled into Trenzalore 's atmosphere without any functioning systems. The only noticeable damage caused was to the exterior of the TARDIS, in which a small crack is shown on the glass. In "Robot of Sherwood '' (2014), Robin Hood 's wooden arrow easily pierces the TARDIS 's wooden frame. However, once the Twelfth Doctor removes it, the hole immediately seals itself. In "Flatline '' (2014), the TARDIS demonstrated a ' siege mode ' after being drained of power, miniaturised and hit by a train, when it reverted to a small metal cube with Gallifreyan markings. In the episodes "The Magician 's Apprentice '' and "The Witch 's Familiar '' (2015), it was apparently destroyed by a Dalek laser, but shown to have deliberately vaporised itself as a protective measure - the Doctor was then able to cause it to reassemble itself, undamaged, in the same spot.
In the programme, the Doctor 's TARDIS is an obsolete "Type 40 TT capsule '' that he unofficially "borrowed '' from the repair shop when he departed his home planet of Gallifrey. That incident is referred to as early as 1969, but not actually shown on screen for another 44 years, in a scene where future companion Clara Oswald advises him the specific capsule to take: although the navigation systems were malfunctioning it would be much more fun.
The TARDIS was already old when the Doctor first took it, but its actual age is not specified. In the unfinished TV serial Shada, fellow Time Lord Professor Chronotis says that the Type 40 models came out when he was a boy. There were originally 305 registered Type 40s, but all the others had been decommissioned and replaced by new, improved models; however, the Doctor 's TARDIS had at some point been removed from the registry by the Celestial Intervention Agency on Gallifrey. By the time of The Pirate Planet (1978), the Doctor had been travelling on board in time and space for 523 years, by the time of "The Doctor 's Wife '' (2011), he had been travelling in it for 700 years, and in "Journey to the Centre of the TARDIS '' (2013) he had been travelling for 900 years. In "The Empty Child '' (2005), the Ninth Doctor claimed that he has had "900 years of phone box travel ''.
The appearance of the primary console room has changed over the years, sometimes in minor ways and sometimes drastically when the set has had to be moved or rebuilt. This has often been rationalised in the scripts as redecoration, the ship 's own ability to reconfigure or repair itself, or even a change of "desktop theme ''. In "The Doctor 's Wife '' the TARDIS says she has thirty desktops archived, although the Doctor has only changed it a dozen times "yet ''.
In the 2011 episode "The Doctor 's Wife '' the "soul '' of the ship is transferred into the body of a humanoid female called Idris, enabling the Doctor to have a conversation with his craft. The TARDIS says that she deliberately allowed the Doctor to "steal '' her, as she wanted to see the universe itself; in a reversal of the traditional view, the TARDIS claims to have stolen the Doctor. When he accuses the TARDIS of being unreliable, she defends herself by saying that she has always taken him where he "needed to go '', as opposed to where he "wanted to go ''. During their brief opportunity to converse, the TARDIS expresses both affection and frustration with the Doctor (including annoyance that he pushes her doors open rather than pulls them open as the instructional sign on the outside indicates). When asked by the Doctor if she actually has a name, she self - identifies with the name "Sexy '', based upon what the Doctor calls her when he 's alone in the ship (she later introduces herself to the Doctor 's companions using this name). Eventually, the Idris "avatar '' dies, and the last words uttered by the TARDIS to the Doctor using this interface are "I love you. '' Two additional pieces of information confirmed by the TARDIS during this incident are that TARDIS consciousnesses are female and that she and the Doctor have been travelling for approximately 700 years.
In a later episode, "Let 's Kill Hitler '' (2011), the Doctor speaks to the TARDIS by way of a holographic voice interface. In this instance, after providing options including an image of himself and former companions, the TARDIS manifests as an image of Amelia Pond as a child. In "Hide '' (2013), companion Clara Oswald interacts with a similar interface outside the TARDIS ' doors when it refuses to open for her. In a subsequent mini-episode entitled "Clara and the TARDIS '', further animosity between Clara and the ship 's consciousness is indicated when the TARDIS reconfigures her internal layout to prevent Clara from finding her bedroom. However, following "The Name of the Doctor '' (2013) - in which her leap into the Doctor 's time stream is what facilitated the Doctor and Susan to steal that TARDIS instead of the adjacent one that they had intended to take - the TARDIS 's animosity appears to have disappeared as Clara is now shown as able to close the TARDIS doors with a click of her fingers.
The episode "Hide '' (2013) revealed that the Doctor 's TARDIS is capable of operating autonomously; in the storyline, Clara convinces the ship, simply by speaking to her, to enter a pocket universe to rescue the imperiled Doctor.
The undisguised appearance of a Type 40 TARDIS ' exterior is a silver - grey cylinder only slightly larger than a police box. Its door is recessed and slides to open. This default state has appeared in 2013 's "The Name of the Doctor '', which depicts the TARDIS ' original theft by the Doctor.
Although a TARDIS is supposed to blend inconspicuously into whatever environment it turns up in, the Doctor 's TARDIS retains the shape of a police box because of a fault that occurred in the first Doctor Who serial, An Unearthly Child (1963). The ability to alter its appearance was first mentioned in the second episode of the series, where the First Doctor and Susan noted the unit was malfunctioning. ("It 's still a police box! Why has n't it changed? '') It was first given a general term of a "camouflage unit '' in The Time Meddler (1965). The name "chameleon circuit '' was first used in the 1975 Target Books novelisation of The Terror of the Autons, and eventually mentioned on screen in Logopolis (1981). The circuit was called a "cloaking device '' by the Eighth Doctor in the television movie Doctor Who (1996), and again a "chameleon circuit '' in the 2005 series episode "Boom Town ''.
The Doctor attempts to repair the circuit in Logopolis, to disastrous results. He tries again in Attack of the Cybermen (1985), but the successful transformations of the TARDIS into the shape of a pipe organ, a painted Welsh dresser (much to the amusement of Perpurgilliam "Peri '' Brown and the Sixth Doctor 's annoyance) and an elaborate gateway ended with a return to the police box shape. The circuit was also repaired during the Virgin New Adventures novels, but again the TARDIS ' shape was eventually restored to a police box shape. In "Boom Town '', the Ninth Doctor implies that he had stopped trying to fix the circuit quite some time ago because he had become rather fond of the police box shape -- a claim the Eighth Doctor makes in the 1996 television movie.
Cosmetically, the police box exterior of the TARDIS has remained virtually unchanged, although there have been slight modifications over the years. For example, the sign on the door concealing the police telephone has been black letters on a white background (An Unearthly Child), white on blue (The Seeds of Death, 1969) and white on black (The Curse of Peladon, 1972). Other modifications include different wordings on the phone panel; for example, "Urgent Calls '' (An Unearthly Child) as opposed to "All Calls '' (Castrovalva publicity photos). The "POLICE BOX '' sign was wider from Season 18 (1980) onwards and for the 2005 series, but not for the television movie. From An Unearthly Child to The War Machines (1966), the TARDIS also had a St. John Ambulance badge on the main doors, as did real police boxes; this has been reinstated and the window frame colour has returned to white for Matt Smith 's first season as the Doctor, shown in 2010. These various versions are depicted when thirteen incarnations of the Doctor all converge on Gallifrey at the climax of "The Day of the Doctor '' (2013). "The Empty Child '' (2005) shows that the telephone cupboard could be opened and the telephone accessed from the exterior, but this device was then non-functional. The telephone can however be called from across space and time. Because of the St. John Ambulance badge, 11th - century monks considered the telephone 's ring to be "the bells of Saint John ''.
Despite the anachronistic police box shape, the TARDIS ' presence is rarely questioned when it materialises in the present - day United Kingdom. In "Boom Town '', the Ninth Doctor simply notes that humans do not notice odd things like the TARDIS, echoing a similar sentiment expressed by the Seventh Doctor in Remembrance of the Daleks (1988), that humans have an "amazing capacity for self - deception '', while in "The Fires of Pompeii '' (2008) it is mistaken for an objet d'art by a merchant who purchases it and moves it into his home. Various episodes, notably "The Sound of Drums '' (2007), also note that the TARDIS generates a perception filter to reinforce the idea that it is perfectly ordinary.
When the TARDIS "died '' with the Doctor in battle in an alternative timeline, it became his tomb on the grave fields of the planet Trenzalore. Although the tomb retains its police box exterior appearance, its interior volume begins to "leak '', growing the exterior to hundreds of feet in height.
For most of the series ' run, the exterior doors of the police box operated separately from the heavier interior doors, although sometimes the two sets could open simultaneously to allow the ship 's passengers to look directly outside and vice versa. The revived series ' TARDIS features no such secondary doors; the police box doors open directly into the console room.
The Doctor almost always opens the doors inwards, despite the fact that a real police box door opened outwards; in "The Doctor 's Wife '' (2011), it is revealed that the TARDIS is aware of this and finds it annoying. After crash - landing on its back in Amelia Pond 's garden in "The Eleventh Hour '', the doors uncharacteristically open outward, as they had previously done when the TARDIS was also on its back in The Ice Warriors (1967); additionally, the left door opened in tandem with the usual right door in these instances. When hovering against a building in the same ' doors - up ' horizontal orientation in "Day of the Moon '' (2011), however, the doors opened inward as usual to receive River Song.
The doors are supposed to be closed while materialising; in Planet of Giants (1964), the opening of the doors during a materialisation sequence causes the ship and its occupants to shrink to doll size. In The Enemy of the World (1967), taking off while the doors were still open results in an uncontrolled decompression, causing the villainous Salamander to be blown out of the TARDIS. In the Seventh Doctor audio drama Colditz (2001), a character is killed by being halfway inside the TARDIS when it dematerialises. In Warriors ' Gate (1981), the doors open during flight between two universes, admitting a Tharil named Biroc, and allowing the time winds to burn the Doctor 's hand and seriously damage K9. In "The Runaway Bride '' (2006), "The Stolen Earth '' (2008) and subsequent stories, the doors can be opened safely while the ship is in a vacuum, as the TARDIS protects its occupants (see the "Defences '' section below); in The Horns of Nimon (1979), the Doctor deliberately extrudes the "defence shield '' to dock with a spacecraft. In The Time of Angels, River asks the Doctor to provide an "air corridor '' to assist in her escape from the Byzantium in deep space.
The entrance to the TARDIS is capable of being locked and unlocked from the outside with a key, which the Doctor keeps on his person and occasionally gives copies of to his companions. In the 1996 television movie, the Doctor kept a spare key "in a cubbyhole behind the ' P ' '' (of the POLICE BOX sign). In The Invasion of Time, a Citadel Guard on Gallifrey is initially baffled by the archaic lock when attempting to open the Doctor 's TARDIS.
In the 2005 series, the keys are also remotely linked to the TARDIS, capable of signalling its presence or impending arrival by heating up and glowing. The key is also able to repair temporal anomalies and paradoxes, including death aversion, through its link to the TARDIS.
The TARDIS ' keys have varied in design from an ordinary Yale key to an ankh - like key embossed with an alien pattern (identified in Terrance Dicks and Malcolm Hulke 's 1972 book The Making of Doctor Who as the constellation of Kasterborous, Gallifrey 's home system) from seasons 11 to 13, after which it reverted to the Yale key design. The ankh - like key was also used in the 1996 television movie. In Ghost Light and Survival, a different design, featuring the Seal of Rassilon, was used. The revived series uses the Yale key version, most notably shown in "Blink '' (2007), when the Weeping Angels attempt to gain access to the TARDIS using a stolen key.
The TARDIS ' lock 's security level has varied from story to story. Originally, it was said to have 21 different "combinations '' and would melt if the key was placed in the wrong one (The Daleks, 1963 -- 64). The First Doctor was also able to unlock it with his ring (The Web Planet, 1965) and repair it by using the light of an alien sun refracted through the ring 's jewel (The Daleks ' Master Plan). In The Dalek Invasion of Earth (1964) and "Utopia '' (2007), the TARDIS was shown to have an internal deadlock; once thrown, it would prevent entry even for authorised users with authorised keys. In The Dalek Invasion of Earth, this is known as ' double - locking '. In The Sensorites (1964), the entire lock mechanism is removed from the TARDIS ' door via a hand - held Sensorite device.
In Spearhead from Space (1970), the Third Doctor said that the lock had a metabolism detector, so that even if an unauthorised person had a key, the doors would remain locked. This security measure was also seen in the New Series Adventures novel Only Human (2005), which called it an "advanced meson recognition system. '' The Ninth Doctor claims that when the doors were shut, even "the assembled hordes of Genghis Khan '' could not enter ("believe me, they 've tried '') ("Rose '', 2005). In "Doomsday '' (2006), when the TARDIS is confiscated, the Doctor claims, "You 'll never get inside it. '' Several people have managed to just wander into the TARDIS without any problem over the years, including some who became companions. Despite the TARDIS ' apparent infallibility in its security, some of the instruments inside or the interior itself have been breached and remote - controlled. In the serial The War Games (1969), the Time Lords manage to breach the inside of the TARDIS while in mid-flight and landing in order to erect something similar to a force field. In "Utopia '' (2007), the Doctor is able to lock the TARDIS to the coordinates it had previously visited from outside using the sonic screwdriver. In the episode "The Rings of Akhaten '' (2013), Clara Oswald can not get into the TARDIS and says, "I do n't think it likes me! ''
In the 2008 episode "Forest of the Dead '' (2008), River Song (a character whose timeline intersects with the Doctor 's in non-linear order) says to the Doctor that she knows he would be able to open the TARDIS ' doors with a snap of his fingers. Although the Doctor dismisses this as impossible, at the episode 's conclusion, he opens and closes the doors by doing just that, eschewing the need for a key. He is later shown doing the same in "The Eleventh Hour '' (2010), "Day of the Moon '', and "The Caretaker '' (2014). In addition, despite the animosity it previously displayed towards her, Clara Oswald is also shown being able to open and shut the TARDIS ' doors by snapping her fingers (in "The Day of the Doctor '', 2013, and "The Caretaker '').
In the 2009 Christmas episode, part one of The End of Time, the Doctor uses a remote locking system to lock the TARDIS, similar to the remote - control locking system used on modern cars. Upon pointing his key fob at the TARDIS, the TARDIS makes a distinctive chirp and the light on top of the TARDIS flashes. Later in the same episode, the key fob, when again used by the Doctor, shifts the TARDIS "just a second out of sync '' (one second into the future), rendering it invisible and so hiding it from the Master.
Objects are sometimes shown clinging to the outside of the TARDIS and being carried with it as it dematerialises. In Silver Nemesis (1988), an arrow is fired at the TARDIS and is embedded in its door. The arrow remains in the door throughout the serial and through several dematerialisations before being removed at the story 's conclusion; this is repeated in "The Shakespeare Code '' (2007), and the arrow is removed in the following episode, "Gridlock ''. "Utopia '' presents, for the first time on - screen, a circumstance in which a character travels on the exterior of the TARDIS during a flight, when Jack Harkness grabs hold of the TARDIS as it began to dematerialise and holds on until it reaches its destination; the episode does establish, however, that a normal person would not have survived the trip, as Jack is "killed '' by the experience, but due to his immortality, soon revives. This concept was altered for "The Time of the Doctor '' (2013) where Clara also travels with the TARDIS by holding on to its exterior. To prevent Clara from dying the TARDIS has to drastically slow down its time travel, arriving 300 years too late with a visibly aged Doctor shouting where has it been all this time. In "Vincent and the Doctor '' (2010), some advertisements are attached to the TARDIS. After materialisation, they are shown to be burning. At the conclusion of the 2015 episode "Face the Raven '', Rigsy decorates the TARDIS with painted flowers and a chalk drawing of Clara Oswald; when the Doctor dematerialises the retrieved TARDIS at the conclusion of "Hell Bent '' (2015), the painted flowers and picture remain for a moment before the picture blows away and the flowers flake and fall to the ground.
The Time Lords are able to divert the TARDIS ' flight path during The Ribos Operation (1978), or have the ability to totally override and recall any TARDIS by the order of the Council in Arc of Infinity (1983). Alien influences have also, for example, trapped the Doctor 's TARDIS and drained its power in The Web Planet (1965) and Death to the Daleks (1974), while its course has been diverted in The Keeper of Traken (1981), by the Mandragora Helix in The Masque of Mandragora (1976) and by the Daleks ' "time corridor '' in Resurrection of the Daleks (1984). In The Mark of the Rani (1985), the Rani uses a Stattenheim remote control to summon her TARDIS. In The Two Doctors (1985), the Second Doctor also uses a portable Stattenheim. The Ninth Doctor uses his sonic screwdriver to trigger remotely "Emergency Program One '', sending his human companion Rose Tyler to safety, while he stayed behind for a battle against the Daleks (The Parting of the Ways (2005)). The Tenth Doctor also manipulates the TARDIS by utilising the self - attracting nature of huon particles, causing the TARDIS to materialise around both Donna Noble and himself, in order to escape into the past. However, this trick is used in turn by the Empress of the Racnoss, which pulls the TARDIS from the creation of the Earth to only a few minutes after its initial departure.
In "The Pandorica Opens '' (2010), the TARDIS is drawn to a specific date, 26 June 2010, and then caused to explode by an outside influence.
The exterior dimensions can be severed from the interior dimensions under extraordinary circumstances. In Frontios (1984), when the TARDIS is destroyed in a Tractator - induced meteor storm, the interior ends up outside the police box shell with various bits embedded in the surrounding rock. The Fifth Doctor eventually tricks the Gravis, leader of the Tractators, into reassembling the ship. In "Father 's Day '' (2005), a temporal paradox resulting in a wound in time throws the interior of the ship out of the wound, leaving the TARDIS an empty shell of a police box. The Ninth Doctor attempts to use the TARDIS ' key in conjunction with a small electrical charge to recover the ship, but the process is interrupted and the TARDIS was only restored after the paradox was resolved.
In "Turn Left '' (2008), the "Police Box '' sign and all other text on the TARDIS is shown as replaced with the words "Bad Wolf '', as is all text in the universe; this is interpreted by the Doctor as an urgent warning concerning the end of the universe. The words "Bad Wolf '' have also been spray - painted on and around the TARDIS in previous episodes.
The TARDIS interior has an unknown number of rooms and corridors, and the dimensions of the interior have not been specified. In "Journey to the Centre of the TARDIS '' (2013), the Doctor states that the TARDIS is actually infinite in size. Apart from living quarters, the interior includes rooms such as: a swimming pool and bathroom, a sick bay, an ancillary power station disguised as an art gallery, and several brick - walled storage areas (The Invasion of Time, 1978); a "cloister room '', an observatory, a library, a greenhouse, a baby room, and several squash courts. Numerous other rooms have been only mentioned in dialogue or in spin - off media. Portions of the TARDIS can also be reconfigured or "deleted ''; the Doctor jettisons 25 % of the TARDIS 's structure in Castrovalva to provide additional "thrust ''. In "The Doctor 's Wife '' (2011), a fail - safe transfers any living creatures in "deleted '' rooms to the main control room, and old (and future) control rooms can be "archived '' by the TARDIS without the Doctor 's knowledge. In "Journey to the Centre of the TARDIS '' (2013) the TARDIS is shown to contain the Eye of Harmony, an exploding star in the process of becoming a black hole.
Other rooms seen include living quarters for many of the Doctor 's companions. The TARDIS also had a "Zero Room '', a chamber that was shielded from the rest of the universe and provided a restful environment for the Fifth Doctor to recover from his regeneration in Castrovalva (which was among the 25 % jettisoned). However, the Seventh Doctor spin - off novel Deceit (1993) indicates that the Doctor rebuilt the Zero Room shortly before the events of that novel. In some of the First Doctor serials, a nearby room contains a machine that dispenses food or nutrition bars to the Doctor and his companions. This machine disappears after the first few serials, although mention is occasionally made of the TARDIS kitchen. In The One Doctor (2001), Mel mentions that the Doctor used the TARDIS 's laundromat.
In Full Circle (1980), Romana states that the weight of the TARDIS is 5 × 10 kilograms in Alzarius 's Earth - like gravity (about 5 × 10 Newtons, or the weight of 5,000 tonnes). It has been speculated that this is a mistake by the character and refers to its internal weight, as the external part of the TARDIS is at other times light enough for it to be lifted or otherwise moved with relative ease (although most real police boxes were concrete and hence quite difficult to move): several men lift it up in Marco Polo (1964), it is transported by truck and installed indoors by hand (all off - screen) in Spearhead from Space (1970), it requires a fork - lift truck in Time - Flight and is lifted in the cargo hold of a Concorde in the same serial, a group of small blue maintenance workers on Platform One push it along the ground in "The End of the World '' (2005), a quartet of Weeping Angels are able to rock it back and forth in "Blink '' (2007), and in "The Day of the Doctor '' (2013) it is lifted by a helicopter using a steel cable. The TARDIS floats in Fury from the Deep (1968) but, conversely, remains stationary despite the tides in The Time Meddler (1965). If the solid exterior of the TARDIS is moved or shaken after materialisation, the movement is usually transmitted to its interior ("The Impossible Astronaut '', 2011), although there is a manual control to separate the internal gravity from the exterior 's orientation (Time - Flight, 1982). The Twelfth Doctor has stated that the TARDIS 's weight is always adjusted; if it were not, its weight would shatter the Earth 's surface.
In the tie - in novels, the interior of the TARDIS has been known to contain an entire city, encompass an entire parallel Earth, and even dwarf Gallifrey itself when turned inside out.
A distinctive architectural feature of the TARDIS interior is the roundel. In the context of the TARDIS, a roundel is a circular decoration that adorns the walls of the rooms and corridors of the TARDIS, including the console room. Some roundels conceal TARDIS circuitry and devices, as seen in the serials The Wheel in Space (1968), Logopolis, Castrovalva (1981), Arc of Infinity (1983), Terminus (1983), and Attack of the Cybermen (1985), while in "The Husbands of River Song '' (2015), one roundel is shown to be used as a bar to store alcoholic drinks in. The design of the roundels has varied throughout the show 's history, from a basic circular cut - out with black background to a photographic image printed on wall board, to translucent illuminated discs in later serials. In the secondary console room, most of the roundels were executed in recessed wood panelling, with a few decorative ones in what appeared to be stained glass. In the TARDIS design from 2005 -- 10, the roundels are built into hexagonal recesses in the walls. Ever since the TARDIS was redesigned at the beginning of the 2010 series, there have been a range of different roundel designs around the console room. These include circular holes that are recessed deep into the walls, hexagonal holes that are lit from behind each face, round indents with brass rings around the outside, and a glass centre that is illuminated blue. In "The Day of the Doctor '', when the TARDIS ' control room briefly appears as the War Doctor 's room, the Eleventh Doctor points out to the Tenth Doctor that "the round things '' have reappeared, to their mutual delight despite neither one knowing what they 're for.
Although the interior corridors seen throughout the original series were not initially seen in the 2005 series, the fact that they still exist was established in "The Unquiet Dead '' (2005), when the Doctor gives Rose some very complicated directions to the TARDIS wardrobe. The wardrobe is mentioned several times in the original series and spin - off fiction, and seen in The Androids of Tara (1978), The Twin Dilemma (1984) and Time and the Rani (1987). The redesigned version, from which the Tenth Doctor chooses his new clothes, was seen in "The Christmas Invasion '' (2005) as a large multi-levelled room with a helical staircase. The corridors were eventually seen in the episode "The Doctor 's Wife ''. The Doctor also mentions in "The Shakespeare Code '' (2007) that the TARDIS has an attic.
In "Boom Town '' (2005), a portion of the TARDIS console opens to reveal a luminescent vapour within, described by the Doctor as the "heart of the TARDIS '', harking back to the description in The Edge of Destruction (1964). In "The Parting of the Ways '' (2005) it was shown that this is connected to the powerful energies of the time vortex.
The most often - seen room of the TARDIS is its console room, where its flight controls are housed. The console room was designed by Peter Brachacki and was the only set he designed for the show. It was built on a shoestring budget and a tight schedule, which led to Brachacki leaving the show due to disagreements with the production team and possibly a feeling that he had been given an impossible task. Despite his leaving the show and mixed reactions as to how the set looked (producer Verity Lambert liked it but director Waris Hussein did not), the basic design of the hexagonal console and wall roundels has persisted to the present day.
In the Third Doctor serial The Time Monster (1972), the console room of the TARDIS was dramatically altered, including the wall roundels. This new set, designed by Tim Gleeson, was disliked by producer Barry Letts, who felt that the new roundels resembled washing - up bowls stuck to the wall. However, as fate would have it the set was damaged in storage between production blocks and had to be rebuilt, so this particular design only saw service in the one serial.
The TARDIS has at least two console rooms: the primary one most used throughout the programme 's history, and the secondary console room used during Season 14 in 1976 / 77, which has wood panelling and a more antique feel to it. It had been designed to make shooting more comfortable for the camera crew. Putting the console on a dais meant the cameramen no longer had to crouch for eye - level shots. However the set walls warped after it was put into storage at the end of production and had to be discarded.
In addition, a cavernous, steampunk - inspired console room was used in the television movie Doctor Who (1996) and may have been a reconfiguration of either of the previously mentioned console rooms, as first suggested in New Adventures novels, most specifically the Lungbarrow (1997) by Marc Platt, where the TARDIS reconfigures the console room to reflect the interior of the Doctor 's former home and later in the Big Finish Productions audio plays.
In the 2005 series, the console room became a dome - shaped chamber with organic - looking support columns, and the interior doors were removed. The change in configuration is explained in "Time Crash '' (2007) by the Fifth Doctor as a mere changing of "the desktop theme '' to "Coral '' (he also indicates that a "Leopard Skin '' theme is also available, but he dislikes it). Several episodes of the revived series, such as "Army of Ghosts '' (2006) and the end of "The Unicorn and the Wasp '' (2008), reveal that there is storage space directly underneath the console room; the Doctor is shown periodically obtaining equipment from this area via a panel in the floor. The 2005 console room was destroyed by the regeneration energy of the Tenth Doctor in the final scene of The End of Time (2009 -- 10) and cold open of "The Eleventh Hour '' (2010), although it makes a reappearance in the 2011 episode "The Doctor 's Wife '' as well as the 50th anniversary special The Day of the Doctor. This console room has made the most appearances in the revived series, and is the most well known one. The console room is currently stored at the Doctor Who experience in Cardiff. A new console room, along with a new police box exterior, made its debut in "The Eleventh Hour ''. It was revealed in "The Doctor 's Wife '' that the older TARDIS interior designs are not destroyed or remodelled, but ' archived ' off the official schematic without the Doctor 's knowledge. The TARDIS reveals that she has around thirty console rooms archived, even those that the Doctor has yet to use. These archived console rooms are still capable of controlling TARDIS functions as shown when Amy and Rory are able to lower the TARDIS shields from an archived control room. The active console room at a given time will be the one connected to the exterior doors for ingress and egress.
A third console room design was unveiled in the 2012 Christmas special "The Snowmen ''. As opposed to the more open, unpredictable nature of the previous design, this set echoes the machine - like 1980s TARDIS console, but is coloured in the more shadowy blues, greens and purples of the 1996 TV movie. Though the central pillar is still connected to the ceiling -- a design element introduced in the 1996 movie, and continued in the 2005 series -- it is now joined to three circular connectors marked with Gallifreyan symbols that rotate clockwise and anticlockwise when the TARDIS is in flight.
Showrunner Steven Moffat stated that the new design was meant to be more ' scary ' and machine - like than the previous bright orange design, which was more ' whimsical ' to reflect upon the light - hearted and fairy - tale - like nature of the episodes following its introduction in "The Eleventh Hour ''. The seventh series ' darker, more adult tone necessitated a more menacing and mysterious console - also reflecting the implications that the TARDIS is distrustful of the Doctor 's companion, Clara Oswald. For instance, in "Hide '' (2013), Clara 's statement that the TARDIS actively dislikes her is intercut with footage of its circular connectors spinning from the ceiling. For the eighth series, Peter Capaldi 's first as the Doctor, this console was still used but was tweaked and altered slightly, including the addition of a blackboard and bookshelves and the time rotor was changed to an orange colour replacing the blue.
A previously unseen version of the console room made an appearance in the 2013 serial The Day of the Doctor and is associated with the War Doctor portrayed by John Hurt. This console room has walls that are similar in design to those first seen in 1963, with multiple roundels illuminated from behind.
The console room is the "safest place on the ship, '' and so when its occupants are in danger the TARDIS will reinvent its architecture so as to allow them to enter the console room. This can also result in the TARDIS materialising itself within its own console room when in grave danger, as it did in "Space '' and "Time ''. As seen in "Journey to the Centre of the TARDIS '', the console room is able to be replicated any number of times to create "echo rooms ''; occupants in each of the different echo rooms will be able to feel the presence of the others in the forms of shadows and sounds, as the rooms are together for a brief second, with the rooms rapidly alternating between each other, "like a light switch... flickering at super-infinite speeds. ''
The Virgin novels introduced a tertiary console room, which was described as resembling a Gothic cathedral (Nightshade, 1992). Another novel (Death and Diplomacy, 1996) suggested that the native configuration is so complex and irrational that most non-Time Lords who witness it are driven mad from the experience.
Throughout the programme 's history there have been various attempts at humanising the console room by adding various accoutrements. For example, a hatstand has often been located somewhere in the room, and the first episodes featured an ormolu clock. In the series from 2005 onwards, the TARDIS console included a bench sitting area for the Doctor and / or his companions to relax during extended flight. In The Androids of Tara (1978) a cupboard containing fishing gear is shown nearby. In "The Rebel Flesh '' (2011), a dartboard is seen installed in the console room, and it is revealed in the episode "Vincent and the Doctor '' (2010) that the console is capable of playing recorded music. In keeping with the darker and more machine - like setting of the 2012 redesign of the console room, there is no hat - stand or bench; in "Hide '', the Doctor and Clara both note that there is no longer anywhere in the room on which to hang Clara 's umbrella.
The main feature of the console rooms, in any of the known configurations, is the TARDIS console that holds the instruments that control the ship 's functions. The appearance of the primary TARDIS consoles has varied widely but shares common details: hexagonal pedestals with controls around the periphery, and a moveable column (or time rotor as it has been called in the original series and the 2011 episode "The Doctor 's Wife '') in the centre that bobs rhythmically up and down when the TARDIS is in flight, like a pump or a piston.
The secondary console was first seen in season 14 (1976 -- 77) of the original series. It had the controls hidden behind wooden panels and had no central column. The 1996 television movie console also appeared to be made of wood and the central column connected to the ceiling of the console room. When the console appeared in 2005 it was circular in shape but still divided into six segments, with both the control panels and the central column glowing green, the latter once again connected to the ceiling.
The 2005 console has a much more thrown - together appearance than previous consoles, with bits of junk from various eras substituting as makeshift controls, including a glass paperweight, a locomotive style water sight glass and protector, a small bell, and a bicycle pump, the latter identified in the Tenth Doctor interactive mini-episode "Attack of the Graske '' (2005) as the vortex loop control. Three other controls -- the dimensional stabiliser, vector tracker, and the handbrake -- were also identified. Although the stabiliser had been mentioned before in the series, the canonicity of the mini-episode is also unclear. As seen in "World War Three '' (2005), there is also a working telephone attached to the console. In the 2010 series, the new console includes items such as a washer - fluid bottle from a car and a typewriter keyboard.
Precisely how much control the Doctor has in directing the TARDIS has varied over the course of the series. The First Doctor did not initially seem to be able to steer it accurately, making only one intended landing to the planet Kembel in The Daleks ' Master Plan (1965 -- 6) by using the directional unit taken from another TARDIS before the unit burns out. During the Third Doctor 's exile on Earth, the TARDIS 's course is shown as controlled successfully by the Time Lords, and from the point the Time Lords unblock his memory of time - travel mechanics in The Three Doctors (1972 -- 3), the Doctor seems able to navigate correctly when needed.
Over time, the Doctor seems to be able to pilot the TARDIS with more precision. In The Seeds of Death (1969), the Second Doctor explains to Zoe Heriot that it would be impossible to use the TARDIS to fly from Earth to the Moon because it would likely "overshoot by a few million years, or a few million miles ''. However, in Logopolis (1981), the Fourth Doctor is able to make a "short hop '' to the exact coordinates when he initially lands the TARDIS 1.6 metres off target.
Following the Key to Time season (1978 -- 79), the Doctor installed a randomiser to the console which prevented the Doctor (and by extension the evil and powerful Black Guardian) from knowing where the TARDIS would land next. This device was eventually removed in The Leisure Hive (1980).
In the 2005 and later series, the Doctor is shown piloting the TARDIS at will, although writers continue to use the plot device of having the TARDIS randomly land somewhere, or imply that the TARDIS is "temperamental '' in its courses through time and space, such as missing his intended mark by a century (1879 instead of 1979) in "Tooth and Claw '' (2006), making the mistake of 12 months instead of 12 hours in "Aliens of London '' (2005), getting the correct time but landing on the wrong continent (London instead of New York) in "The Idiot 's Lantern '' (2006) or even facing the wrong way (blocked by a metal container) in "Fear Her '' (2006). He can also choose to "set the controls to random '' as in "Planet of the Ood '' (2008). Although the Eleventh Doctor 's spatial accuracy in "The Eleventh Hour '' (2010) was spot - on, the TARDIS ' malfunctioning helmic regulator prevents him from controlling the exact time he arrives at, first promising a young Amelia that he would be gone for only five minutes, but taking 12 years to return, and again when he intended to leave Amy for a short while to give the newly regenerated TARDIS a brief shakedown cruise, and ends up returning another two years in the future. In "The Doctor 's Wife '' the reason why the Doctor seems to lack control over the TARDIS at times is explained: the TARDIS ' soul, in the body of a humanoid named Idris, explained that while the TARDIS may not always take the Doctor where he "wants '' to go, it always takes him where he "needs '' to go.
In "Journey 's End '' (2008), the Tenth Doctor confirms that the TARDIS is intended to be flown by six pilots; Rose Tyler, Martha Jones, Sarah Jane Smith, Mickey Smith, Jack Harkness and the Doctor man the controls, and the TARDIS runs far more smoothly during that brief period than it normally does. This also explains why the Doctor tends to do a lot of manic running around the console while he is piloting the TARDIS, as well as the difficulty he has in controlling it, although Romana, the Doctor 's one - time Time Lord companion, is able to pilot the TARDIS successfully by herself. Companion Professor River Song, who has Time Lord DNA according to the episode "A Good Man Goes to War '' (2011), was also shown to pilot the TARDIS smoothly and easily without help ("The Time of Angels '' (2010), "The Pandorica Opens '' (2010), "Let 's Kill Hitler '' (2011), "The Angels Take Manhattan '' (2012)). Nyssa possessed at least rudimentary TARDIS piloting skill (Mawdryn Undead, 1983).
The Doctor in his eleventh incarnation was generally able to land the TARDIS with significantly superior accuracy to that of his predecessors. He returned four times to the same spot in Amy Pond 's garden where he had crash - landed and originally met her. (2nd & 3rd arrivals "The Eleventh Hour '', "The Big Bang '', "The Angels Take Manhattan ''); he routinely materialised in front of the London house which he had given to her and her husband ("The God Complex '', "The Doctor, the Widow and the Wardrobe '', "Pond Life: August '', "The Power of Three ''), or within her homes ("Flesh and Stone '', "Pond Life: May '', "Dinosaurs on a Spaceship '', "The Power of Three ''). He delivered himself to the precise space - time location where the pair (and, unbeknownst to them, their daughter River Song) had summoned him; ("Let 's Kill Hitler '') and his pin - point accurate landings repeatedly allowed him to catch River and save her life ("The Time of Angels '', "Day of the Moon '').
The console can be operated independently of the TARDIS. During the Third Doctor 's era, he removes the console from the TARDIS to perform repairs on it. In Inferno (1970) the Doctor accidentally rides the detached console into a parallel universe. The Eleventh Doctor flies a detached console to his TARDIS in "The Doctor 's Wife '' (2011).
Due to the age of the TARDIS, it is inclined to break down. The Doctor is often seen with his head stuck in a panel carrying out maintenance of some kind or another, and he occasionally has to give it "percussive maintenance '' (a good thump on the console) to get it to start working properly. Efforts to repair, control, and maintain the TARDIS have been frequent plot devices throughout the show 's run.
The TARDIS possesses telepathic circuits, although the Doctor prefers to pilot her manually. In Pyramids of Mars (1975), the Fourth Doctor told Sutekh that the TARDIS controls were "isomorphic '', meaning only the Doctor could operate them. However, this characteristic seems to appear and disappear when dramatically convenient, and various companions have been seen to be able to operate the TARDIS and even fly it. In "Blink '' (2007), the TARDIS was ' pre-programmed ' to travel to a specific time (1969) and place by inserting a DVD into the console. The DVD was one of the 17 owned by Sally Sparrow on which the Doctor appeared as an "Easter egg ''. In this situation, however, the TARDIS dematerialised without transporting its occupants. Despite the changes in the layout of the console controls, the Doctor seems to have no difficulty in operating the ship. In "Time Crash '' (2007), the Fifth Doctor is able to fly the TARDIS despite the layout being radically different from the one he was used to, at first without even noticing that the machine had changed. In the episode "Utopia '' (2007), the TARDIS is taken by the Master and the Doctor is only able to use his sonic screwdriver to restrict the destination times to the last two previous selected destinations. In the Big Finish Productions audio play Other Lives (2005), the Eighth Doctor deactivates the isomorphism of the controls to allow his companion C'rizz to operate the console.
Apart from the sound that accompanies dematerialisation, in The Web of Fear (1968), the TARDIS console was also seen to have a light that winked on and off during landing, although the more usual indicator of flight is the movement of the central column. The TARDIS also possesses a scanner so that its crew may examine the exterior environment before exiting the ship. In the 2005 series the scanner display is attached to the console and is able to display television signals as well as various computing functions and occasionally what the production team has stated are Gallifreyan numbers and text.
The 2005 series also sees the addition of the tribophysical waveform macro kinetic extrapolator to the TARDIS in the episode "Boom Town ''. This control was originally a pan-dimensional ' surf board ' taken from the Slitheen. In "The Parting of the Ways '', Captain Jack Harkness uses it to rig up a force field that defends the ship from Dalek missiles. The Doctor uses it again in the Christmas 2006 episode "The Runaway Bride '', to jar it a few hundred metres off course when being dragged back to the Empress of Racnoss, in a similar manoeuvre to that used in The Web of Fear with another extra device he plugged into the console. In the last appearance, the TARDIS coral has begun to grow over the extrapolator.
In the television movie Doctor Who (1996), access to the Eye of Harmony is controlled by means of a device that requires a human eye to open. Why the Doctor would programme such a requirement is retroactively explained in the Big Finish Productions audio play The Apocalypse Element (2000), where a Dalek invasion of Gallifrey prompts the Time Lords to code their security locks to the retinal patterns of the Sixth Doctor 's companion Evelyn Smythe.
The TARDIS came with an instruction manual that the Sixth Doctor claims in Vengeance on Varos (1985) to have started reading but never finished. Tegan Jovanka is unable to make sense of its contents, and Peri Brown later finds it propping open a vent. The usual function of the manual is to hold up a short leg on the Doctor 's hat rack, though "Amy 's Choice '' (2010) features the Doctor revealing to have thrown it into a supernova, ostensibly due to disagreeing with it. Despite its complexity, some companions with exceptional intelligence, such as Nyssa, or familiarity with technology, such as Turlough and Jack Harkness, have been depicted as assisting the Doctor with TARDIS operations. In "The Sontaran Stratagem '' (2008), Donna Noble displays an aptitude for piloting the TARDIS under the Doctor 's guidance, much to the Doctor 's apparent surprise. The Doctor 's companion River Song claims to have been taught to pilot the TARDIS by "the very best '' ("The Time of Angels '', 2010); this turns out to have in fact been the TARDIS herself, rather than the Doctor ("Let 's Kill Hitler '', 2011).
In "Journey 's End '' (2008), the TARDIS is shown to ideally require six pilots positioned at various stations around the central console to be piloted properly. On that occasion, the six pilots were Rose Tyler, Martha Jones, Sarah Jane Smith, Mickey Smith, Jack Harkness, and the Doctor. However, the ending of the 2011 episode "The Doctor 's Wife '' reveals that the TARDIS is actually capable of manipulating the controls herself (which is consistent with stories in which the TARDIS is summoned or otherwise travels by herself without the input of a pilot, such as "The Two Doctors '' (1985) and "Hide '' (2013).
In "The Time of Angels '' (2010), River Song reveals that the TARDIS has a "stabilisation '' and "brake '' option. The "stabilisation '' prevents the TARDIS from moving violently in flight. River Song claimed that leaving the "brakes '' on is the cause of the (de) materialisation noise. However, other TARDISes have usually made the same sound when dematerialising and materialising, and it has even been identified as a particular component of every TARDIS. In "The Time of the Doctor '' (2013), the Doctor is able to "turn the engines on silent ''. The consciousness of the Doctor 's TARDIS, when briefly transposed into the body of a humanoid woman in "The Doctor 's Wife '', makes the sound in order to identify herself to the Doctor and is used when the TARDIS consciousness is transferred to and from the woman.
The central column is often referred to as the "time rotor '', although when the term was first used in The Chase (1965) it referred to a different instrument on the TARDIS console. However, the use of this term to describe the central column was common in fan literature, and was finally used on screen to refer to the central column in Arc of Infinity (1983) and Terminus (1983). The current production team uses the term in the same way. It was also referred to as the "time column '' in Logopolis (1981). The 1996 television movie was the first appearance of the central column being attached to the ceiling. After season 26, a new design for the TARDIS console room featured the console being suspended from the ceiling via the central column. This design was never built because the show was cancelled before a 27th season was produced, but the set was used in a Doctor Who night presented by Sylvester McCoy, where a miniature was built and McCoy was superimposed into it.
When fully active, the TARDIS 's outer defences are (nearly) impenetrable. In the last episode of The Armageddon Factor (1979), the Black Guardian is unable to enter the TARDIS after the Doctor activates "... all of the TARDIS 's defences... '' Similarly, when being chased by an Auton in "Rose '' (2005), the Doctor reassures future companion Rose Tyler that "the assembled hordes of Genghis Khan could n't break through those doors, and believe me, they 've tried. '' However, in "Journey 's End '' (2008) the Tenth Doctor states that the Daleks, created and led by Davros, would have no problem breaching the TARDIS defences. "They 're experts at fighting TARDISes, they can do anything. Right now, that wooden door is just wood. ''
One of the main TARDIS defenses is a force field. The field is seen in use in "The Runaway Bride '' (2006), when the Tenth Doctor and the Bride, Donna Noble, are trying to escape the Empress of the Racnoss and in "The Beast Below '' (2010), when the Doctor is showing Amy Pond the wonders of the universe. In "Journey to the Centre of the TARDIS '' (2013), the Eleventh Doctor turns off the shields by putting the TARDIS on "basic mode '' for his companion, Clara, to operate. Another device, a tribophysical waveform macro kinetic extrapolator, is installed to generate a force field in the episode "Boom Town '' (2005) and is later used to protect the ship from Dalek missiles in "The Parting of the Ways ''.
Another defensive feature is the Hostile Action Displacement System (HADS), which can (if switched on by the ship 's operator) teleport the ship away if it is attacked (The Krotons, 1968) or in great danger ("Cold War '', 2013). The Hostile Action Dispersal System can, if the TARDIS is threatened, scatter its components so that it appears destroyed, then reassemble it via a sonic device such as a sonic screwdriver ("The Magician 's Apprentice '' / "The Witch 's Familiar '', 2015). It is unclear if the Displacement and Dispersal functions are part of the same system, or if they are separate features.
If required, the TARDIS can become temporarily invisible, but this is a significant power drain, as seen in "The Impossible Astronaut '' (2011), when the Doctor lands the TARDIS in the middle of the Oval Office in the White House.
The TARDIS 's cloister bell is a signal used in the event of "wild catastrophes and sudden calls to man the battle stations '' (Logopolis, 1981).
The interior of the TARDIS was described as being in a state of "temporal grace '' (The Hand of Fear, 1976). The Fourth Doctor explains that, in a sense, things do not exist while inside the TARDIS. This had the practical effect of ensuring that no weapons can be used inside its environs; however, since then weapons have been fired in the console room in Earthshock (1982), Attack of the Cybermen (1985), "The Parting of the Ways '' (2005), and "Last of the Time Lords '' (2007), among others. When confronted by Nyssa on this contradiction in Arc of Infinity (1983), the Doctor responds, "Yes, well, nobody 's perfect. '' In The Invasion of Time (1978), a guard 's patrol staser will not function, even though K9 's nose laser does. The Doctor explains on this occasion that the staser will not work within the field of a relative dimensional stabiliser, such as that found in the TARDIS. In the audio story Human Resources (2007), when a character mentions the temporal grace function, the Eighth Doctor, says that his TARDIS "has n't done that in years ''. In "Let 's Kill Hitler '' (2011) the Doctor tells Mels about the temporal grace system and she shoots something in the TARDIS as a result, causing it to crash. The Doctor then admits that temporal grace is actually just a "clever lie. ''
The TARDIS can also use its living metal circuitry to continue to expand and change when required, as seen in "Journey to the Centre of the TARDIS '' (2013), when the TARDIS creates a continuing "labyrinth '' around its occupants, to stop the theft of a circuit.
The TARDIS also has another shield which keeps it from interacting with other objects in the time vortex, namely other TARDISes. When the Doctor forgets to restore these shields after the events of "Last of the Time Lords '', he ends up merging his TARDIS with that of his fifth incarnation in the mini-episode "Time Crash ''. After successfully separating the two, the bow of the alien spaceship called Titanic, designed to look like the ship of the same name, smashes through the inside wall of the TARDIS before he can raise it again. Despite the shield being designed to keep the TARDIS from interacting with itself, its own interior is considered the safest place, and the ship will thus effect an emergency materialisation within itself under certain circumstances. This occurred in the mini-episodes "Space '' and "Time '' (both 2011), when Rory Williams ' accidental dropping of a thermal coupling prompts the TARDIS ' exterior to materialise within its interior, thereby trapping the ship and its occupants in a space loop. In "The Doctor 's Wife '', the Doctor 's makeshift TARDIS materialises within the Doctor 's own TARDIS, but only after Idris telepathically instructs the Doctor 's companions, trapped aboard by the House entity, to deactivate the TARDIS 's defences from an "archived '' control room.
The TARDIS can be programmed to execute automatic functions based on certain conditions. The Ninth Doctor uses Emergency Programme One to send Rose home in "The Parting of the Ways '' (2005). It is programmed to return to the Doctor upon the detection of the presence of one of Sally Sparrow 's DVDs in "Blink '' (2007). Emergency Programme One will also send Donna Noble back to her own time period if she is left alone in the TARDIS for more than five hours. In "Voyage of the Damned '' (2007), the TARDIS will lock on to the nearest planetary body to land there when it becomes adrift in space. Similarly, when damage to the interior of the TARDIS threatens the inhabitants it will materialise at the nearest safe environment and create an emergency exit, as seen in Terminus (1983). The Master also pre-programs the Doctor 's TARDIS on occasion, for example in Castrovalva (1982) where he programs it to travel back in time to "Event one '' in order to destroy it.
The TARDIS also grants its passengers the ability to understand and speak other languages. This was originally described in The Masque of Mandragora (1976) as a "Time Lord gift '' which the Doctor shares with his companions, but is ultimately attributed to the TARDIS 's telepathic field in "The End of the World '' (2005). In "The Christmas Invasion '' (2005), it is revealed that the Doctor himself is an integral element of this capability. Rose is unable to understand the alien Sycorax whilst the Doctor is in a regenerative crisis. In "The Impossible Planet '' (2006), it is said that the TARDIS normally even translates writing; in that episode, the TARDIS is unable to translate an alien script, which the Doctor claims makes the language "impossibly old ''. However, the TARDIS does not translate Gallifreyan, as seen in "Utopia '', when the Doctor was reading Gallifreyan numbers from the console monitor to tell where the TARDIS was going, and again in "A Good Man Goes to War '' (2011), in which the Gallifreyan script on the Doctor 's crib remains unintelligible to the audience and the Ponds. River Song also explains in "A Good Man Goes to War '' that the TARDIS ' translation matrix can take "a while to kick in '' for the written word, actually coming into effect after the departure of the Doctor and the TARDIS. In the Ninth Doctor Adventures novel Only Human (2005), the telepathic field includes a filter that replaces foul or undesirable language with more acceptable terms. In "The Fires of Pompeii '' (2008), it is shown that if a TARDIS traveller speaks in a hearer 's own language, the translation circuit renders these words appropriately as foreign to the listener 's ear (for example, if an English - speaking TARDIS traveller speaks Latin to an ancient Roman, the Roman hears that Latin as "Celtic '' or Welsh). It also affects the translation of accents: in "Vincent and the Doctor '' (2010), a translated Scottish accent is heard by a Dutchman and understood as a Dutch accent. The translation circuit does not always function, even for the Doctor. In Four to Doomsday (1982), the Doctor is unable to understand the Aboriginal language spoken by a tribesman and the Doctor 's companion Tegan. In Carnival of Monsters (1973) the Doctor is unable to understand Vorg when he tries to speak to him in Polari. Similarly, Martha Jones is initially unable to understand the Hath in the episode "The Doctor 's Daughter '' (2008) and although she is eventually able to communicate with them, the audience is never allowed to understand their words.
The TARDIS is able to tow other objects (a neutron star in The Creature from the Pit, 1979; a ship in "The Satan Pit '', 2006); or follow a ship or a transmission through space and time ("The Empty Child '', 2005; and "The Stolen Earth '', 2008). In "Journey 's End '' (2008), the TARDIS (assisted by the Rift Manipulator situated at Torchwood Three in Cardiff and the supercomputer Mr Smith) is able to tow the Earth across space.
At times the TARDIS is shown to have a mind of its own. It is heavily implied in the television series that the TARDIS is "alive '' and intelligent to a degree (first in The Edge of Destruction, 1964), and shares a bond with those who travel in it; in the television movie Doctor Who (1996), the Doctor calls the TARDIS "sentimental ''. In "The Parting of the Ways '' (2005), the Doctor leaves a message for Rose when he believes he will never return, asking her to let the TARDIS die. In the same episode, Rose claims that the TARDIS is alive, echoing the Doctor 's earlier statement in "Boom Town ''. The Doctor 's TARDIS is also explicitly said to have died in the episode "Rise of the Cybermen '' (2006), though the Doctor is able to revive it by giving up some of his life energy (reducing his life expectancy by a decade in the process). Other abilities the TARDIS displays include creating snow via "atmospheric excitation '' ("The Runaway Bride '', 2006) and, through a "chameleon arch '', engineering an almost witness protection - style relocation by making its Time Lord another species and placing him / her in a newly fabricated identity with new memories somewhere else in space and time ("Human Nature '', 2007; "The Family of Blood '', 2007; "Utopia '', 2007). In "The Doctor 's Wife '' (2011), the TARDIS 's intelligence is temporarily transferred to a humanoid body, during which time it is shown to possess a degree of precognition as well as limited telepathic abilities and a genuine fondness for the Doctor and his companions. This episode also demonstrates that certain capabilities of the physical TARDIS are operable independently of its intelligence, in particular the physical TARDIS 's internal password security system (which is language - independent, relying on meanings rather than the words themselves) and ability to travel between "bubble universes ''. In "The Name of the Doctor '' (2013), the TARDIS actively resists traveling to the planet Trenzalore, the site of the Doctor 's grave, and once there, forces the Doctor to crash - land it on the planet 's surface.
The TARDIS is also able to place particular areas of the ship in "time stasis '', as is in "Journey to the Centre of the TARDIS '' (2013) where the engine had exploded and the TARDIS "wrapped around the force '' of the explosion as a temporary safety measure.
In the novels, a portion of the TARDIS could be separated and used for independent travel. This was featured in two Virgin novels, Iceberg (1993) and Sanctuary (1995). This subset of the TARDIS, resembling a small pagoda fashioned out of jade, had limited range and functionality, but is used occasionally when the main TARDIS is incapacitated. The sapient characteristics of the TARDIS have been made more explicit in the spin - off novels and audio plays. In the Big Finish audio play Omega (2003), the Doctor meets a TARDIS which "dies '' after its Time Lord master 's demise.
Other TARDISes have appeared in the television series. The first was that of the Monk, another Time Lord, in the 1965 serial The Time Meddler. The Master had at least two TARDISes of his own, each a more advanced model than the Doctor 's. The chameleon circuits on these were fully functional, and his TARDISes have been seen in various forms, including a fully functional spacecraft, a Concorde aircraft, a grandfather clock, a computer, a fireplace, a Doric pillar, a lorry, a statue (able to move and walk around), a laurel tree and an iron maiden. In the reconstructed Shada, the Time Lord known as Professor Chronotis has a TARDIS disguised as his quarters at Cambridge University.
Another renegade Time Lord, The Rani, appears with her TARDIS. In The Armageddon Factor (1979), the Time Lord Drax has a TARDIS, but it is in need of repair. The War Chief provides dimensionally transcendent time machines named SIDRATs ("TARDIS '' spelled backwards) to the alien race known as the "War Lords '' in The War Games (1969). In the script for The Chase (1965), Dalek time machines are known as DARDISes.
In spin - off media, Gallifreyan Battle TARDISes have appeared in the comic books, novels and audio plays, which fire "time torpedoes '' that freeze the target in time. The renegade Time Lady Iris Wildthyme 's own TARDIS was disguised as a No. 22 London bus, but was slightly smaller on the inside than it is on the outside. The Eighth Doctor Adventures novels have stated that future model Type 102 TARDISes will be fully sentient, and able to take on humanoid form. The Eighth Doctor 's companion Compassion was the first Type 102 TARDIS, and she was seen to have enough firepower to annihilate other TARDISes.
The "unofficial '' Ninth Doctor from the 40th anniversary animated webcast Scream of the Shalka (2003) has a TARDIS console room that looked similar to the Eighth Doctor 's version. This console was covered in an array of clock - like dials, featured a long spiral staircase leading far above the console, and connected to a nearby room resembling a Victorian library and study. Due to the freedom afforded by the medium of animation, this TARDIS is the first and only to feature an interior with no walls.
In the Big Finish audio play The One Doctor (2001), confidence trickster Banto Zame impersonates the Doctor. However, due to incomplete information, his copy of the TARDIS (a short range transporter) is called a "Stardis '', resembled a portaloo rather than a police box, and is not dimensionally transcendental. In Unregenerate! (2005), the Seventh Doctor and Mel stop a secret Time Lord project to download TARDIS minds into bodies of various alien species. This would have created living TARDIS pilots loyal to the Time Lords and ensuring that they would have ultimate control over any use of time travel technology by other races. Those created before the project is shut down depart on their own to explore the universe.
The 28 October 2006 Radio Times, in an image of the Torchwood Three headquarters, identified a piece of large coral on Captain Jack Harkness ' desk as the beginnings of a TARDIS. John Barrowman, who plays Jack, said that "Jack 's growing a TARDIS... It 's probably been there for 30 years. I suppose in 500 years he 'll be able to begin the carving process ''.
In the 2008 Christmas Special, "The Next Doctor '', Jackson Lake (David Morrissey), while under the delusion that he is the Doctor, has a blue gas balloon which he identifies as his TARDIS, which he explains stands for "Tethered Aerial Release Developed In Style ''. It is not capable of time travel.
In a deleted scene from the series 4 finale "Journey 's End '', the Doctor gave a piece of the TARDIS to the half - human Doctor clone so that the latter could grow his own. When the clone remarked that growing a TARDIS would take hundreds of years, Donna Noble provided him with a method of speeding up the process.
In "The Lodger '' (2010) a vessel, which the Doctor identifies as a somebody 's attempt to build a TARDIS, lures in unsuspecting people to pilot its controls, all of whom die due to humans being incompatible with the process. The same interior was used by the Silence in "Day of the Moon '' (2011) (and the similarity commented on by the Doctor as he enters), but the intended connections between the two are still mostly unknown.
In "The Doctor 's Wife '' (2011), the Doctor and the human avatar of his TARDIS ' matrix (aka Idris) view a valley filled with parts of "half - eaten TARDISes '', which upsets Idris. Later, the Doctor builds a makeshift TARDIS out of components of the dead TARDISes to be able to save Rory and Amy who are trapped inside his TARDIS, which is now under the control of a malevolent entity called the House. He still requires energy from Idris in order to make it work. The console used for this episode was designed by the winner of a Blue Peter competition in 2010.
In "Hell Bent '' (2015), the Doctor once again escapes from Gallifrey, which had been safely put in another dimension and later returned to the universe, by stealing a TARDIS, which initially has the external appearance of a grey cylinder with a sliding door. At the end of the episode, when the Doctor 's original TARDIS is returned to him, it is revealed that the newly - stolen TARDIS is now being piloted by former travelling companion Clara Oswald and immortal human Ashildr, who are also in possession of a TARDIS manual. Ashildr mentions that she has not yet understood how to get the chameleon circuit working, meaning that this TARDIS is at least temporarily stuck in the form of an American diner, in which disguise it is revealed to have been the setting for that episode 's frame story.
The sound of the Doctor 's TARDIS featured in the final scene of the Torchwood episode "End of Days '' (2007). As Torchwood Three 's hub is situated at a rift of temporal energy, the Doctor often appears on Roald Dahl Plass directly above it in order to recharge the TARDIS. In the episode, Jack Harkness hears the tell - tale sound of the engines, smiles and afterwards is nowhere to be found; the scene picks up in the cold open of the Doctor Who episode "Utopia '' (2007) in which Jack runs to and holds onto the TARDIS just before it disappears.
Former companion Sarah Jane Smith has a diagram of the TARDIS in her attic, as shown in The Sarah Jane Adventures episode "Invasion of the Bane '' (2007). In the two - part serial The Temptation of Sarah Jane Smith (2008), Sarah Jane becomes trapped in 1951 and briefly mistakes an actual police public call box for the Doctor 's TARDIS (the moment is even heralded by the Doctor 's musical cue, frequently used in the revived series). It makes a full appearance in The Wedding of Sarah Jane Smith (2009), in which the Doctor briefly welcomes Sarah Jane 's three adolescent companions into the control room. It then serves as a backdrop for the farewell scene between Sarah Jane and the Tenth Doctor, which echoed nearly word - for - word her final exchange with the Fourth Doctor aboard the TARDIS in 1976. It reappears in Death of the Doctor (2010), where is stolen by the Shansheeth who try to use it as an immortality machine, and transports Sarah Jane, Jo Grant and their adolescent companions (Rani Chandra, Clyde Langer and Santiago Jones).
Many versions of the TARDIS have been made by fans and featured on holidays or at events such as Comicon. Most are not endorsed by BBC.
As one of the most recognisable images connected with Doctor Who, the TARDIS has appeared on numerous items of merchandise associated with the programme. TARDIS scale models of various sizes have been manufactured to accompany other Doctor Who dolls and action figures, some with sound effects included. Fan - built full - size models of the police box are also common. There have been TARDIS - shaped video games, play tents for children, toy boxes, cookie jars, book ends, key chains, and even a police - box - shaped bottle for a TARDIS bubble bath. The 1993 VHS release of The Trial of a Time Lord was contained in a special - edition tin shaped like the TARDIS.
With the 2005 series revival, a variety of TARDIS - shaped merchandise has been produced, including a TARDIS coin box, TARDIS figure toy set, a TARDIS that detects the ring signal from a mobile phone and flashes when an incoming call is detected, TARDIS - shaped wardrobes and DVD cabinets, and a USB hub in the shape of the TARDIS. The complete 2005 season DVD box set, released in November 2005, was issued in packaging that resembled the TARDIS.
One of the original - model TARDISes used in the television series ' production in the 1970s was sold at auction in December 2005 for £ 10,800.
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when was the drinking age 18 in ohio | U.S. history of alcohol minimum purchase age by State - wikipedia
The alcohol laws of the United States regarding minimum age for purchase have changed over time. The history is given in the table below. Unless otherwise noted, if different alcohol categories have different minimum purchase ages, the age listed below is set at the lowest age given (e.g. if the purchase age is 18 for beer and 21 for wine or spirits, as was the case in several states, the age in the table will read as "18 '', not "21 ''). In addition, the purchase age is not necessarily the same as the minimum age for consumption of alcoholic beverages, although they have often been the same.
As one can see in the table below, there has been much volatility in the states ' drinking ages since the repeal of Prohibition in 1933. Shortly after the ratification of the 21st amendment in December, most states set their purchase ages at 21 since that was the Voting age at the time. Most of these limits remained constant until the early 1970s. From 1969 to 1976, some 30 states lowered their purchase ages, generally to 18. This was primarily because the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1971 with the 26th amendment. A lot of states started to lower their minimum drinking age in response, most of this occurring in 1972 or 1973. Twelve states kept their purchase ages at 21 since repeal of Prohibition and never changed them.
From 1976 to 1983, several states voluntarily raised their purchase ages to 19 (or, less commonly, 20 or 21), in part to combat drunk driving fatalities. In 1984, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act, which required states to raise their ages for purchase and public possession to 21 by October 1986 or lose 10 % of their federal highway funds. By mid-1988, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had raised their purchase ages to 21 (but not Puerto Rico, Guam, or the Virgin Islands, see Additional Notes below). South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply with the age 21 mandate. The current drinking age of 21 remains a point of contention among many Americans, because of it being higher than the age of majority (18 in most states) and higher than the drinking ages of most other countries. The National Minimum Drinking Age Act is also seen as a congressional sidestep of the tenth amendment. Although debates have not been highly publicized, a few states have proposed legislation to lower their drinking age, while Guam has raised its drinking age to 21 in July 2010.
For an established religious purpose; When a person under twenty - one years of age is accompanied by a parent, spouse, or legal guardian twenty - one years of age or older; For medical purposes when purchased as an over the counter medication, or when prescribed or administered by a licensed physician, pharmacist, dentist, nurse, hospital, or medical institution; In a private residence, which shall include a residential dwelling and up to twenty contiguous acres, on which the dwelling is located, owned by the same person who owns the dwelling; The sale, handling, transport, or service in dispensing of any alcoholic beverage pursuant to lawful ownership of an establishment or to lawful employment of a person under twenty - one years of age by a duly licensed manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer of beverage alcohol.)
94. Citation for Wisconsin drinking law: https://www.revenue.wi.gov/Pages/FAQS/ise-atundrg.aspx
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