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how does the structure of skeletal muscle tissue relate to its function | Muscle tissue - wikipedia
Muscle tissue is a soft tissue that composes muscles in animal bodies, and gives rise to muscles ' ability to contract. This is opposed to other components or tissues in muscle such as tendons or perimysium. It is formed during embryonic development through a process known as myogenesis.
Muscle tissue varies with function and location in the body. In mammals the three types are: skeletal or striated muscle; smooth or non-striated muscle; and cardiac muscle, which is sometimes known as semi-striated. Smooth and cardiac muscle contracts involuntarily, without conscious intervention. These muscle types may be activated both through interaction of the central nervous system as well as by receiving innervation from peripheral plexus or endocrine (hormonal) activation. Striated or skeletal muscle only contracts voluntarily, upon influence of the central nervous system. Reflexes are a form of non-conscious activation of skeletal muscles, but nonetheless arise through activation of the central nervous system, albeit not engaging cortical structures until after the contraction has occurred.
The different muscle types vary in their response to neurotransmitters and endocrine substances such as acetylcholine, noradrenaline, adrenaline, nitric oxide and among others depending on muscle type and the exact location of the muscle.
Sub-categorization of muscle tissue is also possible, depending on among other things the content of myoglobin, mitochondria, myosin ATPase etc.
Muscle cells (myocytes) are elongated cells ranging from several millimetres to about 10 centimetres in length and from 10 to 100 micrometres in width. These cells are joined together in tissues that may be either striated or smooth, depending on the presence or absence, respectively, of organized, regularly repeated arrangements of myofibrillar contractile proteins called myofilaments. Striated muscle is further classified as either skeletal or cardiac muscle. Striated muscle is typically subject to conscious control, while smooth muscle is not. Thus, muscle tissue can be described as being one of three different types:
In vertebrates, there is a third muscle tissue recognized:
Cardiac and skeletal muscles are "striated '' in that they contain sarcomeres and are packed into highly regular arrangements of bundles; smooth muscle has neither. While skeletal muscles are arranged in regular, parallel bundles, cardiac muscle connects at branching, irregular angles (called intercalated discs). Striated muscle contracts and relaxes in short, intense bursts, whereas smooth muscle sustains longer or even near - permanent contractions.
Skeletal muscle is further divided into several subtypes:
Smooth muscle is an involuntary non-striated muscle. It is divided into two subgroups: the single - unit (unitary) and multiunit smooth muscle. Within single - unit cells, the whole bundle or sheet contracts as a syncytium (i.e. a multinucleate mass of cytoplasm that is not separated into cells). Multiunit smooth muscle tissues innervate individual cells; as such, they allow for fine control and gradual responses, much like motor unit recruitment in skeletal muscle.
Smooth muscle is found within the walls of blood vessels (such smooth muscle specifically being termed vascular smooth muscle) such as in the tunica media layer of large (aorta) and small arteries, arterioles and veins. Smooth muscle is also found in lymphatic vessels, the urinary bladder, uterus (termed uterine smooth muscle), male and female reproductive tracts, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, arrector pili of skin, the ciliary muscle, and iris of the eye. The structure and function is basically the same in smooth muscle cells in different organs, but the inducing stimuli differ substantially, in order to perform individual effects in the body at individual times. In addition, the glomeruli of the kidneys contain smooth muscle - like cells called mesangial cells.
Cardiac muscle is involuntary, striated muscle that is found in the walls and histological foundation of the heart, specifically the myocardium. Cardiac muscle is one of three major types of muscle, the others being skeletal and smooth muscle. These three types of muscle all form in the process of myogenesis. The cells that constitute cardiac muscle, called cardiomyocytes or myocardiocytes, predominantly contain only one nucleus, although populations with two to four nuclei do exist. The myocardium is the muscle tissue of the heart, and forms a thick middle layer between the outer epicardium layer and the inner endocardium layer.
Coordinated contractions of cardiac muscle cells in the heart propel blood out of the atria and ventricles to the blood vessels of the left / body / systemic and right / lungs / pulmonary circulatory systems. This complex mechanism illustrates systole of the heart.
Cardiac muscle cells, unlike most other tissues in the body, rely on an available blood and electrical supply to deliver oxygen and nutrients and remove waste products such as carbon dioxide. The coronary arteries help fulfill this function.
1. They carry out movements of the body.
2. They support the body.
3. They maintain the posture of the body.
It is responsible for the contractility of hollow organs, such as blood vessels, the gastrointestinal tract, the bladder.
Cardiac muscle is the muscle of the heart. It is self - contracting, autonomically regulated and must continue to contract in rhythmic fashion for the whole life of the organism. Hence it has special features.
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when did christianity begin to spread in europe | Christianity in Europe - wikipedia
Christianity is the largest religion in Europe. Christianity has been practiced in Europe since the 1st century, and a number of the Pauline Epistles were addressed to Christians living in Greece, as well as the Roman Empire.
According to a 2010 study by the Pew Research Center, 76.2 % of the European population identified themselves as Christians.
As 2010 Catholics were the largest Christian group in Europe, accounting for more than 48 % of European Christians. The second - largest Christian group in Europe were the Orthodox, who made up 32 % of European Christians. Although the Protestant Reformation began in Europe, only about 19 % of European Christians were part of the Protestant tradition. Russia is the largest Christian country in Europe by population, followed by Germany and Italy.
For at least a millennium, Europe has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture, even though the religion was inherited from the Middle East. Christian culture was the predominant force in Western civilization, guiding the course of philosophy, art, and science.
Europe has a rich Christian culture, especially as numerous saints, martyrs and popes were European themselves. All of the popes from 741 to 2013 were from Europe. Europe brought together many of the Christian holy sites and heritage and religious centers.
Historians believe that St. Paul probably wrote his first epistle to the Christians of Thessaloniki (Thessalonians) around AD 52. His Epistle to the Galatians was perhaps written even earlier, between AD 48 and 50. Other epistles written by Paul were directed to Christians living in Greece (1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Philemon, Philippians, 2 Thessalonians) and Rome (Romans) between the 50s and 70s of the first century.
The Record of Saint Dorotheus Bishop of Tyre is that the Church at Tyre sent Saint Aristobulus (of the seventy) to Britain as bishop in AD 37. The Church seems to have been begun by him around the Bristol Channel area and 150 years later we have names of bishops recorded. By AD 550 there are recorded 120 bishops spread throughout the British Isles.
Armenia was the first country in the world to adopt Christianity as its state religion in AD 301. The oldest state - built church in the world, Etchmiadzin Cathedral, was built between AD 301 - 303. It is the seat of the Armenian Apostolic Church. The Roman Empire officially adopted Christianity in AD 380. During the Early Middle Ages, most of Europe underwent Christianisation, a process essentially complete with the Baltic Christianization # Baltic in the 15th century. The emergence of the notion of "Europe '' or the "Western World '' is intimately connected with the idea of "Christendom '', especially since Christianity in the Middle East was marginalized by the rise of Islam from the 7th century, a constellation that led to the Crusades, which although unsuccessful militarily were an important step in the emergence of a religious identity of Europe. At all times, traditions of folk religion existed largely independent from official denominations or dogmatic theology.
From the Middle Ages onwards, as the centralized Roman power waned in southern and central Europe, the dominance of the Catholic Church was the only consistent force in Western Europe.
Movements in art and philosophy, such as the Humanist movement of the Renaissance and the Scholastic movement of the High Middle Ages, were motivated by a drive to connect Catholicism with Greek thought imported by Christian pilgrims.
The East -- West Schism of the 11th century and the Protestant Reformation of the 16th tore "Christendom '' into hostile factions. Following the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, atheism and agnosticism became widespread in Western Europe. 19th century Orientalism contributed to a certain popularity of Buddhism, and the 20th century brought increasing syncretism, New Age and various new religious movements divorcing spirituality from inherited traditions for many Europeans. The latest history brought increased secularisation, and religious pluralism.
Western culture, throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture, and many of the population of the Western hemisphere could broadly be described as cultural Christians. The notion of "Europe '' and the "Western World '' has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christianity and Christendom '' many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity.
Though Western culture contained several polytheistic religions during its early years under the Greek and Roman empires, as the centralized Roman power waned, the dominance of the Catholic Church was the only consistent force in Europe. Until the Age of Enlightenment, Christian culture guided the course of philosophy, literature, art, music and science. Christian disciplines of the respective arts have subsequently developed into Christian philosophy, Christian art, Christian music, Christian literature etc.
Christianity had a significant impact on education and science and medicine as the church created the bases of the Western system of education, and was the sponsor of founding universities in the Western world as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. Many clerics throughout history have made significant contributions to science and Jesuits in particular have made numerous significant contributions to the development of science. The Civilizing influence of Christianity includes social welfare, founding hospitals, economics (as the Protestant work ethic), politics, architecture, literature and family life.
Although the Protestant reformation was a religious movement, it also had a strong impact on all other aspects of European life: marriage and family, education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy, and the arts.
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who sings we fell in love in a hopeless place | We Found Love - wikipedia
"We Found Love '' is a song recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna from her sixth studio album, Talk That Talk (2011). It was written and produced by, and features Scottish DJ Calvin Harris; the song was also featured on his third album 18 Months (2012). "We Found Love '' premiered on September 22, 2011, on the Capital FM radio station in the United Kingdom, and was made available to download on the same day as the lead single from Talk That Talk. "We Found Love '' is an uptempo electro house song, with elements of techno and Europop. The song 's lyrics speak of a couple who "found love in a hopeless place ''.
"We Found Love '' was met with mixed reviews from music critics, who praised the song 's composition and Rihanna 's vocal performance; however, some critics felt that the lyrical content was sparse and came second to Harris ' production. The song topped the US Billboard Hot 100 for ten non-consecutive weeks, becoming the longest running number - one single of 2011. The single also surpassed "Umbrella '' and became Rihanna 's longest running number one single. It was the singer 's eleventh song to top the Hot 100, placing her in third place among female recording artists amassing the most number one singles. "We Found Love '' topped the charts in twenty - five other countries including Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. According to Billboard it is the 24th most successful single of all time in the US. As of 2015, the single has sold 10.5 million copies worldwide, thus being one of the best selling singles of all time.
The song 's accompanying music video, directed by Melina Matsoukas, depicts the singer as a drug - abusing thrill - seeker in a relationship that quickly spirals downward into addiction and violence. The video received a mixed response from critics, as they noted that it profoundly alludes to ex-boyfriend Chris Brown 's assault on Rihanna, two years prior. It attracted criticism from political commentators, who questioned the video for its suggestive sexual nature. However, the video won a Grammy for "Best Short Form Music Video '' at the 55th Annual Grammy Awards and "Video of the Year '' at the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards. The song has been performed on both the UK and US versions of The X Factor, as well as at the 2012 Grammy Awards and the 2012 BRIT Awards. Multiple recording artists have covered "We Found Love '' including alternative rock band Coldplay and English singer Jessie J. The song also used for the trailer of 2012 comedy - drama film Magic Mike, in the TV series Sherlock, and in the film American Honey.
Following the release and success of her album Loud (2010), Rihanna originally revealed via Twitter that the album would be re-issued with new songs and released in Fall 2011, writing that "(t) he (Loud era) continues with more new music to add to (your) collection ''. In September 2011, Rihanna again took to the social networking site to confirm that the plans had been scrapped, with the singer tweeting "I (thought about) a (re-release), but LOUD is its own body of work! Plus (you) guys work so hard that (you) deserve to act brand new ''. On September 19, 2011, Rihanna further provoked excitement amongst her followers when she posted that she was listening to the song, only to be re-tweeted by Calvin Harris, who replied "Sometimes it feels like we find love in the most hopeless place '', suggesting that his response contained possible lyrics from the song. In an interview with Capital FM, Harris -- who produced the track -- explained that followers of Rihanna had sent messages to him regarding their expectations of the song, saying "The song better not be rubbish '', which he interpreted as slightly threatening, but went on to say that "it 's all part of the fun ''. In an interview for Q magazine, Harris said of the lyric, "we found love in a hopeless place, '' "It could have been Jumpin Jaks in Dumfries (Harris ' home town), I do n't know exactly what I was thinking about. ''
"We Found Love '' premiered in the United Kingdom on September 22, 2011, on Capital FM, and was sent for mainstream adds in the United States on October 11, 2011. The song was released via iTunes on September 22, 2011. During an interview with MTV News, Calvin Harris revealed, "' We Found Love, ' is the most successful thing I 've done ever... It 's not strictly a song by me, obviously, it 's by Rihanna. She sings it... It was great to work with her... No one could have taken it as far as she did. You ca n't escape it here (in America). I 've heard it a lot. I 've heard it probably more times today than I did when I was mixing it. Which is a good thing... Ever since the Rihanna song did well, a lot of people want to do some stuff, which is great... That 's what I enjoy doing. In terms of actual names, I 've not done anything yet. '' In October 2012, British singer Leona Lewis claimed that she was originally chosen to sing the song but ended up losing it to Rihanna when Harris went touring with the latter, commenting. "I did n't commit to it because I wanted "Trouble '' to be my first single so I think that was another reason they went with Rihanna. It was the same version and production but mine 's better. '' In 2013, Nicole Scherzinger claimed that she was the first artist given the song but ended up rejecting it, commenting. "I 've got the demo of that song and I was busy at the time. They 'd sent me a few dance tracks and I was n't able to get to them and I was like, ' Oh there 's so much dance and I want to take a break from it. ''
The artwork for "We Found Love '' was released by Rihanna 's official Facebook page on September 22, 2011. Grady Smith of Entertainment Weekly 's The Music Mix criticized the song 's artwork, writing "' We found love in a hopeless place, ' Rihanna repeats over a David Guetta - ish synth beat. But judging by the single cover, her place does n't look too hopeless, does it? Maybe there 's a building on fire outside the frame, and that fire hydrant does n't work. I guess that would be hopeless. '' A reviewer for Sugar Magazine wrote that "On anyone else this would be a pretty odd look but Rihanna somehow makes a denim overload look good. '' A reviewer for Neon Limelight commented that Rihanna appeared to be adopting a tomboy image for the new project, writing, "She really is going for that sexy tomboy look this album era it seems; remember the laid back look she rocked on the single 's cover art? ''.
"We Found Love '' is an electro house song with elements of Europop, pop, techno, trance, and Euro disco. According to the digital music sheet published at musicnotes.com, the song is written in the key of F ♯ major and it is set at a tempo of 128 beats per minute. The instrumentation of "We Found Love '' consists of alarm bells, a keyboard, repetitive pumped - up synthesizers and 4 / 4 beats.
Rihanna 's vocal range in the song spans one octave, from the lower note of C ♯ to the higher note of C ♯. Priya Elan of NME commented that Rihanna sounds "extremely relaxed '' and Bill Lamb of About.com wrote that her vocals are simple and unaffected. Leah Collins of The Vancouver Sun wrote that Rihanna 's vocals on "We Found Love '' were similar to her vocals on "Fly ''. According to Elan, the keyboard work in the song bears resemblance to that in from "Only Girl (In the World) '' and the melody is similar to that of "Complicated '', a track included in Rihanna 's 2010 studio album Loud. Similarly, Michael Cragg of The Guardian noted that "We Found Love '' is in the same vein as "Only Girl (In the World) '', with regard to its dance beat.
The lyrical content of the song is sparse and largely revolves around Rihanna chanting the song 's hook line, "We found love in a hopeless place ''. Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone described it as "half - baked romantic ''. Rihanna starts the song in a falsetto airy voice as she sings, "Yellow diamonds in the light / And we 're standing side by side / As your shadow crosses mine / What it takes to come alive. '' Michael Cragg commented that the first chorus is almost being sidelined in favor of a large chunk of Harris 's riff, before they join on the second chorus. The hook repeatedly rings throughout the song.
The song received polarizing reviews from music critics. Amanda Dobbins of New York magazine praised the composition of the song, writing "Harris 's electro fingerprints are all over this one -- it plays like a straight house track, with some dreamy Rihanna vocals added in over the beat. '' Robbie Daw of Idolator commented on the song 's lyrics, with particular emphasis on the line "We found love in a hopeless place '', writing that it is possibly the best lyric in pop music so far in 2011. A reviewer for Instinct magazine praised the song, writing that "We Found Love '' does not mark a departure from the dance - floor oriented material Rihanna debuted on Loud, but it certainly boasts "a higher - energy, peak - hour vibe ''. Similarly, Michael Cragg of The Guardian commented that the song takes the dance direction Rihanna hinted at on "Only Girl (In the World) '' and continues releasing similar songs, making reference to "We Found Love ''. Cragg also likened the song to Leona Lewis 's recent single, "Collide '', but criticized the song 's structure, writing "(it) is slightly odd ''. He ended his review writing, "Either way, she could have recited Nick Clegg 's conference speech from Wednesday over the sound of Harris cracking his knuckles and it would be a hit. ''
Priya Elan of NME commented, "By now it 's pretty customary to have a jaw - on - the - floor reaction to the first single from a Rihanna album. ' Pon De Replay ', ' SOS ', ' Umbrella ', ' Russian Roulette ', ' Only Girl In The World '. '' Despite complimenting Rihanna for sounding extremely relaxed and calling her vocal as "luxurious calling to mind the atmosphere '', Elan concluded that the over-all effect is underwhelming. She continued by writing that instead of re-inventing the pop wheel, "We Found Love '' has "a whiff of treading - water about it '' and that "if there is a ' goosebump ' moment to be had it comes after many multiple plays and, dare we say it, a glass of something strong. '' Awarding "We Found Love '' two stars out of five, Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone was critical, writing that it "is much ado about very little indeed '' and that is "an insipid tune ''. He concluded that Rihanna repeats ' We found love in a hopeless place ' "approximately 350 times, hoping it will start to mean something. It 's the worst single of Rihanna 's career. It will probably top the Hot 100 anyway. '' Leah Collins of The Vancouver Sun initially praised Rihanna 's vocal performance in the song, writing that she "smoothes out her vocals '', before adding, "Angelic as she sounds, though, (her) performance -- which is mostly just her repeating the line ' We found love in a hopeless place ' -- seems to take second place to Harris ' repetitive synth - based blare. '' Similarly, Amos Barshad of Grantland criticized the singer 's vocal performance, calling it "a complete afterthought '' before concluding, "People who regularly attend the Electric Zoo festival: Rihanna wants your money! ''
A reviewer for GlobalGrind commented on the song 's lyrics, suggesting that there is perhaps an underlying message in the song for ex-boyfriend Chris Brown, in the line "We found love in a hopeless place ''. This further raised suspicion when Brown re-tweeted one of Rihanna 's posts on Twitter, which read "Sometimes it feels like we find love in the most hopeless place ''. Jessica Herndon of People magazine praised the song, saying that "' We Found Love ' had an amazing influence on people all across the world in 2012, becoming one of the most popular and most successful songs ''.
Pitchfork Media commented, "Over a frantic, Calvin Harris - produced, Guetta - meets - ' Sandstorm ' beat on her sixth record 's lead - off single, Rihanna repeats these words almost 20 times. ' We Found Love ' ranks among Ri 's best singles because it recognizes that there 's not much more that needs to be said: in three and a half minutes, the line moves from being a great pop lyric to a triumphant mantra to something suggestive of a whole spectrum of unspoken emotion. The best pop music transports you to somewhere beyond words, and Rihanna 's strongest singles all seem to be in on this secret. '' Allmusic chose the song as a highlight on Talk That Talk, and wrote about the "singer 's ecstatic vocal than Calvin Harris ' shrill, plinky production ''. Los Angeles Times commented that the song was an "ode for bad love '' and added it "would n't be out of place at Electric Daisy Carnival ''. The New York Times ' writer commented "' We Found Love ' almost criminally recalls the swinging Crystal Waters singles, with triumphant percussion somewhere between church and seventh - inning stretch. '' Billboard magazine also praised the song, saying that: "Through a haze of glitter and bliss, Rihanna emerges to let us find a gorgeous hook in a hopeless place, and Calvin Harris becomes a household name. '' As of January 2015, Billboard named "We Found Love '' as the best song of the 2010s (so far). USA Today considered the song to be a highlight on the set, commenting that Rihanna sings "bistfully ''. Entertainment Weekly noted, "U.K. club king Calvin Harris trades Rihanna 's usual somber synths for disco ecstasy on ' We Found Love, ' a song that builds and builds to a climax that 's so arena - ready it practically begs for someone to blow a vuvuzela ''.
MTV chose "We Found Love '' as the third best song of 2011, and "Video of the Year '' at the MTV Video Music Awards 2012. The writers of the website further commented, "The leadoff single from Talk That Talk is where Rihanna fully embraced EDM. Produced by Calvin Harris, ' We Found Love ' is a swirling party track about love and loss, the rare song that manages to be sad and joyous all at once. And it is a pinnacle of the pop / dance crossover, a throwback to ' 90s raves that could make even the most stoic lover of pop want to break out a glow stick and just dance. Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone put "We Found Love '' at number eleven on his list of Top 25 Songs of 2011 commenting, "While her other hits tried to camouflage her spindly voice, here it just strains for that spindly melody. '' It was named the third biggest love song of all time by Billboard.
"We Found Love '' made its chart debut on the New Zealand Singles Chart on September 26, 2011, at number 14, and in its fifth week, rose to number one. It remained at the top for nine straight weeks, becoming Rihanna 's longest - running single in the country, overtaking ' Umbrella ' which reigned for six weeks in 2007. The song has since been certified three - times platinum by the RIANZ, denoting shipments of 45,000 copies. In Australia, "We Found Love '' debuted on the Australian Singles Chart on October 9, 2011, at number three. As of February 2013, the song has been certified six - times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association, denoting shipments of 420,000 copies, marking Rihanna 's best - selling single in the country as a lead artist.
In the United States, the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart on September 28, 2011, at number 16. "We Found Love '' became the singer 's fourth highest debut on the chart out of her 31 Hot 100 chart entries, with the highest being her collaboration with Eminem, "Love the Way You Lie '', which debuted at number two in July 2010. The following week, "We Found Love '' rose to number nine, giving Rihanna the record for a solo artist to have amassed twenty top - ten singles in the history of the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the shortest amount of time. Rihanna achieved the feat in a time span of six years and four months, surpassing the record previously held by Madonna who managed the achievement in a time span of six years and nine months. In its sixth week on the chart, the song reached number one, giving Rihanna her eleventh number - one single and Calvin Harris his first number - one single in the United States thus tying her with Whitney Houston in fifth place for the highest amount of number - one singles in the 53 - year history of the chart, behind The Beatles (20), Mariah Carey (18), Michael Jackson (13), and a fourth place tie between Madonna and The Supremes (both with 12). Rihanna also tied with Houston as the female artists with the third most number - one singles on the chart, behind Carey and Madonna. "We Found Love '' spent 8 consecutive weeks and two additional weeks (after 2 weeks at number two) at the top of the Billboard Hot 100, surpassing "Umbrella '' as Rihanna 's longest number - one single in the country, and was the longest - running number one of 2011. It was certified nine times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipping more than 9 million copies. As of June 2015, the song has sold 5.4 million digital copies in the US. On August 1, 2013, Billboard announced that "We Found Love '' is the 24th biggest Hot 100 hit of all time in the chart 's 55 - year history.
"We Found Love '' debuted at number seven on the US Hot Digital Songs chart, with digital download sales of 117,000 after only four days according to Nielsen SoundScan. In its fifth week, the song rose to number one, with sales of 231,000 copies, giving Rihanna her eleventh number - one song on the chart, further extending her record as the artist with the most number ones. The song spent a second week at number one on the chart, with sales of 243,000 copies, bringing total sales to 1,057,000 copies sold, marking Rihanna 's twentieth download to reach the million - selling milestone, extending her record for the most such downloads among women. On October 12, 2011, the song debuted at number 39 on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart and number 21 on the Pop Songs chart. It eventually reached number one on both charts. It was, until 2013, the most recent song to spend at least two consecutive weeks atop the US Hot Dance Club chart, until Daft Punk 's "Get Lucky ''. "We Found Love '' also peaked at numbers three and two on the US Latin Songs and Latin Pop Songs charts, becoming Rihanna 's highest - charting single on both charts. Furthermore, the song reached the top spot on the Canadian Hot 100 chart.
In Harris 's native United Kingdom, "We Found Love '' debuted at number one with 87,000 copies sold on the UK Singles Chart, UK Dance Chart and UK Singles Downloads Chart on October 9, 2011, despite only having been on sale for four days. With "We Found Love '' debuting atop the singles chart, the singer set a record by becoming the first female solo artist to top the chart six times in five consecutive years, having previously held pole position with "Umbrella '', "Take A Bow '', "Run This Town '', "Only Girl (In The World) '' and "What 's My Name '' between 2007 and 2011. The song retained its number - one position on all three charts for three consecutive weeks, selling 92,000 copies in its third week. Total sales for "We Found Love '' in the United Kingdom stood at 372,268 after just 24 days. In its fifth week, the song climbed a place to number two but then in its sixth week, the song returned to number - one for a fourth non-consecutive week (the record would be broken three years later when Pharrell Williams ' "Happy '' took a five - week break from the top - spot before returning to pole position) and eventually topped the chart for six weeks, resulting in Rihanna overtaking Adele as the artist with the most cumulutive weeks at number one of 2011, with a total of seven weeks between "We Found Love '' and her January release "What 's My Name? ''. In addition, in its sixth week Rihanna scored her second "chart double '' of the year when Talk That Talk and "We Found Love '' placed at number one on the albums and singles charts, respectively. This achievement had not been achieved since 1979 and made Rihanna the first female artist in chart history to score two "chart doubles '' in the same year, with the singer 's previous album Loud and its second single, ' What 's My Name? ' topping both charts earlier in 2011. By February 2012, the single had racked up 1,006,460 copies in 19 weeks, making it Rihanna 's second solo track (third overall) to reach the million sales plateau since October 2011, following "Love the Way You Lie '' and "Only Girl (In the World) ''. In November 2012, it was included on ' The Million Sellers ' list by the Official Charts Company, consisting of the best - selling singles in the UK that have sold at least one million copies since 1952. It charted at number 76 out of a total 123, having sold 1.13 million copies. As of February 2016, the song has sold 1.39 million copies in the UK, making it Rihanna 's biggest - selling single there. The song debuted at number one in Scotland on October 15, 2011. The single is the 9th best - selling song of all time by a female artist in the UK.
Elsewhere in Europe, the song topped the charts in Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Norway, Poland, Russia, Slovakia, Sweden and Switzerland and attained top - five positions in the Flanders and Wallonia regions of Belgium at numbers three and two, and reached number two in the Czech Republic and Spain and three in the Netherlands. In Germany "We Found Love '' entered the single chart at number one on October 28, 2011, becoming Rihanna 's fourth number one in the country. After being deposed for a week, the track rebounded to take the lead spending three further weeks at the top, becoming Rihanna 's second longest - running number one hit in the country after "Umbrella '' in 2007. In France, "We Found Love '' has sold 145,000 copies as of 2011. The song topped certain European charts for lengthy periods, including in Norway for nine non-consecutive weeks, Ireland for seven consecutive weeks and Denmark for six weeks.
The music video for "We Found Love '' was shot in late September 2011, in County Down, Northern Ireland and the New Lodge area of North Belfast. The video was directed by Melina Matsoukas, who had previously directed the videos for "Hard '' (2009), "Rude Boy '' (2010), "Rockstar 101 '' (2010) and the controversial "S&M '' (2011). Anticipation for the video grew in the United Kingdom when the national news picked up on the story of sixty - one - year - old Northern Ireland farmer Alan Graham withdrawing his permission to film in his barley field in Bangor, County Down after taking issue with Rihanna 's clothing, focusing on her appearing topless and also wearing a red bikini top which he thought was an "inappropriate state of undress ''. Rihanna and her film crew departed amiably after Graham advised them to "be acquainted with God and to consider his son, the Lord Jesus Christ, and his death and Resurrection. ''
The video begins with a monologue about love and heartbreak by an unseen narrator, fashion model Agyness Deyn. Multiple scenes of Rihanna and her lover, Dudley O'Shaughnessy, are intercut throughout the narration, depicting them in different love and hate situations with each other. The two are shown as completely enamored with each other while engaging in fun activities together, including enjoying their time at an indoor skating centre and eating in fast food restaurants. During the chorus, the video shows the romance to be somewhat warped, as images of drugs, various pills and dilated pupils are shown, while brief scenes of Rihanna and her boyfriend preparing to engage in sexual intercourse and their various stages of undress are shown. The chorus continues and the video abruptly cuts to Rihanna and other people at an outdoor rave, dancing to music. Calvin Harris features as the DJ during this scene.
From the second verse, Rihanna and her boyfriend are seen happily running amok in a supermarket, pushing each other in a shopping cart and spraying canned drinks at each other. This scene is interrupted with Rihanna in a Pontiac Trans Am outside with her boyfriend who begins to recklessly drive in circles, resulting in Rihanna asking him to stop the car which ensues into an argument between the pair. The video then progressively shows the couple experiencing mounting difficulties in their relationship. Rihanna removes herself from the car and returns moments later where we see her boyfriend grab her chin to look at him, suggesting that he is domestically violent towards her. During the final chorus Rihanna can be seen vomiting what appears to be pink and white streamers; she is also seen passed out on the street while her boyfriend tries to revive her. In another scene, Rihanna is seen lying on a couch while her boyfriend tattoos the word ' MINE ' on her backside. Eventually, Rihanna decides to leave her boyfriend after finding him passed out on the floor of his apartment -- and most likely due to the previous events shown throughout the video. The clip ends with Rihanna curled up in the corner of a room, crying.
The video generated controversy for its depiction of violence and drug use, as well as for Rihanna 's removal of her clothes during filming. One journalist wrote, "The song is probably one of the most talked about in the country following the Barbadian being told to ' find God ' after running naked through a Northern Irish farmer 's field. '' It was described as a "disgrace '' by an anti-rape campaigner, and Christian commenters worried about the effects of the video and that "Rihanna is damaging the moral and self - worth of young impressionable teens. '' However, The Guardian praised the video for being different in its time period and called it "a very British music video '', comparing it to UK TV series, Skins. The video won a Grammy Award for ' Best Short - Form Music Video. As of January 2015, Billboard named the video as the second best music video of the 2010s (so far).
Rihanna performed "We Found Love '' for the first time on November 14, 2011 during a concert of her Loud Tour in London. The song was then added to the setlist as the closing song for the rest of the tour until it ended on December 22. On November 17, 2011, Rihanna performed the song on first season of The X Factor USA. The performance featured Rihanna wearing torn jeans and a bomber jacket with neon signs also present on the stage. On November 20, 2011, Rihanna performed the song on the eighth season of The X Factor UK, featuring Rihanna wearing a small tartan dress.
On February 12, 2012, Rihanna performed "We Found Love '' at the 54th Grammy Awards held at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, followed by her duet single "Princess of China '' with Coldplay for first time. John Mitchell from MTV News said he thought Rihanna looked "gorgeous '' and that she gave "off a Tina Turner vibe -- Rihanna rocked the blond locks she introduced recently, wearing a tight, belly - baring ensemble. '' USA Today 's writer Ed Masley, praised the performance, describing it as "shout in shout - out ''. The Huffington Post also noted that the performance had "a twinge of Tina Turner ''. Time magazine graded the performance with an A, saying that "Rihanna never disappoints. Her pop songs are always danceable, often catchy and consistently awesome -- sometimes they even have some substance to them. Similarly, her Grammy performance was n't the flashiest or craziest, and she did n't bust out dance moves the way other entertainers did, but it was one of the most enjoyable. ''
Later that month, the singer performed the song at the 2012 BRIT Awards held on February 21, 2012, at The O2 Arena in London. The performance began with Rihanna, in only an old grandad - style jumper covering her body, in a clear cage as colourful paint began to be thrown inside with her, although none was thrown onto the singer herself. Dancers were also present as Rihanna emerged from the cage and began dancing along the broad stretch of stage. The performance concluded with big multi-coloured balloons pouring down red confetti from the ceiling as they burst, finalizing with Rihanna returning to the paint - covered cage and smearing it over herself ending with her silhouette being broadcast through the cage. At the ceremony, Rihanna also won the award for Best International Female Solo Artist. Whilst promoting her first feature film appearance in Battleship, Rihanna made a visit to Japan, performing "We Found Love '' on the Japanese music television program Music Station. She donned a traditional kimono and concluded the performance by crowd surfing into the audience. On April 24, 2012, Rihanna performed a special acoustic version of the song at the Time 100 gala for Time Magazine 's selection of that year 's 100 most influential people of which Rihanna was listed. Rihanna later performed "We Found Love '' at Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend on May 24, 2012, as the seventeenth and final song on the set list. The performance featured a giant sphinx on the stage. On September 9, 2012, Rihanna performed the single (along with "Princess of China '' and "Run This Town '') with Coldplay and Jay - Z at the closing ceremony of the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London, entering on a steampunk pirate ship and also suspended in the air on a metal bench. On December 9, 2012, Rihanna performed "We Found Love '' in a medley with a solo version of "Stay '' on the final of series nine of the UK The X Factor. The performance featured Rihanna wearing white T - bar wedge sandals, strap around her calves, diamond earrings and silver jewellery. She also performed the song at the 2016 MTV Video Music Awards.
American singer Tinashe uploaded a music video for her cover on her YouTube account on October 21, 2011. British alternative rock band Coldplay, with whom Rihanna would later collaborate on their song "Princess of China '', covered "We Found Love '' on October 27, 2011, during a performance at BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge. Jocelyn Vena of MTV News called the performance "flawless '', writing "Lead singer Chris Martin 's haunting vocals and the band 's acoustic rendition, using drums, piano and guitar, play up the sadness of the track. '' Jason Lipshutz of Billboard magazine also noted that the band used "piano flourishes, a kick drum and a simple guitar lick to convey the song 's romantic declaration '', while making a ballad which was "reminiscent of Bruno Mars 's emotional reworking of Katy Perry 's ' California Gurls ' ''. Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone wrote: "It may surprise that their rendition is actually pretty good. Whereas Rihanna 's version is a thumping rave anthem, Chris Martin and company transform it into a lovely piano ballad nearly indistinguishable from many of their own songs. '' A writer for The Hollywood Reporter said: "Martin 's vocals blend with the piano for a slightly softer take on the tragic love story. '' On February 17, 2012, British singer Jessie J made a cover of the song on BBC Radio1 's Live Lounge.
Lea Michele and Naya Rivera covered the song in the climax of the third season 's tenth episode of Glee, "Yes / No ''. Romanian X Factor contestant Diana Hetea performed "We Found Love '' in the "Public 's Choice Gala '' on December 10, 2011. Even though ill of laryngitis, Hetea 's performance was praised all three judges that called it "(The) Perfect match for her! '' both visually and vocally. Kris Allen also covered the song mashing it with other songs by Katy Perry and other female artists. Carmen Smith also performed "We Found Love '' for her battle round in the Australian Version of the Voice which saw her through to next round.
In September 2012, Kelly Clarkson performed the song during a concert in Virginia Beach. In October 2012, British singer Ed Sheeran did an acoustic cover of the song for Sirius XM Radio. Lindsey Stirling covered it in a music video filmed in a Kenyan village. British pop rock band McFly covered "We Found Love '' on their "Keep Calm And Play Lounder '' tour 2012. Kele Okereke sang a verse of the song as the intro to his band Bloc Party 's song "Flux '' on their June 2012 U.K. tour. In July 2014, Tori Amos covered the song on her Unrepentant Geraldines Tour. In 2011, Boyce Avenue, a pop rock band, also made an acoustic cover of the song and released it iTunes and their YouTube channel.
The song also used for the trailer of 2012 comedy - drama film Magic Mike, in the TV series Sherlock, and in the films Mediterranea and American Honey.
In November 2011, R3hab released a remix of "We Found Love '' with a "Halloween '' sound. He explained "I made two versions... one version is more melodic and euphoric. This (first) one is more dark because the lyrics (to) ' We Found Love ' can also be seen as something dark. ' We are at the end of the world / And I still found love. ' So from there came the more darker chord progression and the more darker atmosphere, like Dracula is coming to get you. It 's just got a lot of emotion and that worked out great for me. ''
On January 13, 2012, Rap - Up released a remix of "We Found Love '' featuring American rapper Flo Rida. Flo Rida 's parts overlap Calvin Harris ' produced dance beats. In the opening lines, Flo Rida introduces himself and raps tongue twisters about Rihanna and The Bahamas, "You know I got love for you / See what happened was we in Bahams / I remember it was the ox summer, oh so pretty I /... Girl nice to meet you what 's the honour / Yeah she tap me told me she Rihanna. ''. He also references singer Mick Jagger singing that he is "rocking a party ' like I 'm Mick Jagger. '' Flo Rida, himself in an interview with NME revealed that it was an honor for him to work with Rihanna. He also revealed that "We Found Love '' was one of his favorite songs and that 's why he decided to make a remix with Rihanna. He added that Calvin Harris ' production impressed him and heavily influenced him on his future work. Rihanna also noted that she decided to work with Flo Rida because of his "wild '' productions on his songs.
Andrew Unterberger of the website PopDust wrote that Flo Rida was "exactly '' what the original version of "We Found Love '' was missing. He added, "No Rihanna, you got it backwards -- it 's Flo Rida who needs to have other, more talented people on his songs in order to turn them into hits, not the other way around... At least this remix does feature a sizeable contribution from Flo, as he shows up on both the intro and over the song 's primary instrumental hook with his trademark unintelligble yammering, though he gets in at least one reference to rocking a party ' like I 'm Mick Jagger. ' '' Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone praised the remix of the song, saying that "once again, Flo Rida shows his true rapping skills over the beat of Rihanna 's ' We Found Love ' ''. Both Billboard 's Erika Ramirez and Spin 's Marc Hogan praised the remixed version calling it "refreshing '' and "interesting ''. However, Becky Bain of the website Idolator was more negative towards the remix. She noted, "Being that Rihanna 's ' We Found Love ' has enough beats and synths to be its own remix, not to mention it could n't possibly be even more popular on the Hot 100... we find it pointless to release a new version of the single with Flo Rida. ''
Credits adapted from CD single liner notes.
Recording
Personnel
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Thanks to the later release date of "We Found Love '' in the United Kingdom, a singer called "Cover Girl '' rush - released a version before Rihanna was due to release hers. This version charted at number 54 in the UK Singles Chart.
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what precise provisions of the constitution address federalism | Due process clause - wikipedia
The Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution each contain a due process clause. Due process deals with the administration of justice and thus the due process clause acts as a safeguard from arbitrary denial of life, liberty, or property by the government outside the sanction of law. The Supreme Court of the United States interprets the clauses more broadly because these clauses provide four protections: procedural due process (in civil and criminal proceedings), substantive due process, a prohibition against vague laws, and as the vehicle for the incorporation of the Bill of Rights. Due process ensures the rights and equality of all citizens.
Clause 39 of the Magna Carta provided:
No free man shall be seized or imprisoned, or stripped of his rights or possessions, or outlawed or exiled, or deprived of his standing in any other way, nor will we proceed with force against him, or send others to do so, except by the lawful judgment of his equals or by the law of the land.
The phrase "due process of law '' first appeared in a statutory rendition of Magna Carta in 1354 during the reign of Edward III of England, as follows:
No man of what state or condition he be, shall be put out of his lands or tenements nor taken (taken to mean arrested or deprived of liberty by the state), nor disinherited, nor put to death, without he be brought to answer by due process of law.
New York was the only state that asked Congress to add "due process '' language to the U.S. Constitution. New York ratified the U.S. Constitution and proposed the following amendment in 1788:
(N) o Person ought to be taken imprisoned or disseised of his freehold, or be exiled or deprived of his Privileges, Franchises, Life, Liberty or Property but by due process of Law.
In response to this proposal from New York, James Madison drafted a due process clause for Congress. Madison cut out some language, and inserted the word without, which had not been proposed by New York. Congress then adopted the exact wording that Madison proposed, after Madison explained that the due process clause would not be sufficient to protect various other rights:
Although I know whenever the great rights, the trial by jury, freedom of the press, or liberty of conscience, come in question in that body (Parliament), the invasion of them is resisted by able advocates, yet their Magna Carta does not contain any one provision for the security of those rights, respecting which the people of America are most alarmed.
The Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides:
No person shall... be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law...
Section One of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides:
(N) or shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law...
The Supreme Court has interpreted the due process clauses in the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendment identically, as Justice Felix Frankfurter once explained in a concurring opinion:
To suppose that ' due process of law ' meant one thing in the Fifth Amendment and another in the Fourteenth is too frivolous to require elaborate rejection.
In 1855, the Supreme Court explained that, to ascertain whether a process is due process, the first step is to "examine the constitution itself, to see whether this process be in conflict with any of its provisions ''. Also in 1855, the U.S. Supreme Court said,
The words, "due process of law '', were undoubtedly intended to convey the same meaning as the words, "by the law of the land '', in Magna Carta.
In the 1884 case of Hurtado v. California, the Court said:
Due process of law in the (Fourteenth Amendment) refers to that law of the land in each state which derives its authority from the inherent and reserved powers of the state, exerted within the limits of those fundamental principles of liberty and justice which lie at the base of all our civil and political institutions, and the greatest security for which resides in the right of the people to make their own laws, and alter them at their pleasure.
Due process also applies to the creation of taxing districts, as taxation is a deprivation of property. Due process typically requires public hearings prior to the creation of a taxing district.
Due process applies to Puerto Rico, although it is not a State.
(ANNOTATION: The term ' State ' (capitalized ' S ', though informally) is typically defined as a territory of the "United States ''. This ' territorial ' State ' is NOT synonymous with, nor to be confused with the term, ' state ' (small ' s '), i.e.... one of the several union states of America (which are sovereign nations unto themselves, bound into a compact, known as the constitution for these united states, and not part of the corporate municipal United States). Though the corporate municipal United States has limited territorial jurisdiction (to the 10 square mile area from the center of the District of Columbia) its jurisdiction over political subdivisions, agencies, instrumentalities, and persons, is not territorially bound. Therefore, Puerto Rico IS a ' State ', which is subject to provisions of the 14th amendment, including due process protections.)
The due process clauses apply to both natural personas as well as to "legal persons '' (that is, corporate personhood) as well as to individuals, including both citizens and non-citizens. Fifth Amendment due process was first applied to corporations in 1893 by the Supreme Court in Noble v. Union River Logging. Noble was preceded by Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad in 1886. The due process clauses also apply to non-citizens who are within the United States, although the U.S. Supreme Court has recognized that non-citizens can be stopped, detained, and denied past immigration officials at points of entry (eg. at a port or airport) without the protection of the Due Process Clause because, while technically on U.S. soil, they are not considered to have entered the United States.
The U.S. Supreme Court has interpreted the term "liberty '' in the due process clauses broadly:
Although the Court has not assumed to define "liberty '' with any great precision, that term is not confined to mere freedom from bodily restraint. Liberty under law extends to the full range of conduct which the individual is free to pursue, and it can not be restricted except for a proper governmental objective.
The prohibitions, generally, of the due process clauses apply only to the actions of state actors, and not against private citizens. However, where a private persons is acting jointly with state officials in a prohibited action, they are said to be acting under the "color of the law '' for the purposes of 42 U.S.C. § 1983.
Procedural due process requires government officials to follow fair procedures before depriving a person of life, liberty, or property. When the government seeks to deprive a person of one of those interests, procedural due process minimally requires for the government to afford the person notice, an opportunity to be heard, and a decision made by a neutral decisionmaker.
This protection extends to all government proceedings that can result in an individual 's deprivation, whether civil or criminal in nature, from parole violation hearings to administrative hearings regarding government benefits and entitlements to full - blown criminal trials. The article "Some Kind of Hearing '' written by Judge Henry Friendly created a list of basic due process rights "that remains highly influential, as to both content and relative priority ''. These rights, which apply equally to civil due process and criminal due process, are:
Procedural due process is essentially based on the concept of "fundamental fairness ''. For example, in 1934, the United States Supreme Court held that due process is violated "if a practice or rule offends some principle of justice so rooted in the traditions and conscience of our people as to be ranked as fundamental ''. As construed by the courts, it includes an individual 's right to be adequately notified of charges or proceedings, the opportunity to be heard at these proceedings, and that the person or panel making the final decision over the proceedings be impartial in regards to the matter before them.
To put it more simply, where an individual is facing a deprivation of life, liberty, or property, procedural due process mandates that he or she is entitled to adequate notice, a hearing, and a neutral judge.
The Supreme Court has formulated a balancing test to determine the rigor with which the requirements of procedural due process should be applied to a particular deprivation, for the obvious reason that mandating such requirements in the most expansive way for even the most minor deprivations would bring the machinery of government to a halt. The Court set out the test as follows: "(I) dentification of the specific dictates of due process generally requires consideration of three distinct factors: first, the private interest that will be affected by the official action; second, the risk of an erroneous deprivation of such interest through the procedures used, and the probable value, if any, of additional or substitute procedural safeguards; and, finally, the Government 's interest, including the function involved and the fiscal and administrative burdens that the additional or substitute procedural requirement would entail. ''
Procedural due process has also been an important factor in the development of the law of personal jurisdiction, in the sense that it is inherently unfair for the judicial machinery of a state to take away the property of a person who has no connection to it whatsoever. A significant portion of U.S. constitutional law is therefore directed to what kinds of connections to a state are enough for that state 's assertion of jurisdiction over a nonresident to comport with procedural due process.
The requirement of a neutral judge has introduced a constitutional dimension into the question of whether a judge should recuse himself or herself from a case. Specifically, the Supreme Court has ruled that in certain circumstances, the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment requires a judge to recuse himself on account of a potential or actual conflict of interest. For example, on June 8, 2009, in Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co. (2009), the Court ruled that a justice of the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia could not participate in a case involving a major donor to his election to that court.
In criminal cases, many of these due process protections overlap with procedural protections provided by the Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which guarantees reliable procedures that protect innocent people from being executed, which would be an obvious example of cruel and unusual punishment.
An example for criminal due process rights is the case Vitek v. Jones, 445 U.S. 480 (1980). The due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment requires certain procedural protections for state prisoners who may be transferred involuntarily to a state mental hospital for treatment of a mental disease or defect, such protections including written notice of the transfer, an adversary hearing before an independent decisionmaker, written findings, and effective and timely notice of such rights. As established by the district court and upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in Vitek v. Jones, these due process rights include:
By the middle of the 19th century, "due process of law '' was interpreted by the U.S. Supreme Court to mean that "it was not left to the legislative power to enact any process which might be devised. The due process article is a restraint on the legislative as well as on the executive and judicial powers of the government, and can not be so construed as to leave Congress free to make any process ' due process of law ' by its mere will. ''
The term "substantive due process '' (SDP) is commonly used in two ways: first to identify a particular line of case law, and second to signify a particular attitude toward judicial review under the due process clause. The term "substantive due process '' began to take form in 1930s legal casebooks as a categorical distinction of selected due process cases, and by 1950 had been mentioned twice in Supreme Court opinions. SDP involves liberty - based due process challenges which seek certain outcomes instead of merely contesting procedures and their effects; in such cases, the Supreme Court recognizes a constitutionally - based "liberty '' which then renders laws seeking to limit said "liberty '' either unenforceable or limited in scope. Critics of SDP decisions typically assert that those liberties ought to be left to the more politically accountable branches of government.
Courts have viewed the due process clause, and sometimes other clauses of the Constitution, as embracing those fundamental rights that are "implicit in the concept of ordered liberty ''. Just what those rights are is not always clear, nor is the Supreme Court 's authority to enforce such unenumerated rights clear. Some of those rights have long histories or "are deeply rooted '' in American society.
The courts have largely abandoned the Lochner era approach (c. 1897 - 1937) when substantive due process was used to strike down minimum wage and labor laws in order to protect freedom of contract. Since then, the Supreme Court has decided that numerous other freedoms that do not appear in the plain text of the Constitution are nevertheless protected by the Constitution. If these rights were not protected by the federal courts ' doctrine of substantive due process, they could nevertheless be protected in other ways; for example, it is possible that some of these rights could be protected by other provisions of the state or federal constitutions, and alternatively they could be protected by legislatures.
Today, the Court focuses on three types of rights under substantive due process in the Fourteenth Amendment, which originated in United States v. Carolene Products Co., 304 U.S. 144 (1938), footnote 4. Those three types of rights are:
The Court usually looks first to see if there is a fundamental right, by examining if the right can be found deeply rooted in American history and traditions. Where the right is not a fundamental right, the court applies a rational basis test: if the violation of the right can be rationally related to a legitimate government purpose, then the law is held valid. If the court establishes that the right being violated is a fundamental right, it applies strict scrutiny. This test inquires into whether there is a compelling state interest being furthered by the violation of the right, and whether the law in question is narrowly tailored to address the state interest.
Privacy, which is not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, was at issue in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965), wherein the Court held that criminal prohibition of contraceptive devices for married couples violated federal, judicially enforceable privacy rights. The right to contraceptives was found in what the Court called the "penumbras '', or shadowy edges, of certain amendments that arguably refer to certain privacy rights. The penumbra - based rationale of Griswold has since been discarded; the Supreme Court now uses the due process clause as a basis for various unenumerated privacy rights. Although it has never been the majority view, some have argued that the Ninth Amendment (addressing unenumerated rights) could be used as a source of fundamental judicially enforceable rights, including a general right to privacy, as discussed by Justice Goldberg concurring in Griswold.
The courts have generally determined that laws which are too vague for the average citizen to understand deprive citizens of their rights to due process. If an average person can not determine who is regulated, what conduct is prohibited, or what punishment may be imposed by a law, courts may find that law to be void for vagueness. See Coates v. Cincinnati, where the word "annoying '' was deemed to lack due process insertion of fair warning.
Incorporation is the legal doctrine by which the Bill of Rights, either in full or in part, is applied to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment 's due process clause. The basis for incorporation is substantive due process regarding substantive rights enumerated elsewhere in the Constitution, and procedural due process regarding procedural rights enumerated elsewhere in the Constitution.
Incorporation started in 1897 with a takings case, continued with Gitlow v. New York (1925), which was a First Amendment case, and accelerated in the 1940s and 1950s. Justice Hugo Black famously favored the jot - for - jot incorporation of the entire Bill of Rights. Justice Felix Frankfurter, however -- joined later by Justice John M. Harlan -- felt that the federal courts should only apply those sections of the Bill of Rights that were "fundamental to a scheme of ordered liberty ''. It was the latter course that the Warren Court of the 1960s took, although almost all of the Bill of Rights has now been incorporated jot - for - jot against the states. The latest Incorporation is the 2nd Amendment which made the individual and fundamental right to "keep and bear arms '' fully applicable to the States; see McDonald vs. City of Chicago, 561 U.S. (2010).
The role of the incorporation doctrine in applying the guarantees of the Bill of Rights to the states is just as notable as the use of due process to define new fundamental rights that are not explicitly guaranteed by the Constitution 's text. In both cases, the question has been whether the right asserted is "fundamental '', so that, just as not all proposed "new '' constitutional rights are afforded judicial recognition, not all provisions of the Bill of Rights have been deemed sufficiently fundamental to warrant enforcement against the states.
Some people, such as Justice Black, have argued that the Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment would be a more appropriate textual source for the incorporation doctrine. The Court has not taken that course, and some point to the treatment given to the Privileges or Immunities Clause in the 1873 Slaughter - House Cases as a reason why. Although the Slaughter - House Court did not expressly preclude application of the Bill of Rights to the states, the clause largely ceased to be invoked in opinions of the Court following the Slaughter - House Cases, and when incorporation did begin, it was under the rubric of due process. Scholars who share Justice Black 's view, such as Akhil Amar, argue that the Framers of the Fourteenth Amendment, like Senator Jacob Howard and Congressman John Bingham, included a due process clause in the Fourteenth Amendment for the following reason: "By incorporating the rights of the Fifth Amendment, the privileges or immunities clause would... have prevented states from depriving ' citizens ' of due process. Bingham, Howard, and company wanted to go even further by extending the benefits of state due process to aliens. ''
The Supreme Court has consistently held that Fifth Amendment due process means substantially the same as Fourteenth Amendment due process, and therefore the original meaning of the former is relevant to the incorporation doctrine of the latter. When the Bill of Rights was originally proposed by Congress in 1789 to the states, various substantive and procedural rights were "classed according to their affinity to each other '' instead of being submitted to the states "as a single act to be adopted or rejected in the gross '', as James Madison put it. Roger Sherman explained in 1789 that each amendment "may be passed upon distinctly by the States, and any one that is adopted by three fourths of the legislatures may become a part of the Constitution ''. Thus, the states were allowed to reject the Sixth Amendment, for example, while ratifying all of the other amendments including the due process clause; in that case, the rights in the Sixth Amendment would not have been incorporated against the federal government. The doctrine of incorporating the content of other amendments into "due process '' was thus an innovation, when it began in 1925 with the Gitlow case, and this doctrine remains controversial today.
In Bolling v. Sharpe 347 U.S. 497 (1954), the Supreme Court held that "the concepts of equal protection and due process, both stemming from our American ideal of fairness, are not mutually exclusive. '' The Court thus interpreted the Fifth Amendment 's due process clause to include an equal protection element. In Lawrence v. Texas the Supreme Court added: "Equality of treatment and the due process right to demand respect for conduct protected by the substantive guarantee of liberty are linked in important respects, and a decision on the latter point advances both interests. ''
When a law or other act of government is challenged as a violation of individual liberty under the due process clause, courts nowadays primarily use two forms of scrutiny, or judicial review, which is used by the Judicial Branch. This inquiry balances the importance of the governmental interest being served and the appropriateness of the government 's method of implementation against the resulting infringement of individual rights. If the governmental action infringes upon a fundamental right, the highest level of review -- strict scrutiny -- is used. To pass strict scrutiny review, the law or act must be narrowly tailored to further a compelling government interest.
When the governmental restriction restricts liberty in a manner that does not implicate a fundamental right, rational basis review is used. Here a legitimate government interest is enough to pass this review. There is also a middle level of scrutiny, called intermediate scrutiny, but it is primarily used in Equal Protection cases rather than in Due Process cases.
The Court held in 1967 that "we can not leave to the States the formulation of the authoritative... remedies designed to protect people from infractions by the States of federally guaranteed rights ''.
Critics of substantive due process often claim that the doctrine began, at the federal level, with the infamous 1857 slavery case of Dred Scott v. Sandford. However, other critics contend that substantive due process was not used by the federal judiciary until after the Fourteenth Amendment was adopted in 1869. Advocates of substantive due process who assert that the doctrine was employed in Dred Scott claim that it was employed incorrectly. Additionally, the first appearance of substantive due process as a concept arguably appeared earlier in the case of Bloomer v. McQuewan, 55 U.S. 539 (1852), so that Chief Justice Taney would not have been entirely breaking ground in his Dred Scott opinion when he pronounced the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional because, among other reasons, an "act of Congress that deprived a citizen of his liberty or property merely because he came himself or brought his property into a particular territory of the United States, and who had committed no offence against the laws, could hardly be dignified with the name of due process of law ''. Dissenting Justice Curtis disagreed with Taney about what "due process '' meant in Dred Scott.
Criticisms of the doctrine continue as in the past. Critics argue that judges are making determinations of policy and morality that properly belong with legislators (i.e. "legislating from the bench ''), or argue that judges are reading views into the Constitution that are not really implied by the document, or argue that judges are claiming power to expand the liberty of some people at the expense of other people 's liberty (e.g. as in the Dred Scott case), or argue that judges are addressing substance instead of process.
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., a realist, worried that the Court was overstepping its boundaries, and the following is from one of his last dissents:
I have not yet adequately expressed the more than anxiety that I feel at the ever increasing scope given to the Fourteenth Amendment in cutting down what I believe to be the constitutional rights of the States. As the decisions now stand, I see hardly any limit but the sky to the invalidating of those rights if they happen to strike a majority of this Court as for any reason undesirable. I can not believe that the Amendment was intended to give us carte blanche to embody our economic or moral beliefs in its prohibitions. Yet I can think of no narrower reason that seems to me to justify the present and the earlier decisions to which I have referred. Of course the words due process of law, if taken in their literal meaning, have no application to this case; and while it is too late to deny that they have been given a much more extended and artificial signification, still we ought to remember the great caution shown by the Constitution in limiting the power of the States, and should be slow to construe the clause in the Fourteenth Amendment as committing to the Court, with no guide but the Court 's own discretion, the validity of whatever laws the States may pass.
Originalists, such as Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas, who rejects substantive due process doctrine, and Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia, who has also questioned the legitimacy of the doctrine, call substantive due process a "judicial usurpation '' or an "oxymoron ''. Both Scalia and Thomas have occasionally joined Court opinions that mention the doctrine, and have in their dissents often argued over how substantive due process should be employed based on Court precedent.
Many non-originalists, like Justice Byron White, have also been critical of substantive due process. As propounded in his dissents in Moore v. East Cleveland and Roe v. Wade, as well as his majority opinion in Bowers v. Hardwick, White argued that the doctrine of substantive due process gives the judiciary too much power over the governance of the nation and takes away such power from the elected branches of government. He argued that the fact that the Court has created new substantive rights in the past should not lead it to "repeat the process at will ''. In his book Democracy and Distrust, non-originalist John Hart Ely criticized "substantive due process '' as a glaring non-sequitur. Ely argued the phrase was a contradiction - in - terms, like the phrase green pastel redness.
Originalism is usually linked to opposition against substantive due process rights, and the reasons for that can be found in the following explanation that was endorsed unanimously by the Supreme Court in a 1985 case: "(W) e must always bear in mind that the substantive content of the (due process) clause is suggested neither by its language nor by preconstitutional history; that content is nothing more than the accumulated product of judicial interpretation of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments. ''
Originalists do not necessarily oppose protection of the rights heretofore protected using substantive due process; rather, most originalists believe that such rights should be identified and protected through legislation, through passing amendments to the constitution, or via other existing provisions of the Constitution.
The perceived scope of the due process clause was originally different than it is today. For instance, even though many of the Framers of the Bill of Rights believed that slavery violated the fundamental natural rights of African - Americans, a "theory that declared slavery to be a violation of the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment... requires nothing more than a suspension of reason concerning the origin, intent, and past interpretation of the clause ''.
No state or federal constitution in the U.S. had ever before utilized any "due process '' wording, prior to 1791 when the federal Bill of Rights was ratified.
In New York, a statutory bill of rights was enacted in 1787, and it contained four different due process clauses. Alexander Hamilton commented on the language of that New York bill of rights: "The words ' due process ' have a precise technical import, and are only applicable to the process and proceedings of the courts of justice; they can never be referred to an act of legislature. ''
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original nothing's gonna change my love for you | Nothing 's Gonna Change My Love for You - wikipedia
"Nothing 's Gonna Change My Love for You '' is a song written by composers Michael Masser and Gerry Goffin. It was originally recorded in 1984 by American singer and guitarist George Benson, and released in 1985 on his studio album 20 / 20, by Warner Bros. Records. This original version was produced by its own author Michael Masser, and was released as a single only in Europe in 1985. The song was not released as a single in the United States, but nevertheless, Benson recorded two video clips in the U.S. the same year, which were displayed on television programs. Two years later, the song became even more well known for a re-recording by Hawaiian singer Glenn Medeiros, whose 1987 cover eventually topped the charts in several countries.
This is the track list of the original single by George Benson released in 1985 in Europe:
The length of 4: 04 for "Nothing 's Gonna Change My Love for You '' and 4: 10 for "Beyond The Sea (La Mer) '', are the same in both the single and the album 20 / 20.
The original version of "Nothing 's Gonna Change My Love for You '' by George Benson has two video clips recorded by him in 1985 in the United States:
The B - side of single "Nothing 's Gonna Change My Love for You '' released in Europe brought George Benson 's cover of the classic "Beyond The Sea (La Mer) '', which, although not an original song Benson, also it was released as a single in the USA and the UK, where peaked position # 60 and remained on the UK Singles Chart for four weeks. "Beyond The Sea '' is an English version of the French song "La Mer '' by Charles Trenet, recorded in 1946. The letter was written in English by American Jack Lawrence and his version titled "Beyond The Sea '' was recorded by numerous artists to over the years. The Benson 's cover was also released on the album 20 / 20 in 1985.
A 1987 cover version by American singer Glenn Medeiros reached number 12 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, and topped the charts in Canada and the United Kingdom. It also topped the charts in a further four countries in Europe. Medeiros also recorded the song in Spanish under the title "Nada cambiará mi amor por ti ''.
Medeiros originally released the song on a small independent label at the age of 16, after winning a local radio talent contest in Hawaii. A visiting radio executive from KZZP in Phoenix, Arizona heard the song and took the record back to Phoenix, where it became a national hit through word of mouth.
The song was featured in a late 1987 episode of the US daytime soap opera Days Of Our Lives as well as 1988 episodes of As The World Turns, The Bold And The Beautiful, and General Hospital.
In 2009, the song was used in France in a television advert for Spontex sponges. The song was additionally used in a commercial for Thinkbox in the UK in 2015. During the same year the song was used in an episode of British soap opera Coronation Street, where characters Beth Tinker and Kirk Sutherland got married.
The music video features Medeiros strolling around a beach with a girl in a pink dress.
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what is the meaning behind the song turn the page | Turn the Page (Bob Seger song) - wikipedia
"Turn the Page '' is a song originally released by Bob Seger in 1973 on his Back in ' 72 album. Though never released as a single, Seger 's live version of the song on the 1976 Live Bullet album became a mainstay of album - oriented rock radio stations, and still gets significant airplay to this day on classic rock stations.
"Turn the Page '' is about the emotional and social ups and downs of a rock musician 's life on the road. Seger wrote it in 1972 while touring with Teegarden & Van Winkle. Drummer David Teegarden (of Teegarden & Van Winkle and later the Silver Bullet Band) recalls:
We had been playing somewhere in the Midwest, or the northern reaches, on our way to North or South Dakota. (Guitarist) Mike Bruce was with us. We 'd been traveling all night from the Detroit area to make this gig, driving in this blinding snowstorm. It was probably 3 in the morning. Mike decided it was time to get gas. He was slowing down to exit the interstate and spied a truck stop. We all had very long hair back then -- it was the hippie era -- but Skip, Mike and Bob had all stuffed their hair up in their hats. You had to be careful out on the road like that, because you 'd get ostracized. When I walked in, there was this gauntlet of truckers making comments -- "Is that a girl or man? '' I was seething; those guys were laughing their asses off, a big funny joke. That next night, after we played our gig -- I think it was Mitchell, S.D. -- Seger says, "Hey, I 've been working on this song for a bit, I 've got this new line for it. He played it on acoustic guitar, and there was that line: "Oh, the same old cliches / ' Is that a woman or a man? ' '' It was "Turn the Page. ''
Tom Weschler, then road manager for Seger, remembers the same incident:
"Turn the Page, '' Bob 's great road song, came along in ' 72, while we were driving home from a gig. I think we were in Dubuque, Iowa, in winter and stopped at a restaurant. We stood out when we entered a store or a gas station or a restaurant en masse. At this restaurant it was particularly bright inside, so there were n't any dark corners to hide in. All these local guys were looking at us like, "What are these guys? Is that a woman or a man? '' -- just like in the song... That was one incident, but there were so many others on the road that led Seger to write that song.
Both Seger 's studio and live versions of "Turn the Page '' feature a mellotron and a saxophone part played by founding Silver Bullet member Alto Reed. Tom Weschler allegedly helped inspire Reed to create the opening melody. During recording, Weschler told Reed: "Alto, think about it like this: You 're in New York City, on the Bowery. It 's 3 a.m. You 're under a streetlamp. There 's a light mist coming down. You 're all by yourself. Show me what that sounds like. '' With that, Reed played the opening melody to "Turn the Page ''.
Australian singer Jon English released a version of the song in 1974 as the lead single from his second studio album, It 's All a Game. The song peaked at number 20 on the Kent Music Report.
Of the many cover versions that have been recorded, the most popular might be that of Metallica who released it as the first single from their 1998 Garage Inc. album, reaching number 1 on the Billboard Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart for 11 consecutive weeks, the highest number of weeks Metallica has ever spent at the top; drummer Lars Ulrich had heard the original song while driving across the Golden Gate Bridge and later commented that he thought it "had James Hetfield all over it ''. Metallica 's rendition is taken at much the same tempo as Seger 's, but with a heavier feel; the saxophone part is replaced by a high slide guitar line from Kirk Hammett. The accompanying music video explores a day in the life not of musicians, but a mother (played by Ginger Lynn) that works as an erotic dancer by day, and prostitute by night. MTV refused to air the video due to nudity and a scene depicting abusive sex between the mother and a client. The video was directed by Jonas Åkerlund.
Jon Bon Jovi has claimed that the song was a big influence on him and Richie Sambora when they were writing their 1986 song "Wanted Dead or Alive. ''
The 1995 Bruce Springsteen song Youngstown uses a very similar tune.
In 2014, Seger performed the song on CMT Crossroads with country singer Jason Aldean. The video of the performance won the CMT Music Award for Performance Video of the Year.
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what is the biggest province or territory in canada | List of canadian provinces and territories by area - wikipedia
As a country, Canada has ten provinces and three territories. These subdivisions vary widely in both land and water area. The largest subdivision by land area is the territory of Nunavut. The largest subdivision by water area is the province of Quebec. The smallest subdivision of both land and water area is the province of Prince Edward Island.
Canada is the second - largest country in the world; it has the fourth largest dry land area, and the largest freshwater area.
The total area of a province or territory is the sum of its land area and the area of its internal water (freshwater only).
Areas are rounded to the nearest square kilometre or square mile. Percentages are given to the nearest tenth of a percent.
Land areas consist of dry land, excluding areas of freshwater and salt water.
Areas are rounded to the nearest whole unit. Percentages are given to the nearest tenth of a percent.
The internal water area data below, includes freshwater (i.e., lakes, rivers, and reservoirs). It excludes internal salt water, and territorial waters claimed by Canada in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic Oceans. Canada considers its internal water area to include 1,600,000 km of salt water in Hudson 's Bay and the ocean within and around Canada 's Arctic Archipelago. Canada 's territorial sea is 200,000 km
Areas are given to the nearest whole unit. Percentages are given to the nearest tenth of a percent.
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in which of the following market structures does a seller have no market power | Market power - wikipedia
In economics and particularly in industrial organization, market power is the ability of a firm to profitably raise the market price of a good or service over marginal cost. In perfectly competitive markets, market participants have no market power. A firm with total market power can raise prices without losing any customers to competitors. Market participants that have market power are therefore sometimes referred to as "price makers '' or "price setters '', while those without are sometimes called "price takers ''. Significant market power occurs when prices exceed marginal cost and long run average cost, so the firm makes profit.
A firm with market power has the ability to individually affect either the total quantity or the prevailing price in the market. Price makers face a downward - sloping demand curve, such that price increases lead to a lower quantity demanded. The decrease in supply as a result of the exercise of market power creates an economic deadweight loss which is often viewed as socially undesirable. As a result, many countries have anti-trust or other legislation intended to limit the ability of firms to accrue market power. Such legislation often regulates mergers and sometimes introduces a judicial power to compel divestiture.
A firm usually has market power by virtue of controlling a large portion of the market. In extreme cases -- monopoly and monopsony -- the firm controls the entire market. However, market size alone is not the only indicator of market power. Highly concentrated markets may be contestable if there are no barriers to entry or exit, limiting the incumbent firm 's ability to raise its price above competitive levels.
Market power gives firms the ability to engage in unilateral anti-competitive behavior. Some of the behaviours that firms with market power are accused of engaging in include predatory pricing, product tying, and creation of overcapacity or other barriers to entry. If no individual participant in the market has significant market power, then anti-competitive behavior can take place only through collusion, or the exercise of a group of participants ' collective market power.
The Lerner index and Herfindahl index may be used to measure market power.
When several firms control a significant share of market sales, the resulting market structure is called an oligopoly or oligopsony. An oligopoly may engage in collusion, either tacit or overt, and thereby exercise market power. A group of firms that explicitly agree to affect market price or output is called a cartel.
Monopoly power is an example of market failure which occurs when one or more of the participants has the ability to influence the price or other outcomes in some general or specialized market. The most commonly discussed form of market power is that of a monopoly, but other forms such as monopsony, and more moderate versions of these two extremes, exist.
A well - known example of monopolistic market power is Microsoft 's market share in PC operating systems. The United States v. Microsoft case dealt with an allegation that Microsoft illegally exercised its market power by bundling its web browser with its operating system. In this respect, the notion of dominance and dominant position in EU Antitrust Law is a strictly related aspect.
A monopoly can raise prices and retain customers because the monopoly has no competitors. If a customer has no other place to go to obtain the goods or services, they either pay the increased price or do without. Thus the key to market power is to preclude competition through high barriers of entry. Barriers to entry that are significant sources of market power are control of scarce resources, increasing returns to scale, technological superiority and government created barriers to entry. OPEC is an example of an organization that has market power due to control over scarce resources -- oil. Increasing returns to scale are another important source of market power. Firms experiencing increasing returns to scale are also experiencing decreasing average total costs. Firms in such industries become more profitable with size. Therefore over time the industry is dominated by a few large firms. This dominance makes it difficult for start up firms to succeed. Firms like power companies, cable television companies and wireless communication companies with large start up costs fall within this category. A company wishing to enter such industries must have the financial ability to spend millions of dollars before starting operations and generating any revenue. Similarly established firms also have a competitive advantage over new firms. An established firm threatened by a new competitor can lower prices to drive out the competition. Microsoft is a firm that has substantial pricing or market power due to technological superiority in its design and production processes. Finally government created barriers to entry can be a source of market power. A prime example are patents granted to pharmaceutical companies. These patents give the drug companies a virtual monopoly in the protected product for the term of the patent.
Concentration ratios are the most common measures of market power. The four - firm concentration ratio measures the percentage of total industry output attributable to the top four companies. For monopolies the four firm ratio is 100 per cent while the ratio is zero for perfect competition. The four firm concentration domestic (U.S) ratios for cigarettes is 93 %; for automobiles, 84 % and for beer, 85 %.
Another measure of concentration is the Herfindahl - Hirschman Index (HHI) which is calculated by "summing the squares of the percentage market shares of all participants in the market ''. The HHI index for perfect competition is zero; for monopoly, 10,000.
U.S. courts almost never consider a firm to possess market power if it has a market share of less than 50 percent.
Market power is the ability to raise price above marginal cost (MC) and earn a positive profit. The degree to which a firm can raise price (P) above marginal cost depends on the shape of the demand curve at the profit maximizing output. That is, elasticity is the critical factor in determining market power. The relationship between market power and the price elasticity of demand (PED) can be summarized by the equation:
Note that PED will be negative, so the ratio is always greater than one. The higher the P / MC ratio, the more market power the firm possesses. As PED increases in magnitude, the P / MC ratio approaches one, and market power approaches zero. The equation is derived from the monopolist pricing rule:
Jean Tirole was awarded the 2014 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his analysis of market power and economic regulation.
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what was the purpose of the invasion of cambodia | Cambodian Campaign - wikipedia
Indecisive
American intervention 1965
1966
1967
1968
Drawdown 1969 -- 71
Easter Offensive
Post-Paris Peace Accords (1973 -- 1974)
Spring ' 75
Air operations
Naval operations
The Cambodian Campaign (also known as the Cambodian Incursion and the Cambodian Invasion) was a series of military operations conducted in eastern Cambodia during 1970 by the United States and the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam) as an extension of the Vietnam War and the Cambodian Civil War. The invasions were a policy of President Richard Nixon; 13 major operations were conducted by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) between 29 April and 22 July and by US forces between 1 May and 30 June.
The objective of the campaign was the defeat of the approximately 40,000 troops of the People 's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF, also known as Viet Cong) in the eastern border regions of Cambodia. Cambodian neutrality and military weakness made its territory a safe zone where Vietnamese communist forces could establish bases for operations over the border. With the US shifting toward a policy of Vietnamization and withdrawal, it sought to shore up the South Vietnamese government by eliminating the cross-border threat.
A change in the Cambodian government allowed an opportunity to destroy the bases in 1970, when Prince Norodom Sihanouk was deposed and replaced by pro-US General Lon Nol. The operation was also in response to North Vietnamese offensive on March 29 against the Cambodian Army that captured large parts of eastern Cambodia. Allied military operations failed to eliminate many communist troops or to capture their elusive headquarters, known as the Central Office for South Vietnam (COSVN) but the haul of captured material in Cambodia prompted claims of success.
The People 's Army of Vietnam had been utilizing large sections of relatively unpopulated eastern Cambodia as sanctuaries into which they could withdraw from the struggle in South Vietnam to rest and reorganize without being attacked. These base areas were also utilized by the Vietnamese communists to store weapons and other material that had been transported on a large scale into the region on the Sihanouk Trail. PAVN forces had begun moving through Cambodian territory as early as 1963. In 1966, Prince Norodom Sihanouk, ruler of Cambodia, convinced of eventual communist victory in Southeast Asia and fearful for the future of his rule, had concluded an agreement with the People 's Republic of China which allowed the establishment of permanent communist bases on Cambodian soil and the use of the Cambodian port of Sihanoukville for resupply.
During 1968, Cambodia 's indigenous communist movement, labeled Khmer Rouge (Red Khmers) by Sihanouk, began an insurgency to overthrow the government. While they received very limited material help from the North Vietnamese at the time (the Hanoi government had no incentive to overthrow Sihanouk, since it was satisfied with his continued "neutrality ''), they were able to shelter their forces in areas controlled by PAVN / NLF troops.
The US government was aware of these activities in Cambodia, but refrained from taking overt military action within Cambodia in hopes of convincing the mercurial Sihanouk to alter his position. To accomplish this, President Lyndon B. Johnson authorized covert cross-border reconnaissance operations conducted by the secret Studies and Observations Group in order to gather intelligence on PAVN / NLF activities in the border regions (Project Vesuvius). This intelligence data would then be presented to the prince in an effort to change his mind.
The new commander of the US Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV), General Creighton W. Abrams, recommended to President Richard M. Nixon shortly after his inauguration that the Cambodian Base Areas be attacked by aerial bombardment utilizing B - 52 Stratofortress bombers. The president initially refused, but the breaking point came with the launching of PAVN 's "Mini-Tet '' Offensive of 1969 within South Vietnam. Nixon, angered at what he perceived as a violation of the "agreement '' with Hanoi after the cessation of the bombing of North Vietnam, authorized the covert air campaign. The first mission of Operation Menu was dispatched on 18 March and by the time it was completed 14 months later more than 3,000 sorties had been flown and 108,000 tons of ordnance had been dropped on eastern Cambodia.
While Sihanouk was abroad in France for a rest cure in January 1970, government - sponsored anti-Vietnamese demonstrations were held throughout Cambodia. Continued unrest spurred Prime Minister / Defense Minister Lon Nol to close the port of Sihanoukville to communist supplies and to issue an ultimatum on 12 March to the North Vietnamese to withdraw their forces from Cambodia within 72 hours. The prince, outraged that his "modus vivendi '' with the communists had been disturbed, immediately arranged for a trip to Moscow and Beijing in an attempt to gain their agreement to apply pressure on Hanoi to restrain its forces in Cambodia.
On 18 March, the Cambodian National Assembly deposed Sihanouk and named Lon Nol as provisional head of state. This led Sihanouk to immediately establish a government - in - exile in Beijing and to ally himself with North Vietnam, the Khmer Rouge, the NLF, and the Laotian Pathet Lao. In doing so, Sihanouk lent his name and popularity in the rural areas of Cambodia to a movement over which he had little control. The North Vietnamese response to the coup was swift. PAVN began directly supplying large amounts of weapons and advisors to the Khmer Rouge, and Cambodia plunged into civil war.
Lon Nol saw Cambodia 's population of 400,000 ethnic Vietnamese as possible hostages to prevent PAVN attacks and ordered their roundup and internment. Cambodian soldiers and civilians then unleashed a reign of terror, murdering thousands of Vietnamese civilians. On 15 April for example, 800 Vietnamese men had been rounded up at the village of Churi Changwar, tied together, executed, and their bodies dumped into the Mekong River. They then floated downstream into South Vietnam. Cambodia 's actions were denounced by both the North and South Vietnamese governments.
Even before the supply conduit through Sihanoukville was shut down, PAVN had begun expanding its logistical system from southeastern Laos (the Ho Chi Minh trail) into northeastern Cambodia. PAVN also launched an offensive (Campaign X) against the Cambodian army, quickly seizing large portions of the eastern and northeastern parts of the country, isolating and besieging or overrunning a number of Cambodian cities including Kampong Cham. Communist forces then approached within 20 miles (32 km) of the capital, Phnom Penh, spurring President Nixon into action.
On 29 March 1970, the North Vietnamese had taken matters into their own hands and launched an offensive against the Cambodian army with documents uncovered from the Soviet archives revealing that the offensive was launched at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge following negotiations with Nuon Chea. A force of North Vietnamese quickly overran large parts of eastern Cambodia reaching to within 15 miles (24 km) of Phnom Penh. After defeating those forces, the North Vietnamese turned the newly won territories over to the local insurgents. The Khmer Rouge also established "liberated '' areas in the south and the southwestern parts of the country, where they operated independently of the North Vietnamese.
In response to events in Cambodia, President Nixon believed that there were distinct possibilities for a U.S. response. With Sihanouk gone, conditions were ripe for strong measures against the Base Areas. He was also adamant that some action be taken to support "The only government in Cambodia in the last twenty - five years that had the guts to take a pro-Western stand. '' The president then solicited proposals for actions from the Joint Chiefs of Staff and MACV, who presented him with a series of options: a naval quarantine of the Cambodian coast; the launching of South Vietnamese and American airstrikes; the expansion of hot pursuit across the border by ARVN forces; or a ground invasion by ARVN, U.S. forces, or both.
During a televised address on 20 April, Nixon announced the withdrawal of 150,000 U.S. troops from South Vietnam during the year. This planned withdrawal implied restrictions on any offensive U.S. action in Cambodia. By the spring of 1970, MACV still maintained 330,648 U.S. Army and 55,039 Marine Corps troops in South Vietnam, most of whom were concentrated in 81 infantry and tank battalions. Many of them, however, were preparing to leave the country or expected to leave in the near future and would not be available for immediate combat operations.
On 22 April Nixon authorized the planning of a South Vietnamese incursion into the Parrot 's Beak (named for its perceived shape on a map), believing that "Giving the South Vietnamese an operation of their own would be a major boost to their morale as well as provide a practical demonstration of the success of Vietnamization. '' On the following day, Secretary of State William P. Rogers testified before the House Appropriations Subcommittee that "the administration had no intentions... to escalate the war. We recognize that if we escalate and get involved in Cambodia with our ground troops that our whole program (Vietnamization) is defeated. ''
South Vietnamese forces had been rehearsing for just such an operation since late March. On 27 April, an ARVN Ranger Battalion had advanced into Kandal Province to destroy a communist base. Four days later other South Vietnamese troops drove 16 kilometers into Cambodian territory. Lon Nol, who had initially attempted to follow a neutralist policy of his own, requested military aid and assistance from the U.S. government on 14 April. On that day, South Vietnamese forces then conducted the first of three brief cross-border operations under the aegis of Operation Toan Thang (Complete Victory) 41, sending armored cavalry units into regions of Cambodia 's Svay Rieng Province nicknamed the Angel 's Wing and the Crow 's Nest. On 20 April, 2,000 South Vietnamese troops advanced into the Parrot 's Beak, killing 144 PAVN troops. On 22 April, Nixon authorized American air support for the South Vietnamese operations. All of these incursions into Cambodian territory were simply reconnaissance missions in preparation for a larger - scale effort being planned by MACV and its ARVN counterparts, subject to authorization by Nixon.
President Nixon then authorized General Abrams to begin planning for a U.S. operation in the Fishhook region. A preliminary operational plan had actually been completed in March, but was kept so tightly under wraps that when Abrams handed over the task to General Michael Davison, commander of the II Field Force, he was not informed about the previous planning and started a new one from scratch. Seventy - two hours later, Davison 's plan was submitted to the White House. National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger asked one of his aides to review it on 26 April, and the NSC staffer was appalled by its "sloppiness ''.
The main problems were the pressure of time and the desire of the U.S. president for secrecy. The Cambodian monsoon, whose heavy rains would hamper operations, was only two months away. By the order of the president, the State Department did not notify the Cambodian desk at the US Embassy, Saigon, the Phnom Penh embassy, or Lon Nol of the planning. Operational security was as tight as General Abrams could make it. There was to be no prior U.S. logistical build - up in the border regions which might serve as a signal to the communists. U.S. brigade commanders were informed only a week in advance of the offensive, while battalion commanders got only two or three days ' notice.
Not all of the members of the administration agreed that an invasion of Cambodia was either militarily or politically expedient. Secretary of Defense Melvin R. Laird and Secretary Rogers were both opposed to any such operation due to their belief that it would engender intense domestic opposition in the U.S. and that it might possibly derail the ongoing peace negotiations in Paris (they had both opposed the Menu bombings for the same reasons). Both were castigated by Henry Kissinger for their "bureaucratic foot - dragging. '' As a result, Laird was bypassed by the Joint Chiefs in advising the White House on planning and preparations for the Cambodian operation.
On the evening of 25 April Nixon dined with his friend Bebe Rebozo and Kissinger. Afterward, they screened one of Nixon 's favorite movies, Patton, a biographical portrayal of controversial General George S. Patton, Jr., which he had seen five times previously. Kissinger later commented that "When he was pressed to the wall, his (Nixon 's) romantic streak surfaced and he would see himself as a beleaguered military commander in the tradition of Patton. ''
The following evening, Nixon decided that "We would go for broke '' and gave his authorization for the incursion. The joint U.S. / ARVN campaign would begin on 1 May with the stated goals of: reducing allied casualties in South Vietnam; assuring the continued withdrawal of U.S. forces; and enhancing the U.S. / Saigon government position at the peace negotiations in Paris.
In order to keep the campaign as low - key as possible, General Abrams had suggested that the commencement of the incursion be routinely announced from Saigon. At 21: 00 on 30 April, however, President Nixon appeared on all three U.S. television networks to announce that "It is not our power but our will and character that is being tested tonight '' and that "the time has come for action. '' He announced his decision to launch American forces into Cambodia with the special objective of capturing COSVN, "the headquarters of the entire communist military operation in South Vietnam. '' COSVN as a single headquarters for control of PAVN operations in South Vietnam probably did not exist, or, at least, was never found.
Coordinating with Lon Nol ARVN forces attacked the PRG headquarter complexes. Moving across the border in Cambodia on 30 March elements of the PRG and NLF were surrounded in their bunkers by South Vietnamese forces flown in by helicopter. Surrounded they awaited till nightfall and then with security provided by the NLF 7th division they broke out of the encirclement and fled north to unite with the COSVN in the Cambodian Kratie province in what would come to be known as Escape of the Provisional Revolutionary Government. Trương Như Tảng was the Minister of Justice in the PRG and he recounts that during the march to the northern bases was day after day of forced marches broken up by B - 52 bombing raids. Just before the column crossed route 7 on their way north they received word that on 3 April the 9th Division had fought and won a battle near the city of Krek, Cambodia against ARVN forces.
Years later Trương would recall just how "close (South Vietnamese) were to annihilating or capturing the core of the Southern resistance -- elite units of our frontline fighters along with the civilian and much of the military leadership ''. After many days of hard marches the PRG reached the northern bases, and relative safety, in the Kratie region. Casualties were light and the march even saw the birth of a baby to Dương Quỳnh Hoa, the deputy minister of health in the Provisional Revolutionary Government (PRG). The column needed many days to recover and Trương himself would require weeks to recover from the long march.
South Vietnamese forces had already crossed the border on 30 April, launching Operation Toan Thang 42 (Total Victory), also labeled Operation Rock Crusher. 12 ARVN battalions of approximately 8,700 troops (two armored cavalry squadrons from III Corps and two from the 25th Division and 5th Infantry Divisions, an infantry regiment from the 25th Infantry Division, and three Ranger battalions and an attached ARVN Armored Cavalry Regt from the 3rd Ranger Group) crossed into the Parrot 's Beak region of Svay Rieng Province. The offensive was under the command of Lieutenant General Đỗ Cao Trí, the commander of III Corps, who had a reputation as one of the most aggressive and competent ARVN generals. During their first two days in Cambodia, ARVN units had several sharp encounters with PAVN forces. The North Vietnamese, forewarned by previous ARVN incursions, however, conducted only delaying actions in order to allow the bulk of their forces to escape to the west.
The ARVN operation soon settled down to become a search and destroy mission, with South Vietnamese troops combing the countryside in small patrols looking for PAVN supply caches. Phase II of the operation began with the arrival of elements of the 9th Infantry Division. Four tank - infantry task forces attacked into the Parrot 's Beak from the south. After three days of operations, ARVN claimed 1,010 PAVN troops had been killed and 204 prisoners taken for the loss of 66 ARVN dead and 330 wounded.
On 1 May an even larger operation, in parallel with Toan Thang 42, known by the ARVN as Operation Toan Thang 43 and by MACV as Operation Rock Crusher, got underway as 36 B - 52s dropped 774 tons of bombs along the southern edge of the Fishhook. This was followed by an hour of massed artillery fire and another hour of strikes by tactical fighter - bombers. At 10: 00, the 1st Air Cav Division, the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment, the 1st ARVN Armoured Cavalry Regiment, and the 3rd ARVN Airborne Brigade then entered Kampong Cham Province of Cambodia. Known as Task Force Shoemaker (after General Robert M. Shoemaker, the Assistant Division Commander of the 1st Cavalry Division), the force attacked the long - time communist stronghold with 10,000 U.S. and 5,000 South Vietnamese troops. The operation utilized mechanized infantry and armored units to drive deep into the province where they would then link up with ARVN airborne and U.S. airmobile units that had been lifted in by helicopter.
Opposition to the incursion was expected to be heavy, but PAVN / NLF forces had begun moving westward two days before the advance began. By 3 May, MACV reported only eight Americans killed and 32 wounded, low casualties for such a large operation. There was only scattered and sporadic contact with delaying forces such as that experienced by elements of the U.S. 11th Armoured Cavalry three kilometers inside Cambodia. PAVN troops opened fire with small arms and rockets only to be blasted by tank fire and tactical airstrikes. When the smoke had cleared, 50 dead PAVN soldiers were counted on the battlefield while only two U.S. troops were killed during the action.
1st Battalion / 7th Cavalry, 3rd Brigade 1st Cavalry Division was in the Fishhook very early May through 30 June when they crossed the river back into Vietnam. There was extremely heavy combat throughout the period. American losses were very heavy, with all units relying on heavy inflow of replacements to try to maintain at least half strength in the field. In one company, of all the men who had entered Cambodia, only nine left on 30 June, the rest having been either killed or wounded and evacuated. The unit was awarded the Valorous Unit Award, equivalent to individual Silver Stars, for their combat performance in the Fishhook.
The North Vietnamese had ample notice of the impending attack. A 17 March directive from the headquarters of the B - 3 Front, captured during the incursion, ordered PAVN / NLF forces to "break away and avoid shooting back... Our purpose is to conserve forces as much as we can ''. The only surprised party amongst the participants in the incursion seemed to be Lon Nol, who had been informed by neither Washington nor Saigon concerning the impending invasion of his country. He only discovered the fact after a telephone conversation with the head of the U.S. mission, who had found out about it himself from a radio broadcast.
The only conventional battle fought by American troops occurred on 1 May at the town of Snoul, the suspected terminus of the Sihanouk Trail at the junction of Routes 7, 13, and 131. Elements of the U.S. 11th Armored Cavalry and supporting helicopters came under PAVN fire while approaching the town and its airfield. When a massed American attack was met by heavy resistance, the Americans backed off, called in air support and blasted the town for two days, reducing it to rubble. During the action, Brigadier General Donn A. Starry, commander of the 11th Armored Cavalry, was wounded by grenade fragments and evacuated.
On the following day, elements of the U.S. 1st Air Cavalry division entered what came to be known as "The City '', southwest of Snoul. The two - square mile PAVN complex contained over 400 thatched huts, storage sheds, and bunkers, each of which was packed with food, weapons, and ammunition. There were truck repair facilities, hospitals, a lumber yard, 18 mess halls, a pig farm, and even a swimming pool. Forty kilometers to the northeast, other 1st Cavalry Division elements discovered a larger base on 6 May. Nicknamed "Rock Island East '' after the U.S. Army 's Rock Island Arsenal in Illinois, the area contained more than 6.5 million rounds of anti-aircraft ammunition, 500,000 rifle rounds, thousands of rockets, several General Motors trucks, and large quantities of communications equipment.
While on patrol 20 kilometers northeast of "Rock Island East '' on 23 May, a point man nicknamed Shakey (Chris Keffalos) from the 5th Battalion, 7th Cavalry, tripped over a metal plate buried just below the surface of the ground. The trooper was later killed by PAVN defenders, but the cache he had uncovered was the first of 59 buried storage bunkers at the site of what was thereafter known as "Shakey 's Hill ''. The bunkers contained thousands of cases of weapons and ammunition, all of which were turned over to the Cambodian army. Much of the captured enemy material was turned over to the MACV Special Support Group for Cambodia where it was maintained and then issued to Lon Nol 's Forces. This group was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Will H. Horn.
The one thing that was not found was COSVN. On 1 May a tape of Nixon 's announcement of the incursion was played for General Abrams, "who must have cringed '' when he heard the president state that the capture of the headquarters was one of the major objectives of the operation. MACV intelligence knew that the mobile and widely dispersed headquarters would be difficult to locate. In response to a White House query before the fact, MACV had replied that "major COSVN elements are dispersed over approximately 110 square kilometers of jungle '' and that "the feasibility of capturing major elements appears remote ''.
After the first week of operations, additional battalion and brigade units were committed to the operation, so that between 6 and 24 May, a total of 90,000 Allied troops (including 33 U.S. maneuver battalions) were conducting operations inside Cambodia. Due to increasing political and domestic turbulence in the U.S., President Nixon issued a directive on 7 May limiting the distance and duration of U.S. operations to a depth of 30 kilometers (19 mi) and setting a deadline of 30 June for the withdrawal of all U.S. forces to South Vietnam.
South Vietnamese forces were not constrained by the time and geographic limitations placed upon U.S. units. From the provincial capital of Svay Rieng, ARVN elements pressed westward to Kampong Trabek, where on 14 May their 8th and 15th Armored Cavalry regiments defeated the 88th PAVN Infantry Regiment. On 23 May, the South Vietnamese pushed beyond the deepest U.S. penetrations and attacked the town of Krek.
In the II Corps area, Operation Binh Tay I (Operation Tame the West) was launched by the 1st and 2nd Brigades of the U.S. 4th Infantry Division and the 40th ARVN Infantry Regiment against Base Area 702 (the traditional headquarters of the communist B - 2 Front) in northeastern Cambodia from 5 -- 25 May. Following airstrikes, the initial American forces, assaulting via helicopter, were driven back by intense anti-aircraft fire. On the following day, the 3rd Battalion, 506th Infantry (on loan from the U.S. 101st Airborne Division), landed without opposition. Its sister unit, the 1st Battalion, 14th Infantry was also unopposed. The 3rd Battalion of the 8th Infantry, however, inserted only 60 men before intense PAVN fire (which shot down one helicopter and damaged two others) shut down the landing zone, leaving them stranded and surrounded overnight. By the following morning, PAVN forces had left the area.
On the 7th, the division 's 2nd Brigade inserted its three battalions unopposed. After ten days (and only one significant firefight) the American troops returned to South Vietnam, leaving the area to the ARVN. Historian Shelby Stanton has noted that "there was a noted lack of aggressiveness '' in the combat assault and that the division seemed to be "suffering from almost total combat paralysis. '' During Operation Binh Tay II, the ARVN 22nd Division moved against Base Area 702 from 14 -- 26 May. The second phase of the operation was carried out by ARVN forces against Base Area 701 between 20 May and 27 June when elements of the ARVN 22nd Division conducted operations against Base Area 740.
On 10 May, Bravo Company, 3rd Battalion, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne Division, was ambushed by a much larger North Vietnamese force in the Se San Valley. Eight U.S. soldiers were killed and 28 wounded. Among the killed was Spc. Leslie Sabo, Jr. (posthumously promoted to sergeant), who was recommended for the Medal of Honor, but the paperwork went missing until 1999. Sabo was awarded the Medal of Honor on 16 May 2012 by President Barack Obama.
In the III Corps Tactical Zone, Operation Toan Thang 44 (Operation Bold Lancer), was conducted by the 1st and 2nd Brigades of the U.S. 25th Infantry Division between 6 May and 30 June. The targets of the operation were Base Areas 353, 354, and 707 located north and northeast of Tay Ninh, South Vietnam. Once again, a hunt for COSVN units was conducted, this time around the Cambodian town of Memot and, once again, the search was futile. During its operations, the 25th Infantry killed 1,017 PAVN and NLF troops while losing 119 of its own men killed.
Simultaneous with the launching of Toan Thang 44, the two battalions of the 3rd Brigade, U.S. 9th Infantry Division, crossed the border 48 kilometers southwest of the Fishhook into an area known as the Dog 's Face from 7 through 12 May. The only significant contact with PAVN forces took place near the hamlet of Chantrea, where 51 North Vietnamese were killed and another 21 were captured. During the operation, the brigade lost eight men killed and 22 wounded. It was already too late for thousands of ethnic Vietnamese murdered by Cambodian persecution, but there were tens of thousands of Vietnamese still within the country who could now be evacuated to safety. South Vietnamese President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu arranged with Lon Nol to repatriate as many as were willing to leave. The new relationship did not, however, prevent the Cambodian government from stripping the Vietnamese of their homes and other personal property before they left.
Thieu then authorized Operation Cuu Long, in which ARVN ground forces, including mechanized and armoured units, drove west and northwest up the eastern side of the Mekong River from 9 May -- 1 July. A combined force of 110 Vietnamese Navy and 30 U.S. vessels proceeded up the Mekong to Prey Veng, permitting IV Corps ground forces to move westward to Phnom Penh and to aid ethnic Vietnamese seeking flight to South Vietnam. Those who did not wish to be repatriated were then forcibly expelled. Surprisingly, North Vietnamese forces did not oppose the evacuation, though they could easily have done so.
Other operations conducted from IV Corps included Operation Cuu Long II (16 -- 24 May), which continued actions along the western side of the Mekong. Lon Nol had requested that the ARVN help in the retaking of Kompong Speu, a town along Route 4 southwest of Phnom Penh and 90 miles (140 km) inside Cambodia. A 4,000 - man ARVN armoured task force linked up with Cambodian ground troops and then retook the town. Operation Cuu Long III (24 May -- 30 June) was an evolution of the previous operations after U.S. forces had left Cambodia.
After rescuing the Vietnamese from the Cambodians, ARVN was tasked with saving the Cambodians from the North Vietnamese. The goal was to relieve the city of Kompong Cham, 70 kilometers northwest of the capital and the site of the headquarters of Cambodia 's Military Region I. On 23 May, General Tri led a column of 10,000 ARVN troops along Route 7 to the 180 - acre (0.73 km) Chup rubber plantation, where PAVN resistance was expected to be heavy. Surprisingly, no battle ensued and the siege of Kompong Cham was lifted at a cost of 98 PAVN troops killed.
Aerial operations for the incursion got off to a slow start. Reconnaissance flights over the operational area were restricted since MACV believed that they might serve as a signal of intention. The role of the Air Force in the planning for the incursion itself was minimal at best, in part to preserve the secrecy of Menu which was then considered an overture to the thrust across the border.
On 17 April, General Abrams requested that the president approve Operation Patio, covert tactical airstrikes in support of Studies and Observations Group recon elements "across the fence '' in Cambodia. This authorization was given, allowing U.S. aircraft to penetrate 13 miles (21 km) into northeastern Cambodia. This boundary was extended to 29 miles (47 km) along the entire frontier on 25 April. Patio was terminated on 18 May after 156 sorties had been flown. The last Menu mission was flown on 26 May.
During the incursion itself, U.S. and ARVN ground units were supported by 9,878 aerial sorties (6,012 U.S. / 2,966 Vietnamese Air Force), an average of 210 per day. During operations in the Fishhook, for example, the USAF flew 3,047 sorties and the Republic of Vietnam Air Force 332. These tactical airstrikes were supplemented by 653 B - 52 missions in the border regions (71 supporting Binh Tay operations, 559 for Toan Thang operations, and 23 for Cuu Long). 30 May saw the inauguration of Operation Freedom Deal (named as of 6 June), a continuous U.S. aerial interdiction campaign conducted in Cambodia. These missions were limited to a depth of 48 - kilometers between the South Vietnamese border and the Mekong River.
Within two months, however, the limit of the operational area was extended past the Mekong, and U.S. tactical aircraft were soon directly supporting Cambodian forces in the field. These missions were officially denied by the U.S. and false coordinates were given in official reports to hide their existence. Defense Department records indicated that out of more than 8,000 combat sorties flown in Cambodia between July 1970 and February 1971, approximately 40 percent were flown outside the authorized Freedom Deal boundary.
The real struggle for the U.S. and ARVN forces in Cambodia was the effort at keeping their units supplied. Once again, the need for security before the operations and the rapidity with which units were transferred to the border regions precluded detailed planning and preparation. This situation was exacerbated by the poor road network in the border regions and the possibility of ambush for nighttime road convoys demanded that deliveries only take place during daylight. Aerial resupply, therefore, became the chief method of logistical replenishment for the forward units. Military engineers and aviators were kept in constant motion throughout the incursion zone.
Due to the rapid pace of operations, deployment, and redeployment, coordination of artillery units and their fires became a worrisome quandary during the operations. This was made even more problematic by the confusion generated by the lack of adequate communications systems between the rapidly advancing units. The joint nature of the operation added another level of complexity to the already overstretched communications network. Regardless, due to the ability of U.S. logisticians to innovate and improvise, supplies of food, water, ammunition, and spare parts arrived at their destinations without any shortages hampering combat operations and the communications system, although complicated, functioned well enough during the short duration of U.S. operations.
Before the end of the bombings on August 15, 1973, a legal challenge to the bombings had mounted in United States Federal Court in the case of Schlesinger v. Holtzman. Congresswoman Elizabeth Holtzman voted against the Case - Church amendment, as she wanted an immediate end to the bombings, and subsequently filed suit in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York seeking an order to require such. On July 25, 1973, U.S. District Judge Orrin Grimmell Judd granted summary judgment to Holtzman and issued an injunction ordering the military to refrain from participating in military activities in Cambodia. His order would have become effective on July 27, however, on that day, a three - judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit unanimously stayed his order. Holtzman then attempted to get the Circuit Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court overseeing the Second Circuit, Justice Thurgood Marshall, to vacate the stay. Justice Marshall refused to vacate the stay, issuing an in - chambers opinion. Holtzman then turned to Justice William O. Douglas who granted Holtzman 's motion to vacate the stay on August 4, 1973, and he ordered the U.S. Military to cease all bombing in Cambodia. The military ignored his order, and six hours later, the other eight Justices of the Supreme Court voted unanimously to reverse Douglas 's order.
The North Vietnamese response to the incursion was to avoid contact with allied forces and, if possible, to fall back westward and regroup. PAVN forces were well aware of the planned attack and many COSVN / B - 3 Front military units were already far to the north and west conducting operations against the Cambodians when the offensive began. During 1969 PAVN logistical units had already begun the largest expansion of the Ho Chi Minh trail conducted during the entire conflict. As a response to the loss of their Cambodian supply route, North Vietnamese forces seized the Laotian towns of Attopeu and Saravane during the year, pushing what had been a 60 - mile (97 km) corridor to a width of 90 miles (140 km) and opening the entire length of the Kong River system into Cambodia. A new logistical command, the 470th Transportation Group, was created to handle logistics in Cambodia and the new "Liberation Route '' ran through Siem Prang and reached the Mekong at Stung Treng.
As foreseen by Secretary Laird, fallout from the incursion was quick in coming on the campuses of America 's universities, as protests erupted against what was perceived as an expansion of the conflict into yet another country. On 4 May the unrest escalated to violence when Ohio National Guardsmen shot and killed four unarmed students (two of whom were not protesters) during the Kent State shootings. Two days later, at the University at Buffalo, police wounded four more demonstrators. On 15 May city and state police killed two and wounded twelve at Jackson State College (now Jackson State University) in Jackson, Mississippi. Earlier, on 8 May 100,000 protesters had gathered in Washington and another 150,000 in San Francisco on only ten days notice. Nationwide, 30 ROTC buildings went up in flames or were bombed while 26 schools witnessed violent clashes between students and police. National Guard units were mobilized on 21 campuses in 16 states. The student strike spread nationwide, involving more than four million students and 450 universities, colleges and high schools in mostly peaceful protests and walkouts.
Simultaneously, public opinion polls during the second week of May showed that 50 percent of the American public approved of President Nixon 's actions. Fifty - eight percent blamed the students for what had occurred at Kent State. On both sides, emotions ran high. In one instance, in New York City on 8 May, pro-administration construction workers rioted and attacked demonstrating students. Such violence, however, was an aberration. Most demonstrations, both pro - and anti-war, were peaceful. On 20 May 100,000 construction workers, tradesmen, and office workers marched peacefully through New York City in support of the president 's policies.
Reaction in the U.S. Congress to the incursion was also swift. Senators Frank F. Church (Democratic Party, Idaho) and John S. Cooper (Republican Party, Kentucky), proposed an amendment to the Foreign Military Sales Act that would have cut off funding not only for U.S. ground operations and advisors in Cambodia, but would also have ended U.S. air support for Cambodian forces. On 30 June the United States Senate passed the act with the amendment included. The bill was defeated in the House of Representatives after U.S. forces were withdrawn from Cambodia as scheduled. The newly amended act did, however, rescind the Southeast Asia Resolution (better known as the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution) under which Presidents Johnson and Nixon had conducted military operations for seven years without a declaration of war.
The Cooper -- Church Amendment was resurrected during the winter and incorporated into the Supplementary Foreign Assistance Act of 1970. This time the measure made it through both houses of Congress and became law on 22 December. As a result, all U.S. ground troops and advisors were barred from participating in military actions in Laos or Cambodia, while the air war being conducted in both countries by the U.S. Air Force was ignored.
President Nixon proclaimed the incursion to be "the most successful military operation of the entire war. '' General Abrams was of like mind, believing that time had been bought for the pacification of the South Vietnamese countryside and that U.S. and ARVN forces had been made safe from any attack out of Cambodia during 1971 and 1972. A "decent interval '' had been obtained for the final American withdrawal. ARVN General Tran Dinh Tho was more skeptical: "despite its spectacular results... it must be recognized that the Cambodian incursion proved, in the long run, to pose little more than a temporary disruption of North Vietnam 's march toward domination of all of Laos, Cambodia, and South Vietnam. ''
John Shaw and other historians, military and civilian, have based the conclusions of their work on the incursion on the premise that the North Vietnamese logistical system in Cambodia had been so badly damaged that it was rendered ineffective. The next large - scale North Vietnamese offensive, the Nguyen Hue Offensive of 1972 (called the Easter Offensive in the West) would be launched out of southern North Vietnam and western Laos, not from Cambodia, was cited as proof positive that the Cambodian operations had succeeded. The fact that PAVN forces were otherwise occupied in Cambodia and had no such offensive plan (so far as is known) was seemingly irrelevant. The fact that logistically, a northern offensive (especially a conventional one backed by armour and heavy artillery) would be launched closer to its source of manpower and supply also seemed to be of little consequence.
The logistical haul discovered, removed, or destroyed in eastern Cambodia during the operations was indeed prodigious: 20,000 individual and 2,500 crew - served weapons; 7,000 to 8,000 tons of rice; 1,800 tons of ammunition (including 143,000 mortar shells, rockets, and recoilless rifle rounds); 29 tons of communications equipment; 431 vehicles; and 55 tons of medical supplies. MACV intelligence estimated that PAVN / NLF forces in southern Vietnam required 1,222 tons of all supplies each month to keep up a normal pace of operations. Due to the loss of its Cambodian supply system and continued aerial interdiction in Laos, MACV estimated that for every 2.5 tons of materiel sent south down the Ho Chi Minh trail, only one ton reached its destination. However, the true loss rate was probably only around ten percent. General Abrams claimed 11,000 enemy soldiers killed and 2,500 captured, but his figures were disputed by CIA, who insisted that civilians death were figured into Abrams 's total.
South Vietnamese forces had performed well during the incursion but their leadership was uneven. General Tri proved a resourceful and inspiring commander, earning the sobriquet the "Patton of the Parrot 's Beak '' from the American media. General Abrams also praised the skill of General Nguyen Viet Thanh, commander of IV Corps and planner of the Parrot 's Beak operation. Unfortunately for the anti-communists, both officers were killed in helicopter crashes -- Thanh on 2 May in Cambodia and Tri in February 1971. Other ARVN commanders, however, had not performed well. Even at this late date in the conflict, the appointment of ARVN general officers was prompted by political loyalty rather than professional competence. As a test of Vietnamization, the incursion was praised by American generals and politicians alike, but the Vietnamese had not really performed alone. The participation of U.S. ground and air forces had precluded any such claim. When called on to conduct solo offensive operations during the incursion into Laos (Operation Lam Son 719) in 1971, the ARVN 's continued weaknesses would become all too apparent.
The Cambodian government was not informed of the incursion until it was already under way. The Cambodian leadership however welcomed the intervention against PAVN bases and the resulting weakening of PAVN military capabilities. The leadership had hoped for permanent US occupation of the PAVN sanctuaries because FANK and ARVN forces were unable to fill the vacuum in these territories following US withdrawal. It has been argued by some scholars that the incursion heated up the civil war and helped the insurgent Khmer Rouge gather recruits to their cause.
Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, Command History 1967, Annex F. Saigon, 1968.
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what is the meaning of porter five forces | Porter 's five forces analysis - wikipedia
Porter 's Five Forces Framework is a tool for analyzing competition of a business. It draws from industrial organization (IO) economics to derive five forces that determine the competitive intensity and, therefore, the attractiveness (or lack of it) of an industry in terms of its profitability. An "unattractive '' industry is one in which the effect of these five forces reduces overall profitability. The most unattractive industry would be one approaching "pure competition '', in which available profits for all firms are driven to normal profit levels. The five - forces perspective is associated with its originator, Michael E. Porter of Harvard University. This framework was first published in Harvard Business Review in 1979.
Porter refers to these forces as the microenvironment, to contrast it with the more general term macroenvironment. They consist of those forces close to a company that affect its ability to serve its customers and make a profit. A change in any of the forces normally requires a business unit to re-assess the marketplace given the overall change in industry information. The overall industry attractiveness does not imply that every firm in the industry will return the same profitability. Firms are able to apply their core competencies, business model or network to achieve a profit above the industry average. A clear example of this is the airline industry. As an industry, profitability is low because the industry 's underlying structure of high fixed costs and low variable costs afford enormous latitude in the price of airline travel. Airlines tend to compete on cost, and that drives down the profitability of individual carriers as well as the industry itself because it simplifies the decision by a customer to buy or not buy a ticket. A few carriers -- Richard Branson 's Virgin Atlantic is one -- have tried, with limited success, to use sources of differentiation in order to increase profitability.
Porter 's five forces include three forces from ' horizontal ' competition -- the threat of substitute products or services, the threat of established rivals, and the threat of new entrants -- and two others from ' vertical ' competition -- the bargaining power of suppliers and the bargaining power of customers.
Porter developed his five forces framework in reaction to the then - popular SWOT analysis, which he found both lacking in rigor and ad hoc. Porter 's five - forces framework is based on the structure -- conduct -- performance paradigm in industrial organizational economics. It has been applied to try to address a diverse range of problems, from helping businesses become more profitable to helping governments stabilize industries. Other Porter strategy tools include the value chain and generic competitive strategies.
Profitable industries that yield high returns will attract new firms. New entrants eventually will decrease profitability for other firms in the industry. Unless the entry of new firms can be made more difficult by incumbents, abnormal profitability will fall towards zero (perfect competition), which is the minimum level of profitability required to keep an industry in business.
The following factors can have an effect on how much of a threat new entrants may pose:
A substitute product uses a different technology to try to solve the same economic need. Examples of substitutes are meat, poultry, and fish; landlines and cellular telephones; airlines, automobiles, trains, and ships; beer and wine; and so on. For example, tap water is a substitute for Coke, but Pepsi is a product that uses the same technology (albeit different ingredients) to compete head - to - head with Coke, so it is not a substitute. Increased marketing for drinking tap water might "shrink the pie '' for both Coke and Pepsi, whereas increased Pepsi advertising would likely "grow the pie '' (increase consumption of all soft drinks), while giving Pepsi a larger market share at Coke 's expense.
Potential factors:
The bargaining power of customers is also described as the market of outputs: the ability of customers to put the firm under pressure, which also affects the customer 's sensitivity to price changes. Firms can take measures to reduce buyer power, such as implementing a loyalty program. Buyers ' power is high if buyers have many alternatives. It is low if they have few choices.
Potential factors:
The bargaining power of suppliers is also described as the market of inputs. Suppliers of raw materials, components, labor, and services (such as expertise) to the firm can be a source of power over the firm when there are few substitutes. If you are making biscuits and there is only one person who sells flour, you have no alternative but to buy it from them. Suppliers may refuse to work with the firm or charge excessively high prices for unique resources.
Potential factors are:
For most industries the intensity of competitive rivalry is the major determinant of the competitiveness of the industry. Having an understanding of industry rivals is vital to successfully market a product. Positioning pertains to how the public perceives a product and distinguishes it from competitors. A business must be aware of its competitors marketing strategy and pricing and also be reactive to any changes made.
Potential factors:
Strategy consultants occasionally use Porter 's five forces framework when making a qualitative evaluation of a firm 's strategic position. However, for most consultants, the framework is only a starting point. They might use value chain or another type of analysis in conjunction. Like all general frameworks, an analysis that uses it to the exclusion of specifics about a particular situation is considered naive.
According to Porter, the five forces framework should be used at the line - of - business industry level; it is not designed to be used at the industry group or industry sector level. An industry is defined at a lower, more basic level: a market in which similar or closely related products and / or services are sold to buyers. (See industry information.) A firm that competes in a single industry should develop, at a minimum, one five forces analysis for its industry. Porter makes clear that for diversified companies, the primary issue in corporate strategy is the selection of industries (lines of business) in which the company will compete. The average Fortune Global 1,000 company competes in 52 industries.
Porter 's framework has been challenged by other academics and strategists. For instance, Kevin P. Coyne and Somu Subramaniam claim that three dubious assumptions underlie the five forces:
An important extension to Porter 's work came from Adam Brandenburger and Barry Nalebuff of Yale School of Management in the mid-1990s. Using game theory, they added the concept of complementors (also called "the 6th force '') to try to explain the reasoning behind strategic alliances. Complementors are known as the impact of related products and services already in the market. The idea that complementors are the sixth force has often been credited to Andrew Grove, former CEO of Intel Corporation. Martyn Richard Jones, while consulting at Groupe Bull, developed an augmented five forces model in Scotland in 1993. It is based on Porter 's Framework and includes Government (national and regional) as well as pressure groups as the notional 6th force. This model was the result of work carried out as part of Groupe Bull 's Knowledge Asset Management Organisation initiative.
Porter indirectly rebutted the assertions of other forces, by referring to innovation, government, and complementary products and services as "factors '' that affect the five forces.
It is also perhaps not feasible to evaluate the attractiveness of an industry independently of the resources that a firm brings to that industry. It is thus argued (Wernerfelt 1984) that this theory be combined with the resource - based view (RBV) in order for the firm to develop a sounder framework.
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when did rationing end in the uk after ww2 | Rationing in the United Kingdom - wikipedia
Rationing was introduced temporarily by the British government several times during the 20th century, during and immediately after a war.
At the start of the Second World War in 1939, the United Kingdom was importing 20,000,000 long tons of food per year, including about 70 % of its cheese and sugar, nearly 80 % of fruits and about 70 % of cereals and fats. The UK also imported more than half of its meat, and relied on imported feed to support its domestic meat production. The civilian population of the country was about 50 million. It was one of the principal strategies of the Germans in the Battle of the Atlantic to attack shipping bound for Britain, restricting British industry and potentially starving the nation into submission.
To deal with sometimes extreme shortages, the Ministry of Food instituted a system of rationing. To buy most rationed items, each person had to register at chosen shops, and was provided with a ration book containing coupons. The shopkeeper was provided with enough food for registered customers. Purchasers had to take ration books with them when shopping, so that the relevant coupon or coupons could be cancelled.
In line with its business as usual policy during the First World War, the government was initially reluctant to try to control the food markets. It fought off attempts to introduce minimum prices in cereal production, though relenting in the area of control of essential imports (sugar, meat, and grains). When it did introduce changes, they were limited. In 1916, it became illegal to consume more than two courses while lunching in a public eating place or more than three for dinner; fines were introduced for members of the public found feeding the pigeons or stray animals.
In January 1917, Germany started unrestricted submarine warfare to try to starve Britain into submission. To meet this threat, voluntary rationing was introduced in February 1917. Bread was subsidised from September that year; prompted by local authorities taking matters into their own hands, compulsory rationing was introduced in stages between December 1917 and February 1918 as Britain 's supply of wheat decreased to just six weeks ' worth. To help the process, ration books were introduced in July 1918 for butter, margarine, lard, meat, and sugar. For the most part, rationing benefited the health of the country. During the war, average energy intake decreased by only 3 %, but protein intake by 6 %.
The government made preparations to ration food in 1925, in advance of an expected general strike, and appointed Food Control Officers for each region. In the event, the Trades Unions of the London docks organized blockades by crowds, but convoys of lorries under military escort took the heart out of the strike, so that the measures did not have to be implemented.
After the Second World War began in September 1939 the first commodity to be controlled was petrol. On 8 January 1940 bacon, butter and sugar were rationed. This was followed by successive ration schemes for meat, tea, jam, biscuits, breakfast cereals, cheese, eggs, lard, milk, and canned and dried fruit. In June 1942 the Combined Food Board was set up to coordinate the world supply of food to the Allies, with special attention to flows from the U.S. and Canada to Britain. Almost all foods apart from vegetables and bread were rationed by August 1942. Strict rationing inevitably created a black market. Almost all controlled items were rationed by weight but meat was rationed by price.
Fresh vegetables and fruit were not rationed but supplies were limited. Some types of imported fruit all but disappeared. Lemons and bananas became unobtainable for most of the war; oranges continued to be sold but greengrocers customarily reserved them for children and pregnant women, who could prove their status by producing their distinctive ration books. Other domestically grown fruit such as apples still appeared from time to time, but again the sellers imposed their own restrictions so that customers were often not allowed to buy, for example, more than one apple each. Many people grew their own vegetables, greatly encouraged by the highly successful "Dig for Victory '' motivational campaign. In 1942 numerous children between five and seven years old had become used to wartime restrictions. When questioned about bananas, many did not believe such items existed. Game meat such as rabbit and pigeon were not rationed but were not always available. A popular music - hall song, written 20 years previously but sung ironically, was "Yes! We Have No Bananas ''. During the food rationing, British biologists ate laboratory rats.
Most controversial was bread; it was not rationed until after the war ended, but the "national loaf '' of wholemeal bread replaced the ordinary white variety, to the distaste of most housewives who found it mushy, grey and easy to blame for digestion problems. In May 1942, an order was passed that meals served in hotels and restaurants must not cost over 5 shillings per customer, must not be of more than three courses, and at most one course could contain meat, fish or poultry. This was partly in response to increasing public concerns that "luxury '' off - ration foodstuffs were being unfairly obtained by those who could afford to dine regularly in restaurants.
Fish was not rationed, but prices increased considerably as the war progressed. The government initially allowed this, since it realised that fishermen would need to be able to collect a premium for their catch if they were at risk of enemy attack while at sea, but prices were controlled from 1941. Like other non-rationed items, fish was rarely freely available, as supplies dropped to 30 % of pre-war levels, and long queues built up at fishmongers and fish and chip shops. The quality of wartime chips was often felt to be below standard, because of the low - quality fat available.
As the war progressed rationing was extended to other commodities such as clothing. Clothing was rationed on a points system. When it was introduced, on 1 June 1941, no clothing coupons had been issued, and at first the unused margarine coupons in ration books were valid for clothing. Initially the allowance was for about one new outfit per year; as the war progressed the points were reduced, until buying a coat used almost a year 's clothing coupons. On 1 July 1942 the basic civilian petrol ration was abolished; this had been announced on 13 March 1942. (Ivor Novello was a British public figure sent to prison for four weeks for misusing petrol coupons.) After that, vehicle fuel was only available to official users, such as the emergency services, bus companies and farmers. The priority users of fuel were always, of course, the armed forces. Fuel supplied to approved users was dyed, and use of this fuel for non-essential purposes was an offence.
Certain foodstuffs that the 1940s British consumer would find unusual, for example whale meat and canned snoek fish from South Africa, were not rationed. Despite this they did not prove popular.
In addition to rationing, the government equalized the food supply through subsidies on items consumed by the poor and the working class. In 1942 -- 43, £ 145 million was spent on food subsidies, including £ 35 million on bread, flour and oatmeal, £ 23 million on meat and the same on potatoes, £ 11 million on milk, and £ 13 million on eggs.
Restaurants were initially exempt from rationing but this was resented, as people with more money could supplement their food rations by eating out frequently. The Ministry of Food in May 1942 issued new restrictions on restaurants:
About 2,000 new wartime establishments called British Restaurants were run by local authorities in schools and church halls. Here a plain three - course meal cost only 9 d and no ration coupons were required. They evolved from the London County Council 's Londoners ' Meals Service, which began as an emergency system for feeding people who had been blitzed out of their homes. They were open to all and mostly served office and industrial workers.
In December 1939 Elsie Widdowson and Robert McCance of the University of Cambridge tested whether the United Kingdom could survive with only domestic food production if U-boats ended all imports. Using 1938 food production data, they fed themselves and other volunteers one egg, one pound of meat and four ounces of fish a week; one quarter pint (0.14 litre) of milk a day; four ounces of margarine; and unlimited amounts of potatoes, vegetables and wholemeal bread. Two weeks of intensive outdoor exercise simulated the strenuous wartime physical work Britons would likely have to perform. The scientists found that the subjects ' health and performance remained very good after three months; the only negative results were the increased time needed for meals to consume the necessary calories from bread and potatoes, and what they described as a "remarkable '' increase in flatulence from the large amount of starch in the diet. The scientists also noted that their faeces had increased by 250 % in volume.
The results -- kept secret until after the war -- gave the government confidence that, if necessary, food could be distributed equally to all, including high - value war workers, without causing widespread health problems. Britons ' actual wartime diet was never as severe as in the Cambridge study because imports from the United States avoided the U-boats, but rationing improved the health of British people; infant mortality declined and life expectancy rose, excluding deaths caused by hostilities. This was because it ensured that everyone had access to a varied diet with enough vitamins.
The standard rations during the Second World War were as follows. Quantities are per week unless otherwise stated.
Vegetarians were allowed an extra 3 oz (85 g) cheese
1s 2d bought about 1 lb 3 oz (540 g) of meat. Offal and sausages were only rationed from 1942 to 1944. When sausages were not rationed, the meat needed to make them was so scarce that they often contained a high proportion of bread. Eggs were rationed and "allocated to ordinary consumers as available ''; in 1944 thirty allocations of one egg each were made. Children and some invalids were allowed three a week; expectant mothers two on each allocation.
Arrangements were made for vegetarians so that other goods were substituted for their rations of meat.
Milk was supplied at 3 imp pt (1.7 l) each week with priority for expectant mothers and children under 5; 3.5 imp pt (2.0 l) for those under 18; children unable to attend school 5 imp pt (2.8 l), certain invalids up to 14 imp pt (8.0 l). Each consumer received one tin of milk powder (equivalent to 8 imperial pints or 4.5 litres) every eight weeks.
Persons falling within the following descriptions were allowed 8 oz (230 g) of cheese a week in place of the general ration of 3 oz (85 g):
There were 66 points for clothing per year; in 1942 it was cut to 48, in 1943 to 36, and in 1945 to 24. In 1945, an overcoat (wool and fully lined) was 18 coupons; a man 's suit, 26 -- 29 (according to lining); men 's shoes, 9; women 's shoes, 7; woollen dresses, 11. Children aged 14 -- 16 got 20 more coupons. Clothing rationing points could be used for wool, cotton and household textiles. People had extra points for work clothes, such as overalls for factory work. No points were required for second - hand clothing or fur coats, but their prices were fixed. Before rationing lace and frills were popular on knickers but these were soon banned so that material could be saved. From March to May 1942 austerity measures were introduced which restricted the number of buttons, pockets and pleats (among other things) on clothes.
Clothes rationing ended on 15 March 1949.
All types of soap were rationed. Coupons were allotted by weight or (if liquid) by quantity. In 1945, the ration gave four coupons each month; babies and some workers and invalids were allowed more. A coupon would yield:
The Fuel and Lighting (Coal) Order 1941 came into force in January 1942. Central heating was prohibited "in the summer months ''. Domestic coal was rationed to 15 long hundredweight (1,680 lb; 762.0 kg) for those in London and the south of England; 20 long hundredweight (2,240 lb; 1,016 kg) for the rest (the southern part of England having generally a milder climate). Some kinds of coal such as anthracite were not rationed, and in the coal - mining areas were eagerly gathered as they were in the Great Depression (see The Road to Wigan Pier).
Newspapers were limited from September 1939, at first to 60 % of their pre-war consumption of newsprint. Paper supply came under the No 48 Paper Control Order, 4 September 1942 and was controlled by the Ministry of Production. By 1945 newspapers were limited to 25 % of their pre-war consumption. Wrapping paper for most goods was prohibited.
The paper shortage often made it more difficult than usual for authors to get work published. In 1944, George Orwell wrote:
In Mr Stanley Unwin 's recent pamphlet Publishing in Peace and War, some interesting facts are given about the quantities of paper allotted by the Government for various purposes. Here are the present figures:
A particularly interesting detail is that out of the 100,000 tons allotted to the Stationery Office, the War Office gets no less than 25,000 tons, or more than the whole of the book trade put together... At the same time paper for books is so short that even the most hackneyed "classic '' is liable to be out of print, many schools are short of textbooks, new writers get no chance to start and even established writers have to expect a gap of a year or two years between finishing a book and seeing it published.
Whether rationed or not, many consumer goods became difficult to obtain because of the shortage of components. Examples included razor blades, baby bottles, alarm clocks, frying pans and pots. Balloons and sugar for cakes for birthday parties were partially or completely unavailable. Many fathers saved bits of wood to build toys for Christmas presents, and Christmas trees were almost impossible to obtain due to timber rationing.
On 8 May 1945, the Second World War ended in Europe, but rationing continued. Some aspects of rationing became stricter for some years after the war. At the time this was presented as needed to feed people in European areas under British control, whose economies had been devastated by the fighting. This was partly true, but with many British men still mobilised in the armed forces, an austere economic climate, and a centrally - planned economy under the post-war Labour government, resources were not available to expand food production and food imports. Frequent strikes by some workers (most critically dock workers) made things worse. A common ration book fraud was the ration books of the dead being kept and used by the living.
In the late 1940s the Conservative Party exploited and incited growing public anger at rationing, scarcity, controls, austerity and government bureaucracy. They used the dissatisfaction with the socialistic and egalitarian policies of the Labour Party to rally middle - class supporters and build a political comeback that won the 1951 general election. Their appeal was especially effective to housewives, who faced more difficult shopping conditions after the war than during it.
Although rationing formally ended in 1954, cheese production remained depressed for decades afterwards. During rationing, most milk in Britain was used to make one kind of cheese, nicknamed Government Cheddar (not to be confused with the government cheese issued by the US welfare system). This wiped out nearly all other cheese production in the country, and some indigenous varieties of cheese almost disappeared. Later government controls on milk prices through the Milk Marketing Board continued to discourage production of other varieties of cheese until well into the 1980s, and it was only in the mid-1990s (following the effective abolition of the MMB) that the revival of the British cheese industry began in earnest.
Petrol rationing was briefly reintroduced in late 1956 during the Suez Crisis but ended again on 14 May 1957. Advertising of petrol on the recently introduced ITV was banned for a period.
Petrol coupons were issued for a short time as preparation for the possibility of petrol rationing during the 1973 oil crisis. The rationing never came about, in large part because increasing North Sea oil production allowed the UK to offset much of the lost imports. By the time of the 1979 energy crisis, the United Kingdom had become a net exporter of oil, so on that occasion the government did not even have to consider petrol rationing.
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where did the saying bloody hell come from | Bloody - wikipedia
Bloody is a commonly used expletive attributive (intensifier) in British English. It was used as an intensive since at least the 1670s. Considered "respectable '' until about 1750, it was heavily tabooed during c. 1750 -- 1920, considered equivalent to heavily obscene or profane speech. Public use continued to be seen as controversial until the 1960s, but since the later 20th century, the word has become a comparatively mild expletive or intensifier.
The word is also used in the same way in Australian English, New Zealand English and in other parts of the Commonwealth or in ex-Commonwealth countries. In American English, the word is uncommon and is seen by American audiences as a stereotypical marker of British English, without any significant obscene or profane connotation.
Use of the adjective bloody as a profane intensifier predates the 18th century. Its ultimate origin is unclear, and several hypotheses have been suggested.
It may be a direct loan of Dutch bloote, used "in the adverbial sense of entire, complete, pure, naked '', which was suggested by Ker (1837) to have been "transformed into bloody, in the consequently absurd phrases of bloody good, bloody bad, bloody thief, bloody angry, etc., where it simply implies completely, entirely, purely, very, truly, and has no relation to either blood or murder, except by corruption of the word. ''
The word "blood '' in Dutch and German is used as part of minced oaths, in abbreviation of expressions referring to "God 's blood '', i.e. the Passion or the Eucharist. Ernest Weekley (1921) relates English usage to imitation of purely intensive use of Dutch bloed and German Blut in the early modern period.
A popularly reported theory suggested euphemistic derivation from the phrase by Our Lady. This possibility was discussed disapprovingly by Eric Partridge (1933). The contracted form by'r Lady is common in Shakespeare 's plays around the turn of the 17th century, and Jonathan Swift about 100 years later writes both "it grows by'r Lady cold '' and "it was bloody hot walking to - day '' suggesting that bloody and by'r Lady had become exchangeable generic intensifiers. However, Partridge describes the supposed derivation of bloody as a further contraction of by'r lady as "phonetically implausible ''. According to Rawson 's dictionary of Euphemisms (1995), attempts to derive bloody from minced oaths for "by our lady '' or "God 's blood '' are based on the attempt to explain the word 's extraordinary shock power in the 18th to 19th centuries, but they disregard that the earliest records of the word as an intensifier in the 17th to early 18th century do not reflect any taboo or profanity. It seems more likely, according to Rawson, that the taboo against the word arose secondarily, perhaps because of an association with menstruation.
The Oxford English Dictionary prefers the theory that it arose from aristocratic rowdies known as "bloods '', hence "bloody drunk '' means "drunk as a blood ''.
Until at least the early 18th century, the word was used innocuously. It is used as an intensifier without apparent implication of profanity by 18th - century authors such as Henry Fielding and Jonathan Swift ("It was bloody hot walking today '' in 1713) and Samuel Richardson ("He is bloody passionate. '' in 1742).
After about 1750 the word assumed more profane connotations. Johnson (1755) already calls it "very vulgar '', and the original Oxford English Dictionary article of 1888 comments the word is "now constantly in the mouths of the lowest classes, but by respectable people considered ' a horrid word ', on par with obscene or profane language. ''
On the opening night of George Bernard Shaw 's comedy Pygmalion in 1914, Mrs Patrick Campbell, in the role of Eliza Doolittle, created a sensation with the line "Walk! Not bloody likely! '' and this led to a fad for using "Pygmalion '' itself as a pseudo-oath, as in "Not Pygmalion likely '', and bloody was referred to as "the Shavian adjective '' in polite society.
The character Geoffrey Fisher in Keith Waterhouse 's play Billy Liar (1959) is notable for his continual use of the word ' bloody '. Waterhouse 's stage directions make it clear that if this is considered offensive the word should be omitted entirely and not bowdlerised to ruddy or some other word.
The use of ' bloody ' in adult UK broadcasting aroused controversy in the 1960s and 1970s, but it has since become mild expletive and is used more freely.
Bloody has always been a very common part of Australian speech and has not been considered profane there for some time. The word was dubbed "the Australian adjective '' by The Bulletin on 18 August 1894. One Australian performer, Kevin Bloody Wilson, has even made it his middle name. Also in Australia, the word bloody is frequently used as a verbal hyphen, or infix, correctly called tmesis as in "fanbloodytastic ''. In the 1940s an Australian divorce court judge held that "the word bloody is so common in modern parlance that it is not regarded as swearing ''. Meanwhile, Neville Chamberlain 's government was fining Britons for using the word in public.
The word as an expletive is seldom used in the United States of America. In the US the term is usually used when the intention is to mimic an Englishman. Because it is not perceived as profane in American English, "bloody '' is generally not censored when used in American television and film, for example in the 1961 film The Guns of Navarone the actor Richard Harris at one point says: "You ca n't even see the bloody cave, let alone the bloody guns. And anyway, we have n't got a bloody bomb big enough to smash that bloody rock... '' - but bloody was replaced with ruddy for British audiences of the time.
The term is used somewhat frequently in Canada, especially in the provinces of Ontario and Newfoundland. Younger Canadians generally do not consider the term to be offensive; however, older Canadians of British origin might.
In Singapore, the word bloody is commonly used as a mild expletive in Singapore 's colloquial English. The roots of this expletive derives from the influence and informal language British officers used during the dealing and training of soldiers in the Singapore Volunteer Corps and the early days of the Singapore Armed Forces. When more Singaporeans were promoted officers within the Armed Forces, most new local officers applied similar training methods their former British officers had when they were cadets or trainees themselves. This includes some aspects of British Army lingo, like "bloody (something) ''. When the newly elected Singapore government implemented compulsory conscription, all 18 year old able bodied Singapore males had to undergo training within the Armed Forces. When National servicemen completed their service term, some brought the many expletives they picked up during their service into the civilian world and thus became a part of the common culture in the city state. The word ' bloody ' also managed to spread to the north in neighbouring Malaysia, to where the influence of Singapore English has spread. The use of ' bloody ' as a substitute for more explicit language increased with the popularity of British and Australian films and television shows aired on local television programmes. The term bloody in Singapore may not be considered explicit, but its usage is frowned upon in formal settings.
The term is frequently used among South Africans in their colloquial English and it is an intensifier. It is used in both explicit and non-explicit ways. It also spread to Afrikaans as "bloedige '' and is popular amongst all citizens in the country. It is also used by minors and is not considered to be offensive.
Many substitutions were devised to convey the essence of the oath, but with less offence; these included bleeding, bleaking, cruddy, smuddy, blinking, blooming, bally, woundy, flaming and ruddy.
Publications such as newspapers, police reports, and so on may print b__y instead of the full profanity. A spoken language equivalent is blankety or, less frequently, blanked or blanky; the spoken words are all variations of blank, which, as a verbal representation of a dash, is used as a euphemism for a variety of "bad '' words.
Use of bloody as an adverbial or generic intensifier is to be distinguished from its fixed use in the expressions "bloody murder '' and "bloody hell ''.
In "bloody murder '', it has the original sense of an adjective used literally. The King James Version of the Bible frequently uses bloody as an adjective in reference to bloodshed or violent crime, as in "bloody crimes '' (Ezekiel 22: 2), "Woe to the bloody city '' (Ezekiel 24: 6, Nahum 3: 1). "bloody men '' (26: 9, Psalms 59: 2, 139: 19), etc. The expression of "bloody murder '' goes back to at least Elizabethan English, as in Shakespeare 's Titus Andronicus (c. 1591), "bloody murder or detested rape ''. The expression "scream bloody murder '' (in the figurative or desemanticised sense of "to loudly object to something '' attested since c. 1860) is now considered American English, while in British English, the euphemistic "blue murder '' had replaced "bloody murder '' during the period of "bloody '' being considered taboo.
The expression "bloody hell '' is now used as a (slightly rude) general expression of surprise or as a general intensifier; e.g. "bloody hell '' being used repeatedly in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone (2001, PG Rating).
In March 2006 Australia 's national tourism commission launched an advertising campaign targeted at potential visitors in several English - speaking countries. The ad sparked controversy because of its ending (in which a cheerful, bikini - clad spokeswoman delivers the ad 's call - to - action by saying "... so where the bloody hell are you? ''). In the UK the BACC required that a modified version of the ad be shown in the United Kingdom, without the word "bloody '', but in May 2006, the ASA ruled that the word bloody was not an inappropriate marketing tool and the original version of the ad was permitted to air.
The longer "bloody hell - hounds '' appears to have been at least printable in early 19th century Britain. "Bloody hell 's flames '' as well as "bloody hell '' is reported as a profanity supposedly used by Catholics against Protestants in 1845.
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when do damon and elena get together season 6 | Do You Remember the First Time? (The Vampire Diaries) - wikipedia
"Do You Remember the First Time? '' is the 7th episode of the sixth season of the American series The Vampire Diaries and the series ' 118th episode overall. "Do You Remember the First Time? '' was originally aired on November 13, 2014, on The CW. The episode was written by Rebecca Sonnenshine and directed by Darren Genet.
Damon (Ian Somerhalder) and Elena (Nina Dobrev) meet for the first time since he came back but Damon 's hope that Elena will remember their love when she sees him gets lost when she says she does not remember or feel anything about him. Damon visits Alaric (Matt Davis) at the hospital trying to find a way to uncompel Elena but there is no way since Alaric is now a human. Jo (Jodi Lyn O'Keefe) joins them and invites Alaric as her date to the hospital fundraiser, where Elena will also be with Liam (Marco James).
Damon decides to go to the fundraiser so he can see Elena but he is surprise seeing her there with Liam. He introduces himself as Elena 's ex and Liam is confused since Elena told him that Damon was dead. Damon compels Liam to leave them alone and Damon asks Elena to dance. While dancing, Damon tries to make Elena remember by telling her some of their moments together but it does not work. Elena admits that she wants to remember and asks Damon to keep telling her about their memories together.
Elena and Damon get at the borders, the last place where she and Damon were together. Damon tells her about the last day before he dies, when they blew up the Grill to save the town from the Travelers but Elena still can not remember anything. Elena decides to cross the borders in order for the compulsion to wear off. Her memories start to come back but Damon runs and gets her before she dies. Later on, Liam visits Elena at her dorm to inform her about more mysterious things going on with the girl that should die at the corn maze and he tells her that if she will not tell him on her own her secrets he will find out on his own.
Matt (Zach Roerig) captures Tripp (Colin Ferguson) and brings him outside the borders of Mystic Falls. Along with Stefan (Paul Wesley) and Enzo (Michael Malarkey), they keep him tied and they try to get information from him about other vampire hunters. He tells them that they know about Caroline (Candice Accola) and Stefan goes to her dorm to warn her. While being there, Liz (Marguerite MacIntyre) calls her to tell her that Tripp 's men got her and they are threatening to kill her if they will not get him back. They arrange to trade Tripp to Liz at the borders. The exchange happens but the moment Tripp crosses the borders dies, making everyone realize that Enzo had turned him into a vampire before the exchange.
Jo and Alaric return at her place and after telling him at the fundraiser about her dysfunctional family and that she had put her magic away for safety, she now tells him that her brother tried to kill her few years back and she lost her spleen because of that attack. Meanwhile, back at the hospital, Caroline and Stefan discuss about Caroline 's feelings about him and Stefan apologizes to her about his behavior but Caroline seems to not want to do anything with him anymore.
In 1994, Kai (Chris Wood) tries to fix the ascendant so he and Bonnie (Kat Graham) be able to do the spell again and get back to present. Bonnie tells him that she will not help him get out, she hits him, takes all the pieces of the ascendant and runs away. She tries to put the pieces back together so she can leave on her own but she can not find the last piece. Kai appears with the last piece and Bonnie tries to get away from him but he captures her and they both go back to where they can do the spell. Kai tells Bonnie that he regrets what he did to his family to convince her that he has changed. Bonnie agrees to do the spell but instead of the two of them go back home, Bonnie puts her magic in her teddy bear and sends it back leaving her and Kai trapped in 1994.
The episode ends with Damon finding Bonnie 's teddy bear, making him realize that Bonnie is still alive.
In the episode "Do You Remember the First Time? '' we can hear the songs:
In its original American broadcast, "Do You Remember the First Time? '' was watched by 1.54 million; slightly down by 0.05 from the previous episode.
"Do You Remember the First Time? '' received positive reviews.
Stephanie Flasher from TV After Dark gave a B+ rating to the episode saying that it was a nice one, especially for the fans of Damon and Elena. "Bittersweet trip down the couple 's history and an epic rain kiss. Finally, Caroline and Stefan have the feelings conversation and Alaric gets his groove back now that he 's a human again. And the music was good. ''
Rebecca Jane Stokes of Den of Geek rated the episode with 4 / 5 saying that it was a sweet episode and that Stefan finally found out about Caroline 's feelings. "The show did what it does best this week. It married romance and longing with the deliberate if piecemeal doling out of key plot points. ''
Ashley Dominique from Geeked Out Nation rated the episode with 7.9 / 10 saying that the episode "forced Damon and Elena to explore the new status of their relationship in another slow drawn out episode. However, it was made interesting by not relying on flashbacks, but let them be in the moment. ''
Sara Ditta of Next Projection rated the episode with 7.2 / 10 saying that the episode "satisfied because of its tempered tone. The drama was n't taken overboard, and viewers could relate to each of our main characters who tried to grasp on to friendships and relationships that had already fallen apart. ''
Leigh Raines from TV Fanatic rated the episode with 3.5. "All in all, a decent episode, with minor developments but not enough. ''
Caroline Preece of Den of Geek gave a good review to the episode saying that the show has improved greatly since it stopped paying attention only to Damon and Elena 's relationship. "The Damon / Elena storyline is still a frustrating mess, but it 's also not the only thing on the show anymore -- and that gives viewers no longer interested in Elena 's love life a reason to come back. Just that simple thing is what fans have been asking for and, now that we have it, it 's glorious. ''
Lindsay Sperling from We Got This Covered gave a mixed review to the episode saying that this episode was the first filler one for season six. "This season of The Vampire Diaries is arguably already better than the last two combined, but there 's a limit to the amount of Elena and Damon drama that fans should have to endure. Either let them be together, or let them move on. (...) There were a few notable plot twists in (the episode) despite the overwhelming feeling that nothing really happened to move the story along. ''
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the great wave makes a statement about scale in part because | The Great Wave off Kanagawa - wikipedia
The Great Wave off Kanagawa (神奈川 沖 浪 裏, Kanagawa - oki nami ura, "Under a wave off Kanagawa ''), also known as The Great Wave or simply The Wave, is a woodblock print by the Japanese ukiyo - e artist Hokusai. It was published sometime between 1829 and 1833 in the late Edo period as the first print in Hokusai 's series Thirty - six Views of Mount Fuji. It is Hokusai 's most famous work, and one of the most recognizable works of Japanese art in the world.
The image depicts an enormous wave threatening boats off the coast of the town of Kanagawa (the present - day city of Yokohama, Kanagawa Prefecture). While sometimes assumed to be a tsunami, the wave is more likely to be a large rogue wave. As in all the prints in the series, it depicts the area around Mount Fuji under particular conditions, and the mountain itself appears in the background.
Impressions of the print are in many Western collections, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the British Museum, the Art Institute of Chicago, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne, and in Claude Monet 's home in Giverny, France, among many other collections.
Hokusai began painting when he was six years old, and aged twelve, his father sent him to work at a booksellers. At sixteen, he was apprenticed as an engraver and spent three years learning the trade. At the same time he began to produce his own illustrations. At eighteen he was accepted as an apprentice to Katsukawa Shunshō, one of the foremost ukiyo - e artists of the time.
In 1804 he became famous as an artist when, during a festival in Tokyo, he completed a 240m2 painting of a Buddhist monk named Daruma. In 1814, he published the first of fifteen volumes of sketches entitled Manga. His Thirty - six Views of Mount Fuji, from which The Great Wave comes, was produced from c. 1830.
From the sixteenth century fantastic depictions of waves crashing on rocky shores were painted on folding screens known as "rough seas screens '' (ariso byōbu). Hokusai drew many waves throughout his career; the genesis of the Great Wave can be traced back over thirty years. The combination of wave and mountain was inspired by an oil painting by Shiba Kōkan, an artist strongly influenced by the Western art, particularly Dutch paintings, he had seen at Nagasaki, the only port open to foreigners in this period. Kōkan 's A View of Seven - League Beach was executed in middle of 1796 and exhibited publicly at the Atago shrine in Shiba. Hokusai 's print Springtime at Enoshima, which he contributed to The Willow Branch poetry anthology published in 1797, is clearly derived from Kōkan 's work, although the wave in Hokusai 's version rises noticeably higher.
Closer compositionally to the Great Wave are two later prints by Hokusai: Kanagawa - oki Honmoku no zu (c. 1803) and Oshiokuri Hato Tsusen no Zu, (c. 1805) Both works have subjects identical to the Great Wave: a sailboat and a rowboat respectively. In both precursor works, the subjects are in the midst of a storm, beneath a great wave that threatens to devour them. An analysis of the differences between the two works and the Great Wave demonstrates the artistic and technical development of Hokusai:
This print is a yoko - e, that is, a landscape format produced to the ōban size, about 25 cm high by 37 cm wide.
The composition comprises three main elements: the sea whipped up by a storm, three boats and a mountain. It includes the signature in the upper left - hand corner.
The mountain with a snowcapped peak is Mount Fuji, which in Japan is considered sacred and a symbol of national identity, as well as a symbol of beauty. Mount Fuji is an iconic figure in many Japanese representations of famous places (meisho - e), as is the case in Hokusai 's series of Thirty - six Views of Mount Fuji, which opens with the present scene.
The dark color around Mount Fuji seems to indicate that the scene occurs early in the morning, with the sun rising from behind the observer, illuminating the mountain 's snowy peak. While cumulonimbus storm clouds seem to be hanging in the sky between the viewer and Mount Fuji, no rain is to be seen either in the foreground scene or on Mount Fuji, which itself appears completely cloudless.
In the scene there are three oshiokuri - bune, fast boats that are used to transport live fish from the Izu and Bōsō peninsulas to the markets of the bay of Edo. As the name of the piece indicates the boats are in Kanagawa prefecture, with Tokyo to the north, Mt Fuji to the northwest, the bay of Sagami to the south and the bay of Tokyo to the east. The boats, oriented to the southeast, are returning to the capital.
There are eight rowers per boat, clinging to their oars. There are two more passengers in the front of each boat, bringing the total number of human figures in the image to thirty. Using the boats as reference, one can approximate the size of the wave: the oshiokuri - bune were generally between 12 and 15 meters long, and noting that Hokusai reduced the vertical scale by 30 %, the wave must be between 10 and 12 meters tall.
The sea dominates the composition as an extending wave about to break. In the moment captured in this image, the wave forms a circle around the center of the design, framing Mount Fuji in the background.
Edmond de Goncourt described the wave in this way:
The drawing of the wave is a deification of the sea made by a painter who lived with the religious terror of the overwhelming ocean completely surrounding his country; He is impressed by the sudden fury of the ocean 's leap toward the sky, by the deep blue of the inner side of the curve, by the splash of its claw - like crest as it sprays forth droplets.
Andreas Ramos, a writer, notes:
... a seascape with Fuji. The waves form a frame through which we see the mountain. The gigantic wave is a yin yang of empty space beneath the mountain. The inevitable breaking that we await creates a tension in the picture. In the foreground, a small wave forming a miniature Fuji is reflected by the distant mountain, itself shrunk in perspective. The little wave is larger than the mountain. The small fishermen cling to thin fishing boats, slide on a sea - mount looking to dodge the wave. The violent Yang of nature is overcome by the yin of the confidence of these experienced fishermen. Strangely, despite a storm, the sun shines high.
The Great Wave off Kanagawa has two inscriptions. The first, within a rectangular cartouche in the top - left corner is the series title: "冨嶽 三 十 六 景 / 神奈川 冲 / 浪 裏 '' Fugaku Sanjūrokkei / Kanagawa oki / nami ura, which translates as "Thirty - six Views of Mount Fuji / Offshore from Kanagawa / Beneath the wave ''. The second inscription, to the left, is the artist 's signature: 北斎 改 爲 一筆 Hokusai aratame Iitsu hitsu, ("From the brush of Hokusai, changing his name to Iitsu '').
Over his career, Hokusai used more than 30 different names, always beginning a new cycle of works by changing it, and letting his students use the previous name.
In his work Thirty - Six Views of Mount Fuji he used four distinct signatures, changing it according to the phase of the work: Hokusai aratame Iitsu hitsu, zen Hokusai Iitsu hitsu, Hokusai Iitsu hitsu and zen saki no Hokusai Iitsu hitsu.
In Japanese woodblock printing the artist 's final preparatory sketch (shita - e) is taken to a horishi, or block carver, who glues the thin washi paper to a block of wood, usually cherry, and then carefully carves it away to form a relief of the lines of the image. In the process, the drawing is lost. Finally, with all the necessary blocks (usually one for each color), a surishi, or printer, who places the printing paper on each block consecutively and rubs the back with a hand - tool known as a baren. There could be a great number of impressions produced, sometimes thousands, before the blocks wore out.
Because of the nature of the production process, the final work was usually the result of a collaboration in which the painter generally did not participate in the production of the prints.
The design uses only a small number of different color blocks. The water is rendered with three shades of blue; the boats are yellow; a dark grey for the sky behind Fuji and on the boat immediately below; a pale grey in the sky above Fuji and on the foreground boat; pink clouds at the top of the image. "The block for these pink clouds seems to have been slightly abraded along parts of the edge to give a subtle gradated effect (ita - bokashi) ''.
Even though no law of intellectual property existed in Japan before the Meiji era, there was still a sense of ownership and rights with respect to the blocks from which the prints were produced. Rather than belonging to the artist, the blocks were considered the property of the hanmoto (publisher) or honya (publisher / bookseller) who could do with them as he wished. In some cases the blocks were sold or transferred to other publishers, in which case they became known as kyūhan.
Given that the series was very popular when it was produced, printing continued until the woodblocks started to show significant wear. It is likely that the original woodblocks printed around 5,000 copies. Given that many impressions have been lost, in wars, earthquakes, fires and other natural disasters, few early impressions survive in which the lines of the woodblocks were still sharp at the time of printing. The remaining prints and subsequent reproductions vary considerably in quality and condition.
Later impressions typically have a darker grey sky, and can be identified by a break in the line of the wave behind the boat on the right.
The highest price paid for a Great Wave print in a public sale is a relatively low $160,000. Hokusai 's auction record is nearly $1.5 million as of 2012. The print owned by the British Museum cost £ 130,000 in 2008 and is only on display for six months every five years to prevent fading.
The print is one of the most reproduced and most instantly recognized artworks in the world.
Following the Meiji Restoration in 1868, Japan ended a long period of national isolation and became open to imports from the West. In turn, much Japanese art came to Europe and America and quickly gained popularity. The influence of Japanese art on Western culture became known as Japonism. Japanese woodblock prints became a source of inspiration for artists in many genres, particularly the Impressionists. Hokusai was seen as the emblematic Japanese artist and images from his prints and books influenced many different works.
Vincent van Gogh, a great admirer of Hokusai, praised the quality of drawing and use of line in the Great Wave, and said it had a terrifying emotional impact.
French sculptor Camille Claudel 's La Vague (1897) replaces the boats in Hokusai 's Great Wave with sea - nymphs.
The image inspired Claude Debussy 's orchestral work, La mer, and appeared on the cover of the score 's first edition published by A. Durand & Fils in 1905.
Indigenous Australian artist Lin Onus used the Great Wave as the basis for his 1992 painting Michael and I are just slipping down the pub for a minute.
An artistic work named Uprisings by Japanese / American Artist Kozyndan is based on the print, with the foam of the wave being replaced by bunnies.
Apple macOS and iOS display a small version of the Great Wave as the image for the Water Wave emoji.
The logo used by the Quiksilver clothing company was inspired by the Great Wave.
In the card game Magic: The Gathering, two cards reference The Great Wave off Kanagawa in their artwork: Rampant Growth and Kiora, The Crashing Wave.
The image is featured on a limited mintage 2017 legal tender coin for the Republic of Fiji, as created by Scottsdale Mint.
The image (reversed and recolorized) is featured on Kitchens of Distinction 's album Strange Free World.
The print is the subjects of two art documentary series:
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tamil kadavul murugan vijay tv serial yesterday episode | Tamil Kadavul Murugan - Wikipedia
Tamil Kadavul Murugan (Tamil: தமிழ்க்கடவுள் முருகன்) is a 2017 - 2018 Tamil Language Mythology soap opera based on the life of the Tamil Hindu deity Murugan. This show is now the big budgeted series on Tamil television after Nandini. It started airing on 2 October 2017 on Vijay TV on every Monday to Friday at 21: 00 (IST) replacing Bigg Boss Tamil. On 29 January 2018, the show shifted to airs Monday through Friday at 18: 00 (IST). The show season 1 was ended with 104 episodes from 23 February 2018. Season 2 will be airing soon.
On 26 June 2017, the first promo of the show Lord ' Adult murugan ' was released by Vijay TV on YouTube. On 5 September 2017, the second promo Lord God ' Shiva ', On 11 September 2017 3rd promo of ' Young Murugan ', On 15 11 September 2017 fourth Promo Of ' Murugan ' was released by Vijay TV on YouTube.
The show started airing on Vijay TV on 2 October 2017 and It aired on Monday through Friday at 9: 00PM (IST) to 10: 00PM (IST) for 1hour Episode. Later its timing changed Starting from Monday 25 December 2017, the show was airs Monday through Friday at 9: 00PM (IST) to 9: 30PM (IST) for 30 Minutes Episode Slot. A new show named Ninaika Therintha Manamae replaced this show at 9: 30PM (IST). On 29 January 2018, the show shifted to airs Monday through Friday at 6: 00PM (IST) for the wishes of the audience. A new show named Kalyanamam Kalyanam replaced this show at 9: 00PM (IST).
The Series was released on 2 October 2017 on Vijay TV and Vijay TV HD.
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the major electrolyte in the extracellular fluid is | Extracellular fluid - wikipedia
Extracellular fluid (ECF) denotes all body fluid outside the cells. Total body water in humans makes up between 45 to 75 % of total body weight. About two thirds of this is intracellular fluid within cells, and one third is the extracellular fluid. The main component of the extracellular fluid is the interstitial fluid that bathes cells.
Extracellular fluid is the internal environment of all multicellular animals, and in those animals with a blood circulatory system a proportion of this fluid is blood plasma. Plasma and interstitial fluid are the two compartments that make up at least 97 % of the ECF. Lymph makes up a small percentage of the interstitial fluid. The remaining small portion of the ECF includes the transcellular fluid (about 2.5 %). The ECF can also be seen as having two components -- plasma and lymph as a delivery system, and interstitial fluid for water and solute exchange with the cells.
The extracellular fluid, in particular the interstitial fluid, constitutes the body 's internal environment that bathes all of the cells in the body. The ECF composition is therefore crucial for their normal functions, and is maintained by a number of homeostatic mechanisms involving negative feedback. Homeostasis regulates, among others, the pH, sodium, potassium, and calcium concentrations in the ECF. The volume of body fluid, blood glucose, oxygen, and carbon dioxide levels are also tightly homeostatically maintained.
The volume of extracellular fluid in a young adult male of 70 kg is 20 % of body weight -- about fourteen litres. Eleven litres is interstitial fluid and the remaining three litres is plasma.
The main component of the extracellular fluid is the interstitial fluid which surrounds the cells in the body. The other major component of the ECF is the intravascular fluid of the circulatory system called blood plasma. The remaining small percentage of ECF includes the transcellular fluid. These constituents are often called fluid compartments. The transcellular fluid includes the aqueous humour in the eye, the synovial fluid in the joints, the cerebrospinal fluid in the brain and spinal cord, the serous fluid in the serous membranes lining body cavities and in the saliva and other gut fluids (gastric juice, pancreatic juice and other intestinal secretions), as well as the perilymph and endolymph in the inner ear. The volume of extracellular fluid in a young adult male of 70 kg, is 20 % of body weight -- about fourteen litres.
The interstitial fluid and the plasma make up about 97 % of the ECF, and a small percentage of this is lymph. Interstitial fluid is fluid that surround cells providing them with nutrients and removing their waste products. Eleven litres of the ECF is interstitial fluid and the remaining three litres is plasma. Plasma and interstitial fluid are very similar because water, ions, and small solutes are continuously exchanged between them across the walls of capillaries, through pores and capillary clefts.
Interstitial fluid consists of a water solvent containing sugars, salts, fatty acids, amino acids, coenzymes, hormones, neurotransmitters, white blood cells and cell waste - products. This solution accounts for 26 % of the water in the human body. The composition of interstitial fluid depends upon the exchanges between the cells in the biological tissue and the blood. This means that tissue fluid has a different composition in different tissues and in different areas of the body.
The plasma that filters through the capillaries into the interstitial fluid does not contain red blood cells or platelets as they are too large to pass through but can contain some white blood cells to help the immune system.
Once the extracellular fluid collects into small vessels it is considered to be lymph, and the vessels that carry it back to the blood are called the lymphatic vessels. The lymphatic system returns protein and excess interstitial fluid to the circulation.
The ionic composition of the interstitial fluid and blood plasma vary due to the Gibbs -- Donnan effect. This causes a slight difference in the concentration of cations and anions between the two fluid compartments.
The extracellular fluid provides the medium for the exchange of substances between the ECF and the cells, and this can take place through dissolving, mixing and transporting in the fluid medium. Substances in the ECF include dissolved gases, nutrients, and electrolytes, all needed to maintain life. The ECF also contains materials secreted from cells in soluble form, but which quickly coalesces into fibres (e.g. collagen, reticular, and elastic fibres) or precipitates out into a solid or semisolid form (e.g. proteoglycans which form the bulk of cartilage, and the components of bone). These and many other substances occur, especially in association with various proteoglycans to form the extracellular matrix or the "filler '' substance between the cells throughout the body. These substances occur in the extracellular space, and are therefore all bathed or soaked in ECF, without being part of the ECF.
The internal environment is stabilised in the process of homeostasis. Complex homeostatic mechanisms operate to regulate and keep the composition of the ECF stable. Individual cells can also regulate their internal composition by various mechanisms.
There is a significant difference between the concentrations of sodium and potassium ions inside and outside the cell. The concentration of sodium ions is considerably higher in the extracellular fluid than in the intracellular fluid. The converse is true of the potassium ion concentrations inside and outside the cell. These differences cause all cell membranes to be electrically charged, with the positive charge on the outside of the cells and the negative charge on the inside. In a resting neuron (not conducting an impulse) the membrane potential is known as the resting potential, and between the two sides of the membrane is about - 70 mV.
This potential is created by sodium - potassium pumps in the cell membrane, which pump sodium ions out of the cell, into the ECF, in return for potassium ions which enter the cell from the ECF. The maintenance of this difference in the concentration of ions between the inside of the cell and the outside, is critical to keep normal cell volumes stable, and also to enable some cells to generate action potentials.
In several cell types voltage - gated ion channels in the cell membrane can be temporarily opened under specific circumstances for a few microseconds at a time. This allows a brief inflow of sodium ions into the cell (driven in by the sodium ion concentration gradient that exists between the outside and inside of the cell). This causes the cell membrane to temporarily depolarize (lose its electrical charge) forming the basis of action potentials.
The sodium ions in the ECF also play an important role in the movement of water from one body compartment to the other. When tears are secreted, or saliva is formed, sodium ions are pumped from the ECF into the ducts in which these fluids are formed and collected. The water content of these solutions results from the fact water follows the sodium ions (and accompanying anions) osmotically. The same principle applies to the formation of many other body fluids.
Calcium ions have a great propensity to bind to proteins. This changes the distribution of electrical charges on the protein, with the consequence that the 3D (or tertiary) structure of the protein is altered. The normal shape, and therefore function of very many of the extracellular proteins, as well as the extracellular portions of the cell membrane proteins is dependent on a very precise ionized calcium concentration in the ECF. The proteins that are particularly sensitive to changes in the ECF ionized calcium concentration are several of the clotting factors in the blood plasma, which are functionless in the absence of calcium ions, but become fully functional on the addition of the correct concentration of calcium salts. The voltage gated sodium ion channels in the cell membranes of nerves and muscle have an even greater sensitivity to changes in the ECF ionized calcium concentration. Relatively small decreases in the plasma ionized calcium levels (hypocalcemia) cause these channels to leak sodium into the nerve cells or axons, making them hyper - excitable, thus causing spontaneous muscle spasms (tetany) and paraesthesia (the sensation of "pins and needles '') of the extremities and round the mouth. When the plasma ionized calcium rises above normal (hypercalcemia) more calcium is bound to these sodium channels having the opposite effect, causing lethargy, muscle weakness, anorexia, constipation and labile emotions.
The tertiary structure of proteins is also affected by the pH of the bathing solution. In addition, the pH of the ECF affects the proportion of the total amount of calcium in the plasma which occurs in the free, or ionized form, as opposed to the fraction that is bound to protein and phosphate ions. A change in the pH of the ECF therefore alters the ionized calcium concentration of the ECF. Since the pH of the ECF is directly dependent on the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the ECF, hyperventilation, which lowers the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the ECF, produces symptoms that are almost indistinguishable from low plasma ionized calcium concentrations.
The extracellular fluid is constantly "stirred '' by the circulatory system, which ensures that the watery environment which bathes the body 's cells is virtually identical throughout the body. This means that nutrients can be secreted into the ECF in one place (e.g. the gut, liver, or fat cells) and will, within about a minute, be evenly distributed throughout the body. Hormones are similarly rapidly and evenly spread to every cell in the body, regardless of where they are secreted into the blood. Oxygen taken up by the lungs from the alveolar air is also evenly distributed at the correct partial pressure to all the cells of the body. Waste products are also uniformly spread to the whole of the ECF, and are removed from this general circulation at specific points (or organs), once again ensuring that there is generally no localized accumulation of unwanted compounds or excesses of otherwise essential substances (e.g. sodium ions, or any of the other constituents of the ECF). The only significant exception to this general principle is the plasma in the veins, where the concentrations of dissolved substances in individual veins differs, to varying degrees, from those in the rest of the ECF. However this plasma is confined within the waterproof walls of the venous tubes, and therefore does not affect the interstitial fluid in which the body 's cell live. When the blood from all the veins in body mixes in the heart and lungs, the differing compositions cancel out (e.g. acidic blood from active muscles is neutralized by the alkaline blood homeostatically produced by the kidneys). From the left atrium onward, to every organ in the body, the normal, homeostatically regulated values of all of the ECF 's components are therefore restored.
The arterial blood plasma, interstitial fluid and lymph interact at the level of the blood capillaries. The capillaries are permeable and water can move freely in and out. At the arteriolar end of the capillary the blood pressure is greater than the hydrostatic pressure in the tissues. Water will therefore seep out of the capillary into the interstitial fluid. The pores through which this water moves are large enough to allow all the smaller molecules (up to the size of small proteins such as insulin) to move freely through the capillary wall as well. This means that their concentrations across the capillary wall equalize, and therefore have no osmotic effect (because the osmotic pressure caused by these small molecules and ions -- called the crystalloid osmotic pressure to distinguish it from the osmotic effect of the larger molecules than can not move across the capillary membrane -- is the same on both sides of capillary wall).
The movement of water out of the capillary at the arteriolar end causes the concentration of the substances that can not cross the capillary wall to increase as the blood moves to the venular end of the capillary. The most important substances that are confined to the capillary tube are plasma albumin, the plasma globulins and fibrinogen. They, and particularly the plasma albumin, because of its molecular abundance in the plasma, are responsible for the so called "oncotic '' or "colloid '' osmotic pressure which draws water back into the capillary, especially at the venular end.
The net effect of all of these processes is that water moves out of and back into the capillary, while the crystalloid substances in the capillary and interstitial fluids equilibrate. Since the capillary fluid is constantly and rapidly renewed by the flow of the blood, its composition dominates the equilibrium concentration that is achieved in the capillary bed. This ensures that the watery environment of the body 's cells is always close to their ideal environment (set by the body 's homeostats).
A small proportion of the solution that leaks out of the capillaries is not drawn back into the capillary by the colloid osmotic forces. This amounts to between 2 - 4 liters per day for the body as a whole. This water is collected by the lymphatic system and is ultimately discharged into the left subclavian vein, where it mixes with the venous blood coming from the left arm, on its way to the heart. The lymph flows through lymph capillaries to lymph nodes where bacteria and tissue debris are removed from the lymph, while various types white blood cells (mainly lymphocytes) are added to the fluid. In addition the lymph which drains the small intestine contains fat droplets called chylomicrons after the ingestion of a fatty meal. This lymph is called chyle which has a milky appearance, and imparts the name lacteals (referring to the milky appearance of their contents) to the lymph vessels of the small intestine.
Extracellular fluid may be mechanically guided in this circulation by the vesicles between other structures. Collectively this forms the interstitium, which may be considered a newly identified biological structure in the body. However, there is some debate over whether the interstitium is an organ.
Main cations:
Main anions:
Body water: Intracellular fluid / Cytosol
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india's time zone is same as which country | Indian Standard time - Wikipedia
Indian Standard Time (IST) is the time observed throughout India and Sri Lanka, with a time offset of UTC + 05: 30. India does not observe daylight saving time (DSTu) or other seasonal adjustments. In military and aviation time IST is designated E * ("Echo - Star '').
Indian Standard Time is calculated on the basis of 82.30 ' E longitude, in Kakinada, (16 ° 35 ′ N 82 ° 09 ′ E / 16.58 ° N 82.15 ° E / 16.58; 82.15) which is nearly on the corresponding longitude reference line.
In the tz database, it is represented by Asia / Kolkata.
After independence in 1947, the Indian government established IST as the official time for the whole country, although Kolkata and Mumbai retained their own local time (known as Calcutta Time and Bombay Time) until 1948 and 1955, respectively. The Central observatory was moved from Chennai to a location at Shankargarh Fort Allahabad district, so that it would be as close to UTC + 5: 30 as possible.
Daylight Saving Time (DST) was used briefly during the China -- Indian War of 1962 and the Indo -- Pakistani Wars of 1965 and 1971.
The country 's east -- west distance of more than 2,933 kilometres (1,822 mi) covers over 29 degrees of longitude, resulting in the sun rising and setting almost two hours earlier on India 's eastern border than in the Rann of Kutch in the far west. Inhabitants of the northeastern states have to advance their clocks with the early sunrise and avoid the extra consumption of energy after daylight hours.
In the late 1980s, a team of researchers proposed separating the country into two or three time zones to conserve energy. The binary system that they suggested involved a return to British -- era time zones; the recommendations were not adopted.
In 2001, the government established a four -- member committee under the Ministry of Science and Technology to examine the need for multiple time zones and daylight saving. The findings of the committee, which were presented to Parliament in 2004 by the Minister for Science and Technology, Kapil Sibal, did not recommend changes to the unified system, stating that "the prime meridian was chosen with reference to a central station, and that the expanse of the Indian State was not large. ''
Though the government has consistently refused to split the country into multiple time zones, provisions in labour laws such as the Plantations Labour Act, 1951 allow the Central and State governments to define and set the local time for a particular industrial area. In Assam, tea gardens follow a separate time zone, known as the Chaibagaan or Bagan time (' Tea Garden Time '), which is one hour ahead of IST. Still Indian Standard Time remains the only officially used time.
The filmmaker Jahnu Barua has been campaigning for a separate time zone (daylight saving time) for the past 25 years. In 2010, he suggested creating a separate time zone for the Development of Northeastern Region.
In 2014, Chief Minister of Assam Tarun Gogoi started campaigning for another time zone for Assam and other northeastern states of India. However, the proposal would need to be cleared by the Central Government of India.
In June 2017, Department of Science and Technology (DST) indicated that they are once again studying feasibility of two time - zones for India. A proposal for both creating an additional Eastern India Timezone (EIT @ UTC + 6: 00) shifting default IST to UTC + 5: 00 and Day - light saving (IDT for IST and EID for EIT) starting on 14 April (Ambedkar Jayanti) and ending on 2 October (Gandhi Jayanti) was submitted to DST for consideration.
Official time signals are generated by the Time and Frequency Standards Laboratory at the National Physical Laboratory in New Delhi, for both commercial and official use. The signals are based on atomic clocks and are synchronised with the worldwide system of clocks that support the Coordinated Universal Time.
Features of the Time and Frequency Standards Laboratory include:
IST is taken as the standard time as it passes through almost the centre of India. To communicate the exact time to the people, the exact time is broadcast over the national All India Radio and Doordarshan television network. Telephone companies have dedicated phone numbers connected to mirror time servers that also relay the precise time. Another increasingly popular means of obtaining the time is through Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers.
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what type of poem is i know why the caged bird sings | I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings - wikipedia
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings is a 1969 autobiography about the early years of American writer and poet Maya Angelou. The first in a seven - volume series, it is a coming - of - age story that illustrates how strength of character and a love of literature can help overcome racism and trauma. The book begins when three - year - old Maya and her older brother are sent to Stamps, Arkansas, to live with their grandmother and ends when Maya becomes a mother at the age of 16. In the course of Caged Bird, Maya transforms from a victim of racism with an inferiority complex into a self - possessed, dignified young woman capable of responding to prejudice.
Angelou was challenged by her friend, author James Baldwin, and her editor, Robert Loomis, to write an autobiography that was also a piece of literature. Reviewers often categorize Caged Bird as autobiographical fiction because Angelou uses thematic development and other techniques common to fiction, but the prevailing critical view characterizes it as an autobiography, a genre she attempts to critique, change, and expand. The book covers topics common to autobiographies written by Black American women in the years following the Civil Rights Movement: a celebration of Black motherhood; a critique of racism; the importance of family; and the quest for independence, personal dignity, and self - definition.
Angelou uses her autobiography to explore subjects such as identity, rape, racism, and literacy. She also writes in new ways about women 's lives in a male - dominated society. Maya, the younger version of Angelou and the book 's central character, has been called "a symbolic character for every black girl growing up in America ''. Angelou 's description of being raped as an eight - year - old child overwhelms the book, although it is presented briefly in the text. Another metaphor, that of a bird struggling to escape its cage, is a central image throughout the work, which consists of "a sequence of lessons about resisting racist oppression ''. Angelou 's treatment of racism provides a thematic unity to the book. Literacy and the power of words help young Maya cope with her bewildering world; books become her refuge as she works through her trauma.
Caged Bird was nominated for a National Book Award in 1970 and remained on The New York Times paperback bestseller list for two years. It has been used in educational settings from high schools to universities, and the book has been celebrated for creating new literary avenues for the American memoir. However, the book 's graphic depiction of childhood rape, racism, and sexuality has caused it to be challenged or banned in some schools and libraries.
Before writing I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings at the age of forty, Angelou had a long and varied career, holding jobs such as composer, singer, actor, civil rights worker, journalist, and educator. In the late 1950s, she joined the Harlem Writers Guild, where she met a number of important African - American authors, including her friend and mentor James Baldwin. After hearing civil rights leader Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. speak for the first time in 1960, she was inspired to join the Civil Rights Movement. She organized several benefits for him, and he named her Northern Coordinator of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. She worked for several years in Ghana, West Africa, as a journalist, actress, and educator. She was invited back to the US by Malcolm X to work for him shortly before his assassination in 1965. In 1968, King asked her to organize a march, but he too was assassinated on April 4, which also happened to be her birthday. For many years, Angelou responded to King 's murder by not celebrating her birthday, instead choosing to meet with, call, or send flowers to his widow, Coretta Scott King.
Angelou was deeply depressed in the months following King 's assassination, so to help lift her spirits, Baldwin brought her to a dinner party at the home of cartoonist Jules Feiffer and his wife Judy in late 1968. The guests began telling stories of their childhoods and Angelou 's stories impressed Judy Feiffer. The next day she called Robert Loomis at Random House, who became Angelou 's editor throughout her long writing career until he retired in 2011, and "told him that he ought to get this woman to write a book ''. At first, Angelou refused, since she thought of herself as a poet and playwright. According to Angelou, Baldwin had a "covert hand '' in getting her to write the book, and advised Loomis to use "a little reverse psychology '', and reported that Loomis tricked her into it by daring her: "It 's just as well '', he said, "because to write an autobiography as literature is just about impossible ''. Angelou was unable to resist a challenge, and she began writing Caged Bird. After "closeting herself '' in London, it took her two years to write it. She shared the manuscript with her friend, writer Jessica Mitford, before submitting it for publication.
Angelou subsequently wrote six additional autobiographies, covering a variety of her young adult experiences. They are distinct in style and narration, but unified in their themes and stretch from Arkansas to Africa, and back to the US, from the beginnings of World War II to King 's assassination. Like Caged Bird, the events in these books are episodic and crafted as a series of short stories, yet do not follow a strict chronology. Later books in the series include Gather Together in My Name (1974), Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas (1976), The Heart of a Woman (1981), All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes (1986), A Song Flung Up to Heaven (2002), and Mom & Me & Mom (2013, at the age of 85). Critics have often judged Angelou 's later autobiographies "in light of the first '', and Caged Bird generally receives the highest praise.
Beginning with Caged Bird, Angelou used the same "writing ritual '' for many years. She would get up at five in the morning and check into a hotel room, where the staff were instructed to remove any pictures from the walls. She wrote on yellow legal pads while lying on the bed, with a bottle of sherry, a deck of cards to play solitaire, Roget 's Thesaurus, and the Bible, and left by the early afternoon. She averaged 10 -- 12 pages of material a day, which she edited down to three or four pages in the evening. Lupton stated that this ritual indicated "a firmness of purpose and an inflexible use of time ''. Angelou went through this process to give herself time to turn the events of her life into art, and to "enchant '' herself; as she said in a 1989 interview with the British Broadcasting Corporation, to "relive the agony, the anguish, the Sturm und Drang ''. She placed herself back in the time she wrote about, even during traumatic experiences like her rape in Caged Bird, to "tell the human truth '' about her life. Critic Opal Moore says about Caged Bird: "... Though easily read, (it) is no ' easy read ' ''. Angelou stated that she played cards to reach that place of enchantment, to access her memories more effectively. She has stated, "It may take an hour to get into it, but once I 'm in it -- ha! It 's so delicious! '' She did not find the process cathartic; rather, she found relief in "telling the truth ''.
When selecting a title, Angelou turned to Paul Laurence Dunbar, an African - American poet whose works she had admired for years. Jazz vocalist and civil rights activist Abbey Lincoln suggested the title. According to Lyman B. Hagen, the title pulls Angelou 's readers into the book while reminding them that it is possible to both lose control of one 's life and to have one 's freedom taken from them. Angelou has credited Dunbar, along with Shakespeare, with forming her "writing ambition ''. The title of the book comes from the third stanza of Dunbar 's poem "Sympathy '':
I know why the caged bird sings, ah me, When his wing is bruised and his bosom sore, When he beats his bars and would be free; It is not a carol of joy or glee, But a prayer that he sends from his heart 's deep core, But a plea, that upward to Heaven he flings -- I know why the caged bird sings.
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings follows Marguerite 's (called "My '' or "Maya '' by her brother) life from the age of three to seventeen and the struggles she faces -- particularly with racism -- in the Southern United States. Abandoned by their parents, Maya and her older brother Bailey are sent to live with their paternal grandmother (Momma) and crippled uncle (Uncle Willie) in Stamps, Arkansas. Maya and Bailey are haunted by their parents ' abandonment throughout the book -- they travel alone and are labeled like baggage.
Many of the problems Maya encounters in her childhood stem from the overt racism of her white neighbors. Although Mamma is relatively wealthy because she owns the general store at the heart of Stamps ' Black community, the white children of their town hassle Maya 's family relentlessly. One of these "powhitetrash '' girls, for example, reveals her pubic hair to Momma in a humiliating incident. Early in the book, Momma hides Uncle Willie in a vegetable bin to protect him from Ku Klux Klan raiders. Maya has to endure the insult of her name being changed to Mary by a racist employer. A white speaker at her eighth grade graduation ceremony disparages the Black audience by suggesting that they have limited job opportunities. A white dentist refuses to treat Maya 's rotting tooth, even when Momma reminds him that she had loaned him money during the Depression. The Black community of Stamps enjoys a moment of racial victory when they listen to the radio broadcast of Joe Louis 's championship fight, but generally, they feel the heavy weight of racist oppression.
A turning point in the book occurs when Maya and Bailey 's father unexpectedly appears in Stamps. He takes the two children with him when he departs, but leaves them with their mother in St. Louis, Missouri. Eight - year - old Maya is sexually abused and raped by her mother 's boyfriend, Mr. Freeman. He is found guilty during the trial, but escapes jail time and is murdered, presumably by Maya 's uncles. Maya feels guilty and withdraws from everyone but her brother. Even after returning to Stamps, Maya remains reclusive and nearly mute until she meets Mrs. Bertha Flowers, "the aristocrat of Black Stamps '', who encourages her through books and communication to regain her voice and soul. This coaxes Maya out of her shell.
Later, Momma decides to send her grandchildren to their mother in San Francisco, California, to protect them from the dangers of racism in Stamps. Maya attends George Washington High School and studies dance and drama on a scholarship at the California Labor School. Before graduating, she becomes the first Black female streetcar conductor in San Francisco. While still in high school, Maya visits her father in southern California one summer and has some experiences pivotal to her development. She drives a car for the first time when she must transport her intoxicated father home from an excursion to Mexico. She experiences homelessness for a short time after a fight with her father 's girlfriend.
During Maya 's final year of high school, she worries that she might be a lesbian (which she equates with being a hermaphrodite), and initiates sexual intercourse with a teenage boy. She becomes pregnant, which on the advice of her brother, she hides from her family until her eighth month of pregnancy in order to graduate from high school. Maya gives birth at the end of the book.
Angelou 's prose works, while presenting a unique interpretation of the autobiographical form, can be placed in the long tradition of African - American autobiography. Her use of fiction - writing techniques such as dialogue, characterization, and thematic development, however, often lead reviewers to categorize her books, including I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, as autobiographical fiction. Other critics, like Lupton, insist that Angelou 's books should be categorized as autobiographies because they conform to the genre 's standard structure: they are written by a single author, they are chronological, and they contain elements of character, technique, and theme. In a 1983 interview with African - American literature critic Claudia Tate, Angelou calls her books autobiographies.
At first, Angelou intended to return to poetry and play - writing after completing Caged Bird and write no more autobiographies, but she chose the genre as her primary mode of expression because of its challenge and so that she could "change it, to make it bigger, richer, finer, and more inclusive in the twentieth century ''. In a 1989 interview, she stated, "I think I am the only serious writer who has chosen the autobiographical form to carry my work, my expression ''. As she told journalist George Plimpton during a 1990 interview, "Autobiography is awfully seductive; it 's wonderful ''. She also told Plimpton that like the tradition begun by Frederick Douglass in slave narratives, she used the literary technique of "speaking in the first - person singular talking about the first - person plural, always saying I meaning ' we ' ''. As critic Susan Gilbert states, Angelou was reporting not one person 's story, but the collective 's. Scholar Selwyn R. Cudjoe agrees, and sees Angelou as representative of the convention in African - American autobiography as a public gesture that speaks for an entire group of people.
Scholar Joanne M. Braxton sees Caged Bird as "the fully developed black female autobiographical form that began to emerge in the 1940s and 1950s ''. The book presents themes that are common in autobiography by Black American women: a celebration of Black motherhood; a criticism of racism; the importance of family; and the quest for independence, personal dignity, and self - definition. Angelou introduces a unique point of view in American autobiography by revealing her life story through a narrator who is a Black female from the South, at some points a child, and other points a mother. Writer Hilton Als calls Angelou one of the "pioneers of self - exposure '', willing to focus honestly on the more negative aspects of her personality and choices. For example, Angelou was worried about her readers ' reactions to her disclosure in her second autobiography, Gather Together in My Name, that she was a prostitute. She went through with it, anyway, after her husband Paul Du Feu advised her to be honest about it.
Angelou has recognized that there are fictional aspects to her books, and that she tends to "diverge from the conventional notion of autobiography as truth ''. Angelou discussed her writing process with Plimpton, and when asked if she changed the truth to improve her story, she admitted that she had. She stated, "Sometimes I make a diameter from a composite of three or four people, because the essence in only one person is not sufficiently strong to be written about. '' Although Angelou has never admitted to changing the facts in her stories, she has used these facts to make an impact with the reader. As Hagen states, "One can assume that ' the essence of the data ' is present in Angelou 's work ''. Hagen also states that Angelou "fictionalizes, to enhance interest ''. For example, Angelou uses the first - person narrative voice customary with autobiographies, told from the perspective of a child that is "artfully recreated by an adult narrator ''.
Angelou uses two distinct voices, the adult writer and the child who is the focus of the book, whom Angelou calls "the Maya character ''. Angelou reports that maintaining the distinction between herself and the Maya character is "damned difficult '', but "very necessary ''. Scholar Liliane Arensberg suggests that Angelou "retaliates for the tongue - tied child 's helpless pain '' by using her adult self 's irony and wit. As such, Caged Bird has been called a Bildungsroman or coming - of - age story; critic Mary Jane Lupton compares it to other Bildungsromans like George Eliot 's novel The Mill on the Floss. According to Lupton, the two books share the following similarities: a focus on young strong - willed heroines who have solid relationships with their brothers, an examination of the role of literature in life, and an emphasis on the importance of family and community life.
When Angelou wrote I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings at the end of the 1960s, one of the necessary and accepted features of literature, according to critic Pierre A. Walker, was thematic unity. One of Angelou 's goals was to create a book that satisfied this criterion, in order to achieve her political purposes, which were to demonstrate how to resist racism in America. The structure of the text, which resembles a series of short stories, is not chronological but rather thematic. Walker, in his 1993 article about Caged Bird, "Racial Protest, Identity, Words, and Form '', focuses on the book 's structure, and describes how it supports her presentation of racism. According to Walker, critics had neglected analyzing its structure, choosing to focus instead on its themes, which he feels neglects the political nature of the book. He states, "One serves Angelou and Caged Bird better by emphasizing how form and political content work together ''. Angelou structures her book so that it presents a series of lessons about how to resist racism and oppression. The progression Maya goes through thematically unifies the book, something that "stands in contrast to the otherwise episodic quality of the narrative ''. The way in which Angelou constructs, arranges, and organizes her vignettes often undermined the chronology of her childhood by "juxtaposing the events of one chapter with the events of preceding and following ones so that they too comment on each other ''.
For example, the incident with the "powhitetrash '' girls takes place in chapter 5, when Maya was ten years old, well before Angelou 's recounting of her rape in chapter 12, which occurred when Maya was 8. Walker explains that Angelou 's purpose in placing the vignettes in this way is that it followed her thematic structure. Angelou 's editor, Robert Loomis, agrees, stating that Angelou could rewrite any of her books by changing the order of her facts to make a different impact on the reader. Hagen sees Angelou 's structure somewhat differently, focusing on Maya 's journey "to establish a worthwhile self - concept '', and states that she structures the book into three parts: arrival, sojourn, and departure, which occur both geographically and psychologically. However, Hagen notes that instead of beginning Caged Bird chronologically, with Maya and Bailey 's arrival in Stamps, Angelou begins the book much later chronologically by recounting an embarrassing experience at church, an incident that demonstrates Maya 's diminished sense of self, insecurity, and lack of status. Hagen explains that Angelou 's purpose is to demonstrate Maya 's journey from insecurity to her feelings of worth gained by becoming a mother at the end of the book.
In the course of Caged Bird, Maya, who has been described as "a symbolic character for every black girl growing up in America '', goes from being a victim of racism with an inferiority complex to a self - aware individual who responds to racism with dignity and a strong sense of her own identity. Feminist scholar Maria Lauret states that the "formation of female cultural identity '' is woven into the book 's narrative, setting Maya up as "a role model for Black women ''. Scholar Liliane Arensberg calls this presentation Angelou 's "identity theme '' and a major motif in Angelou 's narrative. Maya 's unsettled life in Caged Bird suggests her sense of self "as perpetually in the process of becoming, of dying and being reborn, in all its ramifications ''. African - American literature scholar Dolly McPherson agrees, stating that Angelou creatively uses Christian mythology and theology to present the Biblical themes of death, regeneration, and rebirth.
As Lauret indicates, Angelou and other female writers in the late 1960s and early 1970s used autobiography to reimagine ways of writing about women 's lives and identities in a male - dominated society. Up until this time, Black women were not depicted realistically in African - American fiction and autobiography, meaning that Angelou was one of the first Black autobiographers to present, as Cudjoe put it, "a powerful and authentic signification of (African - American) womanhood in her quest for understanding and love rather than for bitterness and despair ''. Lauret sees a connection between Angelou 's autobiographies, which Lauret calls "fictions of subjectivity '' and "feminist first - person narratives '', and fictional first - person narratives (such as The Women 's Room by Marilyn French and The Golden Notebook by Doris Lessing) written during the same period. As French and Lessing do in their novels, Angelou employs the narrator as protagonist and depends upon "the illusion of presence in their mode of signification ''.
As a displaced girl, Maya 's pain is worsened by an awareness of her displacement. She is "the forgotten child '', and must come to terms with "the unimaginable reality '' of being unloved and unwanted; she lives in a hostile world that defines beauty in terms of whiteness and that rejects her simply because she is a Black girl. Maya internalizes the rejection she has experienced -- her belief in her own ugliness was "absolute ''. McPherson believes that the concept of family, or what she calls "kinship concerns '', in Angelou 's books must be understood in the light of the children 's displacement at the beginning of Caged Bird. Being sent away from their parents was a psychological rejection, and resulted in a quest for love, acceptance, and self - worth for both Maya and Bailey.
Angelou uses her many roles, incarnations, and identities throughout her books to illustrate how oppression and personal history are interrelated. For example, in Caged Bird, Angelou demonstrates the "racist habit '' of renaming African Americans, as shown when her white employer insists on calling her "Mary ''. Angelou describes the employer 's renaming as the "hellish horror of being ' called out of (one 's) name ' ''. Scholar Debra Walker King calls it a racist insult and an assault against Maya 's race and self - image. The renaming emphasizes Maya 's feelings of inadequacy and denigrates her identity, individuality, and uniqueness. Maya understands that she is being insulted and rebels by breaking Mrs. Cullinan 's favorite dish, but feels vindicated when, as she leaves her employer 's home, Mrs. Cullinan finally gets her name right. Another incident in the book that solidifies Maya 's identity is her trip to Mexico with her father, when she has to drive a car for the first time. Contrasted with her experience in Stamps, Maya is finally "in control of her fate ''. This experience is central to Maya 's growth, as is the incident that immediately follows it, her short period of homelessness after arguing with her father 's girlfriend. These two incidents give Maya a knowledge of self - determination and confirm her self - worth.
Scholar Mary Burgher believes that female Black autobiographers like Angelou have debunked the stereotypes of African - American mothers as "breeder (s) and matriarch (s) '', and have presented them as having "a creative and personally fulfilling role ''. Lupton believes that Angelou 's plot construction and character development were influenced by the same mother / child motif as is found in the work of Harlem Renaissance poet Jessie Fauset. For the first five years of her life, Maya thinks of herself as an orphan and finds comfort in the thought that her mother is dead. Maya 's feelings for and relationship with her own mother, whom she blames for her abandonment, express themselves in ambivalence and "repressed violent aggression ''. For example, Maya and her brother destroy the first Christmas gifts sent by their mother. These strong feelings are not resolved until the end of the book, when Maya becomes a mother herself, and her mother finally becomes the nurturing presence for which Maya has longed. The two main maternal influences on Maya 's life change as well; Vivian becomes a more active participant, while Momma becomes less effective as Maya, by becoming a mother herself, moves from childhood to adulthood.
Stamps, Arkansas, as depicted in Caged Bird, has very little "social ambiguity '': it is a racist world divided between Black and white, male and female. Als characterizes the division as "good and evil '', and notes how Angelou 's witness of the evil in her society, which was directed at Black women, shaped Angelou 's young life and informed her views into adulthood. Angelou uses the metaphor of a bird struggling to escape its cage, described in Paul Laurence Dunbar 's poem, as a prominent symbol throughout her series of autobiographies. Like elements within a prison narrative, the caged bird represents Angelou 's confinement resulting from racism and oppression. The caged bird metaphor also invokes the "supposed contradiction of the bird singing in the midst of its struggle ''. Scholar Ernece B. Kelley calls Caged Bird a "gentle indictment of white American womanhood ''; Hagen expands it further, stating that the book is "a dismaying story of white dominance ''.
Caged Bird has been called "perhaps the most aesthetically satisfying autobiography written in the years immediately following the Civil Rights era ''. Critic Pierre A. Walker expresses a similar sentiment, and places it in the African - American literature tradition of political protest. Angelou demonstrates, through her involvement with the Black community of Stamps, as well as her presentation of vivid and realistic racist characters and "the vulgarity of white Southern attitudes toward African Americans '', her developing understanding of the rules for surviving in a racist society. Angelou 's autobiographies, beginning with Caged Bird, contain a sequence of lessons about resisting oppression. The sequence she describes leads Angelou, as the protagonist, from "helpless rage and indignation to forms of subtle resistance, and finally to outright and active protest ''.
Walker insists that Angelou 's treatment of racism is what gives her autobiographies their thematic unity and underscores one of their central themes: the injustice of racism and how to fight it. For example, in Angelou 's depiction of the "powhitetrash '' incident, Maya reacts with rage, indignation, humiliation, and helplessness, but Momma teaches her how they can maintain their personal dignity and pride while dealing with racism, and that it is an effective basis for actively protesting and combating racism. Walker calls Momma 's way a "strategy of subtle resistance '' and McPherson calls it "the dignified course of silent endurance ''.
Angelou portrays Momma as a realist whose patience, courage, and silence ensured the survival and success of those who came after her. For example, Maya responds assertively when subjected to demeaning treatment by Mrs. Cullinan, her white employer, and, later on in the book, breaks the race barrier to become the first black streetcar operator in San Francisco. In addition, Angelou 's description of the strong and cohesive black community of Stamps demonstrates how African Americans subvert repressive institutions to withstand racism. Arensberg insists that Angelou demonstrates how she, as a Black child, evolves out of her "racial hatred '', common in the works of many contemporary Black novelists and autobiographers. At first Maya wishes that she could become white, since growing up Black in white America is dangerous; later she sheds her self - loathing and embraces a strong racial identity.
Angelou 's description of being raped as an eight - year - old child overwhelms the autobiography, although it is presented briefly in the text. Scholar Mary Vermillion compares Angelou 's treatment of rape to that of Harriet Jacobs in her autobiography Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl. Jacobs and Angelou both use rape as a metaphor for the suffering of African Americans; Jacobs uses the metaphor to critique slaveholding culture, while Angelou uses it to first internalize, then challenge, twentieth - century racist conceptions of the Black female body (namely, that the Black female is physically unattractive). Rape, according to Vermillion, "represents the black girl 's difficulties in controlling, understanding, and respecting both her body and her words ''.
Arensberg notes that Maya 's rape is connected to the theme of death in Caged Bird, as Mr. Freeman threatens to kill Maya 's brother Bailey if she tells anyone about the rape. After Maya lies during Freeman 's trial, stating that the rape was the first time he touched her inappropriately, Freeman is murdered (presumably by one of Maya 's uncles) and Maya sees her words as a bringer of death. As a result, she resolves never to speak to anyone other than Bailey. Angelou connects the violation of her body and the devaluation of her words through the depiction of her self - imposed, five - year - long silence. As Angelou later stated, "I thought if I spoke, my mouth would just issue out something that would kill people, randomly, so it was better not to talk ''.
African - American literature scholar Selwyn R. Cudjoe calls Angelou 's depiction of the rape "a burden '' of Caged Bird: a demonstration of "the manner in which the Black female is violated in her tender years and... the ' unnecessary insult ' of Southern girlhood in her movement to adolescence ''. Vermillion goes further, maintaining that a Black woman who writes about her rape risks reinforcing negative stereotypes about her race and gender. When asked decades later how she was able to survive such trauma, Angelou explained it by stating, "I ca n't remember a time when I was n't loved by somebody. '' When asked by the same interviewer why she wrote about the experience, she indicated that she wanted to demonstrate the complexities of rape. She also wanted to prevent it from happening to someone else, so that anyone who had been raped might gain understanding and not blame herself for it.
As Lupton points out, all of Angelou 's autobiographies, especially Caged Bird and its immediate sequel Gather Together in My Name, are "very much concerned with what (Angelou) knew and how she learned it ''. Lupton compares Angelou 's informal education with the education of other Black writers of the twentieth century, who did not earn official degrees and depended upon the "direct instruction of African American cultural forms ''. Angelou 's quest for learning and literacy parallels "the central myth of black culture in America '': that freedom and literacy are connected. Angelou is influenced by writers introduced to her by Mrs. Flowers during her self - imposed muteness, including Edgar Allan Poe and William Shakespeare. Angelou states, early in Caged Bird, that she, as the Maya character, "met and fell in love with William Shakespeare ''. Critic Mary Vermillion sees a connection between Maya 's rape and Shakespeare 's "The Rape of Lucrece '', which Maya memorizes and recites when she regains her speech. Vermillion maintains that Maya finds comfort in the poem 's identification with suffering. Maya finds novels and their characters complete and meaningful, so she uses them to make sense of her bewildering world. She is so involved in her fantasy world of books that she even uses them as a way to cope with her rape, writing in Caged Bird, "... I was sure that any minute my mother or Bailey or the Green Hornet would bust in the door and save me ''.
According to Walker, the power of words is another theme that appears repeatedly in Caged Bird. For example, Maya chooses to not speak after her rape because she is afraid of the destructive power of words. Mrs. Flowers, by introducing her to classic literature and poetry, teaches her about the positive power of language and empowers Maya to speak again. The importance of both the spoken and written word also appears repeatedly in Caged Bird and in all of Angelou 's autobiographies. Referring to the importance of literacy and methods of effective writing, Angelou once advised Oprah Winfrey in an 1993 interview to "do as West Africans do... listen to the deep talk '', or the "utterances existing beneath the obvious ''. McPherson says, "If there is one stable element in Angelou 's youth it is (a) dependence upon books ''. The public library is a "quiet refuge '' to which Maya retreats when she experiences crisis. Hagen describes Angelou as a "natural story - teller '', which "reflect (s) a good listener with a rich oral heritage ''. Hagen also insists that Angelou 's years of muteness provided her with this skill.
Angelou was also powerfully affected by slave narratives, spirituals, poetry, and other autobiographies. Angelou read through the Bible twice as a young child, and memorized many passages from it. African - American spirituality, as represented by Angelou 's grandmother, has influenced all of Angelou 's writings, in the activities of the church community she first experiences in Stamps, in the sermonizing, and in scripture. Hagen goes on to say that in addition to being influenced by rich literary form, Angelou has also been influenced by oral traditions. In Caged Bird, Mrs. Flowers encourages her to listen carefully to "Mother Wit '', which Hagen defines as the collective wisdom of the African - American community as expressed in folklore and humor.
Angelou 's humor in Caged Bird and in all her autobiographies is drawn from Black folklore and is used to demonstrate that in spite of severe racism and oppression, Black people thrive and are, as Hagen states, "a community of song and laughter and courage ''. Hagen states that Angelou is able to make an indictment of institutionalized racism as she laughs at her flaws and the flaws of her community and "balances stories of black endurance of oppression against white myths and misperceptions ''. Hagen also characterize Caged Bird as a "blues genre autobiography '' because it uses elements of blues music. These elements include the act of testimony when speaking of one 's life and struggles, ironic understatement, and the use of natural metaphors, rhythms, and intonations. Hagen also sees elements of African American sermonizing in Caged Bird. Angelou 's use of African - American oral traditions creates a sense of community in her readers, and identifies those who belong to it.
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings is the most highly acclaimed of Angelou 's autobiographies. The other volumes in her series of seven autobiographies are judged and compared to Caged Bird. It became a bestseller immediately after it was published. Angelou 's friend and mentor, James Baldwin, maintained that her book "liberates the reader into life '' and called it "a Biblical study of life in the midst of death ''. According to Angelou 's biographers, "Readers, especially women, and in particular Black women, took the book to heart ''.
By the end of 1969, critics had placed Angelou in the tradition of other Black autobiographers. Poet James Bertolino asserts that Caged Bird "is one of the essential books produced by our culture ''. He insists that "(w) e should all read it, especially our children ''. It was nominated for a National Book Award in 1970, has never been out of print, and has been published in many languages. It has been a Book of the Month Club selection and an Ebony Book Club selection. In 2011, Time Magazine placed the book in its list of 100 best and most influential books written in English since 1923.
Critic Robert A. Gross called Caged Bird "a tour de force of language ''. Edmund Fuller insisted that Angelou 's intellectual range and artistry were apparent in how she told her story. Caged Bird catapulted Angelou to international fame and critical acclaim, was a significant development in Black women 's literature in that it "heralded the success of other now prominent writers ''. Other reviewers have praised Angelou 's use of language in the book, including critic E.M. Guiney, who reported that Caged Bird was "one of the best autobiographies of its kind that I have read ''. Critic R.A. Gross praised Angelou for her use of rich and dazzling images.
By the mid-1980s, Caged Bird had gone through 20 hardback printings and 32 paperback printings. The week after Angelou recited her poem "On the Pulse of Morning '' at President Bill Clinton 's 1993 inauguration, sales of the paperback version of Caged Bird and her other works rose by 300 -- 600 percent. Caged Bird had sold steadily since its publication, but it increased by 500 percent. The 16 - page publication of "On the Pulse of Morning '' became a best - seller, and the recording of the poem was awarded a Grammy Award. The Bantam Books edition of Caged Bird was a bestseller for 36 weeks, and they had to reprint 400,000 copies of her books to meet demand. Random House, which published Angelou 's hardcover books and the poem later that year, reported that they sold more of her books in January 1993 than they did in all of 1992, marking a 1,200 percent increase.
The book 's reception has not been universally positive; for example, author Francine Prose considers its inclusion in the high school curriculum as partly responsible for the "dumbing down '' of American society. Prose calls the book "manipulative melodrama '', and considers Angelou 's writing style an inferior example of poetic prose in memoir. She accuses Angelou of combining a dozen metaphors in one paragraph and for "obscuring ideas that could be expressed so much more simply and felicitously ''. Many parents throughout the U.S. have sought to ban the book from schools and libraries for being inappropriate for younger high school students, for promoting premarital sex, homosexuality, cohabitation, and pornography, and for not supporting traditional values. Parents have also objected to the book 's use of profanity and to its graphic and violent depiction of rape and racism.
When Caged Bird was published in 1969, Angelou was hailed as a new kind of memoirist, one of the first African - American women who was able to publicly discuss her personal life. Up to that point, Black women writers were marginalized to the point that they were unable to present themselves as central characters. Writer Julian Mayfield, who called Caged Bird "a work of art that eludes description '', has insisted that Angelou 's autobiographies set a precedent for African - American autobiography as a whole. Als insisted that Caged Bird marked one of the first times that a Black autobiographer could, as Als put it, "write about blackness from the inside, without apology or defense ''. Through the writing of her autobiography, Angelou became recognized as a respected spokesperson for blacks and women. Caged Bird made her "without a doubt... America 's most visible black woman autobiographer ''. Although Als considers Caged Bird an important contribution to the increase of Black feminist writings in the 1970s, he attributes its success less to its originality than to "its resonance in the prevailing Zeitgeist '' of its time, at the end of the American Civil Rights movement. Angelou 's writings, more interested in self - revelation than in politics or feminism, freed many other women writers to "open themselves up without shame to the eyes of the world ''.
Angelou 's autobiographies, especially the first volume, have been used in narrative and multicultural approaches to teacher education. Jocelyn A. Glazier, a professor at George Washington University, has used Caged Bird and Gather Together in My Name when training teachers to appropriately explore racism in their classrooms. Angelou 's use of understatement, self - mockery, humor, and irony causes readers of Angelou 's autobiographies to wonder what she "left out '' and to be unsure how to respond to the events Angelou describes. These techniques force white readers to explore their feelings about race and their privileged status in society. Glazier found that although critics have focused on where Angelou fits within the genre of African - American autobiography and her literary techniques, readers react to her storytelling with "surprise, particularly when (they) enter the text with certain expectations about the genre of autobiography ''.
Educator Daniel Challener, in his 1997 book Stories of Resilience in Childhood, analyzed the events in Caged Bird to illustrate resiliency in children. Challener states that Angelou 's book provides a useful framework for exploring the obstacles many children like Maya face and how a community helps these children succeed as Angelou did. Psychologist Chris Boyatzis has used Caged Bird to supplement scientific theory and research in the instruction of child development topics such as the development of self - concept and self - esteem, ego resilience, industry versus inferiority, effects of abuse, parenting styles, sibling and friendship relations, gender issues, cognitive development, puberty, and identity formation in adolescence. He has called the book a highly effective tool for providing real - life examples of these psychological concepts.
Caged Bird has been criticized by many parents, causing it to be removed from school curricula and library shelves. The book was approved to be taught in public schools and was placed in public school libraries through the U.S. in the early 1980s, and was included in advanced placement and gifted student curricula, but attempts by parents to censor it began in 1983. It has been challenged in 15 U.S. states. Educators have responded to these challenges by removing it from reading lists and libraries, by providing students with alternatives, and by requiring parental permission from students. Some have been critical of its sexually explicit scenes, use of language, and irreverent religious depictions.
Caged Bird appeared third on the American Library Association (ALA) list of the 100 Most Frequently Challenged Books of 1990 -- 2000, sixth on the ALA 's 2000 -- 2009 list, and one of the ten books most frequently banned from high school and junior high school libraries and classrooms.
A made - for - TV movie version of I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings was filmed in Mississippi and aired on April 28, 1979 on CBS. Angelou and Leonora Thuna wrote the screenplay; the movie was directed by Fielder Cook. Constance Good played young Maya. Also appearing were actors Esther Rolle, Roger E. Mosley, Diahann Carroll, Ruby Dee, and Madge Sinclair. Two scenes in the movie differed from events described in the book. Angelou added a scene between Maya and Uncle Willie after the Joe Louis fight; in it, he expresses his feelings of redemption and hope after Louis defeats a white opponent. Angelou also presents her eighth grade graduation differently in the film. In the book, Henry Reed delivers the valedictory speech and leads the Black audience in the Negro national anthem. In the movie, Maya conducts these activities.
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The Royal Rumble is a professional wrestling event, produced every January since 1988 by professional wrestling promotion WWE. It is named after the Royal Rumble match, a battle royal whose participants enter at timed intervals.
After the initial event was broadcast as a television special on USA Network, the Royal Rumble has been shown on pay - per - view and is one of WWE 's "Big Four '', along with WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series.
The Royal Rumble is a pay - per - view consisting of the Royal Rumble match, title matches, and various other matches. The first Royal Rumble took place on January 24, 1988, and was broadcast live on the USA Network. The following year, the event started to be broadcast on pay - per - view and thus became one of WWE 's "big four '' pay - per - views, along with WrestleMania, Survivor Series, and SummerSlam.
The men 's Royal Rumble match is usually located at the top of the card, though there have been exceptions, such as the 1988, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2006, 2013, and 2018 events. Due to the Rumble match taking up a large amount of time (most Rumble matches last roughly one hour), the Rumble event tends to have a smaller card than most other pay - per - view events, which routinely have six to eight matches per card. The 2008 Royal Rumble was the first WWE pay - per - view to be available in high - definition. The 2018 Royal Rumble was the first to feature a women 's Royal Rumble match, which was the main event for that year.
The Royal Rumble is based on the classic Battle Royal match, in which a number of wrestlers (traditionally 30) aim at eliminating their competitors by tossing them over the top rope, with both feet touching the floor. The winner of the event is the last wrestler remaining after all others have been eliminated. According to Hornswoggle, who worked for WWE from 2006 until 2016 and participated in two Rumbles, participants may learn their eliminations by knowing the two wrestlers who are eliminated before them and which wrestlers are entering the Royal Rumble in between their elimination.
The Royal Rumble differs from the classical Battle Royal as the contestants do not enter the ring at the same time, but instead are assigned entry numbers, usually via a lottery, although desirable spots are occasionally assigned by other means, the most common being winning a match. This lottery is usually staged right before the event begins. The match begins with the two wrestlers who have drawn entry numbers one and two, with the remaining wrestlers entering the ring at regular timed intervals, either 90 seconds or two minutes, according to their entry number. This format is credited to Pat Patterson. To date, only four men who have been one of the starting wrestlers have won the Royal Rumble: Shawn Michaels, Vince McMahon, Chris Benoit, and Rey Mysterio. The most common number to win is number 27.
The Royal Rumble match traditionally involves 30 wrestlers and usually lasts an hour, with the longest match, at the 2011 event, lasting over one hour and nine minutes of a three - hour pay - per - view. However, the first match, contested in 1988, involved only 20 men, and lasted 33 minutes of the two - hour broadcast. The 1998 Royal Rumble nominally had the traditional 30 - man field, but only 28 individual wrestlers competed; Mick Foley entered the Royal Rumble match three different times -- first as Cactus Jack, then as Mankind, and finally as Dude Love. The 2011 Royal Rumble was the first and only to have a 40 - man field, out of whom Alberto Del Rio was victorious. The 2018 Royal Rumble was the first to feature a women 's Royal Rumble match, with Stephanie McMahon making the official announcement on the December 18, 2017 edition of Raw. The women 's Royal Rumble match has all of the same rules as the men 's match, including having 30 participants.
The match has no stipulations or rules other than that elimination must occur by a participant being placed over the top rope and both feet touching the floor. A wrestler who only touches the floor with one foot is not eliminated from the match, a rule which greatly affected the 1995 match, allowing Shawn Michaels to re-enter the ring and win the match. This has been popularized by Kofi Kingston, who although has not won a match, he has found various ways to keep both of his feet from touching the floor. Subsequently, a wrestler who exits the ring without going over the top rope is not eliminated from the contest. For example, during the 1999 match, both Vince McMahon and Steve Austin left the ring, only to return later in the match. In the 1994 match, the last two participants, Bret Hart and Lex Luger, were declared co-winners when it was decided that both of their feet touched the floor at exactly the same time. A similar situation occurred in the 2005 match. However, the match was instead restarted after Batista and John Cena eliminated each other at the same time (as their simultaneous elimination was actually an accident); Batista eliminated Cena afterwards to win the match. Though various referees are charged with observing the match, some eliminations have gone unnoticed to allow the eliminated participants to sneak back into the ring to continue. Steve Austin was able to win in this way during the 1997 match after re-entering following an unacknowledged elimination and eventually tossed Bret Hart, who was the last legal wrestler in the ring, over the top.
Although the vast majority of eliminations are caused by active participants, eliminations caused by other means have occurred, and have been ruled legitimate, including self - eliminations (such as Andre the Giant jumping out of the ring after seeing a snake in 1989, Kane eliminating himself in 1999, and Drew Carey eliminating himself in 2001; however, Randy Savage 's jump over the top rope in 1992 was not ruled as self - elimination), elimination from previously - eliminated participants (such as The Undertaker eliminating Maven in 2002, Kurt Angle eliminating Shawn Michaels in 2005, Kane eliminating CM Punk in 2014, and The Wyatt Family eliminating Brock Lesnar in 2016), and elimination from non-participants (such as Shane McMahon eliminating Shawn Michaels in 2006 and The Miz eliminating John Cena in 2011). Furthermore, if an injured wrestler is taken away by medical staff, he can return to the match as long as the match is still ongoing (such as Steve Austin in 1999 or Roman Reigns in 2016), but if the match ends without the injured wrestler returning, he is deemed eliminated (such as Scotty 2 Hotty in 2005 or Curtis Axel in 2015).
Since 1993, the winner of the Royal Rumble match is traditionally awarded a title match for WWE 's top championship at WrestleMania -- presently, there are two top championships, the Universal Championship on Raw and the WWE Championship on SmackDown. Similarly, the winner of the women 's Royal Rumble match (first contested in 2018) is awarded a match at WrestleMania for either of WWE 's top two women 's championships, the Raw Women 's Championship or the SmackDown Women 's Championship.
With the brand extension introduced in mid-2002, the 30 male entrants from 2003 to 2006 consisted of 15 wrestlers from both the Raw and SmackDown brands. At first, the winner of the match received a shot at their brand 's top champion. Starting in 2004, the Rumble winner had the option of challenging any brand 's champion. For instance, Chris Benoit switched brands after winning the 2004 Royal Rumble and won the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania XX. From 2007 to 2010, participants from the ECW brand competed along with the Raw and SmackDown brands, with the ECW World Championship added as an option for the winner to challenge for, although no winners ever did. During ECW 's participation, the entries for each brand were not evenly divided. The ECW Championship was deactivated in 2010, and the World Heavyweight Championship was unified into the WWE Championship in 2013, leaving the latter as the only title to challenge for until July 2016, when the brand extension returned. With the new brand extension, the winner of the 2017 event earned a match for their brand 's top championship, Raw 's Universal Championship or SmackDown 's WWE Championship, but beginning in 2018, the winner has a choice. Conversely, beginning with the 2018 event, women receive a title opportunity of their choice for a women 's championship: the Raw or SmackDown Women 's Championship. Due to free agents, Hall of Famers, and wrestlers from the NXT brand also participating, there has not been an even division of wrestlers (in either the men 's or women 's Rumbles) between Raw and SmackDown since the second brand extension went into effect.
WWE 's top championship has been booked as on the line during the Royal Rumble match on two occasions. In 1992, the vacant WWF World Heavyweight Championship was contested in the 1992 Royal Rumble match, eventually won by Ric Flair, while in 2016, Roman Reigns was scheduled to defend his WWE World Heavyweight Championship as a participant of that year 's Royal Rumble match and was entrant number one. This marked the first time that a reigning champion had to defend his title in the match, which was ultimately won by Triple H, who eliminated Reigns before lastly eliminating Dean Ambrose to win. Reigns would go on to earn a match against Triple H at WrestleMania 32 and won back the title.
From 2001 to 2007, the Royal Rumble match winner had gone on to win a world championship title at WrestleMania. After winning the 2008 match, John Cena became the first winner to use his championship opportunity at an event (No Way Out 2008) other than WrestleMania. He also became the first since The Rock in 2000 to win the Royal Rumble match but fail to win the title in his championship opportunity.
The Royal Rumble winner may also choose to put his championship opportunity on the line in a match. This was first done in 1996, when Shawn Michaels risked his WrestleMania XII title shot in a match against Owen Hart at In Your House 6. The second time was in 1999, when Stone Cold Steve Austin offered to forfeit his title opportunity to the Big Boss Man, who won third place in the Rumble (Austin was actually the runner - up in that rumble, but the winner, Vince McMahon himself, had voluntarily given up his title opportunity) if McMahon could beat him in a cage match at St. Valentine 's Day Massacre: In Your House, which Austin would go on to win. The third time was in 2002, when Kurt Angle convinced Triple H to put his WrestleMania X8 championship spot on the line at No Way Out, a match which Angle won. However, Triple H would later defeat Angle and regain his WrestleMania championship spot. The fourth time was in 2006, when Randy Orton goaded Rey Mysterio into putting his main event spot at WrestleMania 22 on the line at No Way Out, a match which Orton won. Mysterio was eventually reinserted into the main event at WrestleMania, making it a triple threat match, and went on to win the World Heavyweight Championship. On the February 25, 2013, edition of Raw, John Cena successfully defended his WrestleMania 29 WWE Championship opportunity in a match against CM Punk. On February 22, 2015, at Fastlane, Roman Reigns defended his WrestleMania 31 WWE World Heavyweight Championship opportunity against Daniel Bryan.
In 2000, The Rock was declared the victor, as the storyline intended. However, it was later revealed that his feet had actually touched before those of the Big Show. A singles match was held at No Way Out, the event following the Royal Rumble, to determine who received the WrestleMania title shot against the reigning champion Triple H. Big Show won with the help of Shane McMahon. Rock then defeated Big Show in a rematch in March on Raw with the help of Vince McMahon, which earned him a title shot and converted the match at WrestleMania into a triple threat that was later made a four - way match when Linda McMahon inserted the recently retired Mick Foley into the match.
WWE has booked several Royal Rumble matches outside of the annual Royal Rumble event:
WWE has also booked two Royal Rumble matches which were never televised, both in 1994. The first, a 30 - man Royal Rumble on January 17, was won by Owen Hart, last eliminating Fatu. The second, an 18 - man Royal Rumble match, took place on May 9 in Osaka, Japan, and was won by The Undertaker, who last eliminated Bam Bam Bigelow.
Note: There was no WrestleMania title opportunity for the winners of the 1992 and 2016 Royal Rumble matches. In 1992, Ric Flair won the Royal Rumble match, which was for the vacant WWF World Heavyweight Championship. In 2016, Triple H won the Royal Rumble match in which Roman Reigns defended the WWE World Heavyweight Championship.
Top 20 individual longest times in a single Royal Rumble match. As of the 2018 Royal Rumble.
Note: bold indicates the winner of that year 's match
Only wrestlers who have spent more than 3 cumulative hours are shown. As of the 2018 Royal Rumble.
Only wrestlers who spent 10 seconds or less in a single rumble are shown. As of the 2018 Royal Rumble.
(*) - WWE 's official source mistakenly reports the time as 20 seconds.
Several times, wrestlers were drawn to compete in the match but did not actually compete. Their participation is counted as zero seconds, with the exception of # 6 Hornswoggle:
Several times, wrestlers were drawn to compete and were instead either attacked backstage or pulled from the match at the last minute, and replaced by other wrestlers.
Top wrestlers with most eliminations in a single match. Only wrestlers with at least seven eliminations are shown. As of the 2018 Royal Rumble.
Top wrestlers with the most eliminations. Only wrestlers with at least 20 eliminations are shown. As of the 2018 Royal Rumble.
Only wrestlers with at least 10 appearances are shown. As of the 2018 Royal Rumble.
As of the 2018 Royal Rumble, only one match has occurred; the top ten times are shown.
Note: bold indicates the winner of that year 's match
As of the 2018 Royal Rumble, only one match has occurred; the top ten times are shown.
As only one match has occurred, only wrestlers with at least three eliminations are shown. As of the 2018 Royal Rumble.
Note: bold indicates the winner of that year 's match
In March 2007, WWE released a complete DVD box set titled Royal Rumble: The Complete Anthology, which showcases every Royal Rumble event in its entirety, up to the 2007 Royal Rumble.
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who was the first woman to sit in the british house of commons | Nancy Astor, Viscountess Astor - wikipedia
Nancy Witcher Langhorne Astor, Viscountess Astor, CH (19 May 1879 -- 2 May 1964) was the first female Member of Parliament to take her seat.
She was an American citizen who moved to England at age 26. She made a second marriage to Waldorf Astor as a young woman in England. After he succeeded to the peerage and entered the House of Lords, she entered politics, in 1919 winning his former seat in Plymouth and becoming the first woman to sit as a Member of Parliament (MP) in the House of Commons. Her first husband was an American citizen, Robert Gould Shaw II, and they divorced. She served in Parliament as a member of the Conservative Party for Plymouth Sutton until 1945, when she was persuaded to step down.
Nancy Witcher Langhorne was born at the Langhorne House in Danville, Virginia. She was the eighth of eleven children born to railroad businessman Chiswell Dabney Langhorne and his wife Nancy Witcher Keene. Following the abolition of slavery, Chiswell struggled to make his operations profitable, and with the destruction of the war, the family lived in near - poverty for several years before Nancy was born. After her birth, her father gained a job as a tobacco auctioneer in Danville, the center of bright leaf tobacco and a major marketing and processing center.
In 1874, he won a construction contract with the Chespeake and Ohio Railroad, using former contacts from his service in the Civil War. By 1892, when Nancy was thirteen years old, her father had re-established his wealth and built a sizeable home. Chiswell Langhorne later moved his family to an estate, known as Mirador, in Albemarle County, Virginia.
Nancy Langhorne had four sisters and three brothers who survived childhood. All of the sisters were known for their beauty; Nancy and her sister Irene both attended a finishing school in New York City. There Nancy met her first husband, socialite Robert Gould Shaw II, a first cousin of Colonel Robert Gould Shaw, who commanded the 54th Massachusetts Regiment, the first unit in the Union Army to be composed of African Americans. They married in New York City on 27 October 1897, when she was 18.
The marriage was unhappy. Shaw 's friends said Nancy became puritanical and rigid after marriage; her friends said that Shaw was an abusive alcoholic. During their four - year marriage, they had one son, Robert Gould Shaw III (called Bobby). Nancy left Shaw numerous times during their marriage, the first during their honeymoon. In 1903, Nancy 's mother died; at that time, Nancy Shaw gained a divorce and moved back to Mirador to try to run her father 's household, but was unsuccessful.
Nancy Shaw took a tour of England and fell in love with the country. Since she had been so happy there, her father suggested that she move to England. Seeing she was reluctant, her father said this was also her mother 's wish; he suggested she take her younger sister Phyllis. Nancy and Phyllis moved together to England in 1905. Their older sister Irene had married the artist Charles Dana Gibson and became a model for his Gibson Girls.
Nancy Shaw had already become known in English society as an interesting and witty American, at a time when numerous wealthy young American women had married into the aristocracy. Her tendency to be saucy in conversation, yet religiously devout and almost prudish in behavior, confused many of the English men but pleased some of the older socialites. Nancy also began to show her skill at winning over critics. She was once asked by an English woman, "Have you come to get our husbands? '' Her unexpected response, "If you knew the trouble I had getting rid of mine... '' charmed her listeners and displayed the wit for which she became known.
She did marry an Englishman, albeit one born in the United States, Waldorf Astor; when he was twelve, his father, William Waldorf Astor had moved the family to England, raising his children in the English aristocratic style.
The couple were well matched, as they were both American expatriates with similar temperaments. They were of the same age, born the same day, 19 May 1879. Astor shared some of Nancy 's moral attitudes, and had a heart condition that may have contributed to his restraint.
After the marriage, the Astor couple moved into Cliveden, a lavish estate in Buckinghamshire on the River Thames that was a wedding gift from Astor 's father. Nancy Astor developed as a prominent hostess for the social elite. The Astors also owned a grand London house, No. 4 St. James 's Square, which is now the premises of the Naval & Military Club. A blue plaque unveiled in 1987 commemorates Astor at St. James 's Square. Through her many social connections, Lady Astor became involved in a political circle called Milner 's Kindergarten. Considered liberal in their age, the group advocated unity and equality among English - speaking people and a continuance or expansion of British imperialism.
With Milner 's Kindergarten, Astor began her friendship with Philip Kerr. The friendship became important in her religious life. The two met shortly after Kerr had suffered a spiritual crisis regarding his once devout Catholicism. The two were each searching for spiritual stability and they were attracted to Christian Science, to which they both eventually converted. After converting, she began to proselytize for that faith and played a role in Kerr 's conversion to it. She also tried to convert Hilaire Belloc 's daughters to Christian Science, which led to a rift between them.
Despite having Catholic friends such as Belloc for a time, Astor 's religious views included a strong vein of Anti-Catholicism. Christopher Sykes argues that Kerr, an ex-Catholic, influenced this, but others argue that Astor 's Protestant Virginia origins are a sufficient explanation for her Anti-Catholic views. (Anti-Catholicism was also tied into historic national rivalries.) In 1927 she reportedly told James Louis Garvin that if he hired a Catholic, "bishops would be there within a week. ''
She disliked Jews and discouraged the hiring of Jews or Catholics to positions at The Observer. This regime persisted at The Observer into the 1960s and 70s. When Kenneth Tynan resigned from the Observer in 1963 to take the post of Literary Manager of the National Theatre, he proposed the Irish playwright Dominic Behan as his preferred replacement. Behan, a well - known atheist, was interviewed for the post. When he told the interview board that he was a Catholic, the offer was withdrawn. Behan later said to Tynan, "I would hope if a Nazi ever asked me my religion I would have the courage to defend my right to be a Jew, Bush Baptist or even a damn Catholic! ''
Several elements of Viscountess Astor 's life influenced her first campaign, but she became a candidate after her husband succeeded to the peerage and House of Lords. He had enjoyed a promising political career for several years before World War I in the House of Commons; after his father 's death, he succeeded to his father 's peerage as the 2nd Viscount Astor. He automatically became a member of the House of Lords and consequently had to forfeit his seat of Plymouth Sutton in the House of Commons. With this change, Lady Astor decided to contest the vacant Parliamentary seat.
Astor had not been connected with the women 's suffrage movement in the British Isles. The first woman elected to the British Parliament, Constance Markievicz, said Lady Astor was "of the upper classes, out of touch ''. Countess Markiewicz had been in Holloway prison for Sinn Féin activities during her election, and other suffragettes had been imprisoned for arson.
Astor was hampered in the popular campaign for her published and at times vocal teetotalism and her ignorance of current political issues. Her tendency to say odd or outlandish things sometimes made her appear unstable. On one occasion, while canvassing in Plymouth, she was greeted at a door by a girl whose mother was away. As Astor was unfamiliar with the area, she had been given a naval officer as an escort. The girl said: "... but she (my mother) said if a lady comes with a sailor they 're to use the upstairs room and leave ten bob ''. This is equivalent to £ 22 in 2015.
Astor appealed to voters on the basis of her earlier work with the Canadian soldiers, allies of the British, other charitable work during the war, her financial resources for the campaign and her ability to improvise. Her audiences appreciated her wit and ability to turn the tables on hecklers. Once a man asked her what the Astors had done for him and she responded with, "Why, Charlie, you know, '' and later had a picture taken with him. This informal style baffled yet amused the British public. She rallied the supporters of the current government, moderated her Prohibition views, and used women 's meetings to gain the support of female voters. A by - election was held on 28 November 1919, and she took up her seat in the House on 1 December as a Unionist (also known as "Tory '') Member of Parliament.
Viscountess Astor was not the first woman elected to the Westminster Parliament. That was achieved by Constance Markievicz, who was the first woman MP elected to Westminster in 1918, but as she was an Irish Republican, she did not take her seat. As a result, Lady Astor is sometimes erroneously referred to as the first woman elected to Parliament rather than the first woman to take her seat in Parliament. However, Millicent Garrett - Fawcett (sister of Elizabeth Garrett Anderson) could lay reasonable claim to being the first de facto woman MP with her blind husband / partner Henry (Garrett) Fawcett, MP for Brighton 1864 - 1874, acting as his PA and performing all the tasks of MP that he could not perform due to his blindness. At a time when braille was in its infancy, the first job of the day was for Millicent to read the newspapers out loud to Henry, for them both to discuss and arrive at opinions prior to other engagements such as Henry attending the House of Commons.
Astor 's Parliamentary career was the most public phase of her life. She gained attention as a woman and as someone who did not follow the rules, often attributed to her American upbringing. On her first day in the House of Commons, she was called to order for chatting with a fellow House member, not realising that she was the person who was causing the commotion. She learned to dress more sedately and avoided the bars and smoking rooms frequented by the men.
Early in her first term, MP Horatio Bottomley, who wanted to dominate the "soldier 's friend '' issue and thought she was an obstacle, sought to ruin her political career. He capitalised on her opposition to divorce reform and her efforts to maintain wartime alcohol restrictions. He portrayed her as a hypocrite, as she was divorced; he noted that the reform bill she opposed would allow women to have the kind of divorce she had had in America. Bottomley later went to prison for fraud, which Astor used to her advantage in other campaigns.
Astor made friends among other women MPs, including members of the other parties. Margaret Wintringham was elected after Astor had been in office for two years. Astor also befriended "Red Ellen '' Wilkinson, a former Communist then a member in the Labour Party. Astor later proposed creating a "Women 's Party '', but the female Labour MPs opposed this, as their party was in power and had promised them positions. Over time, political differences separated the women MPs; by 1931 Astor became hostile to female Labour members such as Susan Lawrence.
Nancy Astor 's accomplishments in the House of Commons were relatively minor. She never held a position with much influence, and never any post of ministerial rank, although her time in Commons saw four Conservative Prime Ministers in office. The Duchess of Atholl (elected to Parliament in 1923, four years after Lady Astor) rose to higher levels in the Tory Party before Astor did. Astor felt if she had more position in the party, she would be less free to criticise her party 's government. She did gain passage of a bill to increase the legal drinking age to eighteen unless the minor has parental approval.
During this period Nancy Astor continued to be active outside government, supporting the development and expansion of nursery schools for children 's education. She was introduced to the issue by socialist Margaret McMillan, who believed that her late sister helped guide her in life. Lady Astor was initially sceptical of this aspect, but later the two women became close; Astor used her wealth to aid their social efforts.
Although active in charitable efforts, Astor also became noted for a streak of cruelty. On hearing of the death of a political enemy, she expressed her pleasure. When people complained, she did not apologize but said, "I 'm a Virginian; we shoot to kill. '' Angus McDonnell, a Virginia friend, angered her by marrying without consulting her on his choice. She later told him, regarding his maiden speech, that he "really must do better than that. '' During the course of her adult life, Astor alienated many others with her sharp words as well.
During the 1920s, Astor made several effective speeches in Parliament, and gained support for her Intoxicating Liquor (Sale to Persons under 18) Bill (nicknamed "Lady Astor 's Bill ''), raising the legal age for consuming alcohol in a public house from 14 to 18. Her wealth and persona also brought attention to women who were serving in government. She worked to recruit women into the civil service, the police force, education reform, and the House of Lords. She remained popular in her constituency and well liked in the United States during the 1920s, but her success is generally believed to have declined in the following decades. She was also concerned about the treatment of juvenile victims of crime: "The work of new MPs, such as Nancy Astor, led to a Departmental Committee on Sexual Offences Against Young People, which reported in 1925. ''
The 1930s were a decade of personal and professional difficulty for Lady Astor. In 1928 she won a narrow victory over the Labour candidate. In 1931 Bobby Shaw, her son from her first marriage, was arrested for homosexual offences. As her son had previously shown tendencies toward alcoholism and instability, Astor 's friend Philip Kerr, 11th Marquess of Lothian, suggested the arrest might act as a catalyst for him to change his behavior, but he was incorrect.
Astor made a disastrous speech stating that alcohol use was the reason England 's national cricket team was defeated by the Australian national cricket team. Both the English and Australian teams objected to this statement. Astor remained oblivious to her growing unpopularity almost to the end of her career.
Astor 's friendship with George Bernard Shaw helped her through some of her problems, although his own nonconformity caused friction between them. They held opposing political views and had very different temperaments. However, his own tendency to make controversial statements or put her into awkward situations proved to be a drawback for her political career.
After Bobby Shaw was arrested, Gertrude Ely, a Pennsylvania Railroad heiress from Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania offered to provide a guided tour to Moscow for Lady Astor and Bobby. Because of public comments by her and her son during this period, her political career suffered. Her son made many flattering statements about Stalinist Russia, while Astor often disparaged the nation because she did not approve of Communism. In a meeting, she asked Joseph Stalin directly why he had slaughtered so many Russians, but many of her criticisms were translated as less challenging statements. Some of her conservative supporters feared she had "gone soft '' on Communism. (Her question to Stalin may have been translated correctly only because he insisted that he be told what she had said.) Tories felt that her son 's praise of the USSR served as a coup for Soviet propaganda; they were unhappy with her tour.
Astor was challenged by the rise of Nazism. She criticised them for devaluing the position of women, but was strongly opposed to the idea of another World War. Several of her friends and associates, especially Lord Lothian, became heavily involved in the German appeasement policy; this group became known as the "Cliveden set ''. The term was first used in The Week, a newspaper run by the British Communist Claud Cockburn, but over time the allegations became more elaborate. The Cliveden set were a coterie of aristocrats described by one journalist as having subscribed to their own brand of fascism. Its members were depicted by war agitators as the prime movers for peace. Astor believed that Nazism would solve the problems associated with Communism and the Jews. Some claimed that she had hypnotic powers.
Despite her anti-Catholicism, Nancy Astor was friends with US Ambassador to Britain Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr... Their correspondence is reportedly filled with anti-Semitic language. Edward J. Renehan, Jr. notes:
As fiercely anti-Communist as they were anti-Semitic, Kennedy and Astor looked upon Adolf Hitler as a welcome solution to both of these "world problems '' (Nancy 's phrase)... Kennedy replied that he expected the "Jew media '' in the United States to become a problem, that "Jewish pundits in New York and Los Angeles '' were already making noises contrived to "set a match to the fuse of the world. ''
Although she held anti-Semitic views, Astor has not been documented as influential in anti-Semitic or pro-Nazi policies. Astor did occasionally meet with Nazi officials in keeping with Neville Chamberlain 's policies, and she was known to distrust and dislike British Foreign Secretary (later Prime Minister) Anthony Eden. She told one Nazi official, who later turned out to be working against Nazis from within, that she supported their re-armament, but she supported this policy because, she said that Germany was "surrounded by Catholics. '' She also told Joachim von Ribbentrop, the German Ambassador who later became the Foreign Minister of Germany, that Hitler looked too much like Charlie Chaplin to be taken seriously. These statements are the only documented incidents of her expressing sympathy to Nazis.
Astor became increasingly harsh in her anti-Catholic and anti-Communist sentiments. After passage of the Munich Agreement, she said that if the Czech refugees fleeing Nazi oppression were Communists, they should seek asylum with the Soviets instead of the British. Even supporters of appeasement felt that this was out of line, but Lord Lothian encouraged her comments. He criticised the Pope for opposing Hitler 's annexation of Austria. Lord Lothian influenced Lady Astor in many ways.
When war did come, Astor admitted that she had made mistakes, and voted against Chamberlain, but hostility to her politics remained. In a 1939 speech, another MP, Stafford Cripps, called her "The Member for Berlin ''. Her abilities as an MP were seen to decline with age.
Her fear of Catholics increased and she made a speech saying that a Catholic conspiracy was subverting the foreign office. Based on her opposition to Communists, she insulted Stalin 's role (from 1941) as an ally of the Western nations during the war. Her speeches became rambling and incomprehensible; an opponent said that debating her had become "like playing squash with a dish of scrambled eggs ''. On one occasion she accosted a young American soldier outside the Houses of Parliament. "Would you like to go in? '' she asked. The GI replied: "You are the sort of woman my mother told me to avoid ''.
The period from 1937 to the end of the war was personally difficult for her: from 1937 -- 38 Astor lost both her sister Phyllis and her only surviving brother. In 1940 Lord Lothian died. He had been her closest Christian Scientist friend even after her husband converted. George Bernard Shaw 's wife died three years later. During the war, Astor 's husband had a heart attack. After this, their marriage grew cold, likely due to her subsequent discomfort with his health problems. She ran a hospital for Canadian soldiers as she had during the First World War, but openly expressed a preference for the earlier soldiers.
It was generally believed that it was Lady Astor who, during a World War II speech, first referred to the men of the 8th Army who were fighting in the Italian campaign as the "D - Day Dodgers ''. Observers thought she was suggesting they were avoiding the "real war '' in France and the future invasion. The Allied soldiers in Italy were so incensed that Major Hamish Henderson of the 51st Highland Division composed a bitingly sarcastic song to the tune of the popular German song "Lili Marleen '' (popularised in English by Marlene Dietrich), called "The Ballad of the D - Day Dodgers ''. This song has also been attributed to Lance - Sergeant Harry Pynn of the Tank Rescue Section, 19 Army Fire Brigade.
When told she was one of the people listed to be arrested, imprisoned and face possible execution in "The Black Book '' under a German invasion of Britain, Lady Astor commented: "It is the complete answer to the terrible lie that the so - called ' Cliveden Set ' was pro-Fascist.
Lady Astor did not acknowledge her loss of popularity. She believed her party and her husband caused her retirement in 1945. As the Tories believed she had become a political liability in the final years of World War II, her husband said that if she ran for office again the family would not support her. She conceded but, according to contemporary reports, was both irritated and angry about this.
Lady Astor struggled in retirement, which put more strain on her marriage. In a speech commemorating her 25 years in parliament, she stated that her retirement was forced on her and that it should please the men of Britain. The couple began travelling separately and soon were living apart. Lord Astor also began moving toward left - wing politics in his last years, and that exacerbated their differences. However, the couple reconciled before his death on 30 September 1952.
Lady Astor 's public image suffered, as her ethnic and religious views were increasingly out of touch with cultural changes in Britain. She expressed a growing paranoia regarding ethnic minorities. In one instance she stated that the President of the United States had become too dependent on New York City. To her this city represented "Jewish and foreign '' influences that she feared. During a US tour, she told a group of African - American students that they should aspire to be like the black servants she remembered from her youth. On a later trip she told African - American church members that they should be grateful for slavery because it had allowed them to be introduced to Christianity. In Rhodesia she proudly told the white minority government leaders that she was the daughter of a slave owner.
After 1956 Nancy Astor became increasingly isolated. In 1959 she was honored by receiving the Freedom of City of Plymouth. By this time, she had lost all her sisters and brothers, her colleague "Red Ellen '' Wilkinson died in 1947, George Bernard Shaw died in 1950, and she did not take well to widowhood. Her son Bobby Shaw became increasingly combative and after her death he committed suicide. Her son Jakie married a prominent Catholic woman, which hurt his relationship with his mother. She and her other children became estranged. Gradually she began to accept Catholics as friends. But, she said that her final years were lonely.
Lady Astor died in 1964 at her daughter Nancy Astor 's home at Grimsthorpe Castle in Lincolnshire. She was cremated and her ashes interred at the Octagon Temple at Cliveden.
She was noted for exchanges with Winston Churchill, though these are not well documented. Churchill is supposed to have told Lady Astor that having a woman in Parliament was like having one intrude on him in the bathroom, to which she retorted, "You 're not handsome enough to have such fears. '' Lady Astor is also said to have responded to a question from Churchill about what disguise he should wear to a masquerade ball by saying, "Why do n't you come sober, Prime Minister? '' In another recounted exchange, Lady Astor said to Churchill, "If you were my husband, I 'd poison your tea, '' to which he responded, "Madam, if you were my wife, I 'd drink it. '' The retort has been documented as being by Churchill 's friend F.E. Smith, Lord Birkenhead.
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when was harry potter and the order of the phoenix filmed | Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (film) - Wikipedia
Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is a 2007 fantasy film directed by David Yates and distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures. It is based on the 2003 novel of the same name by J.K. Rowling. The fifth instalment in the Harry Potter film series, it was written by Michael Goldenberg (making this the only film in the series not to be scripted by Steve Kloves) and produced by David Heyman and David Barron. The story follows Harry Potter 's fifth year at Hogwarts as the Ministry of Magic is in denial of Lord Voldemort 's return.
The film stars Daniel Radcliffe as Harry Potter, alongside Rupert Grint and Emma Watson as Harry 's best friends Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger. It is the sequel to Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire and is followed by Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince.
Live - action filming took place in England and Scotland for exterior locations and Leavesden Film Studios in Watford for interior locations from February to November 2006, with a one - month break in June. Post-production on the film continued for several months afterwards to add in visual effects. The film 's budget was reportedly between £ 75 and 100 million ($150 -- 200 million). Warner Bros. released the film in the United Kingdom on 12 July 2007 and in North America on 11 July, both in conventional and IMAX theatres; it is the first Potter film to be released in IMAX 3D.
As of July 2018, Order of the Phoenix is the 47th - highest - grossing film of all time, and a critical and commercial success. The film opened to a worldwide 5 - day opening of $333 million, fourteenth all - time, and grossed nearly $940 million total, second to Pirates of the Caribbean: At World 's End for the greatest total of 2007. The film was nominated for two BAFTA Film Awards in 2008.
During another summer with his Aunt Petunia and Uncle Vernon, Harry Potter and Dudley are attacked by Dementors. After using magic to save Dudley and himself, Harry is expelled from Hogwarts, but the decision is later reversed after a hearing at the Ministry of Magic. Harry is whisked off by a group of wizards including Mad - Eye Moody, Remus Lupin, and several new faces, including Nymphadora Tonks and Kingsley Shacklebolt, to Number 12, Grimmauld Place, the childhood home of his godfather, Sirius Black. The building also serves as the headquarters of the Order of the Phoenix, a secret organisation founded by Albus Dumbledore, which informs Harry Potter that the Ministry of Magic is oblivious to Lord Voldemort 's return. At the Order 's headquarters, Sirius Black, mentions that Voldemort is after an object he did not have during his previous attack.
Back at Hogwarts, Harry learns that Minister of Magic Cornelius Fudge has appointed a new Defence Against the Dark Arts professor: Dolores Umbridge. She and Harry immediately clash, and she punishes Harry for his "lies '' by forcing him to write a message with a magic quill, scarring his hand. When Ron and Hermione notice Harry 's scars they are outraged, but Harry refuses to go to Dumbledore, who has distanced himself from Harry since the summer. As Umbridge 's control over the school increases, Ron and Hermione aid Harry in forming a secret group to train students in defensive spells, calling themselves "Dumbledore 's Army ''. Umbridge recruits the Slytherin students to expose the group. Meanwhile, Harry and Cho Chang develop romantic feelings for each other.
Harry has a vision involving an attack upon Arthur Weasley, from the point of view of Arthur 's attacker. Concerned that Voldemort will exploit this connection to Harry, Dumbledore instructs Severus Snape to give Harry Occlumency lessons to defend his mind from Voldemort 's influence. The connection between Harry and Voldemort leads Harry to further isolate himself from his friends. Meanwhile, Bellatrix Lestrange, Sirius ' deranged Death Eater cousin, escapes from Azkaban along with nine other Death Eaters. At Hogwarts, Umbridge and her Inquisitorial Squad expose Dumbledore 's Army. Dumbledore escapes as Fudge orders his arrest. Umbridge becomes the new Headmistress. Harry 's relationship with Cho falls apart, as he believes she betrayed Dumbledore 's Army to Umbridge. Harry discovers through Snape 's memories why Snape hated Harry 's father James, who often ridiculed him.
Harry has another vision, this one of Sirius being tortured by Voldemort. Harry, Ron and Hermione rush to Umbridge 's fireplace to alert the Order via the Floo Network, since hers is the only fireplace not being monitored, but Umbridge stops them before they can do so. As Umbridge tortures Harry, Hermione tricks Umbridge into entering the Forbidden Forest in search of Dumbledore 's "secret weapon ''. She and Harry lead her to the hiding place of Hagrid 's giant half - brother, Grawp, only to be confronted by centaurs who kidnap Umbridge after she attacks and insults them. Harry, Hermione, Ron, Luna, Neville and Ginny fly to the Ministry of Magic on Thestrals in an attempt to save Sirius.
The six enter the Department of Mysteries where they uncover a bottled prophecy, the object Voldemort was after. However, they are ambushed by Death Eaters including Lucius Malfoy and Bellatrix Lestrange. Lucius reveals that Harry only saw a dream of Sirius being tortured; it was simply a ruse to lure Harry into the Death Eaters ' grasp. Harry refuses to give Lucius the prophecy, and a fight between Dumbledore 's Army and the Death Eaters ensues. The Death Eaters take everyone except Harry as hostages, threatening to kill them unless he surrenders the prophecy.
Harry obliges just as Sirius and Remus Lupin arrive with Order members Nymphadora Tonks, Kingsley Shacklebolt and Mad - Eye Moody. As they attack the Death Eaters, Lucius drops the prophecy, destroying it. Just as Sirius overpowers Lucius, Bellatrix kills Sirius. Voldemort appears, but Dumbledore arrives through the Floo Network moments before Voldemort can kill Harry.
A duel between Voldemort and Dumbledore ensues, destroying much of the Atrium, while Bellatrix escapes. After the two prove evenly matched, Voldemort possesses Harry to try to get Dumbledore to sacrifice Harry, but the love Harry feels for his friends and Sirius makes it impossible for Voldemort to remain in his body. Ministry officials arrive before Voldemort disapparates; Fudge is forced to admit that Voldemort has returned and is forced out of his position as Minister in disgrace. Umbridge is removed from Hogwarts and Dumbledore returns as headmaster. Dumbledore explains that he distanced himself from Harry throughout the year hoping it would lessen the risk of Voldemort using their connection. Harry comes to terms with the prophecy; "Neither can live while the other survives. ''
Casting began as early as May 2005, when Radcliffe announced he would reprise his role as Harry. Across the media frenzy that took place during the release of Goblet of Fire, most of the main returning actors announced their return to the series, including Grint, Watson, Lewis, Wright, Leung, and Fiennes.
The announcements of the casting of the rest of the new characters to the series was spanned across 2006. Evanna Lynch won the role of Luna Lovegood over 15,000 other girls who attended the open casting call, waiting in a line of hopefuls that stretched a mile long. Saoirse Ronan was considered for the role.
Persistent rumours linked Elizabeth Hurley to the role of Bellatrix Lestrange, although Warner Bros. asserted there was "no truth whatsoever '' to reports that she had been cast. As early as August 2005, rumours began linking Helen McCrory to the role. On 2 February 2006 it was announced that McCrory had indeed been cast as Bellatrix. However, in April 2006 she revealed that she was three months pregnant and withdrew from the film because she would not have been able to perform the intense battle sequences in the Ministry of Magic in September and October 2006. The announcement that Bonham Carter had been recast in the role was made on 25 May 2006. McCrory was subsequently cast as Narcissa Malfoy from Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince onwards.
The inclusion or cutting of some characters sparked speculation from fans as to the importance of the characters in the final book of the series, which was released just ten days after the film. In April 2006, representatives of Jim McManus said he would be playing Aberforth Dumbledore, Albus ' brother and the barman of the Hog 's Head, in which Harry and his friends found Dumbledore 's Army. A week later WB announced that the role was "very minor '', allaying some of the speculation to the significance of the role, which, before the final book, was not even a speaking part. MTV reported in October 2006 that Dobby the house elf, who appeared in the second film, Chamber of Secrets, and in the fifth book, would be cut, opening up "plot questions '' as to how the role of the elf would be filled. MTV also reported about a month before the release of the final book that Kreacher, the Black family 's house - elf, was cut from the film in one draft of the script. However, after Rowling prodded the filmmakers to include him, saying, "You know, I would n't (cut him) if I were you. Or you can, but if you get to make a seventh film, you 'll be tied in knots '', he was added back into the script.
Other minor roles were cut with subsequent drafts of the script. At the US premiere of Goblet of Fire, series producer David Heyman said that former Hogwarts professor Gilderoy Lockhart, played by Kenneth Branagh in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, was in the first draft of the script for Phoenix. However, neither Branagh nor the character of Lockhart appears in the final version. Tiana Benjamin was scheduled to return for the film in the role of Angelina Johnson, the captain of the Gryffindor Quidditch team, but she had to withdraw due to a commitment to playing Chelsea Fox in EastEnders. The character, as well as the entire Quidditch subplot, was ultimately cut from the film. She did, however, record sound clips for the Order of the Phoenix video game.
The family of footballer Theo Walcott made a cameo appearance in the film. They were signed on by director David Yates, who is the partner of Yvonne Walcott, Theo 's aunt. Theo himself was due to appear alongside his family, though his commitments to Arsenal Football Club forced him to pull out.
British television director David Yates was chosen to direct the film after Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire director Mike Newell, as well as Jean - Pierre Jeunet, Guillermo del Toro, Matthew Vaughn and Mira Nair, turned down offers. Yates believed he was approached because the studio saw him fit to handle an "edgy and emotional '' film with a "political backstory '', which some of his previous television projects including State of Play, Sex Traffic and The Girl in the Café demonstrated. Producer David Heyman supported Yates ' comments about the film 's political theme, stating that "(Order of the Phoenix) is a political film, not with a capital P, but it 's about teen rebellion and the abuse of power. David has made films in the UK about politics without being heavy handed. '' On the film 's political and social aspects, Emma Watson stated that "somehow it talks about life after 7 July, the way people behave when they 're scared, the way truth is often denied and all the things our society has to face. Facing the fact that the authority is corrupted means having a non-conformist approach to reality and power. ''
Steve Kloves, the screenwriter of the first four Potter films, had other commitments. Michael Goldenberg, who was considered to pen the first film in the series, filled in and wrote the script.
Rehearsals for Order of the Phoenix began on 27 January 2006, filming began on 7 February 2006 and finished at the start of December 2006. Filming was put on a two - month hiatus starting in May 2006 so Radcliffe could sit his A / S Levels and Watson could sit her GCSE exams. The film 's budget was reportedly between GB £ 75 and 100 million (US $150 -- 200 million). The largest budget of the other films in the series has been the £ 75 million it cost to make Goblet of Fire.
Mark Day was the film editor, Sławomir Idziak was the cinematographer, and Jany Temime was the costume designer. Choreographer Paul Harris, who had previously worked with David Yates several times, created a physical language for wand combat to choreograph the wand fighting scenes.
Stuart Craig returned as set designer, having designed the first four films ' sets. There were a number of notable new sets in this film. The atrium in the Ministry of Magic is over 200 feet in length, making it the largest and most expensive set built for the Potter film series to date. Craig 's design was inspired by early London Underground stations, where, he said, architects "tried to imitate classical architecture but they used ceramic tile '', as well as a Burger King on Tottenham Court Road in London, where "there 's a fantastic Victorian façade which just embodies the age ''. The set of Number Twelve, Grimmauld Place contains the Black family tapestry spread across three walls; when the producers told Rowling they wanted to visualise the details of each name and birth year, she faxed them a complete copy of the entire tree. The set of the Hall of Prophecies was entirely digitally built. During a fight scene which occurs there, prophecies crash to the ground and break; had it been an actual physical set, the reset time would have been weeks.
The set used for Igor Karkaroff 's trial scene in Goblet of Fire was doubled in size for Harry 's trial in this film, while still protecting its symmetry. New professor Dolores Umbridge, though she teaches in a classroom that has appeared in films two through four, inhabits an office vastly different from those of her predecessors. The set was redressed with "fluffy, pink filigree '' and a number of plates upon which moving kittens were animated in post-production. A 24 - hour photo shoot was held to photograph and film the kittens for use on these plates. The quill which Umbridge gives Harry to write lines is designed by the set designers.
Though the producers explored options to film outside of the UK, Leavesden Film Studios in Watford was again the location on which many of the interior scenes, including the Great Hall, Privet Drive and Number Twelve, Grimmauld Place were shot.
Locations in England included the River Thames, for the flight of the Order of the Phoenix to Number Twelve, Grimmauld Place, and the flight of Dumbledore 's Army to the Ministry of Magic. This sequence also includes such landmarks as the London Eye, Canary Wharf, Big Ben, Buckingham Palace, and HMS Belfast. Filming at Platform 93⁄4 took place at King 's Cross Station, as it has in the past. A telephone booth near Scotland Yard was used as Harry and Arthur Weasley enter the Ministry, while the crew closed the Westminster tube station on 22 October 2006 to allow for filming of Arthur Weasley accompanying Harry to his trial at the Ministry of Magic. Other scenes were filmed in and around Oxford, specifically at nearby Blenheim Palace in Woodstock.
In Glenfinnan, the Hogwarts Express crosses a viaduct, as it has in the past films. Aerial scenes were shot in Glen Coe, in Clachaig Gully, and Glen Etive, which, at the time of filming, was one of the few places in Scotland without snow, making it ideal for a backdrop.
Director David Yates stated in an interview that he had originally shot a three - hour film of Order of the Phoenix. However, some material had to be cut out in the final edit, as the movie was 45 minutes too long. Therefore, several locations which were used for various scenes do not appear in the final cut of the film. In Virginia Water, scenes were shot where Professor McGonagall recovers from Stunning Spells, and Burnham Beeches was used for filming the scene where Hagrid introduces his fifth - year Care of Magical Creatures class to Thestrals. Harry skips stones in front of the Glenfinnan Monument in Glenfinnan in another cut scene.
The film required over 1,400 visual effects shots, and the London - based company Double Negative created more than 950 of them. Working for six months on previsualisation starting in September 2005, Double Negative was largely responsible for sequences in the Room of Requirement, the Forbidden Forest, the Hall of Prophecies, and the Death Chamber.
A new character in the film, Grawp, Hagrid 's giant half - brother, came to life by a new technology called Soul Capturing, developed by Image Metrics. Instead of building the character from scratch, the movements and facial expressions of actor Tony Maudsley were used to model Grawp 's actions.
Nicholas Hooper was the composer for the soundtrack of the film, following John Williams, who scored the first three films, and Patrick Doyle, who did the fourth. In the new score, Hooper incorporated variations on "Hedwig 's Theme '', the series ' theme originally written by Williams for the first film and heard in all subsequent ones. In March and April 2007, Hooper and the London Chamber Orchestra recorded nearly two hours of music at Abbey Road Studios in London. The score, like the film and book, is darker than previous instalments in the series. To emphasise this, the two new main themes reflect the sinister new character Dolores Umbridge, and Lord Voldemort 's invasion of Harry 's mind. A Japanese Taiko drum was used for a deeper sound in the percussion. The soundtrack was released on 10 July 2007, the eve of the film 's release. For his work on the film, Hooper was nominated for a World Soundtrack Discovery Award. The trailer prominently features the cues "Divine Crusade '' by X-Ray Dog and "DNA Reactor '' by Pfeifer Broz. Music.
The film also featured the song "Boys Will Be Boys '' by The Ordinary Boys.
At 766 pages in the British edition and 870 in the American edition, Order of the Phoenix is the longest book in the Harry Potter series. Screenwriter Michael Goldenberg described his task to cut down the novel as searching for "the best equivalent way to tell the story. My job was to stay true to the spirit of the book, rather than to the letter ''. Goldenberg said that Rowling told him, the producers, and Yates that "she just wanted to see a great movie, and gave (them) permission to take whatever liberties (they) felt (they) needed to take to translate the book into a movie she would love ''. Cutting down the book to meet the time frame of the film, Goldenberg explained, became "clearer when (he) figured out that the organising principle of the screenplay was to narrate Harry 's emotional journey ''. He and Yates "looked for every opportunity to get everything (they) could in there. And where (they) could n't, to sort of pay homage to it, to have it somewhere in the background or to feel like it could be taking place off - screen ''.
One cut Goldenberg had to make, which he "hated '' to do, was the absence of Quidditch, the Wizarding sport. "The truth is that any movie made of this book, whoever made it, that had included the Quidditch subplot would have been a lesser film '', he said. In the book, Ron grows as a character by trying out for the Quidditch team. "Ron facing challenges and coming into his own in the same way that Harry is, we tried to get that into the film in other ways, as much as possible. So, you feel like, if not the details of that story, at least the spirit of it is present in the film ''. The change disappointed actor Rupert Grint who had been "quite looking forward to the Quidditch stuff ''.
In a significant scene in the book, Harry sees a memory of his own father humiliating Snape in their school days, and Snape insulting his mother after she stood up for him. In the film, it is abbreviated to an "idea '', in Goldenberg 's words. "It 's an iconic moment when you realise your parents are normal, flawed human beings... Things get trimmed out, but I kept the meat of that in there -- and that was what really gave me the coming - of - age story. '' Young Lily Potter did not appear at all, but promotional screenshots show unknown teenager Susie Shinner in the role.
The scene at St Mungo 's, the hospital where Harry and friends run into classmate Neville Longbottom and learn that his parents were tortured into insanity by Bellatrix Lestrange, was cut because it required the construction of a new set. The main purpose of the action of the scene was relocated to the Room of Requirement after one of Dumbledore 's Army 's lessons. Also, to speed up the film 's climax, several events in the Ministry leading up to Harry 's battle with Voldemort were removed, including the brain room. Mrs. Weasley 's encounter with a boggart at Grimmauld Place, Ron, Hermione and Malfoy becoming prefects, the appearance of Mundungus Fletcher, and Firenze teaching Divination followed suit.
The character of Kreacher the house - elf, who was included in the script only at Rowling 's request, has a larger part in the book than the film. In the novel, he is seen saving some of the Black family 's artefacts which the Order of the Phoenix throw away, one of which is a locket which becomes extremely important in the seventh book. "It was kind of tricky to raise that in our story, because it 's for so much later '', Yates said. "We figured we can probably introduce it later, and that 's the approach we took ''. Whilst Kreacher remained, all scenes involving Dobby were cut, and his important actions given to other characters.
Rita Skeeter, the journalist played by Miranda Richardson in Goblet of Fire, was also removed. In the book, Hermione blackmails her into writing an article that supports Harry as the rest of the Wizarding world denies his claims. Richardson noted that "it 's never gon na be the book on film, exactly... They 'll take certain aspects from the book and make it something that they hope is going to be commercial and that people want to see ''.
The first trailer was released on 17 November 2006, attached to another WB film, Happy Feet. It was made available online on 20 November 2006, on the Happy Feet website. The international trailer debuted online on 22 April 2007 at 14: 00 UTC. On 4 May 2007, the US trailer was shown before Spider - Man 3.
Three posters released on the Internet that showed Harry accompanied by six classmates, including Hermione Granger, generated some controversy by the media. They were essentially the same picture, though one advertised the IMAX release. In one poster, the profile of Hermione, played by Emma Watson, was made curvier as the outline of her breasts was enhanced. Melissa Anelli, webmistress of noted fan site The Leaky Cauldron, wrote:
Emma Watson is playing a 15 - year - old girl, and she herself is under 18. I get the full heebie jeebies thinking about the person who sat there thinking, ' Now, if we cinch her waist a bit, and inflate her bust a bit, and give her some dramatic lighting and more blonde hair, this would be a much better picture. '
Representatives for WB later wrote about the poster under fire, "This is not an official poster. Unfortunately this image was accidentally posted on the IMAX website ''.
The video game version, designed by EA UK, was released 25 June 2007. Lego produced just one set, a model of Hogwarts, the lowest amount of sets for a film so far. NECA produced a series of action figures, while a larger array of smaller figures was also produced by PopCo Entertainment, a Corgi International company.
The film was the third Harry Potter film to be given a simultaneous release in conventional theatres and IMAX. The IMAX release featured the full movie in 2D and the final 20 minutes of the film in 3D. According to estimates in March 2007, by Warner Bros., the film would debut on over 10,000 theatre screens during the summer.
The film was released in most countries in a two - week period starting 11 July 2007. WB has tried to stick with day - and - date releases for most countries, except the Middle East and a few minor markets which were to be in holidays at that point. The set of summer releases, even though the films are typically released in the winter, "really maximises our opportunity '', said a representative for WB.
Previews of the film began in March 2007 in the Chicago area. Under tight security to prevent piracy, WB had security guards patrol the aisles, looking for cell phone cameras or small recording devices, at a preview in Japan. The world premiere took place in Tokyo, Japan on 28 June 2007. MySpace users could bring copies of their online profiles to gain free admission to sneak previews in eight different cities across the country on 28 June 2007. The UK premiere took place on 3 July 2007 in London 's Odeon Leicester Square, during which author J.K. Rowling made a public appearance. The US premiere took place on 8 July in Los Angeles. After the premiere, the three young stars of the film series, Radcliffe, Grint, and Watson, were honoured with a ceremony where their handprints, footprints, and "wandprints '' were placed in the cement in front of Grauman 's Chinese Theatre.
Originally, Warner Bros. set the Australian release date as 6 September 2007, nearly two months after the majority of other release dates. However, after complaints from the Australian community, including a petition garnering 2,000 signatures the date was pulled back to 11 July 2007. The release dates of the film in the UK and US were also moved back, both from 13 July, to 12 and 11 July, respectively.
Even though the book is the longest in the series (over 700 pages), the film is 138 minutes long (2 hours and 18 minutes), the second shortest in the entire film series.
The DVDs included additional scenes, a feature showing a day in the life of Natalia Tena, who played Nymphadora Tonks, an A&E documentary about the films and books, and a featurette on film editing in Phoenix. The DVD - ROM features a timeline and a sneak peek of the next film, Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince (2009). The HD DVD and Blu - ray contain additional features, such as the "in - movie experience '', a video commentary in which members of Dumbledore 's Army share their favourite moments from the production of the film, and "focus points '' featurettes on how certain scenes of the film were made. The HD DVD also includes an exclusive feature called "community screening '', which enables owners of the HD DVD to watch the film together over the Internet. Order of the Phoenix was the seventh best - selling DVD of 2007, with 10.14 million units. The high - definition DVDs had combined sales of 179,500 copies, with more units coming from the Blu - ray version.
There was also a third DVD with extras featuring a behind - the - scenes look at the sets of the movie. This can only be found in those purchased at Target stores (Future Shop in Canada) since it is a Target exclusive. The package included a one - time - only code that activated a digital copy of the film, which may be played on a computer with Windows Media Player. The digital copy, however, is not playable on Macintosh or Apple Inc. iPod devices. This issue was partially addressed, with the film being made available on the iTunes Store in the UK but not the US.
The film opened to a worldwide 5 - day opening of $333 million, the fourteenth - biggest opening of all time. In the United States, tickets for hundreds of midnight showings of the film, bought from online ticket - seller Fandango, were sold out, making up approximately 90 % of the site 's weekly ticket sales. In the US and Canada, midnight screenings (very early morning on 11 July) brought in $12 million from 2,311 midnight exhibitions making the showings "the most successful batch of midnight exhibitions ever ''. In one - night earnings, Phoenix is behind only At World 's End, which had debuted four hours earlier on its date. In studio documents leaked in July 2010, it was revealed the film lost Warner Bros. about $167 million.
In North America, Phoenix earned an additional $32.2 million on Wednesday, post-midnight showings, making it the biggest single - day Wednesday gross in box office history, with a total of $44.2 million from 4,285 theatres. That amount topped Sony Pictures ' Spider - Man 2, which held the record since 2004 with its $40.4 million take on a Wednesday, until this record was broken in 2009 by Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen with $62 million. It was also the fifth - biggest opening day for a movie in history, at the time, surpassing At World 's End 's $42.9 million. It earned $1.9 million from a record - breaking 91 IMAX screens, the highest opening day ever for any IMAX day of the week, beating Spider - Man 3 's $1.8 million. In the UK the result was similar. The film made £ 16.5 million during its opening 4 - day run, breaking the UK box office record for the biggest 4 - day opening weekend ever.
Phoenix 's gross is at $292 million in the US and Canada, making it the fifth - highest - grossing film of 2007 in these regions, and at £ 49.2 million, or $101.4 million in the UK Overseas, it has grossed $647.8 million, the seventh - highest grosser ever overseas, for a worldwide total of $939.8 million making it the second - highest - grossing film of the year closely behind Pirates of the Caribbean: At World 's End 's $963 million gross. It became the sixth - highest - grossing film in history at the time, the second - highest - grossing Potter film worldwide, and the second Potter film to break the $900 million mark. As of March 2018, it is the 44th - highest - grossing film of all time as well as the fourth - highest - grossing Potter film in the franchise behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows - Part 2 's $1.341 billion, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone 's $974 million, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows - Part 1 's $960 million and the highest - grossing 2007 film in Australia and the UK. IMAX Corporation and Warner Bros. Pictures announced that the film has made over $35 million on IMAX screens, worldwide, with an impressive per - screen average of $243,000 making it the highest - grossing live - action IMAX release in history. In South Africa the film opened at number 1 with a total of $944,082.00, being screened at 87 theatres.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 78 % based on 244 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "It 's not easy to take the longest Harry Potter book and streamline it into the shortest HP movie, but director David Yates does a bang up job of it, creating an Order of the Phoenix that 's entertaining and action - packed. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 71 out of 100, based on 37 critics, indicating "generally favourable reviews '' On CinemaScore, audiences gave the film an average grade of "A - '' on an A+ to F scale.
Charles Frederick of The Telegraph headlined his review "Potter film is the best and darkest yet ''. Colin Bertram of the New York Daily News gave the film four out of four stars, calling it the best Potter film yet and wrote that "die - hard Potter addicts will rejoice that Yates has distilled J.K. Rowling 's broad universe with care and reverence ''. Mark Adams of The Sunday Mirror, while giving the film four out of five stars, called it "a dark and delicious delight (and) a must - see movie ''. Rene Rodriguez of The Miami Herald gave the film three stars out of four and wrote that the film "is the first instalment in the soon - to - be series - of - seven that does n't seem like just another spinoff capitalising on the money - minting Harry Potter brand name. Instead, Phoenix feels like a real ' movie ' ''.
Imelda Staunton 's performance as Dolores Umbridge and Helena Bonham Carter 's as Bellatrix Lestrange were widely acclaimed; Staunton was described as the "perfect choice for the part '' and "one of the film 's greatest pleasures '', "coming close to stealing the show ''. The Daily Mail described Staunton 's portrayal of Umbridge as a "refreshing addition '', with the character herself described as "a cross between Margaret Thatcher and Hyacinth Bucket ''. Bonham Carter was said to be a "shining but underused talent ''. Variety praised Alan Rickman 's portrayal of Severus Snape, writing that he "may have outdone himself; seldom has an actor done more with less than he does here ''. Newcomer Evanna Lynch, playing Luna Lovegood, also received good word from a number of reviewers including the New York Times who declared her "spellbinding ''.
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone also lauded the three principal actors ' achievements, especially Radcliffe: "One of the joys of this film is watching Daniel Radcliffe grow so impressively into the role of Harry. He digs deep into the character and into Harry 's nightmares. It 's a sensational performance, touching all the bases from tender to fearful ''. Rolling Stone 's review also classified the film as better than the previous four instalments in the series, by losing the "candy - ass aspect '' of the first two and "raising the bar '' from the "heat and resonance '' of the third and fourth. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone called the film "the best of the series so far, (with) the laughs, the jitters and the juice to make even nonbelievers wild about Harry ''.
Leo Lewis of The Times (London) expressed disappointment that the three main actors were not able to fully advance the emotional sides of their respective characters, weakening the film. The San Francisco Chronicle complained about a "lousy '' storyline, alleging that the first twenty minutes of the film, when Harry is put on trial for performing magic outside of school and threatened with expulsion, but is cleared of all charges, did not advance the plot. Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter wrote that Phoenix is "quite possibly the least enjoyable of the (series) so far '', and that despite "several eye - catching moments '', "the magic -- movie magic, that is -- is mostly missing ''. The review also criticised the under use of the "cream of British acting '', noting the brief appearances of Helena Bonham Carter, Maggie Smith, Emma Thompson, David Thewlis, Richard Griffiths, and Julie Walters.
Before it was released, Order of the Phoenix was nominated in a new category at the 2007 MTV Movie Awards, Best Summer Movie You Have n't Seen Yet. On 26 August 2007, the film won the award for Choice Summer Movie -- Drama / Action Adventure at the Teen Choice Awards.
The film was also nominated for several awards at the 2007 Scream Awards presented by Spike TV, in the categories of The Ultimate Scream, Best Fantasy Movie, and Best Sequel. Daniel Radcliffe was nominated in the Fantasy Hero categories, respectively. The film won for Best Sequel and Ralph Fiennes won for "Most Vile Villain ''. The film picked up three awards at the inaugural ITV National Movie Awards, taking Best Family Film, Best Actor for Radcliffe and Best Actress for Emma Watson. The film was one of ten nominees for a 2007 Hollywood Movie of the Year. It was also nominated for Best Live Action Family Film at the Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards and won the 2007 People 's Choice Award for "Favorite Movie Drama ''. Having been nominated for six awards at the 13th Empire Awards, organised by Empire, including Best Film, David Yates won Best Director. Yates later received the BAFTA Britannia Award for Artistic Excellence in Directing for his four Harry Potter films, which includes Order of the Phoenix.
Nicholas Hooper received a nomination for a World Soundtrack Discovery Award for his score to the film. Imelda Staunton was nominated in the "British Actress in a Supporting Role '' category at the London Film Critics Circle Awards. At the 2008 BAFTA Awards, the film was nominated for "Best Production Design '' and "Best Special Visual Effects ''. Order of the Phoenix was also nominated for the awards from the Art Directors Guild and Costume Designers Guild, and was awarded for "Outstanding Special Effects in a Motion Picture '' by the Visual Effects Society out of six nominations. The British Academy Children 's Awards (BAFTA) nominated Order of the Phoenix for Best Feature Film in 2007 and the Hugo Awards nominated the film for Best Dramatic Presentation (Long Form) in 2008.
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state of the world 2010 transforming cultures from consumerism to sustainability | State of the world 2010: Transforming Cultures: from consumerism to sustainability - wikipedia
State of the World (book series) 2010: Transforming Cultures: From Consumerism to Sustainability is a report and project that was conceived and directed by Erik Assadourian, a senior fellow at Worldwatch, and published by the Worldwatch Institute that analyzes the consumer cultural paradigm. It includes 26 articles from 60 eminent researchers and experts on consumerism, sustainability and cultural change, and provides essential facts and case studies on how societies can transition from consumerism to sustainability. The report has received positive reviews from several esteemed academics, including Bill McKibben, Tim Jackson, Gus Speth, and Muhammad Yunus. It has also been translated in 11 different languages and been modified for a youth audience.
In the report, Assadourian affirms that "consumer cultures will need to change for the human species to truly thrive '' and that engaging in ethical consumerism without challenging larger societal structures will not bring about true sustainability. Authors of the report describe how to harness the world 's leading institutions -- education, the media, business, governments, traditions, and social movements -- to reorient cultures towards sustainability.
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when was the first time ever i saw your face written | The First time Ever I Saw Your Face - wikipedia
"The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face '' is a 1957 folk song written by British political singer / songwriter Ewan MacColl for Peggy Seeger, who later became his wife. At the time, the couple were lovers, although MacColl was still married to Joan Littlewood. Seeger sang the song when the duo performed in folk clubs around Britain. During the 1960s, it was recorded by various folk singers and became a major international hit for Roberta Flack in 1972, winning Grammy Awards for Record of the Year and Song of the Year. Billboard ranked it as the no. 1 Hot 100 single of the year for 1972.
There are two differing accounts of the origin of the song. MacColl said that he wrote the song for Seeger after she asked him to pen a song for a play she was in. He wrote the song and taught it to Seeger over the telephone. Seeger said that MacColl, with whom she had begun an affair in 1957, used to send her tapes to listen to whilst they were apart and that the song was on one of them.
The song entered the pop mainstream when it was released by the Kingston Trio on their 1962 hit album New Frontier and in subsequent years by other pop folk groups such as Peter, Paul and Mary, The Brothers Four, and the Chad Mitchell Trio, and by Gordon Lightfoot on his debut album Lightfoot! (1966).
MacColl made no secret of the fact that he disliked all of the cover versions of the song. His daughter - in - law wrote: "He hated all of them. He had a special section in his record collection for them, entitled ' The Chamber of Horrors '. He said that the Elvis version was like Romeo at the bottom of the Post Office Tower singing up to Juliet. And the other versions, he thought, were travesties: bludgeoning, histrionic, and lacking in grace. ''
The song was popularised by Roberta Flack in 1972 in a version that became a breakout hit for the singer. The song first appeared on Flack 's 1969 album First Take. Her rendition was much slower than the original, as an early solo recording by Seeger ran two and a half minutes long whereas Flack 's is more than twice that length.
Flack 's slower and more sensual version was used by Clint Eastwood in his 1971 directorial film debut, Play Misty for Me, during a lovemaking scene. With the new exposure, Atlantic Records cut the song down to four minutes and released it to radio. It became a very successful single in the United States where it reached No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 and easy listening charts in April 1972 for six week runs on each list. It reached number 14 on the UK Singles Chart. In Canada, it was No. 1 for three weeks in the RPM magazine charts.
In 2014, two films featured the song: Flack 's version was heard twice in the superhero film X-Men: Days of Future Past, set largely in 1973, while a "cover '' of it was performed by one of the protagonists in The Inbetweeners 2 for comic effect.
In 2015, Flack 's version was used as the outro in episode 88 of the television series Mad Men.
In 2016, Flack 's version was featured in the finale episode of the HBO series The Night Of.
In 2016, Flack 's version was played in the background of Episode 3, in the FX Cable TV Miniseries The People v. O.J. Simpson: American Crime Story.
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what was the first movie to be shown at a drive-in theater | Drive - in theater - wikipedia
A drive - in theater or drive - in cinema is a form of cinema structure consisting of a large outdoor movie screen, a projection booth, a concession stand and a large parking area for automobiles. Within this enclosed area, customers can view movies from the privacy and comfort of their cars. Some drive - ins have small playgrounds for children and a few picnic tables or benches.
The screen can be as simple as a wall that is painted white, or it can be a steel truss structure with a complex finish. Originally, a movie 's sound was provided by speakers on the screen and later by an individual speaker hung from the window of each car, which would be attached by a wire. This system was superseded by the more economical and less damage - prone method of broadcasting the soundtrack at a low output power on AM or FM radio to be picked up by a car radio. This method also allows the soundtrack to be picked up in stereo by the audience on an often high - fidelity stereo installed in the car instead of through a simple speaker.
A partial drive - in theater -- Theatre de Guadalupe -- was opened in Las Cruces, New Mexico, on April 23, 1915:
Seven hundred people may be comfortably seated in the auditorium. Automobile entrances and places for 40 or more cars within the theater grounds and in - line position to see the pictures and witness all performances on the stage is a feature of the place that will please car owners.
The first movie shown by the Theatre de Guadalupe was Bags of Gold, produced by Siegmund Lubin. Theatre de Guadalupe soon was renamed De Lux Theater before closing in July 1916.
In 1921, a drive - in was opened by Claude V. Caver in Comanche, Texas. Caver obtained a permit from the city to project films downtown. With cars parked bumper - to - bumper, patrons witnessed the screening of silent films from their vehicles. In the 1920s, "outdoor movies '' became a popular summer entertainment, but relatively few "drive - in '' experiments were made due to logistical difficulties.
The drive - in theater was patented in Camden, New Jersey by chemical company magnate Richard M. Hollingshead, Jr., whose family owned and operated the R.M. Hollingshead Corporation chemical plant in Camden. In 1932, Hollingshead conducted outdoor theater tests in his driveway at 212 Thomas Avenue in Riverton. After nailing a screen to trees in his backyard, he set a 1928 Kodak projector on the hood of his car and put a radio behind the screen, testing different sound levels with his car windows down and up. Blocks under vehicles in the driveway enabled him to determine the size and spacing of ramps so all automobiles could have a clear view of the screen. Hollingshead applied for a patent of his invention on August 6, 1932, and he was given U.S. Patent 1,909,537 on May 16, 1933.
Hollingshead 's drive - in opened in New Jersey June 6, 1933, on Admiral Wilson Boulevard in Pennsauken Township, a short distance from Cooper River Park. Rosemont Avenue now runs through the prior location. It offered 400 slots and a 40 by 50 ft (12 by 15 m) screen. He advertised his drive - in theater with the slogan, "The whole family is welcome, regardless of how noisy the children are. '' The first film shown was the Adolphe Menjou film Wife Beware. Failing to make a profit, Hollingshead sold the theater after three years to a Union, New Jersey theater owner who moved the infrastructure to that city, but the concept caught on nationwide.
The April 15, 1934, opening of Shankweiler 's Auto Park in Orefield, Pennsylvania, was followed by Galveston 's Drive - In Short Reel Theater (July 5, 1934), the Pico Drive - In Theater at Pico and Westwood boulevards in Los Angeles (September 9, 1934) and the Weymouth Drive - In Theatre in Weymouth, Massachusetts (May 6, 1936). In 1937, three more opened in Ohio, Massachusetts and Rhode Island, with another 12 during 1938 and 1939 in California, Florida, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, New York, Texas and Virginia.
Early drive - in theaters had to deal with sound issues. The original Hollingshead drive - in had speakers installed on the tower itself which caused a sound delay affecting patrons at the rear of the drive - in 's field. In 1935, the Pico Drive - in Theater attempted to solve this problem by having a row of speakers in front of the cars. In 1941, RCA introduced in - car speakers with individual volume controls which solved the noise pollution issue and provided satisfactory sound to drive - in patrons. Just prior to World War II, 9 of the 15 drive - in movie theaters open in the United States were operated by Philip Smith who promoted a family friendly environment by allowing children to enter free and built playgrounds.
The drive - in 's peak popularity came in the late 1950s and early 1960s, particularly in rural areas, with some 4,000 drive - ins spread across the United States. Among its advantages was the fact that a family with a baby could take care of their child while watching a movie, while teenagers with access to autos found drive - ins ideal for dates. Revenue is more limited than regular theaters since showings can only begin at twilight. There were abortive attempts to create suitable conditions for daylight viewing such as large tent structures, but nothing viable was developed.
During the 1950s, the greater privacy afforded to patrons gave drive - ins a reputation as immoral, and they were labeled "passion pits '' in the media. Beginning in the 1970s, many drive - ins changed from family fare to exploitation films, as a way to offset declining patronage and revenue. Also, during the 1970s, some drive - ins began to show pornographic movies in less family - centered time slots to bring in extra income. This allowed censored materials to be viewed by a wide audience, some for whom viewing was still illegal in many states, and it was reliant upon the whims of local ordinances controlling such material. It also required a relatively remote location distant from populated areas such as towns and cities.
During their height, some drive - ins used attention - grabbing gimmicks to boost attendance. They ranged from drawings for prizes and free admission, small airplane runways, unusual attractions such as a small petting zoo or cage of monkeys, personal appearances by actors to open their movies, or musical groups to play before the show. Some drive - ins held Sunday religious services, or charged a flat price per car on slow nights like Wednesdays or Sundays. On "buck '' nights during the 1950s and 1960s, the admission price was one dollar per car.
One of the largest drive - in theaters was the Johnny All - Weather Drive - In in Copiague, New York. Covering over 29 acres, it could park 2,500 vehicles. It had a full - service restaurant with seating on the roof, and a trolley system to take children and adults to a playground and a large indoor theater for bad weather or for those who wanted to watch in air - conditioned comfort.
The shift in content of drive - ins was less of a problem than competition from home entertainment, from color television to VCRs and video rentals. This, along with the 1970s energy crisis led to a sharp decline of attendance as well to the widespread adoption of daylight saving time (which made the shows start an hour later), making it harder for drive - ins to operate successfully. Also, the 1980s real estate interest rate hikes made the large property areas increasingly expensive, and thus far too valuable for businesses such as drive - ins, which in many cases were summer - only. Drive - ins were also subject to the whim of nature as inclement weather often caused poor attendance or cancellations. Less than two hundred drive - ins were in operation in the U.S. and Canada by the late 1980s. Since the 1990s they have lapsed into a quasi-novelty status with the remaining handful catering to a generally nostalgic audience, with many drive - ins continuing to successfully operate in some areas, mostly on the West Coast. Newer theaters opened during this time, as well as a handful of them reopened. By 2013, drive - ins comprised only 1.5 percent of movie screens in the United States, with 389 theaters in operation. At the industry 's height, about 25 percent of the nation 's movie screens had been in a drive - in.
Many drive - in movie sites remain, but re-purposed as storage or flea market sites, often after residential housing or other higher value uses came to the lightly populated or unpopulated areas where the drive - ins were located. The largest drive - in theater in the world, the Fort Lauderdale Swap Shop, doubles as the world 's largest daily flea market. Former drive - in properties in Michigan, for example, have become industrial parks, shopping centers, indoor theaters, and even churches (as with the Former Woodland Drive - In in Grand Rapids, MI). In Philadelphia, the South City Drive In became the location of the original Spectrum in the late 1960s, with a small portion of its old property line extending into what would become the (now demolished) Veterans Stadium complex. Another example of a drive in - turned - flea market is Spotlight 88 in North Sewickley Township, Beaver County, Pennsylvania, which ended business as a drive - in after an F3 tornado destroyed much of the property on May 31, 1985. As a joke after the tornado hit, the owners put up in the "now - showing '' sign Gone with the Wind. It was most likely copied from a Taylor, Michigan Drive in called Ecorse Drive - In. On July 16, 1980, a freak derecho storm with 150 mph straight line winds swept the Drive - In away leaving only the "now - showing '' sign with the letters "Now Playing Gone with the Wind ''. They rebuilt the screen, but it never recovered; by 1989, it was sold and now is a Kroger grocery store.
The resurgence of the industry of the late 1990s led to the inception of the "do - it - yourself '' drive - in beginning in 2001, which utilized contemporary tools such as LCD projectors and micro-radio transmitters. The first was the Liberation Drive - In in Oakland, California, which sought to reclaim under - utilized urban spaces such as vacant parking lots in the downtown area. The following years have seen the rise of the "guerrilla drive - in '' movement, in which groups of dedicated individuals orchestrate similar outdoor film and video screenings. Showings are often organized online, and participants meet at specified locations to watch films projected on bridge pillars or warehouses. The content featured at these screenings has frequently been independent or experimental films, cult movies, or otherwise alternative programming. The best known "guerrilla '' drive - ins include the Santa Cruz Guerilla Drive - In in Santa Cruz, California, North Bay Mobile Drive - In in Novato, California, MobMov in San Francisco, California and Hollywood, and most recently Guerilla Drive - In Victoria in Victoria, British Columbia.
Faced with the closure of Hull 's Drive In in Lexington, Virginia in 1999, the non-profit group Hull 's Angels formed to raise funds, buy the property and operate the theater as a non-profit venture specializing in family - friendly films. Hull 's continues to be the nation 's only non-profit drive in.
As of March 2014, a figure of 348 drive - ins has been published for the United States. In the Fall of 2014, the burger chain Johnny Rockets announced that it would team up with USA Drive - Ins to open 200 drive - ins by 2018 serving Johnny Rocket 's food at the concession stands.
The ongoing conversion of the film distribution network to be exclusively digital distribution is also putting additional pressure on drive - in theaters. Most small drive - ins lack the finances (beginning at $70,000 per screen) needed to convert to digital projection. The lack of multiple screens with many daily showings means the low volume of ticket sales will make it hard for many drive - ins to justify the cost of installing digital projection.
Conversion of the projection booth to digital is more complex for drive - in theaters. The projector needs a more powerful bulb due to an increased screen size and light pollution. In addition, digital projection equipment may require an Internet connection, and the booth must be retrofitted with special glass, more vents and stronger air conditioning as well as heat in northern climates.
With installation of Jumbotrons or similar digital display equipment in drive - in theatres, restrictions of the projector booth can be avoided; that is, no projector is needed.
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who has the direct power to pass legislation | Royal assent - wikipedia
Royal assent or sanction is the method by which a country 's monarch (possibly through a delegated official) formally approves an act of that nation 's parliament. In certain nations, such assent makes the act law (promulgation) while in other nations assent is distinct from promulgation. In the vast majority of contemporary monarchies, this act is considered to be little more than a formality; even in those nations which still permit their monarchs to withhold royal assent (such as the United Kingdom, Norway, and Liechtenstein), the monarch almost never does so, save in a dire political emergency or upon the advice of their government. While the power to withhold royal assent was once exercised often in European monarchies, it is exceedingly rare in the modern, democratic political atmosphere that has developed there since the 18th century.
Royal assent is sometimes associated with elaborate ceremonies. In the United Kingdom, for instance, the sovereign may appear personally in the House of Lords or may appoint Lords Commissioners, who announce that royal assent has been granted at a ceremony held at the Palace of Westminster for this purpose. However, royal assent is usually granted less ceremonially by letters patent. In other nations, such as Australia, the governor - general merely signs the bill. In Canada, the governor general may give assent either in person at a ceremony held in the Senate or by a written declaration notifying parliament of his or her agreement to the bill.
Before the Royal Assent by Commission Act of 1541 became law, assent was always required to be given by the sovereign in person before Parliament.
The last time royal assent was given by the sovereign in person was in the reign of Queen Victoria at a prorogation on 12 August 1854.
The Act was repealed and replaced by the Royal Assent Act of 1967. However section 1 (2) of that Act does not prevent the sovereign from declaring assent in person if he or she so desires.
Royal assent is the final step required for a parliamentary bill to become law. Once a bill is presented to the sovereign or the sovereign 's representative, he or she has the following formal options:
Under modern constitutional conventions, the sovereign acts on the advice of his or her ministers. Since these ministers most often enjoy the support of parliament and obtain the passage of bills, it is improbable that they would advise the sovereign to withhold assent. Hence, in modern practice, royal assent is always granted; a refusal to do so would be appropriate only in an emergency requiring the use of the monarch 's reserve powers.
The sovereign does not have the power to withhold assent from a bill against the advice of ministers. The last bill that was refused assent by the sovereign (on the advice of ministers) was the Scottish Militia Bill during Queen Anne 's reign in 1708.
Originally, legislative power was exercised by the sovereign acting on the advice of the Curia Regis, or Royal Council, in which important magnates and clerics participated and which evolved into parliament. The so - called Model Parliament included among its members bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and two knights from each shire and two burgesses from each borough. In 1265, the Earl of Leicester irregularly called a full parliament without royal authorisation. The body eventually came to be divided into two branches: bishops, abbots, earls, and barons formed the House of Lords, while the shire and borough representatives formed the House of Commons. The King would seek the advice and consent of both houses before making any law. During Henry VI 's reign, it became regular practice for the two houses to originate legislation in the form of bills, which would not become law unless the sovereign 's assent was obtained, as the sovereign was, and still remains, the enactor of laws. Hence, all Acts include the clause "Be it enacted by the Queen 's (King 's) most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows... ''. The Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 provide a second potential preamble if the House of Lords were to be excluded from the process.
The power of parliament to pass bills was often thwarted by monarchs. Charles I dissolved parliament in 1629, after it passed motions critical of and bills seeking to restrict his arbitrary exercise of power. During the eleven years of personal rule that followed, Charles performed legally dubious actions, such as raising taxes without parliament 's approval. After the English Civil War, it was accepted that parliament should be summoned to meet regularly, but it was still commonplace for monarchs to refuse royal assent to bills. In 1678, Charles II withheld his assent from a bill "for preserving the Peace of the Kingdom by raising the Militia, and continuing them in Duty for Two and Forty Days, '' suggesting that he, not parliament, should control the militia. The last Stuart monarch, Anne, similarly withheld on 11 March 1708, on the advice of her ministers, her assent to a bill for the settling of Militia in Scotland. No monarch has since withheld royal assent on a bill passed by the British parliament.
During the rule of the succeeding Hanoverian dynasty, power was gradually exercised more by parliament and the government. The first Hanoverian monarch, George I, relied on his ministers to a greater extent than had previous monarchs. Later Hanoverian monarchs attempted to restore royal control over legislation: George III and George IV both openly opposed Catholic Emancipation and asserted that to grant assent to a Catholic emancipation bill would violate the Coronation Oath, which required the sovereign to preserve and protect the established Church of England from Papal domination, and would grant rights to individuals who were in league with a foreign power which did not recognise their legitimacy. However, George IV reluctantly granted his assent upon the advice of his ministers. Thus, as the concept of ministerial responsibility has evolved, the power to withhold royal assent has fallen into disuse, both in the United Kingdom and in the other Commonwealth realms.
In 1914, George V did take legal advice on withholding royal assent from the Government of Ireland Bill, a highly contentious piece of legislation that the Liberal government intended to push through parliament by means of the Parliament Act 1911. The King decided that he should not withhold assent without "convincing evidence that it would avert a national disaster, or at least have a tranquillising effect on the distracting conditions of the time ''.
Royal assent is the final stage in the legislative process for acts of the Scottish parliament. The process is governed by sections 28, 32, and 33 of the Scotland Act 1998. After a bill has been passed, the Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament submits it to the monarch for royal assent after a four - week period, during which the Advocate General for Scotland, the Lord Advocate, the Attorney General or the Secretary of State for Scotland may refer the bill to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom (prior to 1 October 2009, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council) for review of its legality. Royal assent is signified by letters patent under the Great Seal of Scotland in the following form which is set out in The Scottish Parliament (Letters Patent and Proclamations) Order 1999 (SI 1999 / 737) and of which notice is published in the London, Edinburgh, and Belfast Gazettes:
ELIZABETH THE SECOND by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Our other Realms and Territories Queen Head of the Commonwealth Defender of the Faith To Our trusty and well beloved the members of the Scottish Parliament GREETING:
For as much as various Bills have been passed by the Scottish Parliament and have been submitted to Us for Our Royal Assent by the Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament in accordance with the Scotland Act 1998 the short Titles of which Bills are set forth in the Schedule hereto but those Bills by virtue of the Scotland Act 1998 do not become Acts of the Scottish Parliament nor have effect in the Law without Our Royal Assent signified by Letters Patent under Our Scottish Seal (that is Our Seal appointed by the Treaty of Union to be kept and used in Scotland in place of the Great Seal of Scotland) signed with Our own hand and recorded in the Register of the Great Seal We have therefore caused these Our Letters Patent to be made and have signed them and by them do give Our Royal Assent to those Bills COMMANDING ALSO the Keeper of Our Scottish Seal to seal these Our Letters with that Seal.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF we have caused these Our Letters to be made Patent.
WITNESS Ourself at... the... day of... in the... year of Our Reign. By The Queen Herself Signed with Her Own Hand.
Measures, which were the means by which the National Assembly for Wales passed legislation between 2006 and 2011, were assented to by the Queen by means of an Order in Council. Section 102 of the Government of Wales Act 2006 required the Clerk to the Assembly to present measures passed by the assembly after a four - week period during which the Counsel General for Wales or the Attorney General could refer the proposed measure to the Supreme Court for a decision as to whether the measure was within the assembly 's legislative competence.
Following the referendum held in March 2011, in which the majority vote for the assembly 's law - making powers to be extended, measures were replaced by Acts of the Assembly. Similarly to Acts of the Scottish parliament, after a four - week waiting period royal assent to acts of the assembly will be given by means of letters patent using the following wording:
ELIZABETH THE SECOND by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Our other Realms and Territories Queen Head of the Commonwealth Defender of the Faith To Our Trusty and well beloved the members of the National Assembly for Wales GREETING:
FORASMUCH as one or more Bills have been passed by the National Assembly for Wales and have been submitted to Us for Our Royal Assent by the Clerk of the National Assembly for Wales in accordance with the Government of Wales Act 2006 the short Titles of which Bills are set forth in the Schedule hereto but those Bills by virtue of the Government of Wales Act 2006 do not become Acts of the National Assembly for Wales nor have effect in the Law without Our Royal Assent signified by Letters Patent under Our Welsh Seal signed with Our own hand We have therefore caused these Our Letters Patent to be made and have signed them and by them do give Our Royal Assent to those Bills which shall be taken and accepted as good and perfect Acts of the Assembly and be put in due execution accordingly COMMANDING ALSO the Keeper of Our Welsh Seal to seal these Our Letters with that Seal.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF we have caused these Our Letters to be made Patent.
WITNESS Ourself at... the... day of... in the... year of Our Reign. By The Queen Herself Signed with Her Own Hand.
The letters patent may also be made in Welsh.
Under section 14 of the Northern Ireland Act 1998, a bill which has been approved by the Northern Ireland Assembly is presented to the Queen by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland for royal assent after a four - week waiting period during which the Attorney General for Northern Ireland may refer the bill to the Supreme Court. Assent is given by means of letters patent in the following form set out in the Northern Ireland (Royal Assent to Bills) Order 1999.
ELIZABETH THE SECOND by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Our other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith, To the Members of the Northern Ireland Assembly GREETING:
WHEREAS you the Members of the Northern Ireland Assembly have passed a Bill the short title of which is set out in the Schedule hereto but the said Bill does not become an Act of the Northern Ireland Assembly without Our Royal Assent;
AND WHEREAS pursuant to the Northern Ireland Act 1998 the said Bill has been submitted to Us by (insert name of Secretary of State) one of Our Principal Secretaries of State for Our Royal Assent;
We have therefore caused these Our Letters Patent to be made and have signed them and by them We give Our Royal Assent to the said Bill COMMANDING (insert name of Clerk of the Crown for Northern Ireland) the Clerk of the Crown for Northern Ireland to seal these Our Letters with the Great Seal of Northern Ireland AND ALSO COMMANDING that these Our Letters be notified to the Presiding Officer of the Northern Ireland Assembly;
AND FINALLY WE declare that, in accordance with the Northern Ireland Act 1998, at the beginning of the day on which Our Royal Assent has been notified as aforesaid the said Bill shall become an Act of the Northern Ireland Assembly.
In Witness whereof We have caused these Our Letters to be made Patent
WITNESS Ourself at the day of in the year of Our Reign By the Queen Herself Signed with Her Own Hand.
Between 1922 and 1972, bills passed by the Parliament of Northern Ireland were passed to the Governor of Northern Ireland for royal assent under the Government of Ireland Act of 1920, replacing the office of Lord Lieutenant.
Under the Church of England Assembly (Powers) Act 1919 a measure of the General Synod of the Church of England becomes law once it has received royal assent in the same way as an Act of Parliament.
The lieutenant governors of the Bailiwick of Jersey and the Bailiwick and Islands of Guernsey do not by and under their own authority grant assent, nor, as proxies, as the British crown 's representative, deliver royal assent, to legislation emulating from the respective legislatures of these islands.
The States of Jersey Law 2005 abolishes the power of the lieutenant governor to directly impose a formal veto to a resolution of the States of Jersey.
The monarch of the United Kingdom, sitting in (together with members of the Cabinet of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of the day, and who are also members of) the Privy Council, grants the equivalent of the royal assent (under the formula, or other words to the effect: Her Majesty, having taken the report into consideration, was pleased, by and with the advice of Her Privy Council, to approve and ratify this Act (a copy of which is annexed to this Order) and to order that it, together with this Order, shall be entered on the Register of the Island of Jersey (or of the Islands of Guernsey) and observed accordingly. Her Majesty 's Officers in the Island (or Islands), and all other whom it may concern, are therefore to take notice of Her Majesty 's Order and to proceed accordingly) to Jersey and Guernsey legislation.
The equivalent of the royal assent is formally granted or formally refused on the formal advice of the Committee of Council for the Affairs of Jersey and Guernsey in pursuance of Queen Elizabeth II 's order - in - council of 22 February 1952. A recent example when the equivalent of the royal assent was refused was in 2007, concerning reforms to the constitution of the Chief Pleas of Sark. (A revised version of the proposed reforms was subsequently given the equivalent of the royal assent.)
In 2011, campaigners against a law that sought to reduce the number of senators in the states of Jersey petitioned the Privy Council to advise the Queen to refuse the equivalent of the royal assent. An Order in Council of 13 July 2011 established new rules for the consideration of petitions against the granting of the equivalent of the royal assent.
Legislation in Jersey and Guernsey entitled "Laws '' would seem to require the formal equivalent of the royal assent from the British monarch sitting in the Privy Council; other legislation such as regulations and orders (in Jersey) and ordinances (in Guernsey) would not seem to require such formal equivalent of the royal assent.
There is a proposal that the Lieutenant Governor of Guernsey should be granted the delegated power of granting the equivalent of the royal assent, formally from the monarch and the Privy Council, to enable laws to be granted formal approval within six weeks if no objection was raised, rather than having to formally refer every law for formal consideration in London and then formal approval also (usually) in London. "At present there is a situation where Channel Island law - making depends, ultimately, on the UK government of the day, unelected (sic) by the islands. ''
Special procedures apply to legislation passed by the Tynwald of the Isle of Man. Before the lordship of the Island was purchased by the British Crown in 1765 (the Revestment), the assent of the Lord of Mann to a bill was signified by letter to the governor. After 1765, the equivalent of the royal assent was at first signified by the letter from the Secretary of State to the governor; but, during the British Regency, the practice began of granting the equivalent of the royal assent to Manx legislation by Orders in Council, which continues to this day, though limited to exceptional cases since 1981.
In 1981, an Order in Council delegated to the lieutenant governor the power to grant royal assent to bills passed by Tynwald. The lieutenant governor must however refer any bill impacting on reserved powers (defence, foreign relations, nationality law, the relationship between the island and the United Kingdom and any matters relating to the monarch) to the British government for advice, on which he is required to act.
The above procedures are not sufficient to cause an Act of Tynwald to come into full force of law. By ancient custom, an Act did not come into force until it had been promulgated at an open - air sitting of the Tynwald, historically held on Tynwald Hill at St John 's on St John 's Day (24 June), but, since the adoption of the Gregorian calendar in 1753, on 5 July (or on the following Monday if 5 July is a Saturday or Sunday). Promulgation originally consisted of the reading of the Act in English and Manx; but after 1865 the reading of the title of the Act and a summary of each section was sufficient. This was reduced in 1895 to the titles and a memorandum of the object and purport of the Act, and since 1988 only the short title and a summary of the long title have been read.
An emergency procedure enabling an Act to come into force at the same moment as the receipt of the equivalent of the royal assent, when it is being announced at an ordinary sitting of the Tynwald, subject to its being promulgated within 12 months, was introduced in 1916; since 1988, this has been the normal procedure, but an Act ceases to have effect unless promulgated within 18 months after the equivalent of the royal assent is announced in the Tynwald.
Since 1993, the Sodor and Man Diocesan Synod of the Church of England within the Province of York has had power to enact measures making provision "with respect to any matter concerning the Church of England in the Island ''. If approved by the Tynwald, a measure "shall have the force and effect of an Act of Tynwald upon the Royal Assent thereto being announced to the Tynwald ''. Between 1979 and 1993, the Synod had similar powers, but limited to the extension to the Isle of Man of measures of the General Synod. Before 1994, the equivalent of the royal assent was granted by Order in Council, as for a bill, but the power to grant the equivalent of the royal assent to measures has now been delegated to the lieutenant governor. A Measure does not require promulgation.
The governors (or the acting governors) of British overseas territories grant, or withhold or formally refuse the grant of, of their own Governor 's assent, under their own official personal authority as governors, for "colonial '' or local legislation. Although the governor 's assent is also normally granted, this is altogether different in nature to the royal assent.
In Commonwealth realms other than the UK, royal assent is granted or withheld either by the realm 's sovereign or, more frequently, by the representative of the sovereign, the governor - general. In federated realms, assent in each state, province, or territory is granted or withheld by the representatives of the sovereign. In Australia, this is the governors of the states, administrators of the territories, or the governor - general in the Australian Capital Territory. For Canada, this is the lieutenant governors of the provinces. A lieutenant governor may defer assent to the governor general, and the governor general may defer assent to federal bills to the sovereign.
If the Governor General of Canada is unable to give assent, it can be done by either the Deputy of the Governor General of Canada -- the Chief Justice of Canada -- or another justice of the Supreme Court of Canada. It is not actually necessary for the governor general to sign a bill passed by a legislature, the signature being merely an attestation. In each case, the parliament must be apprised of the granting of assent before the bill is considered to have become law. Two methods are available: the sovereign 's representatives may grant assent in the presence of both houses of parliament; alternatively, each house may be notified separately, usually by the speaker of that house. However, though both houses must be notified on the same day, notice to the House of Commons while it is not in session may be given by way of publishing a special issue of the Journals of the House of Commons, whereas the Senate must be sitting and the governor general 's letter read aloud by the speaker.
At both state and federal realms in Australia, assent is used as the means of enforcing a referendum that is required. This is done by providing that it will not be lawful to even submit the law for viceregal assent unless and until it has been approved by the required percentage of the voting populace at a referendum.
While royal assent has not been withheld in the United Kingdom since 1708, it has often been withheld in British colonies and former colonies by governors acting on royal instructions. In the United States Declaration of Independence, colonists complained that George III "has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good (and) has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. '' Even after colonies such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, and Newfoundland were granted responsible government, the British government continued to sometimes advise governors - general on the granting of assent; assent was also occasionally reserved to allow the British government to examine a bill before advising the governor - general.
Since the Balfour Declaration of 1926 and the Statute of Westminster 1931, all the Commonwealth realms have been sovereign kingdoms, the monarch and governors - general acting solely on the advice of the local ministers, who generally maintain the support of the legislature and are the ones who secure the passage of bills. They therefore are unlikely to advise the sovereign, or his or her representative, to withhold assent. The power to withhold the royal assent was exercised by Alberta 's lieutenant governor, John C. Bowen, in 1937, in respect of three bills passed in the legislature dominated by William Aberhart 's Social Credit party. Two bills sought to put banks under the authority of the province, thereby interfering with the federal government 's powers. The third, the Accurate News and Information Bill, purported to force newspapers to print government rebuttals to stories to which the provincial cabinet objected. The unconstitutionality of all three bills was later confirmed by the Supreme Court of Canada and by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.
In Australia, a technical issue arose with the royal assent in both 1976 and 2001. In 1976, a bill originating in the House of Representatives was mistakenly submitted to the Governor - General and assented to. However, it was later discovered that it had not been passed by the Senate. The error arose because two bills of the same title had originated from the House. The Governor - General revoked the first assent, before assenting to the bill which had actually passed the Senate and the House. The same procedure was followed to correct a similar error which arose in 2001.
In the United Kingdom, a bill is presented for royal assent after it has passed all the required stages in both the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Under the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949, the House of Commons may, under certain circumstances, direct that a bill be presented for assent despite lack of passage by the House of Lords. Officially, assent is granted by the sovereign or by Lords Commissioners authorised to act by letters patent. It may be granted in parliament or outside parliament; in the latter case, each house must be separately notified before the bill takes effect.
The Clerk of the Parliaments, an official of the House of Lords, traditionally states a formula in Anglo - Norman Law French, indicating the sovereign 's decision. The granting of royal assent to a supply bill is indicated with the words "La Reyne remercie ses bons sujets, accepte leur benevolence, et ainsi le veult '', translated as "The Queen thanks her good subjects, accepts their bounty, and wills it so. '' For other public or private bills, the formula is simply "La Reyne le veult '' ("the Queen wills it ''). For personal bills, the phrase is "Soit fait comme il est désiré '' ("let it be as it is desired ''). The appropriate formula for withholding assent is the euphemistic "La Reyne s'avisera '' ("the Queen will consider it ''). When the sovereign is male, Le Roy is substituted for La Reyne.
Before the reign of Henry VIII, the sovereign always granted his or her assent in person. The sovereign, wearing the Imperial State Crown, would be seated on the throne in the Lords chamber, surrounded by heralds and members of the royal court -- a scene that nowadays is repeated only at the annual State Opening of Parliament. The Commons, led by their speaker, would listen from the Bar of the Lords, just outside the chamber. The Clerk of the Parliaments presented the bills awaiting assent to the monarch, save that supply bills were traditionally brought up by the speaker. The Clerk of the Crown, standing on the sovereign 's right, then read aloud the titles of the bills (in earlier times, the entire text of the bills). The Clerk of the Parliaments, standing on the sovereign 's left, responded by stating the appropriate Norman French formula.
A new device for granting assent was created during the reign of King Henry VIII. In 1542, Henry sought to execute his fifth wife, Catherine Howard, whom he accused of committing adultery; the execution was to be authorised not after a trial but by a bill of attainder, to which he would have to personally assent after listening to the entire text. Henry decided that "the repetition of so grievous a Story and the recital of so infamous a crime '' in his presence "might reopen a Wound already closing in the Royal Bosom ''. Therefore, parliament inserted a clause into the Act of Attainder, providing that assent granted by Commissioners "is and ever was and ever shall be, as good '' as assent granted by the sovereign personally. The procedure was used only five times during the 16th century, but more often during the 17th and 18th centuries, especially when George III 's health began to deteriorate. Queen Victoria became the last monarch to personally grant assent in 1854.
When granting assent by commission, the sovereign authorises three or more (normally five) lords who are Privy Counsellors to declare assent in his or her name. The Lords Commissioners, as the monarch 's representatives are known, wear scarlet parliamentary robes and sit on a bench between the throne and the Woolsack. The Lords Reading Clerk reads the commission aloud; the senior commissioner then states, "My Lords, in obedience to Her Majesty 's Commands, and by virtue of the Commission which has been now read, We do declare and notify to you, the Lords Spiritual and Temporal and Commons in Parliament assembled, that Her Majesty has given Her Royal Assent to the several Acts in the Commission mentioned. ''
During the 1960s, the ceremony of assenting by commission was discontinued and is now only employed once a year, at the end of the annual parliamentary session. In 1960, the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod arrived to summon the House of Commons during a heated debate and several members protested against the disruption by refusing to attend the ceremony. The debacle was repeated in 1965; this time, when the Speaker left the chair to go to the House of Lords, some members continued to make speeches. As a result, the Royal Assent Act 1967 was passed, creating an additional form for the granting of royal assent. As the attorney - general explained, "there has been a good deal of resentment not only at the loss of Parliamentary time that has been involved but at the breaking of the thread of a possibly eloquent speech and the disruption of a debate that may be caused. '' The granting of assent by the monarch in person, or by commission, is still possible, but this third form is used on a day - to - day basis.
Under the Royal Assent Act 1967, royal assent can be granted by the sovereign in writing, by means of letters patent, that are presented to the presiding officer of each house of parliament. Then, the presiding officer makes a formal, but simple statement to the house, acquainting each house that royal assent has been granted to the acts mentioned. Thus, unlike the granting of royal assent by the monarch in person or by Royal Commissioners, the method created by the Royal Assent Act 1967 does not require both houses to meet jointly for the purpose of receiving the notice of royal assent. The standard text of the letters patent is set out in The Crown Office (Forms and Proclamations Rules) Order 1992, with minor amendments in 2000. In practice this remains the standard method, a fact that is belied by the wording of the letters patent for the appointment of the Royal Commissioners and by the wording of the letters patent for the granting of royal assent in writing under the 1967 Act ("... And forasmuch as We can not at this time be present in the Higher House of Our said Parliament being the accustomed place for giving Our Royal Assent... '').
When the act is assented to by the sovereign in person, or by empowered Royal Commissioners, royal assent is considered given at the moment when the assent is declared in the presence of both houses jointly assembled. When the procedure created by the Royal Assent Act 1967 is followed, assent is considered granted when the presiding officers of both houses, having received the letters patent from the king or queen signifying the assent, have notified their respective house of the grant of royal assent. Thus, if each presiding officer makes the announcement at a different time (for instance because one house is not sitting on a certain date), assent is regarded as effective when the second announcement is made. This is important because, under British Law, unless there is any provision to the contrary, an act takes effect on the date on which it receives royal assent and that date is not regarded as being the date when the letters patent are signed, or when they are delivered to the presiding officers of each house, but the date on which both houses have been formally acquainted of the assent.
Independently of the method used to signify royal assent, it is the responsibility of the Clerk of the Parliaments, once the assent has been duly notified to both houses, not only to endorse the act in the name of the monarch with the formal Norman French formula, but to certify that assent has been granted. The clerk signs one authentic copy of the bill and inserts the date (in English) on which the assent was notified to the two houses after the title of the act. When an act is published, the signature of the clerk is omitted, as is the Norman French formula, should the endorsement have been made in writing. However, the date on which the assent was notified is printed in brackets.
In Commonwealth realms, assent may be granted by the sovereign in person, by the governor - general in person, or by a deputy acting for the governor - general. In all of the realms, however, assent is more often granted or signified outside the legislature, with each house being notified separately.
In Australia, the formal ceremony of granting assent in parliament has not been regularly used since the early 20th century. Now, the bill is sent to the governor - general 's residence by the house in which it originated. The governor - general then signs the bill, sending messages to the president of the Senate and the speaker of the House of Representatives, who notify their respective houses of the governor - general 's action. A similar practice is followed in New Zealand, where the governor - general has not granted the Royal Assent in person in parliament since 1875.
In Canada, the traditional ceremony for granting assent in parliament was regularly used until the 21st century, long after it had been discontinued in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms. One result, conceived as part of a string of acts intended to demonstrate Canada 's status as an independent realm, was that King George VI personally assented to nine bills of the Canadian parliament during his 1939 tour of Canada -- 85 years after his great - grandmother, Queen Victoria, had last granted royal assent personally in the United Kingdom. Under the Royal Assent Act 2002, however, the alternative practice of granting assent in writing, with each house being notified separately (the Speaker of the Senate or a representative reads to the senators the letters from the governor general regarding the written declaration of Royal Assent), was brought into force. As the act also provides, royal assent is to be signified -- by the governor general, or, more often, by a deputy, usually a Justice of the Supreme Court, at least twice each calendar year: for the first appropriation measure and for at least one other act, usually the first non-appropriation measure passed. However, the act provides that a grant of royal assent is not rendered invalid by a failure to employ the traditional ceremony where required.
The Royal Assent ceremony takes place in the Senate, as the sovereign is traditionally barred from the House of Commons. On the day of the event, the Speaker of the Senate will read to the chamber a notice from the secretary to the governor general indicating when the viceroy or a deputy thereof will arrive. The Senate thereafter can not adjourn until after the ceremony. The speaker moves to sit beside the throne, the Mace Bearer, with mace in hand, stands adjacent to him or her, and the governor general enters to take the speaker 's chair. The Usher of the Black Rod is then commanded by the speaker to summon the members of parliament, who follow Black Rod back to the Senate, the Sergeant - at - Arms carrying the mace of the House of Commons. In the Senate, those from the commons stand behind the bar, while Black Rod proceeds to stand next to the governor general, who then nods his or her head to signify Royal Assent to the presented bills (which do not include appropriations bills). Once the list of bills is complete, the Clerk of the Senate states: "in Her Majesty 's name, His (or Her) Excellency the Governor General (or the deputy) doth assent to these bills. '' If there are any appropriation bills to receive Royal Assent, the Speaker of the House of Commons will read their titles and the Senate clerk repeats them to the governor general, who nods his or her head to communicate Royal Assent. When these bills have all been assented to, the Clerk of the Senate recites "in Her Majesty 's name, His (or Her) Excellency the Governor General (or the deputy) thanks her loyal subjects, accepts their benevolence and assents to these bills. '' The governor general or his or her deputy then depart parliament.
In some monarchies -- such as Belgium, Denmark, Japan, Malaysia, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, and Thailand -- promulgation is required as well as royal assent. In other monarchies -- such as Sweden -- the government officially promulgates laws. In both cases, however, the process of royal assent is usually a formality, whether by constitutional convention or by an explicit provision of the constitution.
According to Article 109 of the constitution: "The King sanctions and promulgates laws ''. In Belgium, the royal assent is called sanction royale / koninklijke bekrachtiging (Royal Sanction), and is granted by the King signing the proposed statute. The Belgian constitution requires a theoretically possible refusal of royal sanction to be countersigned -- as any other act of the monarch -- by a minister responsible before the House of Representatives. The monarch promulgates the law, meaning that he or she formally orders that the law be officially published and executed. In 1990, when King Baudouin advised his cabinet he could not, in conscience, sign a bill decriminalising abortion (a refusal patently not covered by a responsible minister), the Council of Ministers, at the King 's own request, declared Baudouin incapable of exercising his powers. In accordance with the Belgian constitution, upon the declaration of the sovereign 's incapacity, the Council of Ministers assumed the powers of the head of state until parliament could rule on the King 's incapacity and appoint a regent. The bill was then assented to by all members of the Council of Ministers "on behalf of the Belgian People ''. In a joint meeting, both houses of parliament declared the King capable of exercising his powers again the next day.
The constitution of Jordan grants its monarch the right to withhold assent to laws passed by its parliament. Article 93 of that document gives the Jordanian sovereign six months to sign or veto any legislation sent to him from the National Assembly; if he vetoes it within that timeframe, the assembly may override his veto by a two - thirds vote of both houses; otherwise, the law does not go into effect (but it may be reconsidered in the next session of the assembly). If the monarch fails to act within six months of the bill being presented to him, it becomes law without his signature.
According to Article 9 of the Constitution of Liechtenstein, "every law shall require the sanction of the Reigning Prince to attain legal force. '' Liechtenstein allows its monarch to withhold royal assent of his own will. When Prince Hans Adam II, in an unprecedented move for the constitutional monarchy, refused to give royal assent to a bill legalising abortion, he pushed for a bill to give him sweeping powers in the government beyond only ceremonial matters, including the power to appoint judges. The bill passed and the Prince now has many additional powers, including the power to withhold royal assent on his own accord.
While Article 34 of the constitution of Luxembourg formerly required the grand duke or duchess to sanction and promulgate a new law for it to take effect, the required sanction was removed in 2008, after Grand Duke Henri informed his prime minister that he could not in good conscience assent to a bill to permit euthanasia in the country. The subsequent constitutional amendment removed the need for assent while retaining the need for the Grand Duke to promulgate new laws. The Grand - Duke 's signature is still required, but does not imply assent, only promulgation (announcement that the law has been enacted by Parliament). The Grand - Duke did sign the Euthanasia Act under this new constitutional arrangement.
Royal assent in the Netherlands is required, under article 87 of the Dutch constitution, for a bill to become law. After a law has been approved by the Council of Ministers and has received a positive advice from the advisory Council of State, the government then sends it to the lower house of parliament in the name of the monarch with the following text:
Aan de Tweede Kamer der Staten - Generaal
Wij bieden U hiernevens ter overweging aan een voorstel van wet houdende (topic of the law) in verband met (reason and purpose of the law) De memorie van toelichting (en bijlagen) die het wetsvoorstel vergezelt, bevat de gronden waarop het rust. En hiermede bevelen Wij U in Godes heilige bescherming. (location and date) (signed Willem - Alexander).
To the Second Chamber of the States General
Herewith We offer to You for consideration a proposal of law containing (topic of the law) in relation to (reason and purpose of the law) The explanatory memorandum (and addenda) that accompanies the proposal of law, contains the grounds on which it is based. And herewith We command You in God 's holy protection. (location and date) (signed Willem - Alexander).
After the House of Representatives has debated the law, it either approves it and sends it to the Senate with the text "The Second Chamber of the States General sends the following approved proposal of law to the First Chamber '', or it rejects it and returns it to the government with the text "The Second Chamber of the States General has rejected the accompanying proposal of law. '' If the upper house then approves the law, it sends it back to the government with the text "To the King, The States General have accepted the proposal of law as it is offered here. ''
The government, consisting of the monarch and the ministers, will then usually approve the proposal and the sovereign and one of the ministers signs the proposal with the addition of an enacting clause, thereafter notifying the States General that "The King assents to the proposal. '' It has happened in exceptional circumstances that the government does not approve a law that has been passed in parliament. In such a case, neither the monarch nor a minister will sign the bill, notifying the States General that "The King will keep the proposal under advisement. '' A law that has received royal assent will be published in the State Magazine, with the original being kept in the archives of the King 's Offices.
Articles 77 -- 79 of the Norwegian Constitution specifically grant the monarch of Norway the right to withhold royal assent from any bill passed by the Storting. Should the sovereign ever choose to exercise this privilege, Article 79 provides a means by which his veto may be over-ridden: "If a Bill has been passed unaltered by two sessions of the Storting, constituted after two separate successive elections and separated from each other by at least two intervening sessions of the Storting, without a divergent Bill having been passed by any Storting in the period between the first and last adoption, and it is then submitted to the King with a petition that His Majesty shall not refuse his assent to a Bill which, after the most mature deliberation, the Storting considers to be beneficial, it shall become law even if the Royal Assent is not accorded before the Storting goes into recess. ''
In Part II of the 1978 Spanish constitution, among provisions concerning the Crown, Article 62 (a) invests the sanction (i.e. Royal Assent) and promulgation of laws with the monarch of Spain. Chapter 2 of Part III, concerning the Drafting of Bills, outlines the method by which bills are passed. According to Article 91, the monarch shall give his or her assent and promulgate the new law within fifteen days of passage of a bill by the Cortes Generales. Article 92 invests the monarch with the right to call for a referendum, on the advice of the president of the government (commonly referred to in English as the prime minister) and the authorisation of the cortes.
No provision within the constitution grants the monarch an ability to veto legislation directly; however, no provision prohibits the sovereign from withholding royal assent, which effectively constitutes a veto. When the Spanish media asked King Juan Carlos if he would endorse the bill legalising same - sex marriages, he answered "Soy el Rey de España y no el de Bélgica '' ("I am the King of Spain and not that of Belgium '') -- a reference to King Baudouin I of Belgium, who had refused to sign the Belgian law legalising abortion. The King gave royal assent to Law 13 / 2005 on 1 July 2005; the law was gazetted in the Boletín Oficial del Estado on 2 July and came into effect on 3 July 2005. Likewise, in 2010, King Juan Carlos gave royal assent to a law permitting abortion.
If the Spanish monarch ever refused in conscience to grant royal assent, a procedure similar to the Belgian handling of King Baudouin 's objection would not be possible under the current constitution. If the sovereign were ever declared incapable of discharging royal authority, his or her powers would not be transferred to the Cabinet, pending the parliamentary appointment of a regency. Instead, the constitution mandates the next person of age in the line of succession would immediately become regent. Therefore, had Juan Carlos followed the Belgian example in 2005 or 2010, a declaration of incapacity would have transferred power to Felipe, then the heir apparent.
Articles 41 and 68 of the constitution empower the sovereign to withhold royal assent from bills adopted by the Legislative Assembly. In 2010, the kingdom moved towards greater democracy, with King George Tupou V saying that he would be guided by his prime minister in the exercising of his powers. Nonetheless, this does not preclude an independent royal decision to exercise a right of veto. In November 2011, the assembly adopted an Arms and Ammunitions (Amendment) Bill, which reduced the possible criminal sentences for the illicit possession of firearms. The bill was adopted by ten votes to eight. Two members of the assembly had recently been charged with the illicit possession of firearms. The Prime Minister, Lord Tuʻivakanō, voted in favour of the amendment. Members of the opposition denounced the bill and asked the King to veto it, which he did in December.
In certain republican constitutions, royal assent has developed into the possibility of a presidential veto, such as in the United States of America or in several European countries.
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who did mel gibson play in the patriot | The Patriot (2000 film) - wikipedia
The Patriot is a 2000 American epic historical fiction war film directed by Roland Emmerich, written by Robert Rodat, and starring Mel Gibson, Chris Cooper, Heath Ledger, and Jason Isaacs. The film mainly takes place in rural Berkeley County, South Carolina, and depicts the story of an American Colonist, nominally loyal to the British Crown, who is swept into the American Revolutionary War when his family is threatened. Benjamin Martin is a composite figure the scriptwriter claims is based on four factual figures from the American Revolutionary War: Andrew Pickens, Francis Marion, Daniel Morgan, and Thomas Sumter.
The film takes place during the events of the Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War but attracted controversy over its fictional portrayal of historical British figures and atrocities. Professor Mark Glancy, teacher of film history at Queen Mary, University of London has said: "It 's horrendously inaccurate and attributes crimes committed by the Nazis in the 1940s to the British in the 1770s. '' While it is clear that the actions of then - Colonel Banastre Tarleton were certainly despicable, they were nowhere near the atrocities in the film, especially with the infamous "Burning church '' scene, of which there is no historical or written record. Australian film critic David Edwards asserts that "this fictional story is set around actual events, but it is not a history of what America was, or even an image of what it has become -- it 's a dream of what it should be... The Patriot is a grand epic full of action and emotion... But it 's also surprisingly insightful in its evaluation of the American ideal -- if not the reality. '' While, as critic Roger Ebert states, "None of it has much to do with the historical reality of the Revolutionary War ''.
During the American Revolution in 1776, Benjamin Martin, a veteran of the French and Indian War and a widower with seven children, is called to Charleston to vote in the South Carolina General Assembly on a levy supporting the Continental Army. Fearing war against Great Britain, Benjamin abstains; the vote is nonetheless passed and, against his father 's wishes, Benjamin 's eldest son Gabriel joins the Continentals.
Two years later Charleston falls to the British and a wounded Gabriel returns home carrying dispatches. The Martins care for both British and American wounded from a nearby battle, before British Dragoons, led by the ruthless Colonel William Tavington, arrive, arrest Gabriel with the intention of hanging him as a spy, and take captive the African American free men and women who work Benjamin 's land. When Benjamin 's second son Thomas tries to free Gabriel, he is shot and killed by Tavington, who then orders the Martins ' house burned, and wounded Americans executed. After the British leave, Benjamin gives his next two eldest sons rifles, and they ambush the British unit escorting a tied Gabriel. Benjamin skillfully, yet brutally, kills many soldiers with his tomahawk. A British survivor tells Tavington of the attack, earning Benjamin the moniker of the "Ghost ''. Gabriel decides to rejoin the Continentals and Benjamin soon follows, leaving the younger children in the care of Benjamin 's sister - in - law, Charlotte. On their way to the Continental Army 's camp, they witness the southern Continental Army under General Horatio Gates engaging the British Army. Benjamin recognizes the foolishness of the action; sure enough, the Continentals are decisively routed.
Benjamin meets his former commanding officer, Colonel Harry Burwell, who makes him colonel of the local colonial militia due to his combat experience and also places Gabriel under Benjamin 's command. Benjamin is tasked with keeping Lord Cornwallis 's regiments pinned south through guerrilla warfare. French Major Jean Villeneuve helps train the militia and promises more French aid.
Gabriel asks why Villeneuve and others often mention Benjamin 's role in something called "Fort Wilderness. '' Benjamin, having been hesitant to answer the question up to now, finally tells his son the story. Benjamin had been fighting in the British Army in the French and Indian War when he and several other soldiers discovered a French atrocity at a fort that Benjamin and his comrades had been trying to reinforce. In a bloodthirsty rage, Benjamin and his comrades caught up with the French at Fort Wilderness, where Benjamin and his unit literally cut the defending French soldiers apart slowly. Benjamin reveals that he has been haunted by guilt ever since.
Benjamin 's militia harass British supply lines, even capturing some of Cornwallis ' personal effects and his two Great Danes, and burn half the bridges and ferries leading to Charleston. Lord Cornwallis blames Tavington for creating this reaction with his brutal tactics. However, irritated at the lack of progress, and insulted by Benjamin 's clever ploy to free some of the captured militia, Cornwallis reluctantly allows Tavington to stop Benjamin by any means necessary.
With the reluctant aid of the Loyalist Captain Wilkins, Tavington learns the identities of some militia members and proceeds to attack their families and burn their homes. Benjamin 's family flees Charlotte 's plantation as it is burned to live in a Gullah settlement with former black slaves. There, Gabriel marries his betrothed Anne. Tavington 's brigade rides into the town that supplies the militia. He assembles all the townspeople, including Anne, into the church promising freedom in exchange for the whereabouts of the rebels. However, after the location is given the doors are barricaded, trapping the people as Tavington orders the church burned, killing them all in a cold - blooded act of mass - murder. After discovering the tragedy, Gabriel and several others race to attack Tavington 's encampment. In the ensuing fight, Tavington mortally wounds Gabriel before fleeing. Benjamin arrives soon after, only to have another of his sons die in his arms.
Benjamin mourns and wavers in his commitment to continue fighting, but is resolved when reminded of his son 's dedication to the cause by finding an American flag he repaired personally. Martin 's militia, along with a larger Continental Army regiment, confronts Cornwallis ' regiment in a decisive battle at the Battle of Cowpens. The British appear to have the upper hand until Benjamin rallies the troops forward against their lines and Tavington rushes to personally target him. The two duel and Tavington gains the upper hand, delivering several wounds to Benjamin. A beaten Benjamin slumps to his knees, and Tavington prepares to deliver the coup de grâce. At the last second, however, Benjamin dodges the attack and stabs Tavington to death, avenging his sons ' deaths. The battle is a Continental victory and Cornwallis is forced to retreat.
After many eventual retreats, Cornwallis is besieged at Yorktown, Virginia where he surrenders to the surrounding Continental Army and the long - awaited French naval force. After the conflict ends, Benjamin returns with his family and discovers his militia men rebuilding his homestead in their new nation.
Screenwriter Robert Rodat wrote seventeen drafts of the script before there was an acceptable one. In an early version, Anne is pregnant with Gabriel 's child when she dies in the burning church. Rodat wrote the script with Gibson in mind for Benjamin Martin, and gave the Martin character six children to signal this preference to studio executives. After the birth of Gibson 's seventh child, the script was changed so that Martin had seven children. Like the character William Wallace, which Gibson portrayed in Braveheart five years earlier, Martin is a man seeking to live his life in peace until revenge drives him to lead a cause against a national enemy after the life of an innocent family member is taken.
Joshua Jackson, Elijah Wood, Jake Gyllenhaal and Brad Renfro were considered to play Gabriel Martin. The producers and director narrowed their choices for this role to Ryan Phillippe and Heath Ledger, with the latter chosen because the director thought he possessed "exuberant youth ''.
The film 's German director Emmerich said "these were characters I could relate to, and they were engaged in a conflict that had a significant outcome -- the creation of the first modern democratic government. ''
The film was shot entirely on location in South Carolina, including Charleston, Rock Hill -- for many of the battle scenes, and Lowrys -- for the farm of Benjamin Martin, as well as nearby Fort Lawn. Other scenes were filmed at Mansfield Plantation, an antebellum rice plantation in Georgetown, Middleton Place in Charleston, South Carolina, at the Cistern Yard on the campus of College of Charleston, and Hightower Hall and Homestead House at Brattonsville, South Carolina, along with the grounds of the Brattonsville Plantation in McConnells, South Carolina. Producer Mark Gordon said the production team "tried their best to be as authentic as possible '' because "the backdrop was serious history, '' giving attention to details in period dress. Producer Dean Devlin and the film 's costume designers examined actual Revolutionary War uniforms at the Smithsonian Institution prior to shooting.
The musical score for The Patriot was composed by John Williams and was nominated for an Academy Award. David Arnold, who composed the scores to Emmerich 's Stargate, Independence Day, and Godzilla, created a demo for The Patriot that was ultimately rejected. As a result, Arnold never returned to compose for any of Emmerich 's subsequent films and was replaced by Harald Kloser and Thomas Wanker.
The Patriot received mildly favorable reviews from critics. The film scored a "Fresh '' rating of 61 % rating among all critics on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 134 reviews and with an average rating of 6.1 / 10, which notes that it "can be entertaining to watch, but it relies too much on formula and melodrama. '' The Patriot is one of two Emmerich films to ever be given a "fresh '' rating from that website (the other is Independence Day). Rotten Tomatoes also notes that, "While his hero is conscience - stricken about killing, Emmerich sure enjoys serving it up in generous helpings. '' On Metacritic, the film earned a rating of 63 out of 100, based on reviews from 35 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. The New York Times critic Elvis Mitchell gave the film a generally negative review, although he praised its casting and called Mel Gibson "an astonishing actor '', particularly for his "on - screen comfort and expansiveness ''. He said the film is a "gruesome hybrid, a mix of sentimentality and brutality ''. Jamie Malanowski, also writing in The New York Times, said The Patriot "will prove to many a satisfying way to spend a summer evening. It 's got big battles and wrenching hand - to - hand combat, a courageous but conflicted hero and a dastardly and totally guilt - free villain, thrills, tenderness, sorrow, rage and a little bit of kissing ''. The film was nominated for three Academy Awards: Best Original Score, Best Cinematography, and Best Sound.
A highly positive review was purportedly written by a critic named David Manning, who was credited to The Ridgefield Press, a small Connecticut weekly news publication. During an investigation into Manning 's quotes, Newsweek reporter John Horn discovered that the newspaper had never heard of him. The story emerged at around the same time as an announcement that Sony had used employees posing as moviegoers in television commercials to praise the film. These occurrences, in tandem, raised questions and controversy about ethics in movie marketing practices.
On June 10, 2001, the episode of Le Show, host Harry Shearer conducted an in - studio interview with Manning, whose "review '' of the film was positive. The voice of Manning was provided by a computer voice synthesizer.
On August 3, 2005, Sony made an out - of - court settlement and agreed to refund $5 each to dissatisfied customers who saw this and four other films in American theatres, as a result of Manning 's reviews.
The Patriot opened in 3,061 venues at # 2 with $22,413,710 domestically in its opening weekend, falling slightly short of expectations (predictions had the film opening # 1 with roughly $25 million ahead). The film opened behind Warner Bros The Perfect Storm, which opened at # 1 with $41,325,042. The film closed on October 16, 2000 with $113,330,342 domestically, which barely recouped its budget of $110 million. It was successful overseas grossing $101,964,000 with a grand total of $215,294,342.
The Patriot was nominated for three Academy Awards: Best Sound (Kevin O'Connell, Greg P. Russell and Lee Orloff), Best Cinematography, and Best Original Score. It also received several guild awards, including the American Society of Cinematographers award to Caleb Deschanel for Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography and the Hollywood Makeup Artist and Hair Stylist Guild Award for Best Period Makeup and Best Period Hair Styling.
During development, Emmerich and his team consulted with experts at the Smithsonian Institution on set, props, and costumes; advisor Rex Ellis even recommended the Gullah village as an appropriate place for Martin 's family to hide. In addition, screenwriter Robert Rodat read through many journals and letters of colonists as part of his preparation for writing the screen play.
Producer Mark Gordon said that in making the film, "while we were telling a fictional story, the backdrop was serious history ''. Some of the resulting characters and events thus were composites of real characters and events that were designed to serve the fictional narrative without losing the historical flavor. Rodat said of Gibson 's character: "Benjamin Martin is a composite character made up of Thomas Sumter, Daniel Morgan, Andrew Pickens, and Francis Marion, and a few bits and pieces from a number of other characters. '' Rodat also indicated that the fictional Colonel William Tavington is "loosely based on Colonel Banastre Tarleton, who was particularly known for his brutal acts ''.
While some events, such as Tarleton 's pursuit of Francis Marion and his fellow irregular soldiers who escaped by disappearing into the swamps of South Carolina, were loosely based on history, and others were adapted, such as the final battle in the film which combined elements of the Battles of Cowpens and Battle of Guilford Court House, most of the plot events in the film are pure fiction.
The film was harshly criticized in the British press in part because of its connection to Francis Marion, a militia leader in South Carolina known as the "Swamp Fox ''. After the release of The Patriot, the British newspaper The Guardian denounced Marion as "a serial rapist who hunted Red Indians for fun. Historian Christopher Hibbert said of Marion:
The truth is that people like Marion committed atrocities as bad, if not worse, than those perpetrated by the British.
The Patriot does not depict the American character Benjamin Martin as innocent of atrocities; a key plot point revolves around the character 's guilt over acts he engaged in, such as torturing, killing, and mutilating prisoners during the French and Indian War, while not mentioning his crimes against fellow colonists during the Revolutionary War. In Hibbert 's book Redcoats and Rebels: The American Revolution Through British Eyes, written before The Patriot was released, Hibbert included no criticism of Marion. Conservative radio host Michael Graham rejected Hibbert 's criticism of Marion in a commentary published in National Review:
Was Francis Marion a slave owner? Was he a determined and dangerous warrior? Did he commit acts in an 18th century war that we would consider atrocious in the current world of peace and political correctness? As another great American film hero might say: ' You 're damn right. ' "That 's what made him a hero, 200 years ago and today. ''
Graham also refers to what he describes as "the unchallenged work of South Carolina 's premier historian '' Dr. Walter Edgar, who claimed in his 1998 South Carolina: A History that Marion 's partisans were "a ragged band of both black and white volunteers ''.
Amy Crawford, in Smithsonian magazine, stated that modern historians such as William Gilmore Simms and Hugh Rankin have written accurate biographies of Marion, including Simms ' The Life of Francis Marion. The introduction to the 2007 edition of Simms ' book was written by Sean Busick, a professor of American history at Athens State University in Alabama, who wrote:
Marion deserves to be remembered as one of the heroes of the War for Independence... Francis Marion was a man of his times: he owned slaves, and he fought in a brutal campaign against the Cherokee Indians... Marion 's experience in the French and Indian War prepared him for more admirable service.
During pre-production, the producers debated on whether Martin would own slaves, ultimately deciding not to make him a slave owner. This decision received criticism from Spike Lee, who in a letter to The Hollywood Reporter accused the film 's portrayal of slavery as being "a complete whitewashing of history ''. Lee wrote that after he and his wife went to see the film, "we both came out of the theatre fuming. For three hours The Patriot dodged around, skirted about or completely ignored slavery. '' Gibson himself remarked: "I think I would have made him a slave holder. Not to seems kind of a cop - out. ''
After release, several British voices criticized the film for its depiction of the film 's villain Tavington and defended the historical character of Banastre Tarleton. Ben Fenton, commenting in the Daily Telegraph, wrote:
There is no evidence that Tarleton, called ' Bloody Ban ' or ' The Butcher ' in rebel pamphlets, ever broke the rules of war and certainly did not ever shoot a child in cold blood.
Although Tarleton gained the reputation among Americans as a butcher for his involvement in the Waxhaw massacre in South Carolina, he was a hero in Liverpool, England. Liverpool City Council, led by Mayor Edwin Clein, called for a public apology for what they viewed as the film 's "character assassination '' of Tarleton.
What happened during the Battle of The Waxhaws, known to the Americans as the Buford Massacre or as the Waxhaw massacre, is the subject of debate. According to an American field surgeon named Robert Brownfield who witnessed the events, the Continental Army Col. Buford raised a white flag of surrender, "expecting the usual treatment sanctioned by civilized warfare ''. While Buford was calling for quarter, Tarleton 's horse was struck by a musket ball and fell. This gave the Loyalist cavalrymen the impression that the Continentals had shot at their commander while asking for mercy. Enraged, the Loyalist troops charged at the Virginians. According to Brownfield, the Loyalists attacked, carrying out "indiscriminate carnage never surpassed by the most ruthless atrocities of the most barbarous savages ''.
In Tarleton 's own account, he stated that his horse had been shot from under him during the initial charge in which he was knocked out for several minutes and that his men, thinking him dead, engaged in "a vindictive asperity not easily restrained ''.
Tarleton 's role in the Revolutionary War in the Carolinas is examined by Ben Rubin who shows that historically, while the actual events of the Battle of the Waxhaws were presented differently according to which side was recounting them, the story of Tarleton 's atrocities at Waxhaws and on other occasions became a rallying cry, particularly at the Battle of King 's Mountain. The tales of Tarleton 's atrocities were a part of standard U.S. accounts of the war and were described by Washington Irving and by Christopher Ward in his 1952 history, The War of the Revolution, where Tarleton is described as "cold - hearted, vindictive, and utterly ruthless. He wrote his name in letters of blood all across the history of the war in the South. '' Not until Anthony Scotti 's 2002 book, Brutal Virtue: The Myth and Reality of Banastre Tarleton, were Tarleton 's actions fully reexamined. Scotti challenged the factual accounts of atrocities and stressed the "propaganda value that such stories held for the Americas both during and after the war ''. Scotti 's book, however, did not come out until two years after The Patriot. Screenwriters consulting American works to build the character Tavington based on Tarleton would have commonly found descriptions of him as barbaric and accounts of his name being used for recruiting and motivation during the Revolutionary War itself.
Whereas Tavington is depicted as aristocratic but penniless, Tarleton came from a wealthy Liverpool merchant family. Tarleton did not die in battle or from impalement, as Tavington did in the film. Tarleton died on January 16, 1833, in Leintwardine, Herefordshire, England, at the age of 78, nearly 50 years after the war ended. He outlived Col. Francis Marion who died in 1795, by 38 years. Before his death, Tarleton had achieved the military rank of General, equal to that held by the overall British Commanders during the American Revolution, and became a baronet and a member of the British Parliament.
The Patriot was criticized for misrepresenting atrocities during the Revolutionary War, including the killing of prisoners of war and wounded soldiers and burning a church filled with townsfolk. While atrocities occurred during the war, the most striking of the film 's depictions of British atrocities -- the burning of a church full of unarmed colonial civilians -- had virtually no factual basis nor parallel in the American or European 18th century wars, with the exception of the Massacre at Lucs - sur - Boulogne in 1794. The New York Post film critic Jonathan Foreman was one of several focusing on this distortion in the film and wrote the following in an article at Salon.com:
The most disturbing thing about The Patriot is not just that German director Roland Emmerich (director of Independence Day) and his screenwriter Robert Rodat (who was criticized for excluding the roles played by British, Canadian (Juno Beach) and other Allied troops in the Normandy landings from his script for Saving Private Ryan) depicted British troops as committing savage atrocities, but that those atrocities bear such a close resemblance to war crimes carried out by German troops -- particularly the SS in World War II. It 's hard not to wonder if the filmmakers have some kind of subconscious agenda... They have made a film that will have the effect of inoculating audiences against the unique historical horror of Oradour -- and implicitly rehabilitating the Nazis while making the British seem as evil as history 's worst monsters... So it 's no wonder that the British press sees this film as a kind of blood libel against the British people.
The Washington Post film critic Stephen Hunter, a historian of the era, said: "Any image of the American Revolution which represents you Brits as Nazis and us as gentle folk is almost certainly wrong. It was a very bitter war, a total war, and that is something that I am afraid has been lost to history... (T) he presence of the Loyalists (colonists who did not want to join the fight for independence from Britain) meant that the War of Independence was a conflict of complex loyalties. '' The historian Richard F. Snow, editor of American Heritage magazine, said of the church - burning scene: "Of course it never happened -- if it had do you think Americans would have forgotten it? It could have kept us out of World War I. ''
Slate columnist Michael Lind criticized the identification of the leading character 's actions with patriotism. Specifically, Lind stated that "this movie is deeply subversive patriotism. Indeed, patriotism is a concept that neither the screenwriter... nor the director... seems to understand ''. He further wrote that "the message of The Patriot is that country is an abstraction, family is everything. It should have been called The Family Man ''.
In contrast, historian Ben Rubin argues that because the American Revolution was a conflict that as often pitted neighbor against neighbor -- Whigs (advocates of Revolution) against Tories (loyalists to Britain) -- as it pitted nascent Americans against the British, many people stayed neutral until goaded into taking a stand in reaction to perceived atrocities. From this perspective, Benjamin Martin 's joining of the militia becomes, according to commentator Jon Roland, a deep patriotism that "shows them being called up, not as an act of an official, but by private persons aware of a common threat... (reacting to a) militia duty to defend one another ''.
In the film, Gibson 's character asks, "Why should I trade one tyrant three thousand miles away for three thousand tyrants one mile away? '' "They Call me a brainless Tory, '' said (Doctor) Reverend Mather Byles while watching three thousand Sons of Liberty parading the streets of Boston, "but tell me my young friend, which is better, to be ruled by one tyrant three thousand miles away or three thousand tyrants not a mile away ''.
The Patriot was released on DVD on October 24, 2000, a Blu - Ray release followed on July 3, 2007. The Patriot was later released on 4K UHD Blu - Ray on May 22, 2018.
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where did fighting began in spanish american war | Spanish -- American war - wikipedia
American victory
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Manuel De la Cámara y Livermore
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The higher naval losses may be attributed to the disastrous naval defeats inflicted on the Spanish at Manila Bay and Santiago de Cuba.
The Spanish -- American War (Spanish: Guerra hispano - americana or Guerra hispano - estadounidense; Filipino: Digmaang Espanyol - Amerikano) was fought between the United States and Spain in 1898. Hostilities began in the aftermath of the internal explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor in Cuba, leading to U.S. intervention in the Cuban War of Independence. American acquisition of Spain 's Pacific possessions led to its involvement in the Philippine Revolution and ultimately in the Philippine -- American War.
The main issue was Cuban independence. Revolts had been occurring for some years in Cuba against Spanish rule. The U.S. later backed these revolts upon entering the Spanish -- American War. There had been war scares before, as in the Virginius Affair in 1873, but in the late 1890s, U.S. public opinion was agitated by anti-Spanish propaganda led by newspaper publishers such as Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst which used yellow journalism to call for war. The business community across the United States had just recovered from a deep depression and feared that a war would reverse the gains. It lobbied vigorously against going to war.
The United States Navy armoured cruiser Maine had mysteriously sunk in Havana Harbor; political pressures from the Democratic Party pushed the administration of Republican President William McKinley into a war that he had wished to avoid.
President McKinley signed a joint Congressional resolution demanding Spanish withdrawal and authorizing the President to use military force to help Cuba gain independence on April 20, 1898. In response, Spain severed diplomatic relations with the United States on April 21. On the same day, the U.S. Navy began a blockade of Cuba. On April 23, Spain stated that it would declare war if the U.S. forces invaded its territory. On April 25, Congress declared that a state of war between the U.S. and Spain had de facto existed since April 21, the day the blockade of Cuba had begun. The United States sent an ultimatum to Spain demanding that it surrender control of Cuba, but due to Spain not replying soon enough, the United States assumed Spain had ignored the ultimatum and continued to occupy Cuba.
The ten - week war was fought in both the Caribbean and the Pacific. As the American agitators for war well knew, U.S. naval power proved decisive, allowing expeditionary forces to disembark in Cuba against a Spanish garrison already facing nationwide Cuban insurgent attacks and further wasted by yellow fever. American, Cuban, and Philippine forces obtained the surrender of Santiago de Cuba and Manila despite the good performance of some Spanish infantry units and fierce fighting for positions such as San Juan Hill. Madrid sued for peace after two obsolete Spanish squadrons sunk in Santiago de Cuba and Manila Bay and a third, more modern fleet was recalled home to protect the Spanish coasts.
The result was the 1898 Treaty of Paris, negotiated on terms favorable to the U.S. which allowed it temporary control of Cuba and ceded ownership of Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippine islands. The cession of the Philippines involved payment of $20 million ($588,320,000 today) to Spain by the U.S. to cover infrastructure owned by Spain.
The defeat and loss of the last remnants of the Spanish Empire was a profound shock to Spain 's national psyche and provoked a thorough philosophical and artistic revaluation of Spanish society known as the Generation of ' 98. The United States gained several island possessions spanning the globe and a rancorous new debate over the wisdom of expansionism. It was one of only five US wars (against a total of eleven sovereign states) to have been formally declared by the U.S. Congress.
The combined problems arising from the Peninsular War (1807 -- 1814), the loss of most of its colonies in the Americas in the early 19th - century Spanish American wars of independence, and three Carlist Wars (1832 -- 1876) marked the low point of Spanish colonialism. Liberal Spanish elites like Antonio Cánovas del Castillo and Emilio Castelar offered new interpretations of the concept of "empire '' to dovetail with Spain 's emerging nationalism. Cánovas made clear in an address to the University of Madrid in 1882 his view of the Spanish nation as based on shared cultural and linguistic elements -- on both sides of the Atlantic -- that tied Spain 's territories together.
Cánovas saw Spanish imperialism as markedly different in its methods and purposes of colonization from those of rival empires like the British or French. Spaniards regarded the spreading of civilization and Christianity as Spain 's major objective and contribution to the New World. The concept of cultural unity bestowed special significance on Cuba, which had been Spanish for almost four hundred years, and was viewed as an integral part of the Spanish nation. The focus on preserving the empire would have negative consequences for Spain 's national pride in the aftermath of the Spanish -- American War.
In 1823, American fifth President James Monroe (1758 -- 1831, served 1817 -- 1825) enunciated the Monroe Doctrine, which stated that the United States would not tolerate further efforts by European governments to retake, expand their colonial holdings in the Americas or to interfere with the newly independent states in the hemisphere; at the same time, the doctrine stated that the U.S. would respect the status of the existing European colonies. Before the American Civil War (1861 -- 1865), Southern interests attempted to have the United States purchase Cuba and convert it into a new slave territory. The Ostend Manifesto proposal of 1854 failed, and national attention shifted to the growing sectional conflict and threat of civil war.
After the American Civil War and Cuba 's Ten Years ' War, U.S. businessmen began monopolizing the devalued sugar markets in Cuba. In 1894, 90 % of Cuba 's total exports went to the United States, which also provided 40 % of Cuba 's imports. Cuba 's total exports to the U.S. were almost twelve times larger than the export to her mother country, Spain. U.S. business interests indicated that while Spain still held political authority over Cuba, economic authority in Cuba, acting - authority, was shifting to the US.
The US became interested in a trans - isthmus canal across Central America, either in Nicaragua, or in Panama, where the Panama Canal would later be built (1903 -- 1914), and realized the need for naval protection. Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan was an especially influential theorist; his ideas were much admired by future 26th President Theodore Roosevelt, as the U.S. rapidly built a powerful naval fleet of steel warships in the 1880s and 1890s. Roosevelt served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1897 -- 1898 and was an aggressive supporter of an American war with Spain over Cuban interests.
Meanwhile, the "Cuba Libre '' movement, led by Cuban intellectual José Martí, had established offices in Florida and New York to buy and smuggle weapons. It mounted a large propaganda campaign to generate sympathy that would lead to official pressure on Spain. Protestant churches and Democratic farmers were supportive, but business interests called on Washington to ignore them.
Although Cuba attracted American attention, little note was made of the Philippines, Guam, or Puerto Rico. Historians note that there was little popular demand in the United States for an overseas colonial empire, though at this time the longtime colonial empires of the United Kingdom (Great Britain) with its British Empire "on which the sun never set '' and France 's French Empire maintained theirs with some added growths and additions, now joined by the German Empire, Italian Empire and the Empire of Japan. These new and growing empires were dramatically expanding their overseas holdings during the late 19th century in unclaimed areas among native and indigenous peoples in the less developed continents of Africa, Asia and the Pacific.
The first serious bid for Cuban independence, the Ten Years ' War, erupted in 1868 and was subdued by the authorities a decade later. Neither the fighting nor the reforms in the Pact of Zanjón (February 1878) quelled the desire of some revolutionaries for wider autonomy and ultimately independence. One such revolutionary, José Martí, continued to promote Cuban financial and political autonomy in exile. In early 1895, after years of organizing, Martí launched a three - pronged invasion of the island.
The plan called for one group from Santo Domingo led by Máximo Gómez, one group from Costa Rica led by Antonio Maceo Grajales, and another from the United States (preemptively thwarted by U.S. officials in Florida) to land in different places on the island and provoke an uprising. While their call for revolution, the grito de Baíre, was successful, the result was not the grand show of force Martí had expected. With a quick victory effectively lost, the revolutionaries settled in to fight a protracted guerrilla campaign.
Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, the architect of Spain 's Restoration constitution and the prime minister at the time, ordered General Arsenio Martínez - Campos, a distinguished veteran of the war against the previous uprising in Cuba, to quell the revolt. Campos 's reluctance to accept his new assignment and his method of containing the revolt to the province of Oriente earned him criticism in the Spanish press.
The mounting pressure forced Cánovas to replace General Campos with General Valeriano Weyler, a soldier who had experience in quelling rebellions in overseas provinces and the Spanish metropole. Weyler deprived the insurgency of weaponry, supplies, and assistance by ordering the residents of some Cuban districts to move to reconcentration areas near the military headquarters. This strategy was effective in slowing the spread of rebellion. In the United States, this fueled the fire of anti-Spanish propaganda. In a political speech President William McKinley used this to ram Spanish actions against armed rebels. He even said this "was not civilized warfare '' but "extermination ''.
The Spanish Government regarded Cuba as a province of Spain rather than a colony, and depended on it for prestige and trade, and as a training ground for the army. Spanish Prime Minister Antonio Cánovas del Castillo announced that "the Spanish nation is disposed to sacrifice to the last peseta of its treasure and to the last drop of blood of the last Spaniard before consenting that anyone snatch from it even one piece of its territory ''. He had long dominated and stabilized Spanish politics. He was assassinated in 1897 by Italian anarchist Michele Angiolillo, leaving a Spanish political system that was not stable and could not risk a blow to its prestige.
The eruption of the Cuban revolt, Weyler 's measures, and the popular fury these events whipped up proved to be a boon to the newspaper industry in New York City, where Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World and William Randolph Hearst of the New York Journal recognized the potential for great headlines and stories that would sell copies. Both papers denounced Spain, but had little influence outside New York. American opinion generally saw Spain as a hopelessly backward power that was unable to deal fairly with Cuba. American Catholics were divided before the war began, but supported it enthusiastically once it started.
The U.S. had important economic interests that were being harmed by the prolonged conflict and deepening uncertainty about the future of Cuba. Shipping firms that had relied heavily on trade with Cuba now suffered losses as the conflict continued unresolved. These firms pressed Congress and McKinley to seek an end to the revolt. Other American business concerns, specifically those who had invested in Cuban sugar, looked to the Spanish to restore order. Stability, not war, was the goal of both interests. How stability would be achieved would depend largely on the ability of Spain and the U.S. to work out their issues diplomatically.
While tension increased among the Cubans and Spanish Government, popular support of intervention began to spring up in the United States, due to the emergence of the "Cuba Libre '' movement and the fact that many Americans had drawn parallels between the American Revolution and the Cuban revolt, seeing the Spanish Government as the tyrannical colonial oppressor. Historian Louis Pérez notes that "The proposition of war in behalf of Cuban independence took hold immediately and held on thereafter. Such was the sense of the public mood. '' At the time many poems and songs were written in the United States to express support of the "Cuba Libre '' movement. At the same time, many African Americans, facing growing racial discrimination and increasing retardation of their civil rights, wanted to take part in the war because they saw it as a way to advance the cause of equality, service to country hopefully helping to gain political and public respect amongst the wider population.
President McKinley, well aware of the political complexity surrounding the conflict, wanted to end the revolt peacefully. In accordance with this policy, McKinley began to negotiate with the Spanish government, hoping that the negotiations would be able to end the yellow journalism in the United States, and therefore, end the loudest calls to go to war with Spain. An attempt was made to negotiate a peace before McKinley took office, however, the Spanish refused to take part in the negotiations. In 1897 McKinley appointed Stewart L. Woodford as the new minister to Spain, who again offered to negotiate a peace. In October 1897, the Spanish government still refused the United States offer to negotiate between the Spanish and the Cubans, but promised the U.S. it would give the Cubans more autonomy. However, with the election of a more liberal Spanish government in November, Spain began to change their policies in Cuba. First, the new Spanish government told the United States that it was willing to offer a change in the Reconcentration policies (the main set of policies that was feeding yellow journalism in the United States) if the Cuban rebels agreed to a cessation of hostilities. This time the rebels refused the terms in hopes that continued conflict would lead to U.S. intervention and the creation of an independent Cuba. The liberal Spanish government also recalled the Spanish Governor General Valeriano Weyler from Cuba. This action alarmed many Cubans loyal to Spain.
The Cubans loyal to Weyler began planning large demonstrations to take place when the next Governor General, Ramon Blanco, arrived in Cuba. U.S. consul Fitzhugh Lee learned of these plans and sent a request to the U.S. State Department to send a U.S. warship to Cuba. This request lead to the U.S.S. Maine being sent to Cuba. While the Maine was docked in Havana, an explosion sank the ship. The sinking of the Maine was blamed on the Spanish and made the possibility of a negotiated peace very slim. Throughout the negotiation process, the major European powers, especially Britain, France, and Russia, generally supported the American position and urged Spain to give in. Spain repeatedly promised specific reforms that would pacify Cuba but failed to deliver; American patience ran out.
McKinley sent the USS Maine to Havana to ensure the safety of American citizens and interests, and to underscore the urgent need for reform. Naval forces were moved in position to attack simultaneously on several fronts if the war was not avoided. As Maine left Florida, a large part of the North Atlantic Squadron was moved to Key West and the Gulf of Mexico. Others were also moved just off the shore of Lisbon, and still others were moved to Hong Kong.
At 9: 40 on the evening of February 15, 1898, Maine sank in Havana Harbor after suffering a massive explosion. While McKinley urged patience and did not declare that Spain had caused the explosion, the deaths of 250 out of 355 sailors on board focused American attention. McKinley asked Congress to appropriate $50 million for defense, and Congress unanimously obliged. Most American leaders took the position that the cause of the explosion was unknown, but public attention was now riveted on the situation and Spain could not find a diplomatic solution to avoid war. Spain appealed to the European powers, most of whom advised it to accept U.S. conditions for Cuba in order to avoid war. Germany urged a united European stand against the United States but took no action.
The U.S. Navy 's investigation, made public on March 28, concluded that the ship 's powder magazines were ignited when an external explosion was set off under the ship 's hull. This report poured fuel on popular indignation in the U.S., making the war inevitable. Spain 's investigation came to the opposite conclusion: the explosion originated within the ship. Other investigations in later years came to various contradictory conclusions, but had no bearing on the coming of the war. In 1974, Admiral Hyman George Rickover had his staff look at the documents and decided there was an internal explosion. A study commissioned by National Geographic magazine in 1999, using AME computer modelling, stated that the explosion could have been caused by a mine, but no definitive evidence was found.
After the Maine was destroyed, New York City newspaper publishers Hearst and Pulitzer decided that the Spanish were to blame, and they publicized this theory as fact in their papers. They both used sensationalistic and astonishing accounts of "atrocities '' committed by the Spanish in Cuba by using headlines in their newspapers, such as "Spanish Murderers '' and "Remember The Maine ''. Their press exaggerated what was happening and how the Spanish were treating the Cuban prisoners. The stories were based on factual accounts, but most of the time, the articles that were published were embellished and written with incendiary language causing emotional and often heated responses among readers. A common myth falsely states that when illustrator Frederic Remington said there was no war brewing in Cuba, Hearst responded: "You furnish the pictures and I 'll furnish the war. ''
This new "yellow journalism '' was, however, uncommon outside New York City, and historians no longer consider it the major force shaping the national mood. Public opinion nationwide did demand immediate action, overwhelming the efforts of President McKinley, Speaker of the House Thomas Brackett Reed, and the business community to find a negotiated solution. Wall Street, big business, high finance and Main Street businesses across the country were vocally opposed to war and demanded peace. After years of severe depression, the economic outlook for the domestic economy was suddenly bright again in 1897. However, the uncertainties of warfare posed a serious threat to full economic recovery. "War would impede the march of prosperity and put the country back many years, '' warned the New Jersey Trade Review. The leading railroad magazine editorialized, "From a commercial and mercenary standpoint it seems peculiarly bitter that this war should come when the country had already suffered so much and so needed rest and peace. '' McKinley paid close attention to the strong anti-war consensus of the business community, and strengthened his resolve to use diplomacy and negotiation rather than brute force to end the Spanish tyranny in Cuba.
A speech delivered by Republican Senator Redfield Proctor of Vermont on March 17, 1898, thoroughly analyzed the situation and greatly strengthened the pro-war cause. Proctor concluded that war was the only answer. Many in the business and religious communities which had until then opposed war, switched sides, leaving McKinley and Speaker Reed almost alone in their resistance to a war. On April 11, McKinley ended his resistance and asked Congress for authority to send American troops to Cuba to end the civil war there, knowing that Congress would force a war.
On April 19, while Congress was considering joint resolutions supporting Cuban independence, Republican Senator Henry M. Teller of Colorado proposed the Teller Amendment to ensure that the U.S. would not establish permanent control over Cuba after the war. The amendment, disclaiming any intention to annex Cuba, passed the Senate 42 to 35; the House concurred the same day, 311 to 6. The amended resolution demanded Spanish withdrawal and authorized the President to use as much military force as he thought necessary to help Cuba gain independence from Spain. President McKinley signed the joint resolution on April 20, 1898, and the ultimatum was sent to Spain. In response, Spain severed diplomatic relations with the United States on April 21. On the same day, the U.S. Navy began a blockade of Cuba. Spain stated, it would declare war if the US forces invaded its territory, on April 23. On April 25, the U.S. Congress declared that a state of war between the U.S. and Spain had de facto existed since April 21, the day the blockade of Cuba had begun.
The Navy was ready, but the Army was not well - prepared for the war and made radical changes in plans and quickly purchased supplies. In the spring of 1898, the strength of the Regular U.S. Army was just 25,000 men. The Army wanted 50,000 new men but received over 220,000 through volunteers and the mobilization of state National Guard units, even gaining nearly 100,000 men on the first night after the explosion of the USS Maine.
The Department of State of the United States of America summarizes the aftermath of the war for the Filipino people:
After its defeat in the Spanish -- American War of 1898, Spain ceded its longstanding colony of the Philippines to the United States in the Treaty of Paris. On February 4, 1899, just two days before the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, fighting broke out between American forces and Filipino nationalists led by Emilio Aguinaldo, who sought independence rather than a change in colonial rulers. The ensuing Philippine - American War lasted three years and resulted in the death of over 4,200 American and over 20,000 Filipino combatants. As many as 200,000 Filipino civilians died from violence, famine, and disease.
In 1901, novelist Mark Twain wrote about the aftermath of the war for the Philippines:
We have robbed a trusting friend of his land and his liberty; we have invited clean young men to shoulder a discredited musket and do bandit 's work under a flag which bandits have been accustomed to fear, not to follow; we have debauched America 's honor and blackened her face before the world.
In his War and Empire, Prof. Paul Atwood of the University of Massachusetts (Boston) writes:
The Spanish -- American War was fomented on outright lies and trumped up accusations against the intended enemy... War fever in the general population never reached a critical temperature until the accidental sinking of the USS Maine was deliberately, and falsely, attributed to Spanish villainy... In a cryptic message... Senator lodge wrote that ' There may be an explosion any day in Cuba which would settle a great many things. We have got a battleship in the harbor of Havana, and our fleet, which overmatches anything the Spanish have, is masked at the Dry Tortugas.
In his autobiography, Theodore Roosevelt gave his views of the origins of the war:
Our own direct interests were great, because of the Cuban tobacco and sugar, and especially because of Cuba 's relation to the projected Isthmian (Panama) Canal. But even greater were our interests from the standpoint of humanity... It was our duty, even more from the standpoint of National honor than from the standpoint of National interest, to stop the devastation and destruction. Because of these considerations I favored war.
In the 333 years of Spanish rule, the Philippines developed from a small overseas colony governed from the Viceroyalty of New Spain to a land with modern elements in the cities. The Spanish - speaking middle classes of the 19th century were mostly educated in the liberal ideas coming from Europe. Among these Ilustrados was the Filipino national hero José Rizal, who demanded larger reforms from the Spanish authorities. This movement eventually led to the Philippine Revolution against Spanish colonial rule. The revolution had been in a state of truce since the signing of the Pact of Biak - na - Bato in 1897, with revolutionary leaders having accepted exile outside of the country.
On April 23, 1898, a document appeared in the Manila Gazette newspaper warning of the impeding war and calling for Filipinos to participate on the side of Spain.
The first battle between American and Spanish forces was at Manila Bay where, on May 1, Commodore George Dewey, commanding the U.S. Navy 's Asiatic Squadron aboard USS Olympia, in a matter of hours defeated a Spanish squadron under Admiral Patricio Montojo. Dewey managed this with only nine wounded. With the German seizure of Tsingtao in 1897, Dewey 's squadron had become the only naval force in the Far East without a local base of its own, and was beset with coal and ammunition problems. Despite these problems, the Asiatic Squadron not only destroyed the Spanish fleet but also captured the harbor of Manila.
Following Dewey 's victory, Manila Bay was filled with the warships of Britain, Germany, France, and Japan. The German fleet of eight ships, ostensibly in Philippine waters to protect German interests, acted provocatively -- cutting in front of American ships, refusing to salute the United States flag (according to customs of naval courtesy), taking soundings of the harbor, and landing supplies for the besieged Spanish.
The Germans, with interests of their own, were eager to take advantage of whatever opportunities the conflict in the islands might afford. There was a fear at the time that the islands would become a German possession. The Americans called the bluff of the Germans, threatening conflict if the aggression continued, and the Germans backed down. At the time, the Germans expected the confrontation in the Philippines to end in an American defeat, with the revolutionaries capturing Manila and leaving the Philippines ripe for German picking.
Commodore Dewey transported Emilio Aguinaldo, a Filipino leader who had led rebellion against Spanish rule in the Philippines in 1896, from exile in Hong Kong to the Philippines to rally more Filipinos against the Spanish colonial government. By June 9, Aguinaldo 's forces controlled the provinces of Bulacan, Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Bataan, Zambales, Pampanga, Pangasinan, and Mindoro, and had laid siege to Manila. On June 12, Aguinaldo proclaimed the independence of the Philippines.
On August 5, on instructions from Spain, Governor General Basilo Augistin turned over command of the Philippines to his deputy, Fermin Jaudenes. On August 13, with American commanders unaware that a cease - fire had been signed between Spain and the U.S. on the previous day in Washington D.C., American forces captured the city of Manila from the Spanish in the Battle of Manila. This battle marked the end of Filipino -- American collaboration, as the American action of preventing Filipino forces from entering the captured city of Manila was deeply resented by the Filipinos. This later led to the Philippine -- American War, which would prove to be more deadly and costly than the Spanish -- American War.
The U.S. had sent a force of some 11,000 ground troops to the Philippines. On August 14, 1899, Spanish Captain - General Jaudenes formally capitulated and U.S. Generally Merritt formally accepted the surrender and declared the establishment of a U.S. military government in occupation. That same day, the Schurman Commission recommended that the U.S. retain control of the Philippines, possibly granting independence in the future. On December 10, 1898, the Spanish government ceded the Philippines to the United States in the Treaty of Paris. Armed conflict broke out between U.S. forces and the Filipinos when U.S. troops began to take the place of the Spanish in control of the country after the end of the war, resulting in the Philippine -- American War.
On June 20, a U.S. fleet commanded by Captain Henry Glass, consisting of the protected cruiser USS Charleston and three transports carrying troops to the Philippines, entered Guam 's Apra Harbor, Captain Glass having opened sealed orders instructing him to proceed to Guam and capture it. Charleston fired a few cannon rounds at Fort Santa Cruz without receiving return fire. Two local officials, not knowing that war had been declared and believing the firing had been a salute, came out to Charleston to apologize for their inability to return the salute as they were out of gunpowder. Glass informed them that the U.S. and Spain were at war.
The following day, Glass sent Lt. William Braunersruehter to meet the Spanish Governor to arrange the surrender of the island and the Spanish garrison there. Some 54 Spanish infantry were captured and transported to the Philippines as prisoners of war. No U.S. forces were left on Guam, but the only U.S. citizen on the island, Frank Portusach, told Captain Glass that he would look after things until U.S. forces returned.
Theodore Roosevelt advocated intervention in Cuba, both for the Cuban people and to promote the Monroe Doctrine. While Assistant Secretary of the Navy, he placed the Navy on a war - time footing and prepared Dewey 's Asiatic Squadron for battle. He also worked with Leonard Wood in convincing the Army to raise an all - volunteer regiment, the 1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry. Wood was given command of the regiment that quickly became known as the "Rough Riders ''.
The Americans planned to capture the city of Santiago de Cuba to destroy Linares ' army and Cervera 's fleet. To reach Santiago they had to pass through concentrated Spanish defenses in the San Juan Hills and a small town in El Caney. The American forces were aided in Cuba by the pro-independence rebels led by General Calixto García.
For quite some time the Cuban public believed the United States government to possibly hold the key to its independence, and even annexation was considered for a time, which historian Louis Pérez explored in his book Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy. The Cubans harbored a great deal of discontent towards the Spanish Government, due to years of manipulation on the part of the Spanish. The prospect of getting the United States involved in the fight was considered by many Cubans as a step in the right direction. While the Cubans were wary of the United States ' intentions, the overwhelming support from the American public provided the Cubans with some peace of mind, because they believed that the United States was committed to helping them achieve their independence. However, with the imposition of the Platt Amendment of 1903 after the war, as well as economic and military manipulation on the part of the United States, Cuban sentiment towards the United States became polarized, with many Cubans disappointed with continuing American interference.
From June 22 to 24, the Fifth Army Corps under General William R. Shafter landed at Daiquirí and Siboney, east of Santiago, and established an American base of operations. A contingent of Spanish troops, having fought a skirmish with the Americans near Siboney on June 23, had retired to their lightly entrenched positions at Las Guasimas. An advance guard of U.S. forces under former Confederate General Joseph Wheeler ignored Cuban scouting parties and orders to proceed with caution. They caught up with and engaged the Spanish rearguard of about 2,000 soldiers led by General Antero Rubín who effectively ambushed them, in the Battle of Las Guasimas on June 24. The battle ended indecisively in favor of Spain and the Spanish left Las Guasimas on their planned retreat to Santiago.
The U.S. Army employed Civil War - era skirmishers at the head of the advancing columns. Three of four of the U.S. soldiers who had volunteered to act as skirmishers walking point at the head of the American column were killed, including Hamilton Fish II (grandson of Hamilton Fish, the Secretary of State under Ulysses S. Grant), and Captain Allyn K. Capron, Jr., whom Theodore Roosevelt would describe as one of the finest natural leaders and soldiers he ever met. Only Oklahoma Territory Pawnee Indian, Tom Isbell, wounded seven times, survived.
The Battle of Las Guasimas showed the U.S. that quick - thinking American soldiers would not stick to the linear tactics which did not work effectively against Spanish troops who had learned the art of cover and concealment from their own struggle with Cuban insurgents, and never made the error of revealing their positions while on the defense. Americans advanced by rushes and stayed in the weeds so that they, too, were largely invisible to the Spaniards who used un-targeted volley fire to try to mass fires against the advancing Americans. While some troops were hit, this technique was mostly a waste of bullets as the Americans learned to duck as soon as they heard the Spanish word Fire, "Fuego '' yelled by the Spanish officers. Spanish troops were equipped with smokeless powder arms that also helped them to hide their positions while firing.
Regular Spanish troops were mostly armed with modern charger - loaded, 7 mm 1893 Spanish Mauser rifles and using smokeless powder. The high - speed 7 × 57mm Mauser round was termed the "Spanish Hornet '' by the Americans because of the supersonic crack as it passed overhead. Other irregular troops were armed with Remington Rolling Block rifles in. 43 Spanish using smokeless powder and brass - jacketed bullets. US regular infantry were armed with the. 30 -- 40 Krag -- Jørgensen, a bolt - action rifle with a complex rotating magazine. Both the US regular cavalry and the volunteer cavalry used smokeless ammunition. In later battles, state volunteers used the. 45 -- 70 Springfield a single - shot black powder rifle.
On July 1, a combined force of about 15,000 American troops in regular infantry and cavalry regiments, including all four of the army 's "Colored '' regiments, and volunteer regiments, among them Roosevelt and his "Rough Riders '', the 71st New York, the 2nd Massachusetts Infantry, and 1st North Carolina, and rebel Cuban forces attacked 1,270 entrenched Spaniards in dangerous Civil War - style frontal assaults at the Battle of El Caney and Battle of San Juan Hill outside of Santiago. More than 200 U.S. soldiers were killed and close to 1,200 wounded in the fighting, thanks to the high rate of fire the Spanish put down range at the Americans. Supporting fire by Gatling guns was critical to the success of the assault. Cervera decided to escape Santiago two days later. First Lieutenant John J. Pershing, nicknamed "Black Jack '', oversaw the 10th Cavalry Unit during the war. Pershing and his unit fought in the Battle of San Juan Hill. Pershing was cited for his gallantry during the battle.
The Spanish forces at Guantánamo were so isolated by Marines and Cuban forces that they did not know that Santiago was under siege, and their forces in the northern part of the province could not break through Cuban lines. This was not true of the Escario relief column from Manzanillo, which fought its way past determined Cuban resistance but arrived too late to participate in the siege.
After the battles of San Juan Hill and El Caney, the American advance halted. Spanish troops successfully defended Fort Canosa, allowing them to stabilize their line and bar the entry to Santiago. The Americans and Cubans forcibly began a bloody, strangling siege of the city. During the nights, Cuban troops dug successive series of "trenches '' (raised parapets), toward the Spanish positions. Once completed, these parapets were occupied by U.S. soldiers and a new set of excavations went forward. American troops, while suffering daily losses from Spanish fire, suffered far more casualties from heat exhaustion and mosquito - borne disease. At the western approaches to the city, Cuban general Calixto Garcia began to encroach on the city, causing much panic and fear of reprisals among the Spanish forces.
The major port of Santiago de Cuba was the main target of naval operations during the war. The U.S. fleet attacking Santiago needed shelter from the summer hurricane season; Guantánamo Bay, with its excellent harbor, was chosen. The 1898 invasion of Guantánamo Bay happened between June 6 and 10, with the first U.S. naval attack and subsequent successful landing of U.S. Marines with naval support.
On April 23, a council of senior admirals of the Spanish Navy had decided to order Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete 's squadron of four armored cruisers and three torpedo boat destroyers to proceed from their present location in Cape Verde (having left from Cadiz, Spain) to the West Indies.
The Battle of Santiago de Cuba on July 3, was the largest naval engagement of the Spanish -- American War and resulted in the destruction of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron (also known as the Flota de Ultramar). In May, the fleet of Spanish Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete had been spotted by American forces in Santiago harbor, where they had taken shelter for protection from sea attack. A two - month stand - off between Spanish and American naval forces followed.
When the Spanish squadron finally attempted to leave the harbor on July 3, the American forces destroyed or grounded five of the six ships. Only one Spanish vessel, the new armored cruiser Cristóbal Colón, survived, but her captain hauled down her flag and scuttled her when the Americans finally caught up with her. The 1,612 Spanish sailors who were captured, including Admiral Cervera, were sent to Seavey 's Island at the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery, Maine, where they were confined at Camp Long as prisoners of war from July 11 until mid-September.
During the stand - off, U.S. Assistant Naval Constructor, Lieutenant Richmond Pearson Hobson had been ordered by Rear Admiral William T. Sampson to sink the collier USS Merrimac in the harbor to bottle up the Spanish fleet. The mission was a failure, and Hobson and his crew were captured. They were exchanged on July 6, and Hobson became a national hero; he received the Medal of Honor in 1933, retired as a Rear Admiral and became a Congressman.
Yellow fever had quickly spread amongst the American occupation force, crippling it. A group of concerned officers of the American army chose Theodore Roosevelt to draft a request to Washington that it withdraw the Army, a request that paralleled a similar one from General Shafter, who described his force as an "army of convalescents ''. By the time of his letter, 75 % of the force in Cuba was unfit for service.
On August 7, the American invasion force started to leave Cuba. The evacuation was not total. The U.S. Army kept the black Ninth US Cavalry Regiment in Cuba to support the occupation. The logic was that their race and the fact that many black volunteers came from southern states would protect them from disease; this logic led to these soldiers being nicknamed "Immunes ''. Still, when the Ninth left, 73 of its 984 soldiers had contracted the disease.
In May 1898, Lt. Henry H. Whitney of the United States Fourth Artillery was sent to Puerto Rico on a reconnaissance mission, sponsored by the Army 's Bureau of Military Intelligence. He provided maps and information on the Spanish military forces to the U.S. government before the invasion.
The American offensive began on May 12, 1898, when a squadron of 12 U.S. ships commanded by Rear Adm. William T. Sampson of the United States Navy attacked the archipelago 's capital, San Juan. Though the damage inflicted on the city was minimal, the Americans established a blockade in the city 's harbor, San Juan Bay. On June 22, the cruiser Isabel II and the destroyer Terror delivered a Spanish counterattack, but were unable to break the blockade and the Terror was damaged.
The land offensive began on July 25, when 1,300 infantry soldiers led by Nelson A. Miles disembarked off the coast of Guánica. The first organized armed opposition occurred in Yauco in what became known as the Battle of Yauco.
This encounter was followed by the Battle of Fajardo. The United States seized control of Fajardo on August 1, but were forced to withdraw on August 5 after a group of 200 Puerto Rican - Spanish soldiers led by Pedro del Pino gained control of the city, while most civilian inhabitants fled to a nearby lighthouse. The Americans encountered larger opposition during the Battle of Guayama and as they advanced towards the main island 's interior. They engaged in crossfire at Guamaní River Bridge, Coamo and Silva Heights and finally at the Battle of Asomante. The battles were inconclusive as the allied soldiers retreated.
A battle in San Germán concluded in a similar fashion with the Spanish retreating to Lares. On August 9, 1898, American troops that were pursuing units retreating from Coamo encountered heavy resistance in Aibonito in a mountain known as Cerro Gervasio del Asomante and retreated after six of their soldiers were injured. They returned three days later, reinforced with artillery units and attempted a surprise attack. In the subsequent crossfire, confused soldiers reported seeing Spanish reinforcements nearby and five American officers were gravely injured, which prompted a retreat order. All military actions in Puerto Rico were suspended on August 13, after U.S. President William McKinley and French Ambassador Jules Cambon, acting on behalf of the Spanish Government, signed an armistice whereby Spain relinquished its sovereignty over Puerto Rico.
With defeats in Cuba and the Philippines, and both of its fleets destroyed, Spain sued for peace and negotiations were opened between the two parties. After the sickness and death of British consul Edward Henry Rawson - Walker, American admiral George Dewey requested the Belgian consul to Manila, Édouard André, to take Rawson - Walker 's place as intermediary with the Spanish Government.
Hostilities were halted on August 12, 1898, with the signing in Washington of a Protocol of Peace between the United States and Spain. After over two months of difficult negotiations, the formal peace treaty, the Treaty of Paris, was signed in Paris on December 10, 1898, and was ratified by the United States Senate on February 6, 1899.
The United States gained Spain 's colonies of the Philippines, Guam and Puerto Rico in the treaty, and Cuba became a U.S. protectorate. The treaty came into force in Cuba April 11, 1899, with Cubans participating only as observers. Having been occupied since July 17, 1898, and thus under the jurisdiction of the United States Military Government (USMG), Cuba formed its own civil government and gained independence on May 20, 1902, with the announced end of USMG jurisdiction over the island. However, the U.S. imposed various restrictions on the new government, including prohibiting alliances with other countries, and reserved the right to intervene. The U.S. also established a perpetual lease of Guantánamo Bay.
The war lasted ten weeks. John Hay (the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom), writing from London to his friend Theodore Roosevelt, declared that it had been "a splendid little war ''. The press showed Northerners and Southerners, blacks and whites fighting against a common foe, helping to ease the scars left from the American Civil War. Exemplary of this was the fact that four former Confederate States Army generals had served in the war, now in the US Army and all of them again carrying similar ranks. These officers included Matthew Butler, Fitzhugh Lee, Thomas L. Rosser and Joseph Wheeler, though only the latter had seen action. Still, in an exciting moment during the Battle of Las Guasimas, Wheeler apparently forgot for a moment which war he was fighting, having supposedly called out "Let 's go, boys! We 've got the damn Yankees on the run again! ''
The war marked American entry into world affairs. Since then, the U.S. has had a significant hand in various conflicts around the world, and entered many treaties and agreements. The Panic of 1893 was over by this point, and the U.S. entered a long and prosperous period of economic and population growth, and technological innovation that lasted through the 1920s.
The war redefined national identity, served as a solution of sorts to the social divisions plaguing the American mind, and provided a model for all future news reporting.
The idea of American imperialism changed in the public 's mind after the short and successful Spanish -- American War. Due to the United States ' powerful influence diplomatically and militarily, Cuba 's status after the war relied heavily upon American actions. Two major developments emerged from the Spanish -- American War: one, it greatly enforced the United States ' vision of itself as a "defender of democracy '' and as a major world power, and two, it had severe implications for Cuban -- American relations in the future. As historian Louis Pérez argued in his book Cuba in the American Imagination: Metaphor and the Imperial Ethos, the Spanish -- American War of 1898 "fixed permanently how Americans came to think of themselves: a righteous people given to the service of righteous purpose ''.
The war greatly reduced the Spanish Empire. Spain had been declining as an imperial power since the early 19th century as a result of Napoleon 's invasion. The loss of Cuba caused a national trauma because of the affinity of peninsular Spaniards with Cuba, which was seen as another province of Spain rather than as a colony. Spain retained only a handful of overseas holdings: Spanish West Africa (Spanish Sahara), Spanish Guinea, Spanish Morocco, and the Canary Islands.
The Spanish soldier Julio Cervera Baviera, who served in the Puerto Rican Campaign, published a pamphlet in which he blamed the natives of that colony for its occupation by the Americans, saying, "I have never seen such a servile, ungrateful country (i.e., Puerto Rico)... In twenty - four hours, the people of Puerto Rico went from being fervently Spanish to enthusiastically American... They humiliated themselves, giving in to the invader as the slave bows to the powerful lord. '' He was challenged to a duel by a group of young Puerto Ricans for writing this pamphlet.
Culturally, a new wave called the Generation of ' 98 originated as a response to this trauma, marking a renaissance in Spanish culture. Economically, the war benefited Spain, because after the war large sums of capital held by Spaniards in Cuba and the United States were returned to the peninsula and invested in Spain. This massive flow of capital (equivalent to 25 % of the gross domestic product of one year) helped to develop the large modern firms in Spain in the steel, chemical, financial, mechanical, textile, shipyard, and electrical power industries. However, the political consequences were serious. The defeat in the war began the weakening of the fragile political stability that had been established earlier by the rule of Alfonso XII.
The Teller Amendment, which was enacted on April 20, 1898, was a promise from the United States to the Cuban people that it was not declaring war to annex Cuba, but to help it gain its independence from Spain. The Platt Amendment was a move by the United States ' government to shape Cuban affairs without violating the Teller Amendment.
The U.S. Congress had passed the Teller Amendment before the war, promising Cuban independence. However, the Senate passed the Platt Amendment as a rider to an Army appropriations bill, forcing a peace treaty on Cuba which prohibited it from signing treaties with other nations or contracting a public debt. The Platt Amendment was pushed by imperialists who wanted to project U.S. power abroad (in contrast to the Teller Amendment which was pushed by anti-imperialists who called for a restraint on U.S. rule). The amendment granted the United States the right to stabilize Cuba militarily as needed. In addition, the Platt Amendment permitted the United States to deploy Marines to Cuba if its freedom and independence was ever threatened or jeopardized by an external or internal force. The Platt Amendment also provided for a permanent American naval base in Cuba. Guantánamo Bay was established after the signing of the Cuban -- American Treaty of Relations in 1903. Thus, despite that Cuba technically gained its independence after the war ended, the United States government ensured that it had some form of power and control over Cuban affairs.
The U.S. annexed the former Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam. The notion of the United States as an imperial power, with colonies, was hotly debated domestically with President McKinley and the Pro-Imperialists winning their way over vocal opposition led by Democrat William Jennings Bryan, who had supported the war. The American public largely supported the possession of colonies, but there were many outspoken critics such as Mark Twain, who wrote The War Prayer in protest.
Roosevelt returned to the United States a war hero, and he was soon elected governor of New York and then became the vice president. At the age of 42 he became the youngest man to become President after the assassination of President William McKinley.
The war served to further repair relations between the American North and South. The war gave both sides a common enemy for the first time since the end of the Civil War in 1865, and many friendships were formed between soldiers of northern and southern states during their tours of duty. This was an important development, since many soldiers in this war were the children of Civil War veterans on both sides.
The African - American community strongly supported the rebels in Cuba, supported entry into the war, and gained prestige from their wartime performance in the Army. Spokesmen noted that 33 African - American seamen had died in the Maine explosion. The most influential Black leader, Booker T. Washington, argued that his race was ready to fight. War offered them a chance "to render service to our country that no other race can '', because, unlike Whites, they were "accustomed '' to the "peculiar and dangerous climate '' of Cuba. One of the Black units that served in the war was the 9th Cavalry Regiment. In March 1898, Washington promised the Secretary of the Navy that war would be answered by "at least ten thousand loyal, brave, strong black men in the south who crave an opportunity to show their loyalty to our land, and would gladly take this method of showing their gratitude for the lives laid down, and the sacrifices made, that Blacks might have their freedom and rights. ''
In 1904, the United Spanish War Veterans was created from smaller groups of the veterans of the Spanish -- American War. Today, that organization is defunct, but it left an heir in the Sons of Spanish -- American War Veterans, created in 1937 at the 39th National Encampment of the United Spanish War Veterans. According to data from the United States Department of Veterans Affairs, the last surviving U.S. veteran of the conflict, Nathan E. Cook, died on September 10, 1992, at age 106. (If the data is to be believed, Cook, born October 10, 1885, would have been only 12 years old when he served in the war.)
The Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United States (VFW) was formed in 1914 from the merger of two veterans organizations which both arose in 1899: the American Veterans of Foreign Service and the National Society of the Army of the Philippines. The former was formed for veterans of the Spanish -- American War, while the latter was formed for veterans of the Philippine -- American War. Both organizations were formed in response to the general neglect veterans returning from the war experienced at the hands of the government.
To pay the costs of the war, Congress passed an excise tax on long - distance phone service. At the time, it affected only wealthy Americans who owned telephones. However, the Congress neglected to repeal the tax after the war ended four months later, and the tax remained in place for over 100 years until, on August 1, 2006, it was announced that the U.S. Department of the Treasury and the IRS would no longer collect the tax.
The change in sovereignty of Puerto Rico, like the occupation of Cuba, brought about major changes in both the insular and U.S. economies. Before 1898 the sugar industry in Puerto Rico was in decline for nearly half a century. In the second half of the nineteenth century, technological advances increased the capital requirements to remain competitive in the sugar industry. Agriculture began to shift toward coffee production, which required less capital and land accumulation. However, these trends were reversed with U.S. hegemony. Early U.S. monetary and legal policies made it both harder for local farmers to continue operations and easier for American businesses to accumulate land. This, along with the large capital reserves of American businesses, led to a resurgence in the Puerto Rican nuts and sugar industry in the form of large American owned agro-industrial complexes.
At the same time, the inclusion of Puerto Rico into the U.S. tariff system as a customs area, effectively treating Puerto Rico as a state with respect to internal or external trade, increased the codependence of the insular and mainland economies and benefitted sugar exports with tariff protection. In 1897 the United States purchased 19.6 percent of Puerto Rico 's exports while supplying 18.5 percent of its imports. By 1905 these figures jumped to 84 percent and 85 percent, respectively. However, coffee was not protected, as it was not a product of the mainland. At the same time, Cuba and Spain, traditionally the largest importers of Puerto Rican coffee, now subjected Puerto Rico to previously nonexistent import tariffs. These two effects led to a decline in the coffee industry. From 1897 to 1901 coffee went from 65.8 percent of exports to 19.6 percent while sugar went from 21.6 percent to 55 percent. The tariff system also provided a protected market place for Puerto Rican tobacco exports. The tobacco industry went from nearly nonexistent in Puerto Rico to a major part of the country 's agricultural sector.
The Spanish -- American War was the first U.S. war in which the motion picture camera played a role. The Library of Congress archives contain many films and film clips from the war. In addition, a few feature films have been made about the war. These include
The United States awards and decorations of the Spanish -- American War were as follows:
The governments of Spain and Cuba also issued a wide variety of military awards to honor Spanish, Cuban, and Philippine soldiers who had served in the conflict.
Further Notes:
The text of the document as published in the cited source was as follows:
OFFICE OF THE GOVERNMENT AND OF THE CAPTAIN - GENERAL OF THE PHILIPPINES
Fellow Spaniards,
Hostilities between Spain and the United States have broken out.
The moment has come for us to show the world that we are more than courageous to triumph over those, who, feigning to be loyal friends, took advantage of our misfortunes and capitalized on our nobility by making use of the means civilized nations consider as condemnable and contemptible.
The Americans, gratified with their social progress, have drained off our patience and have instigated the war through wicked tactics, treacherous acts, and violations of human rights and internal agreements.
Fighting will be short and decisive. God of victories will render this victory glorious and complete as demanded by reason and justice to our cause.
Spain, counting on the sympathies of all nations, will come out in triumph from this new test, by shattering and silencing the adventurers of those countries which, without cohesiveness and post, offer to humanity shameful traditions and the ungrateful spectacle of some embassies within which jointly dwell intrigues and defamation, cowardice and cynicism.
A US squadron, manned by strangers, by ignorant undisciplined men, is coming into the Archipelago for the purpose of grabbing from us what we consider to be our life, honor freedom. It tries to inspire (motivate) American sailors by saying that we are weak, they are encouraged to keep on with an undertaking that can be accomplished; namely of substituting the Catholic religion with Protestantism, they consider you as a people who impedes growth; they will seize your wealth as if you do not know your rights to property; they will snatch away from you those they consider as useful to man their ships, to be exploited as workers in their fields and factories.
Useless plans! Ridiculous boastings!
Your indomitable courage suffices to hold off those who dare to bring it to reality. We know you will not allow them to mock the faith you are professing, their feet to step on the temple of the true God, incredulity to demolish the sacred images you honor; you will not allow the invaders to desecrate the tombs of your forefathers; to satisfy their immodest passions at the expense of your wives and daughters ' honor; you will not allow them to seize all the properties you have put up through honest work in order to assure your future; you will not allow them to commit any of those crimes inspired by their wickedness and greed, because your bravery and patriotism suffice in scaring them away and knocking down the people who, calling themselves civilized and cultured, resort to the extermination of the natives of North America instead of trying to attract them to live a civilized life and of progress.
Filipinos! Prepare yourself for the battle and united together under the glorious Spanish flag, always covered with laurels, let us fight, convinced that victory will crown our efforts and let us reply the intimations of our enemies with a decision befitting a Christian and patriot, with a cry of "Long live Spain! ''
Manila, April 23, 1898
Your general BASILO AUGISTIN
It has been a splendid little war; begun with the highest motives, carried on with magnificent intelligence and spirit, favored by the fortune which loves the brave. It is now to be concluded, I hope, with that firm good nature which is after all the distinguishing trait of our American character.
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channel of transmission of blood to the heart in the human body | Depolarization - Wikipedia
In biology, depolarization is a change within a cell, during which the cell undergoes a shift in electric charge distribution, resulting in less negative charge inside the cell. Depolarization is essential to the function of many cells, communication between cells, and the overall physiology of an organism.
Most cells in higher organisms maintain an internal environment that is negatively charged relative to the cell 's exterior. This difference in charge is called the cell 's membrane potential. In the process of depolarization, the negative internal charge of the cell temporarily becomes more positive (less negative). This shift from a negative to a more positive membrane potential occurs during several processes, including an action potential. During an action potential, the depolarization is so large that the potential difference across the cell membrane briefly reverses polarity, with the inside of the cell becoming positively charged.
The change in charge typically occurs due to an influx of sodium ions into a cell, although it can be mediated by an influx of any kind of cation or efflux of any kind of anion. The opposite of a depolarization is called a hyperpolarization.
Usage of the term "depolarization '' in biology differs from its use in physics. In physics it refers instead to situations in which any form of polarity changes to a value of zero.
Depolarization is sometimes referred to as "hypopolarization ''.
The process of depolarization is entirely dependent upon the intrinsic electrical nature of most cells. When a cell is at rest, the cell maintains what is known as a resting potential. The resting potential generated by nearly all cells results in the interior of the cell having a negative charge compared to the exterior of the cell. To maintain this electrical imbalance, microscopic positively and negatively charged particles called ions are transported across the cell 's plasma membrane. The transport of the ions across the plasma membrane is accomplished through several different types of transmembrane proteins embedded in the cell 's plasma membrane that function as pathways for ions both into and out of the cell, such as ion channels, sodium potassium pumps, and voltage gated ion channels.
The resting potential must be established within a cell before the cell can be depolarized. There are many mechanisms by which a cell can establish a resting potential, however there is a typical pattern of generating this resting potential that many cells follow. The cell uses ion channels, ion pumps, and voltage gated ion channels to generate a negative resting potential within the cell. However, the process of generating the resting potential within the cell also creates an environment outside the cell that favors depolarization. The sodium potassium pump is largely responsible for the optimization of conditions on both the interior and the exterior of the cell for depolarization. By pumping three positively charged sodium ions (Na) out of the cell for every two positively charged potassium ions (K) pumped into the cell, not only is the resting potential of the cell established, but an unfavorable concentration gradient is created by increasing the concentration of sodium outside the cell and increasing the concentration of potassium within the cell. Although there is an excessive amount of potassium in the cell and sodium outside the cell, the generated resting potential keeps the voltage gated ion channels in the plasma membrane closed, preventing the ions that have been pumped across the plasma membrane from diffusing to an area of lower concentration. Additionally, despite the high concentration of positively - charged potassium ions, most cells contain internal components (of negative charge), which accumulate to establish a negative inner - charge.
After a cell has established a resting potential, that cell has the capacity to undergo depolarization. During depolarization, the membrane potential rapidly shifts from negative to positive. For this rapid change to take place within the interior of the cell, several events must occur along the plasma membrane of the cell. While the sodium -- potassium pump continues to work, the voltage - gated sodium and calcium channels that had been closed while the cell was at resting potential are opened in response to an initial change in voltage. As the sodium ions rush back into the cell, they add positive charge to the cell interior, and change the membrane potential from negative to positive. Once the interior of the cell becomes more positively charged, depolarization of the cell is complete, and the channels close again.
After a cell has been depolarized, it undergoes one final change in internal charge. Following depolarization, the voltage - gated sodium ion channels that had been open while the cell was undergoing depolarization close again. The increased positive charge within the cell now causes the potassium channels to open. Potassium ions (K) begin to move down the electrochemical gradient (in favor of the concentration gradient and the newly established electrical gradient). As potassium moves out of the cell the potential within the cell decreases and approaches its resting potential once more. The sodium potassium pump works continuously throughout this process.
The process of repolarization causes an overshoot in the potential of the cell. Potassium ions continue to move out of the axon so much so that the resting potential is exceeded and the new cell potential becomes more negative than the resting potential. The resting potential is ultimately re-established by the closing of all voltage - gated ion channels and the activity of the sodium potassium ion pump.
Depolarization is essential to the functions of many cells in the human body, which is exemplified by the transmission of stimuli both within a neuron and between two neurons. The reception of stimuli, neural integration of that stimuli, and the neuron 's response to stimuli all rely upon the ability of neurons to utilize depolarization to transmit stimuli either within a neuron or between neurons.
Stimuli to neurons can be a physical, electrical, chemical stimulus, which can either inhibit or excite the neuron being stimulated. An inhibitory stimulus is transmitted to the dendrite of a neuron, causing hyperpolarization of the neuron. The hyperpolarization following an inhibitory stimulus causes a further decrease in voltage within the neuron below the resting potential. By hyperpolarizing a neuron, an inhibitory stimulus results in a greater negative charge that must be overcome for depolarization to occur. Excitation stimuli, on the other hand, increases the voltage in the neuron, which leads to a neuron that is easier to depolarize than the same neuron in the resting state. Regardless of excitatory or inhibitory, the stimuli travel down the dendrites of a neuron to the cell body for integration.
Once the stimuli have reached the cell body, the nerve must integrate the various stimuli before the nerve can respond. The stimuli that have traveled down the dendrites converge at the axon hillock, where they are summed to determine the neuronal response. If the sum of the stimuli reaches a certain voltage, known as the threshold potential, depolarization continues from the axon hillock down the axon.
The surge of depolarization traveling from the axon hillock to the axon terminal is known as an action potential. Action potentials reach the axon terminal, where the action potential triggers the release of neurotransmitters from the neuron. The neurotransmitters that are released from the axon continue on to stimulate other cells such as other neurons or muscle cells. After an action potential travels down the axon of a neuron, the resting membrane potential of the axon must be restored before another action potential can travel the axon. This is known as the recovery period of the neuron, during which the neuron can not transmit another action potential.
The importance and versatility of depolarization within cells can be seen in the relationship between rod cells in the eye and their associated neurons. When rod cells are in the dark, they are depolarized. In the rod cells, this depolarization is maintained by ion channels that remain open due to the higher voltage of the rod cell in the depolarized state. The ion channels allow calcium and sodium to pass freely into the cell, maintaining the depolarized state. Rod cells in the depolarized state constantly release neurotransmitters which in turn stimulate the nerves associated with rod cells. This cycle is broken when rod cells are exposed to light; the absorption of light by the rod cell causes the channels that had facilitated the entry of sodium and calcium into the rod cell to close. When these channels close, the rod cell produces less neurotransmitter, which is perceived by the brain as light. In the case of rod cells and neurons, depolarization actually prevents a signal from reaching the brain as opposed to stimulating the transmission of the signal.
Endothelium is a thin layer of simple squamous epithelial cells that line the interior of both blood and lymph vessels. The endothelium that lines blood vessels is known as vascular endothelium, which is subject to and must withstand the forces of blood flow and blood pressure from the cardiovascular system. To withstand these cardiovascular forces, endothelial cells must simultaneously have a structure capable of withstanding the forces of circulation while also maintaining a certain level of plasticity in the strength of their structure. This plasticity in the structural strength of the vascular endothelium is essential to overall function of the cardiovascular system. Endothelial cells within blood vessels can alter the strength of their structure to maintain the vascular tone of the blood vessel they line, prevent vascular rigidity, and even help to regulate blood pressure within the cardiovascular system. Endothelial cells accomplish these feats by using depolarization to alter their structural strength. When an endothelial cell undergoes depolarization, the result is a marked decrease in the rigidity and structural strength of the cell by altering the network of fibers that provide these cells with their structural support. Depolarization in vascular endothelium is essential not only to the structural integrity of endothelial cells, but also to the ability of the vascular endothelium to aid in the regulation of vascular tone, prevention of vascular rigidity, and the regulation of blood pressure.
Depolarization occurs in the four chambers of the heart: both atria first, and then both ventricles.
This process continues regularly, unless there is a problem in the heart.
There are drugs, called depolarization blocking agents, that cause prolonged depolarization by opening channels responsible for depolarization and not allowing them to close, preventing repolarization. Examples include the nicotinic agonists suxamethonium and decamethonium.
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how big was hugo when it made landfall | Hurricane Hugo - wikipedia
Hurricane Hugo was a powerful Cape Verde -- type hurricane that caused widespread damage and loss of life in Guadeloupe, Saint Croix, Puerto Rico, and the Southeast United States. It formed over the eastern Atlantic near the Cape Verde Islands on September 9, 1989. Hugo moved thousands of miles across the Atlantic, rapidly strengthening to briefly attain category 5 hurricane strength on its journey. It later crossed over Guadeloupe and St. Croix on September 17 and 18 as a category 4 hurricane. Weakening slightly more, it passed over Puerto Rico as a strong category 3 hurricane. Further weakening occurred several hours after re-emerging into the Atlantic, becoming downgraded to a category 2 hurricane. However, it re-strengthened into a category 4 hurricane before making landfall just slightly north of Charleston, on Isle of Palms on September 21 with 140 mph sustained winds (gusts to more than 160 mph). It had devolved to a remnant low near Lake Erie by the next day. As of 2016, Hurricane Hugo is the most intense tropical cyclone to strike the East Coast north of Florida since 1898.
Hurricane Hugo caused 34 fatalities (most by electrocution or drowning) in the Caribbean and 27 in South Carolina, left nearly 100,000 homeless, and resulted in $10 billion (1989 USD) in damage overall, making it the most damaging hurricane ever recorded at the time. Of this total, $7 billion was from the United States and Puerto Rico, ranking it as the costliest storm to impact the country at the time. Since 1989, however, it has been surpassed by multiple storms and now ranks as the eleventh costliest in the United States.
Hurricane Hugo originated as a tropical wave (which also spawned Hurricane Raymond), which moved off the west coast of Africa on September 9. Soon after moving off the African coast, it was classified as Tropical Depression Eleven southeast of the Cape Verde Islands. Winds were initially 30 mph (48 km / h) but they reached 35 mph (56 km / h) soon after. Moving on a steady westward track at 18 knots (21 mph, 33 k / h), Tropical Depression Eleven steadily intensified, becoming Tropical Storm Hugo on September 11 at 1800 UTC. On September 13, Hugo rapidly intensified, and reached hurricane strength 1265 miles (2035 km) east of the Leeward Islands. A low - pressure area to the south caused Hugo to gradually turn to the west - northwest, while the storm was slowly strengthening. Shortly after, Hurricane Hugo began to rapidly intensify; 24 hours after it was classified as a hurricane, it had become a category 2 hurricane. After this bout of rapid strengthening, Hugo began to rapidly deepen, becoming a major hurricane early the next morning.
After becoming a major hurricane, and maintaining Category 3 strength for a day, Hugo reached Category 4 strength, and began to rapidly intensify again, while moving slowly west - northwest. Becoming a Category 5 Hurricane, its maximum sustained winds had increased to 160 mph (260 km / h) and the minimum central pressure had dropped to 918 millibars (27.1 inHg). In the early hours of September 17, Hugo crossed in between Guadeloupe and Montserrat while its winds were near 140 mph (230 km / h), when hurricane - force winds extended only 45 mi (72 km) from the center. Less than 24 hours later, it made another landfall on the island of St. Croix, with the same intensity. That day, Hurricane Hugo also made landfalls in Puerto Rico, in Vieques and Fajardo, though it was slightly weaker.
Hugo began to accelerate to the northwest soon after exiting eastern Puerto Rico. On September 18, the hurricane was located a couple of hundred miles east of Florida when it began a more northward track, in response to a steering flow associated with an upper - level low pressure area that was moving across the southeastern United States. Hugo then began to strengthen again, and it reached a secondary peak at 1800 UTC on September 21 as a Category 4 hurricane. The maximum sustained winds were 140 mph (230 km / h), while the minimum central pressure was 944 millibars (27.9 inHg). On September 22 at 0400 UTC, Hugo made landfall on Sullivan 's Island, South Carolina, at its secondary peak as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir -- Simpson Hurricane Scale with 140 - mph sustained winds and a central pressure of 934 millibars (27.6 inHg).
The storm continued inland, and weakened to a very strong tropical storm as it passed over Charlotte, North Carolina. Hugo continued on the weakening trend and weakened to a tropical storm later on the same day over central North Carolina. The storm continued weakening as it moved inland, and on September 23, the storm weakened to a remnant low. Its remnant low continued to accelerate north, and it reached the far northern Atlantic before dissipating on September 25.
Late on September 15, the National Weather Service Office in San Juan, Puerto Rico issued a hurricane watch. On the following day, it was upgraded to a hurricane warning. In addition, the Civil Defense Office of Puerto Rico activated its Disaster Interagency Committee and began to evacuate coastal residents. Savannah was evacuated in anticipation of Hugo, but saw no effects of the storm other than isolated and light showers. Had Hugo hit Savannah, it would have been the first major hurricane to make landfall in Georgia since Hurricane Seven of the 1898 season. Governor Carroll Campbell of South Carolina ordered an evacuation of the South Carolina coast in advance of the storm.
Hugo caused nearly $7 billion (1989 US $) in damage in the mainland United States and Puerto Rico. At the time it was the costliest hurricane in U.S. history, but was exceeded in 1992 by Hurricane Andrew, and by seven other storms since then. It remains the eleventh costliest hurricane in U.S. history. An additional $3 billion of damages was reported throughout the Caribbean. Therefore, total damages from the storm were near $10 billion (1989 US $).
Sources differ on the number of people killed by Hugo, with some citing the American Meteorological Society 's figure of 49, and others claiming 56 deaths.
Severe damage was reported throughout the islands of the Caribbean. The storm caused an estimated $3 billion in damages in the Caribbean (including $1.8 billion in the USVI). The storm also took USVI television station WBNB - TV off the air by destroying their transmitter.
At 1 am AST on September 17, 1989, Hurricane Hugo made a direct landfall on Grande - Terre in Guadeloupe, pounding the island with incredibly ferocious Category 4 sustained winds of 140 mph (220 km / h). A storm surge of up to eight ft (2.5 m) topped by high battering waves smashed ashore. Hugo wreaked massive devastation on the island, especially in La Désirade and Grande - Terre. The hurricane damaged 30 % of the buildings on the island and completely destroyed 10,000 homes (most of which were archaic houses), leaving a total of at least 90,000 or nearly 30 % of the island 's 340,000 people seriously affected, with 35,000 rendered homeless. 70 % of the businesses sustained damages, including hotels, schools and churches. Five people died and 107 were injured. An additional seven people were killed three days after the storm, when a medical helicopter crashed while evacuating victims in La Désirade. The storm almost completely destroyed (80 %) the towns of Le Moule and Saint - François, on the island 's eastern end. Debris blocked at least 30 % of the island 's roads. Agriculture suffered massive losses that took years to recover from, as Hugo flattened 100 % of the banana crop, 50 % of the sugar cane crop and destroyed nearly all of the island 's coconut palms. In addition, most of Guadeloupe 's fishing fleet was wiped out. Total damage to the island from Hugo amounted to 4 billions francs or $880 million (1989 USD).
Hugo 's winds knocked the airport control tower out of commission; Raizet Airport anenometer experienced 90 mph (144 km / h) sustained winds as well as a 117 mph (187 km / h) sustained gust before failing. Minimal pressure fell to 943 mb (27.79 inHg) as the eye passed after midnight. In a French navy marine vessel in Pointe - à - Pitre bay, gusts reported to reach 184 mph (296 km / h).
Hugo was the strongest storm to impact Guadeloupe since Hurricane Cleo (1964), and the worst storm since Hurricane Inez (1966). In addition it was the strongest hurricane to hit the island since the legendary 1899, the longest - lived Atlantic hurricane of all time and the 1928 storm.
Strong winds from Hugo pounded the British Dependent Territory of Montserrat. Nearly every home on the island was damaged to some degree, leaving 11,000 out of 12,000 people, over 90 % of the islands residents, homeless. Numerous schools, churches, the hospital, the police department, the government headquarters, and the main power station were either destroyed or heavily damaged, disrupting electrical, water, and telephone service for weeks. A 180 feet (55 m) stone jetty was destroyed at Plymouth due to a storm surge of 20 feet (6.1 m). Inland, rainfall up to 7 inches (180 mm) created mudslides at the foot of Chances Peak, destroying 21 homes. Ten people were killed, 89 were injured, and damage reached at least $260 million, making it the most expensive hurricane in the history of Montserrat. Tourism and agriculture also suffered significantly. Additionally, the local bat population was devastated, with an estimated 90 percent decrease in numbers after Hugo 's passage. The species Chiroderma improvisum has not been seen on Montserrat since, and it is feared that it may be extinct on the island.
The slower speed allowed Hugo to punish the island of St. Croix with the worst beating of any location along the hurricane 's destructive path. At 2 am local time on September 18, Hugo 's eyewall struck St. Croix, bringing Category 4 winds, sustained at 140 mph (220 km / h). The hurricane 's gusts were remarkably violent, and many residents witnessed tornado - like vortices barreling across the island as the hurricane raged about them. A storm surge of 2 -- 3 ft (0.61 -- 0.91 m), topped by battering waves 20 -- 23 ft (6.1 -- 7.0 m) high, assaulted the coast, adding to the destruction. Two people were killed on St. Croix, 80 injured, and 90 % of the buildings were damaged or destroyed. Damage estimates for St. Croix were astronomical, over $1 billion, and the island 's entire infrastructure was virtually wiped out. Six weeks after the hurricane, only 25 % of the public roads had been cleared, and only 25 % of the island had power. ''
On the island of St. Thomas, the damage was bad but not nearly as extensive. Television station WBNB - TV channel 10 (the local CBS affiliate) had its transmitter completely destroyed by Hurricane Hugo. The station would not return to the air, because of the damages, and the owners ' inability to afford repairs. Many business were destroyed. West Indies Transport had operated several businesses in Krum Bay, St. Thomas, including a dry dock, a ship repair facility, and a barge towing company. In UNITED STATES v. WEST INDIES TRANSPORT INC 96 7063 WIT 96 7064 96 7065 it was written that "Hurricane Hugo seriously damaged some of the barges, shifting them from their permitted positions. West Indies Transport did not attempt to repair, reposition, or salvage these barges after the storm. Instead, it used these barges as docks, repair facilities, and housing for employees in their new unauthorized locations. '' The company officers were charged and convicted of environmental and other crimes and ordered to pay restitution in excess of a million dollars to the U.S. in 1997.
Damage in Puerto Rico was severe, especially in the eastern part of the island. Naval Station Roosevelt Roads had heavy damage, to include loss of control tower capability for the airfield, necessitating employment of a temporary control tower during recovery efforts. The agricultural sector was devastated, with the banana and coffee crops being almost completely wiped out. Heavy rains caused severe flooding in the vicinity of San Juan; in addition, several roads and bridges were washed away.
In all, 12 deaths in Puerto Rico are attributed to Hugo, six of which occurred in the southern city of Guayama where some residents were electrocuted by downed power lines. Nearly 28,000 people were left homeless by the storm as damages exceeded $1 billion.
The storm caused $7 billion in damage in the United States, surpassing Hurricane Frederic of 1979 as the costliest tropical cyclone in that country. Hugo itself was surpassed by Hurricane Andrew in 1992 and several others over the next few decades. South Carolina suffered the worst impact, where Hugo made landfall as a Category 4 hurricane. In that state alone, 3,307 single family homes were destroyed, 18,171 were inflicted major damage, and 56,580 sustained minor impact, while more than 12,600 mobile homes and 18,000 multi -- family houses were either damaged or destroyed. Losses reached at least $5.9 billion and there were thirty - five fatalities reported in South Carolina. There was also significant impact in North Carolina, where 205 structures were destroyed, 1,149 were severely damaged, and 2,638 suffered minor losses. One fatality occurred and damage in North Carolina reached about $1 billion.
Impact in Florida was minimal. The highest sustained winds in the state reached only 21 mph (34 km / h) in Jacksonville. At the same location, a trace of rainfall was also reported. Conditions were even lesser in St. Augustine, though wind gusts were slightly higher than in Jacksonville. To the north in Georgia, minor storm surge was reported, with the highest measured as 1.4 feet (0.43 m) above normal in Fort Pulaski. Sustained winds of 58 mph (93 km / h) was reported at the Tybee Island Lighthouse, and this was the only record of tropical storm force winds in Georgia. Near tropical storm force winds were measured at the Savannah / Hilton Head International Airport, along with 6.1 inches (150 mm) of rain. High winds in Brunswick downed five trees, one of which struck a house. Additionally, winds felled at least 50 trees in the Savannah area, and two homes were struck. Scattered downed tree limbs were also reported in Hinesville and Bryan County, though no damage occurred.
Because it was a Category 4 hurricane at landfall, the storm brought strong winds to many areas of South Carolina. In Downtown Charleston, sustained winds of 87 mph (140 km / h) were reported, along with gusts of 108 mph (174 km / h). The local National Weather Service office at Charleston International Airport recorded sustained winds of 78 mph (126 km / h) and gusts up to 97 mph (156 km / h). In Folly Beach, sustained winds of 85 mph (137 km / h) and a gust of 107 mph (172 km / h) were reported. The strongest wind gust of 120 mph (190 km / h) was recorded by the Snow Goose, which was anchored along the Sampit River near Georgetown. Extensive property damage was reported in several counties, especially in the South Carolina Lowcountry and the Grand Strand. More than 227,800 residences experienced power outages, and 85 % of Bamberg and Orangeburg Counties were left without electricity, while Marion County became completely void of electrical services. Extensive losses reaching $1 billion were reported at Francis Marion National Forest where about 8,800 square miles (23,000 km) of trees were downed, enough timber to build 660,000 homes.
Storm surge and rough tides also caused extensive damage, especially in Charleston County. The highest storm surge observation was 20.2 feet (6.2 m) at Seewee Bay near McClellanville. Prior to the storm, residents of McClellanville took shelter in the cafeteria at Lincoln High School. However, storm surge flooded the room, with some people climbing up to the rafters for safety. A portion of the Ben Sawyer Bridge -- linking Mount Pleasant to Sullivan 's Island -- collapsed due to strong winds and storm surge. On Sullivan 's Island, water destroyed two or three rows of beach houses in some areas. At Isle of Palms, boats harbored at the marina were washed ashore and piled into a large heap. Losses at Sullivan 's Island and Isle of Palms reached nearly $270 million.
Rainfall was moderate, due to the storm 's fast motion, peaking at 10.28 in (261 mm) at Edisto Island. No widespread flooding was reported, though a combination of rain and strong winds resulted in significant agriculture losses. The Red Cross estimates that 3,307 single family homes were destroyed, 18,171 were inflicted major damage, and 56,580 sustained minor impact. Additionally, more than 12,600 mobile homes and 18,000 multi-family houses were either damaged or destroyed. Damage from Hurricane Hugo in South Carolina was estimated at $5.9 billion. Hugo remains the strongest and costliest hurricane in the history of the state. There were 35 deaths, two from asphyxiation, four from collapsing houses, two from falling trees, nine from fire and smoke inhalation, six from drowning, four from electrocutions, six from heart attacks, one fatal accidental self -- injury during clean -- up, and one from unknown cause.
North Carolina 's coastline suffered significant damage along its southward - facing beaches, including Brunswick County and the Outer Banks.
The storm reached Charlotte at 3 AM, only six hours after landfall. By this time, it was still a fairly strong tropical storm with sustained winds of 54 mph (87 km / h) and gusts of 87 mph (140 km / h). This was enough to topple trees across roads and houses, leaving many without power, closing schools for as long as two weeks, and spawning several tornadoes. Charlotte is roughly 150 miles (240 km) inland, and many coastal residents from both Carolinas went there to wait out the storm.
By 7: 00 am, it was still strong enough to cause heavy rain and tear down hundreds of trees in Conover.
Damages in that state alone estimated at $1 billion (1989 USD, $1.97 billion 2018 USD).
The ocean liner Queen Elizabeth 2 which had sailed from Southampton on September 17 encountered the hurricane and was delayed for two extra days at sea, having initially attempted to sail at full speed south to outrun the storm and cross the Atlantic, behind it, to New York. The ship had much damage to the public parts of the vessel, including the shops and the bridge; the swimming pools were all emptied to prevent large amounts of water shifting precariously as the ship pitched and tossed. Hugo moved quickly through western Virginia, West Virginia, and eastern Ohio to Erie, Pennsylvania. By the evening of September 22, it became an extratropical cyclone. Hugo caused schools in southwest Virginia to be closed for more than two weeks because of the wind and flooding damage. Winds peaked at 37 mph (60 km / h) at Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport.
In New York, downed power lines due to strong winds left nearly 85,000 homes and businesses on Long Island without electricity. In the central portions of the state, winds downed several trees. The last death in relation to Hurricane Hugo occurred near Buffalo when the winds toppled a tree onto a motorist. The storm then moved northeastward across eastern Canada into the far North Atlantic Ocean.
In Connecticut, wind gusts associated with the remnants of Hugo peaked at 49 mph (79 km / h) in Bridgeport. The winds caused minor property damage, while falling trees and tree limbs briefly left up to 30,000 customers without electricity. Gusty winds in Massachusetts left several thousand people without power, while also toppling trees and tree limbs, which caused minor damage to houses and cars. Additionally, apple orchards were impacted, with some losing up to their 30 % of their crops. Strong winds throughout the state of Vermont downed power lines, trees, and tree limbs. Some boats on Lake Champlain were torn from their moorings due to swells up to several feet in height. In Rhode Island, the outer fringes of the remnants of Hugo produced wind gusts between 40 and 50 mph (64 and 80 km / h), causing minor property damage and scattered power outages.
After becoming extratropical, the remnants of Hugo entered Canada into the province of Ontario. In the Niagara Falls area, winds between 37 and 43 mph (60 and 70 km / h) were reported. Winds near 47 mph (75 km / h) were also reported in Toronto. Heavy rainfall also occurred in Ontario, with precipitation in Ontario peaking at 4.5 in (110 mm), while a maximum amount of 1.85 in (47 mm) was reported in Toronto. As a result of the storm, blackouts and car accidents were reported in Toronto. Furthermore, heavy rains and high winds also occurred across the southern portions of Ontario.
The remnants of Hugo tracked northeastward and entered the Canadian province of Quebec. In Montreal, rainfall reached only 0.43 in (11 mm), while precipitation amounts in the province peaked at 3.73 in (95 mm). In addition to light rain, high winds were reported in the province. Winds in Montreal gusted up to 59 mph (95 km / h), leaving 13,400 homes without electricity. 7,400 residence in Verdun and West Island also lost electricity when tree fell on power lines; it was restored about 12 hours later. While in Brossard and Chambly power was lost to 5,000 homes and 1,000 homes in Valleyfield. In addition, high winds and heavy rainfall also occurred in the St. Lawrence River Valley.
Similar effects were reported in New Brunswick, though little rainfall occurred in the province. Winds gusting to 77 mph (124 km / h) was reported in Moncton. As a result of high winds, power poles were toppled and tree branches fell, which caused most of New Brunswick 's 15,000 power failures. In addition, several tree and signs were blown over in Saint John and Moncton. The storm also significantly affected the apple crop in New Brunswick. Strong winds were also reported in Newfoundland, with gusts recorded up to 43 mph (69 km / h).
Extensive relief aid was provided throughout by the Salvation Army, the Red Cross, and various churches.
On the island of Saint Croix, looting and lawlessness reigned in the aftermath of Hugo. In Operation Hawkeye, then - President of the United States George H.W. Bush ordered federal forces to Saint Croix to suppress the violence, protect property, and restore law and order. Elements of the Army, Navy and the Coast Guard, along with a contingent from the U.S. Marshals Service and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), formed Joint Task Force (JTF) 40 for Operation Hawkeye. It also resulted in the first operational deployment of the National Disaster Medical System (NDMS), when the New Mexico - 1 Disaster Medical Assistance Team (DMAT) was deployed to assist in medical care needs of the stricken island. Three days after the storm hit, the Governor of the United States Virgin Islands Alexander Farrelly asked President Bush for federal assistance in restoring order to the island.
National Basketball Association player Tim Duncan, born in Christiansted and a two - time NBA MVP, of the San Antonio Spurs attributed his basketball career to Hurricane Hugo 's destruction. When Tim was 13 years old he was a competitive swimmer who was considered one of the top United States competitors for the 400 - meter freestyle. However, in the aftermath of Hugo, every swimming pool on Saint Croix was destroyed, including the Olympic - size swimming pool. With no pool to practice in, Duncan turned to basketball. Tim Duncan said, "I 'm very fortunate to be where I am today. Without Hugo, I might still be swimming. '' A resident of St. Croix recorded the hurricane and aftermath on a VHS video camera. After being evacuated from the island days later, the video footage was aired on WGAL channel 8 from Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and picked up by NBC and aired as part of the nightly news. This was credited as the first "official '' eye witness footage shown on U.S. national television. About 20 years later, Weather Underground member Jeff Masters wrote and described his experience on Saint Croix during the hurricane, noting that "in some respects, after 20 years, there are many aspects of the society that have yet to recover ''.
After the storm, Governor Carroll Campbell said that the storm destroyed enough timber in South Carolina to "frame a home for every family in the state of West Virginia ''. An immense salvage effort was undertaken to harvest downed pine trees for pulpwood before they deteriorated to the point where they could not be used. Still standing timber that appeared usable for lumber and plywood frequently had annular separations of the rings that made them dangerous to saw and nearly impossible to cut into plies, so they were also downgraded into pulpwood, leading to such a drop in pulpwood prices that eventually much of the salvage effort ceased. In South Carolina, which bore the brunt of the storm, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) was slow in responding. United States Senator from South Carolina Fritz Hollings referred to the agency as "a bunch of bureaucratic jackasses '' during a speech on the floor of the United States Senate. An investigation was launched, which led to some reforms in FEMA procedures that helped the agency do a somewhat better job during Hurricane Andrew, the next catastrophic hurricane to strike the United States. However, FEMA was criticized severely in 2005 for its similarly insufficient response to Hurricane Katrina.
Due to the extensive damage, the name Hugo was retired following this storm, and will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane. It was replaced with Humberto in the 1995 season.
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get rich or die tryin based on true story | Get Rich or Die Tryin ' (film) - Wikipedia
Get Rich or Die Tryin ' is a 2005 American biopic crime film starring 50 Cent, in his feature film acting debut. It was released on November 9, 2005, and was known as Locked and Loaded during production. Similar to the 2002 Eminem film 8 Mile, which it used as a template, the film is loosely based on Cent 's own life and was directed by Jim Sheridan. The name of the film is shared with 50 Cent 's 2003 debut album of the same name.
After Marcus and his friends rob a Colombian safe house, Marcus is shot nine times. As the unidentified shooter points the gun to Marcus ' head and pulls the trigger, the film flashes back to his childhood.
Marcus is a quiet young boy who adores his loving mother, and the two live a relatively comfortable life on her drug - dealing income. She often has to leave him with his grandparents while she conducts business. She is murdered in an apparent drug deal gone wrong.
Forced to live with his grandparents full - time, they themselves also having children to look after, Marcus finds his life less appealing as his grandfather works long hours to support the family. As he grows older, he rejects the idea of legal work and decides to deal drugs, buying new clothing and a gun. Eventually he abandons high school to sell drugs for local kingpin Levar and his underling, Majestic, full - time. Majestic, however, plans to become a major drug lord himself, often conspiring with a Rap artist he manages named Dangerous.
Years later, after Marcus reunites with his childhood sweetheart Charlene, one of his friends is shot and paralyzed at a club by a Colombian named Raul; the gunman initially aimed for Marcus. In retaliation, Marcus attacks Raul but is unable to bring himself to kill Raul when he realises murdering him would get him in trouble and it was n't worth it so like Raul did to Antwan, Marcus shoots Raul in the legs multiple times to avenge what Raul did to his friend
When Raul refuses to identify Marcus as the shooter in a police line up, he is free to go. After an anonymous tip off, cops raid his house and find a gun and drugs, which did n't belong to Marcus. Marcus is jailed, and during his time in prison, he befriends an inmate named Bama.
After encouragement from Bama, Marcus leaves the drug trade behind to pursue and fulfill his lifelong dream of being a rapper, calling himself Young Caesar. Bama joins as his manager and producer. Bama gets out of prison before Marcus but promises he will see him again.
When Marcus leaves prison, Bama, Justice, Majestic, and June Bug are waiting for him. Majestic invites Marcus to become his right - hand man (taking June Bug 's place), but Marcus tells him of his aspirations to being a rapper, which Majestic laughs off. Marcus leaves with Bama, taking Justice with him.
Justice and Bama initially have a clash of personalities, but Marcus calms them after a roadside stop. Unconvinced of Marcus ' dream, Justice informs Majestic of his activities. As Marcus more seriously pursues music, Majestic tries everything in his power to sabotage his success, threatening record label employees, DJs, and more. Marcus refuses to stop and taunts Majestic and Dangerous in songs.
Despite Marcus ' insistence at avoiding crime, Bama convinces him to carry out one last robbery on a Colombian safe house. While this happens, Majestic targets Marcus for death. After Marcus and his crew complete the robbery, the film returns to the 1st scene. It is then revealed that Marcus is shot outside of his family 's home by Justice. Marcus rethinks his life, prioritizing his young child. After a long and painful recovery, he records music again.
Angered with Justice 's failure, Majestic kills him. Shortly after, Marcus meets with Levar, who remorsefully reveals that he is Marcus ' biological father and regrets not being there for him and his mother.
Marcus prepares to go on stage. In the moments before the show, he angers Majestic, who reveals he killed Marcus ' mother years earlier. A fight ensues, and Marcus wins. Bama finally convinces Marcus to start the show, as Majestic is n't worth it. As Marcus is about to walk out on stage, Majestic tries to stab him. However, Bama shoots and wounds him. Majestic begs for Marcus to kill him, but Marcus does n't. Instead, Marcus leaves Majestic in the hands of his cronies, and as he walks out towards the crowd, he stops as he hears a gunshot in the room behind him. There, Bama fires more shots into Majestic 's corpse.
Marcus steps onto the stage and performs "Hustler 's Ambition ''.
The soundtrack was released on November 8, 2005. In December 2005, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the album platinum. The album has so far sold over 3 million copies worldwide.
Samuel L. Jackson publicly turned down an offer to co-star in the film, citing that he did not want to lend credence to what he believed was an inexperienced and unproven actor. Film critic Roger Ebert wrote of Jackson 's decision: "... Jackson is arguing against the anti-intellectual message that success for young black males is better sought in the worlds of rap and sports than in the classroom ''. Jackson and 50 Cent later co-starred in the 2006 film Home of the Brave.
Get Rich or Die Tryin ' holds a 16 % approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes based upon 117 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads, "While it may be based upon 50 Cent 's own life experiences, Get Rich or Die Tryin ' is too similar to many other rags - to - riches stories to resonate. '' Radio Times criticized the film, saying that "as a vehicle for hip - hop superstar Curtis ' 50 Cent ' Jackson, this (film) runs out of gas a fair few kilometres short '', giving it a "could be worse '' rating of 2 / 5 stars. CinePassion stated that "(Jim) Sheridan 's surface vividness is applied around a vacuum. ''
FilmFocus said that the film 's "real danger is that it sets a precedent for the director; if the price is right he 's on board ''. The BBC was not entirely impressed with the film, saying that "while it boasts a first - class director and is loosely based on the singer 's own life - story, the results leave you feeling a little short - changed ''.
Jonathan Ross gave a positive review, calling Get Rich or Die Tryin ' "gripping '' and suggesting that it had "excellent performances ''. Roger Ebert also praised the film, giving the film a 3 out of 4 rating and saying that it was "a film with a rich and convincing texture, a drama with power and anger ''.
Get Rich or Die Tryin ' grossed $12,020,807 in its opening weekend. Altogether, the film grossed $46,442,528 in total worldwide.
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when is the meyerowitz stories coming to netflix | The Meyerowitz Stories - wikipedia
The Meyerowitz Stories (New and Selected) is a 2017 American comedy - drama film directed and written by Noah Baumbach. The film stars Adam Sandler, Ben Stiller, Dustin Hoffman, Elizabeth Marvel and Emma Thompson, and follows a group of dysfunctional adult siblings trying to live in the shadow of their dysfunctional father.
The Meyerowitz Stories was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or in the main competition section and also won the Palm Dog award at the 2017 Cannes Film Festival. The film has received positive reviews from critics, who praised Baumbach 's script and the performances, with Sandler especially singled out for praise. It was released in select theaters and on streaming by Netflix on October 13, 2017.
After separating from his wife, unemployed Danny Meyerowitz (Adam Sandler) moves in with father Harold (Dustin Hoffman), a retired Bard College art professor and sculptor, and his third wife, Maureen (Emma Thompson), a pleasant if foggy alcoholic. Danny has a younger sister, Jean (Elizabeth Marvel), and they have a younger half - brother, Matthew (Ben Stiller). Danny is close to his daughter, Eliza (Grace Van Patten), who is starting college at Bard College as a film student. Some of Harold 's work has been selected as part of a faculty group show at Bard, but Harold refuses to be part of a group show. Danny and Harold attend the MoMA retrospective of a friend and contemporary of Harold 's, the more successful L.J. Shapiro (Judd Hirsch). There neither father nor son feels comfortable; Harold is stung by signs that the art world has forgotten him and chooses to literally run away down the street. Danny meets Shapiro 's daughter, his childhood friend Loretta (Rebecca Miller), but he must leave to chase after Harold.
Harold 's younger son Matthew, a successful financial advisor to rock stars on the other side of the continent in Los Angeles, is in New York on business and meets Harold for lunch with an accountant friend. They try to counsel Harold to sell his Manhattan home and the sculpture stored there, since Harold and Maureen can barely pay the townhouse 's utilities. Harold tells them that whether to sell the house will be a private family decision and stalks out. At a third restaurant he criticizes the prices, but orders lavishly once Matthew says he 'll pay. Soon he decides he has been insulted and robbed as well, and the rapidly regressing Matthew is inveigled into another scene involving running, chasing and embarrassment. The two bond slightly in self - righteous indignation. That evening they pay a visit to Matthew 's mother, Harold 's second wife Julia (Candice Bergen), who has since married a man named Cody, a wealthy philistine. Julia tells Harold and Matthew that she is sorry she was not a better mother to Harold 's three children; her directness makes them very uncomfortable and they ca n't leave fast enough. Matthew resents Harold for his preference for a life of art over money. "I beat you! '' he screams at his father 's departing Volvo.
Harold has been living with an undiagnosed brain injury. He enters hospital, where as the days pass his children learn to manage his care themselves, after first leaning on Harold 's doctor and nurse to take that responsibility. Outside the hospital Jean tells her brothers that the family friend who happens to be visiting Harold at the moment sexually assaulted her when she was a child. Matthew and Danny let her walk away from them, then attack the friend 's car with mounting exhilaration. At Bard to represent their father at the faculty group show, Matthew and Danny get into a fight, of sorts, on the quad; later, bloody and crying, each makes remarks in Harold 's place, mostly about themselves. As Harold convalesces at Maureen 's place in the country (the townhouse has been sold, despite Matthew 's change of heart), it dawns on Matthew and Harold that Harold 's favorite sculpture "Matthew '', a lifelong object of resentment for Danny and Jean, was probably based on his feelings for Danny. Danny, who up to now has been solicitous toward his father, refuses to care for him while Maureen is away and accepts his brother 's offer of a trip to California. On the way to the plane he meets Loretta, now single, and she suggests they go together to the screening of a film Eliza has made. In the basement of the Whitney Eliza uncovers the sculpture lent by her grandfather, long believed to have been lost.
Principal photography on the film began on March 7, 2016 in New York City. Hospital footage was filmed at Phelps Memorial Hospital Center in Sleepy Hollow, New York and Lenox Hill Hospital in Manhattan. Production concluded on May 9, 2016.
During filming, the movie was known by the working title Yeh Din Ka Kissa, "The Tale of This Day '' in Hindi.
In April 2017, Netflix acquired distribution rights to the film. It had its world premiere at the Cannes Film Festival on May 21, 2017, where it received a four - minute standing ovation.
The film was released in select theaters and streaming on Netflix on October 13, 2017.
On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 92 % based on 143 reviews, and an average rating of 7.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "The Meyerowitz Stories (New and Selected) observes the family dynamic through writer - director Noah Baumbach 's bittersweet lens and the impressive efforts of a remarkable cast. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a weighted average score of 79 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars and praised the cast and script, saying: "They 're a smart and sophisticated and relatively privileged bunch, but they 're miserable and ridiculous, which makes for some poignant insights and some sharp comedy. We enjoy the Meyerowitz clan, even as we praise the heavens we 're not like them and we do n't live next door to any of ' em. '' Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers also gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, writing, "Noah Baumbach 's funny, literate story gives Dustin Hoffman, Adam Sandler and Ben Stiller plum roles -- and may be the best thing he 's ever done. ''
Peter Debruge of Variety gave the film a positive review, calling it the best Netflix film to date and praising Sandler 's performance, writing: "With no shtick to fall back on, Sandler is forced to act, and it 's a glorious thing to watch -- even for those fans who like him best in perpetual man - child mode (do n't worry: the character is a full - grown variation on that familiar Sandler prototype). '' Other critics were equal with their praise of Sandler, with various outlets calling his performance a "triumph, '' "miraculously great '' and "it 's time to admit that Adam Sandler is actually a good actor. ''
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jana gana mana full song lyrics in hindi | Jana Gana Mana - Wikipedia
"Jana Gana Mana '' (Hindi: (ɟənə gəɳə mənə)) is the national anthem of India. It was originally composed as Bharoto Bhagyo Bidhata in Bengali by poet Rabindranath Tagore. The first stanza of the song Bharoto Bhagyo Bidhata in its Hindi version was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India as the National Anthem on 24 January 1950. A formal rendition of the national anthem takes approximately fifty - two seconds. A shortened version consisting of the first and last lines (and taking about 20 seconds to play) is also staged occasionally. It was first publicly sung on 27 December 1911 at the Calcutta (now, Kolkata) Session of the Indian National Congress.
A separate poem, Vande Mataram, was created "national song '' of India during both the colonial period and after independence in 1950.
The poem was first sung on the second day of the annual session of the Indian National Congress in Calcutta on December 27, 1911, and again in January 1912 at the annual event of the Adi Brahmo Samaj. Though the Bengali song had been written in 1911, it was largely unknown except to the readers of the Adi Brahmo Samaj journal, Tattwabodhini Patrika, of which Tagore was the editor.
Song was performed by Sarala Devi Chowdhurani, Tagore 's niece, along with a group of school students, in front of prominent Congress Members like Bishan Narayan Dhar, Indian National Congress President and Ambika Charan Majumdar.
In 1912, the song was published under the title Bharat Bhagya Bidhata in the Tatwabodhini Patrika, which was the official publication of the Brahmo Samaj and of which Tagore was the Editor.
Outside of Calcutta, the song was first sung by the bard himself at a session in Besant Theosophical College in Madanapalle, Andhra Pradesh on February 28, 1919 when Tagore visited the college and sung the song. The song enthralled the college students while Margaret Cousins, then vice-principal of the college (also an expert in European music and wife of Irish poet James Cousins), both requested Tagore to create an English translation of the song and set down the musical notation to the national anthem, which is followed only when the song is sung in the original slow rendition style. Tagore translated the work into English while at the college on February 28, 1919, titled The Morning Song of India. Wikisource... The college adopted Tagore 's translation of the song as their prayer song which is sung till today.
Before it was the national anthem of India, "Jana Gana Mana '' was heard in the film Hamrahi (1945).
On the occasion of India attaining freedom, the Indian Constituent Assembly assembled for the first time as a sovereign body on August 14, 1947, midnight and the session closed with a unanimous performance of Jana Gana Mana.
The members of the Indian Delegation to the General Assembly of the United Nations held at New York in 1947 gave a recording of Jana Gana Mana as the country 's national anthem. The song was played by the house orchestra in front of a gathering consisting of representatives from all over the world.
The National Anthem of India is played or sung on various occasions. Instructions have been issued from time to time about the correct versions of the Anthem, the occasions on which these are to be played or sung, and about the need for paying respect to the anthem by observance of proper decorum on such occasions. The substance of these instructions has been embodied in the information sheet issued by the government of India for general information and guidance. The approximate duration of the Full Version of National Anthem of India is 52 seconds and 20 seconds for shorter version.
The poem was composed in a literary register of the Bengali language called sadhu bhasa. The song has been written almost entirely using nouns that also can function as verbs and has commonality with all major languages in India due to Sanskrit being their common source of formal vocabulary. Therefore, the original song is quite clearly understandable, and in fact, remains almost unchanged in several widely different Indian languages (if variations in inherent vowel and pronunciation of approximants and some sibilants are ignored).
जन - गण - मन अधिनायक जय हे भारत भाग्य विधाता । पंजाब - सिन्धु - गुजरात - मराठा, द्राविड़ - उत्कल - बंग विंध्य हिमाचल यमुना गंगा, उच्छल जलधि तरंग तब शुभ नामे जागे, तब शुभ आशिष मांगे गाहे तब जय गाथा । जन - गण - मंगलदायक जय हे, भारत भाग्य विधाता । जय हे, जय हे, जय हे, जय जय जय जय हे ।
Jana - gana - mana - adhinayaka jaya he Bharata - bhagya - vidhata Panjaba - Sindhu - Gujarata - Maratha Dravida - Utkala - Banga Vindhya - Himachala - Yamuna - Ganga uchchala - jaladhi - taranga Tava Subha name jage, tave subha asisa mage, gahe tava jaya - gatha. Jana - gana - mangala - dayaka jaya he Bharata - bhagya - vidhata. Jaya he, Jaya he, Jaya he, jaya jaya jaya jaya he.
Jana - gana - mana adhināyaka jaya hē Bhārata - bhāgya - vidhātā. Paṁjāba - Sindhu - Gujarāta - Marāṭhā, Drāviṛa - Utkala Baṁga Viṁdhya Himācala Yamunā Gaṁgā, ucchala jaladhi taraṁga Taba Śubha nāmē jāgē, taba śubha āśiṣa māṁgē gāhē taba jaya gāthā. Jana gana maṁgala - dāyaka jaya hē, Bhārata bhāgya vidhātā. Jaya hē, Jaya hē, Jaya hē, jaya jaya jaya jaya hē.
জনগণমন - অধিনায়ক জয় হে ভারতভাগ্যবিধাতা! পঞ্জাব সিন্ধু গুজরাট মরাঠা দ্রাবিড় উৎকল বঙ্গ বিন্ধ্য হিমাচল যমুনা গঙ্গা উচ্ছলজলধিতরঙ্গ তব শুভ নামে জাগে, তব শুভ আশিস মাগে, গাহে তব জয়গাথা । জনগণমঙ্গলদায়ক জয় হে ভারতভাগ্যবিধাতা! জয় হে, জয় হে, জয় হে, জয় জয় জয় জয় হে ॥
Jana - gana - mana - adhināẏaka jaẏa hē Bhārata - bhāgya - bidhātā! Pañjāba Sindhu Gujarāṭa Marāṭhā Drābiṛa Utkala Baṅga Bindhya Himācala Yamunā Gaṅgā ucchala - jaladhi - taraṅga Taba Śubha nāmē jāgē, taba śubha āśisa māgē, gāhē taba jaẏa - gāthā. Jana - gana - maṅgala - dāẏaka jaẏa hē Bhārata - bhāgya - bidhātā! Jaẏa hē, Jaẏa hē, Jaẏa hē, jaẏa jaẏa jaẏa jaẏa hē.
A short version consisting of the first and last lines of the National Anthem is also played on certain occasions. It reads as follows
जन - गण - मन अधिनायक जय हे भारत भाग्य विधाता । जय हे, जय हे, जय हे, जय जय जय जय हे! ।
Jana - gana - mana - adhinayaka jaya he Bharata - bhagya vidhata. Jaya he, Jaya he, Jaya he, Jaya jaya jaya jaya he.
Jana - gana - mana adhināyaka jaya hē Bhārata bhāgya vidhātā. Jaya hē, Jaya hē, Jaya hē, jaya jaya jaya jaya hē!.
Translation by Tagore, dated February 28, 1919 at the Besant Theosophical College. Refer to The Morning Song of India. Wikisource. for the translation of the full poem. Primary sources available in the "Gallery '' section.
Thou art, the ruler of our minds, of all people The dispenser of India 's destiny! Thy name rouses the heart of Punjab, Sindh, Gujarat and Maratha, of the Dravida and Odisha and Bengal; It echoes in the hills of Vindhya and the Himalayas, and mingles in the music of Ganga and Yamuna and is chanted by the waves of the Indian sea. They pray for thy blessings and sing thy praise. The saving of all people waits in thy hands, Thou dispenser of India 's destiny. Victory, Victory, Victory to thee.
Tagore 's translation of Jana Gana Mana on February 28, 1919 at the Besant Theosophical College
Page 1 of Tagore 's translation of Jana Gana Mana on February 28, 1919 at the Besant Theosophical College
Page 2 of Tagore 's translation of Jana Gana Mana on February 28, 1919 at the Besant Theosophical College
Early or original score of Jana Gana Mana
In Kerala, students belonging to the Jehovah 's Witnesses religious denomination were expelled by school authorities for their refusal to sing the national anthem on religious grounds, although they stood up respectfully when the anthem was sung. The Kerala High Court concluded that there was nothing in it which could offend anyone 's religious susceptibilities, and upheld their expulsion. On 11 August 1986, the Supreme Court reversed the High Court and ruled that the High Court had misdirected itself because the question is not whether a particular religious belief or practice appeals to our reason or sentiment but whether the belief is genuinely and conscientiously held as part of the profession or practice of a religion. "Our personal views and reactions are irrelevant '' The Supreme Court affirmed the principle that it is not for a secular judge to sit in judgment on the correctness of a religious belief.
Supreme Court observed in its ruling
"There is no provision of law which obliges anyone to sing the National Anthem nor is it disrespectful to the National Anthem if a person who stands up respectfully when the National Anthem is sung does not join the singing. Proper respect is shown to the National Anthem by standing up when the National Anthem is sung. It will not be right to say that disrespect is shown by not joining in the singing. Standing up respectfully when the National Anthem is sung but not singing oneself clearly does not either prevent the singing of the National Anthem or cause disturbance to an assembly engaged in such singing so as to constitute the offence mentioned in s. 3 of the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act ''.
On 30 November 2016, Supreme Court of India ordered the National Anthem must be played before movies in theaters, in order to instill "committed patriotism and nationalism ''. On February 10, 2017, 2 Kashmiris were booked for not standing during anthem in Jammu Cinema, under provisions of the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971. This was the first arrest of its kind made by a state government in India. In January 2018, the government reversed its stance and requested that the Supreme Court rescind the order until a government panel could consider the issue in more depth; the court agreed, and so around 9 January 2018 the National Anthem ceased being compulsory in movie theaters.
The composition was first sung during a convention of the Indian National Congress in Calcutta on 27 December 1911. It was sung on the second day of the convention, and the agenda of that day devoted itself to a loyal welcome of George V on his visit to India. The event was reported thus in the British Indian press:
"The Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore sang a song composed by him specially to welcome the Emperor. '' (Statesman, Dec. 28, 1911)
"The proceedings began with the singing by Rabindranath Tagore of a song specially composed by him in honour of the Emperor. '' (Englishman, Dec. 28, 1911) "When the proceedings of the Indian National Congress began on Wednesday 27th December 1911, a Bengali song in welcome of the Emperor was sung. A resolution welcoming the Emperor and Empress was also adopted unanimously. '' (Indian, Dec. 29, 1911)
Many historians aver that the newspaper reports cited above were misguided. The confusion arose in British Indian press since a different song, "Badshah Humara '' written in Hindi by Rambhuj Chaudhary, was sung on the same occasion in praise of the monarch. The nationalist Indian press stated this difference of events clearly:
"The proceedings of the Congress party session started with a prayer in Bengali to praise God (song of benediction). This was followed by a resolution expressing loyalty to King George V. Then another song was sung welcoming King George V. '' (Amrita Bazar Patrika, Dec. 28, 1911)
"The annual session of Congress began by singing a song composed by the great Bengali poet Ravindranath Tagore. Then a resolution expressing loyalty to King George V was passed. A song paying a heartfelt homage to King George V was then sung by a group of boys and girls. '' (The Bengalee, Dec. 28, 1911)
Even the report of the annual session of the Indian National Congress of December 1911 stated this difference:
"On the first day of 28th annual session of the Congress, proceedings started after singing Vande Mataram. On the second day the work began after singing a patriotic song by Babu Ravindranath Tagore. Messages from well wishers were then read and a resolution was passed expressing loyalty to King George V. Afterwards the song composed for welcoming King George V and Queen Mary was sung. ''
On 10 November 1937 Tagore wrote a letter to Mr Pulin Bihari Sen about the controversy. That letter in Bengali can be found in Tagore 's biography Ravindrajivani, volume II page 339 by Prabhatkumar Mukherjee.
"A certain high official in His Majesty 's service, who was also my friend, had requested that I write a song of felicitation towards the Emperor. The request simply amazed me. It caused a great stir in my heart. In response to that great mental turmoil, I pronounced the victory in Jana Gana Mana of that Bhagya Bidhata (ed. God of Destiny) of India who has from age after age held steadfast the reins of India 's chariot through rise and fall, through the straight path and the curved. That Lord of Destiny, that Reader of the Collective Mind of India, that Perennial Guide, could never be George V, George VI, or any other George. Even my official friend understood this about the song. After all, even if his admiration for the crown was excessive, he was not lacking in simple common sense. ''
Again in his letter of 19 March 1939 Tagore writes:
"I should only insult myself if I cared to answer those who consider me capable of such unbounded stupidity as to sing in praise of George the Fourth or George the Fifth as the Eternal Charioteer leading the pilgrims on their journey through countless ages of the timeless history of mankind. '' (Purvasa, Phalgun, 1354, p. 738.)
Moreover, Tagore was hailed as a patriot who wrote other songs too apart from "Jana Gana Mana '' lionising the Indian independence movement. He renounced his knighthood in protest against the 1919 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. The Knighthood (i.e. the title of ' Sir ') was conferred on him by the same King George V after receiving the Nobel Prize in Literature for "Gitanjali '' from the government of Sweden. Two of Tagore 's more politically charged compositions, "Chitto Jetha Bhayshunyo '' ("Where the Mind is Without Fear '', Gitanjali Poem # 35) and "Ekla Chalo Re '' ("If They Answer Not to Thy Call, Walk Alone ''), gained mass appeal, with the latter favoured by Gandhi and Netaji.
Another controversy is that only those provinces that were under British rule, i.e. Punjab, Sindh, Gujarat, Maratha, Dravid (South India), Odisha / Utkal and Bengal, were mentioned. None of the princely states -- Kashmir, Rajasthan, Hyderabad, Mysore or Kerala -- or the states in Northeast India, which are now integral parts of India were mentioned. But opponents of this proposition claim that Tagore mentioned only the border states of India to include complete India. Whether the princely states would form a part of a liberated Indian republic was a matter of debate even till Indian Independence. ' Dravida ' includes the people from the south (though Dravida specifically means Tamil and even then, the same consideration is not given for the south since there are many distinct people whereas in the north each of the distinct people are named) and ' Jolodhi ' (Stanza 1) is Sanskrit for "seas and oceans ''. Even North - East which was under British rule or holy rivers apart from Ganges and Yamuna are not mentioned to keep the song in its rhythm. India has 29 states, 7 union territories.
In 2005, there were calls to delete the word "Sindh '' and substitute it with the word Kashmir. The argument was that Sindh was no longer a part of India, having become part of Pakistan as a result of the Partition of 1947. Opponents of this proposal hold that the word "Sindh '' refers to the Indus and to Sindhi culture, and that Sindhi people are an integral part of India 's cultural fabric. The Supreme Court of India declined to change the national anthem and the wording remains unchanged.
On 17 December 2013, MLA of Assam, Phani Bhushan Choudhury cited article of ' The Times of India ' published on 26 January 1950, stating that originally the word ' Kamarup ' was included in the song, but was later changed to ' Sindhu ' and claimed that Kamarup should be re-included. To this, the then minister Rockybul Hussain replied that the state government would initiate steps in this regard after response from the newspaper. The debate was further joined by the then minister Ardhendu Dey, mentioning ' Sanchayita ' (edited by Tagore himself) etc. where he said Kamrup was not mentioned.
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where did post malone get his rap name | Post Malone - wikipedia
Austin Richard Post (born July 4, 1995), known professionally as Post Malone, is an American rapper, singer, songwriter and record producer.
Born in Syracuse, New York and raised in Grapevine, Texas, Malone rose to fame in the mid-2010s following the release of his debut single "White Iverson ''. The song, which peaked at fourteen on the Billboard Hot 100 and later certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), garnered Malone a recording contract with Republic Records. He released his debut studio album Stoney in 2016, which debuted at number six on the Billboard 200. The album, which featured the top - 10 hit "Congratulations '', would soon become certified double platinum.
His second album, Beerbongs & Bentleys, was released in 2018, and featured the single "Rockstar '', with 21 Savage. The song rose to number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100, marking Malone 's first number 1 as a solo artist. Upon release, the album would break several streaming records en route to debuting at number one on the Billboard 200, while also gaining a platinum certification.
Post was born in Syracuse, New York. His maternal grandfather, John Carlo Pavetto, was born in Pennsylvania to Italian parents. Post has also said that he is of partial Native American descent. He was raised by his father, Rich Post, and his stepmother, Jodie Post. Post 's father had been a disc jockey in his youth and introduced Post to many different genres of music including hip - hop, country, and rock.
When Post was 9 years old, he and his family moved to Grapevine, Texas after his father became the manager of concessions for the Dallas Cowboys. Post began to play the guitar and auditioned for the band Crown the Empire in 2010, but was rejected after his guitar strings broke during the audition. He credited his initial interest in learning guitar to the popular video game Guitar Hero. Post has always had a love for emo music, and appeared for a DJ set at Emo Nite in Los Angeles in June 2017, playing My Chemical Romance at the event. According to Post, his very first foray into professional music began when he was in a heavy metal band. Soon after, he says he transitioned to softer rock as well as hip - hop, before beginning to experiment on FL Studio. At 16, using Audacity, Post created his first mixtape, Young and After Them Riches. He showed it to some of his classmates at Grapevine High School. He was voted "Most Likely to Become Famous '' by his classmates as a senior in high school. He worked at a Chicken Express as a teenager.
He enrolled in Tarrant County College but dropped out. After leaving college, Post moved to Los Angeles, California, with his longtime friend Jason Probst, a professional game streamer.
According to Post, he chose Post Malone as his stage name when he was 14 or 15. The name was rumored to be a reference to the professional basketball player Karl Malone, but Post later explained that while ' Post ' is his last name, he used a "rap name generator '' to get "Malone ''.
After moving to LA, Post, Probst, and several other producers and artists formed the music group BLCKVRD and recorded music together. Several members of the group, including Post, moved into a house in San Fernando Valley together. While living in San Fernando Valley, Austin met 1st Down of FKi. He met 1st and Rich from FKi and Rex Kudo who produced several of Post 's tracks, including "White Iverson ''. Post recorded the song two days after writing it. "White Iverson '' is, in part, a reference to the professional basketball player Allen Iverson. In February 2015, upon completion, it was uploaded to Post 's SoundCloud account. On July 19, 2015, Post released a music video for "White Iverson ''. The single received praise from Mac Miller and Wiz Khalifa. However, the song was notoriously mocked by Earl Sweatshirt.
After hitting one million views within a month of releasing "White Iverson '', Post quickly garnered attention from record labels. In August 2015, he signed a recording contract with Republic Records. Post subsequently worked with a number of prominent rappers such as 50 Cent, Young Thug, and Kanye West, among others. In August 2015, he performed at Kylie Jenner 's 18th birthday party, where he met Kanye West, who enjoyed his music, leading to him collaborating with Post on his single "Fade '' from his album The Life of Pablo. Post later began his friendship with Canadian singer and songwriter Justin Bieber, which led to Post being an opening act for Bieber 's Purpose World Tour. On April 20, 2016, Post premiered his new single, "Go Flex '' on Zane Lowe 's Beats 1 show. On May 12, 2016, he released his first full - length project, a mixtape, titled August 26, the title of which was a reference to the release date of his debut album. On June 9, 2016, Post made his national television debut on Jimmy Kimmel Live!, performing "Go Flex ''.
In June 2016, XXL editor - in - chief Vanessa Satten revealed Post Malone was considered for XXL 's "2016 Freshmen Class '' magazine cover, but she was "told by his camp that he was n't paying attention to hip hop so much. He was going in more of a rock / pop / country direction. '' However, Post denied these claims, explaining that his latest mixtape as well as his upcoming album were both hip - hop. In August 2016, Post issued an apology for his album, Stoney, being late. It was available for pre-order on November 4, and was finally released on December 9. Post later went on to call the album "mediocre '', despite the success of the single "Congratulations '' featuring Quavo, Post 's first top - ten song on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number eight. Stoney also featured the top 100 hits "I Fall Apart '', and "Deja Vu '', featuring Bieber, with the album later being certified double platinum by the RIAA in October 2017.
In February 2017, Post revealed the title of his next project, Beerbongs & Bentleys, and was set to be released in December, before eventually being pushed back to 2018. In September, Malone released the first single from the album, "Rockstar '', featuring 21 Savage. The song peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and held the spot for eight consecutive weeks, later prompting Rolling Stone to call him "one of the most popular musicians in the country '' in 2017. In November, Malone released the official music video for "Rockstar '', directed by Emil Nava.
On February 20, 2018, Malone previewed his new song with Ty Dolla Sign titled "Psycho. '' "Psycho '' was released on February 23, 2018 and a tour with 21 Savage was announced. The song debuted at number 2 and later peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Post 's third entry in the top 10. On April 5, 2018, Malone stated that Beerbongs & Bentleys will be released on April 27, 2018. The same day, he also premiered the song "Stay '' during the Bud Lite Dive Bar show in Nashville. Upon release, Beerbongs & Bentleys broke the first day streaming records on Spotify, with 78.7 million streams worldwide. The album was also certified platinum by the RIAA after four days and spawned three top 10 songs and six top 20 songs.
In an interview with Billboard in May 2018, Malone 's manager announced that Malone was planning to start his own record label and film production company and Post later won Top Rap Song at the Billboard Music Awards for "Rockstar '' featuring 21 Savage. Post confirmed in June 2018 that he was writing his third album.
Post 's music has described as a "melting pot of the country, grunge, hip - hop and R&B '' and Post himself has been described as versatile. His vocal style has been described as laconic. Jon Caramanica of The New York Times described Post as "an artist who toes the line between singing and rapping, and hip - hop and spooky electric folk ''. Malone himself has called his music "genre-less ''.
Post cites Bob Dylan, in whom he became interested around the age of 15, as an influence on his music, calling him "a genius '' and "a god '' though his music has been called "about as far away from Rock n ' Roll as you can get. '' He called "Subterranean Homesick Blues '' the "first rap song ''. He has a tattoo of Dylan as well. Post has also listed rappers 50 Cent, whom he called a legend and Key! as influences.
Malone has been described as the "Donald Trump of hip - hop '' by executives at Republic Records, who state that "things that should 've killed his career have only made him bigger. '' He has also been described as "a rich kid whose parents essentially paid his way into music. ''
Malone has been called a "culture vulture '' multiple times by different publications and on social media for appropriating African - American culture. California rapper Lil B wrote on Twitter in October 2017: "Post Malone is slowly turning into a white dude! Lol he 's pushing, it give it a few years he gon be full country and hate blacks lol '', with Post replying in an interview, claiming that his white skin has been "used against him. '' In January 2018, Post went on an intoxicated rant against people who describe him as a culture vulture. In an interview with GQ several days later, Post said "there 's a struggle being a white rapper. ''
In a November 2017 interview with Polish media outlet NewOnce, Malone said that modern hip - hop music lacks "people talking about real shit '' and added that "if you 're looking to think about life, do n't listen to hip - hop. '' He received social media backlash for his comments, including from fellow rappers such as Lil B and Vince Staples. Malone later appeared in a video on Twitter, saying that the reason for his comments was that it was a "beer - tasting '' interview, and going on to say that he loves hip - hop. NewOnce, however, denied that claim, stating that Malone barely drank at all during the interview.
Post currently lives in Los Angeles, California. He also has a $3 million 13,000 - square - foot home in northern Utah.
Post has a tattoo of U.S. president John F. Kennedy on his arm, and has said that Kennedy was "the only President to speak out against the crazy corruption stuff that 's going on in our government nowadays. '' In December 2016, Post stated that if asked to perform at the inauguration of Donald Trump he would not have been opposed, though he stated that neither Trump nor Hillary Clinton were fit for President of the United States and expressed his support of Bernie Sanders during the election cycle.
Post later expressed a dislike for Trump in a November 2017 interview for Rolling Stone. In the same interview, he revealed that he owned a myriad of guns, and believed it was an "American '' right to own and operate guns. He also expressed a heavy interest in conspiracy theories, saying "There 's crazy shit that goes on that we ca n't explain. '' During a trip to Canada, Post was interviewed and when asked what the "biggest lie is '', he replied "The biggest lie in the world is the U.S. government, It 's a fucking reality show and I think there 's gon na be a lot of weird shit that happens within our generation that really changes the way of the world. ''
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midnight into the garden of good and evil | Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil - wikipedia
Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil is non-fiction work by John Berendt. The book, Berendt 's first, was published in 1994. It became a New York Times Best - Seller for 216 weeks following its debut and remains the longest - standing New York Times Best - Seller.
The book was subsequently made into Clint Eastwood 's 1997 film adaptation. It was also adapted as a Metabook in 2015.
Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil is atmospherically Deep South coastal (Savannah, Georgia, Beaufort, South Carolina) and Southern Gothic in tone, depicting a wide range of eccentric personalities in and around the city of Savannah, Georgia.
The story, unsettling and real, broke down the idea of the quintessential phenomenon of a true American city -- only to reveal its quirks: its man walking an invisible dog; its voice of the drag queen; a high - society man in its elite community -- all that, somehow, unravels a murder mystery. Virtually seeming like a novel and reading like a tale, the non-fictional story is about the real - life events surrounding the murder.
The central narrative concerns the killing of Danny Hansford, a local male prostitute (characterized as "a good time not yet had by all '' by an important Savannah socialite), by respected antiques dealer Jim Williams. This results in four murder trials, with the fourth ending in acquittal after the judge finally agreed to a change of venue to move the case away from the Savannah jury pool. The book describes Williams ' version of the killing, which is that it was in "self - defense '' -- the result of Hansford, who is prone to fits of rage, shooting at Williams with a gun that is on display, and Williams shooting back in self - defense -- and not murder, pre-meditated or otherwise, by Williams. The death occurred in Williams ' home ' Mercer House '.
The book highlights many other notable Savannah residents as well, including The Lady Chablis, a local drag queen and entertainer. Chablis provides both a Greek chorus of sorts as well as a light - hearted contrast to the more serious action.
The book 's plot is based on real - life events that occurred in the 1980s and is classified as non-fiction. Because it reads like a novel (and rearranges the sequence of true events in time), it is sometimes referred to as a "non-fiction novel '' or "faction '', a subgenre popularized by Truman Capote and Norman Mailer.
The title alludes to the hoodoo notion of "midnight, '' the period between the time for good magic (11 pm to midnight) and the time for evil magic (midnight to 1 am), and "the garden of good and evil, '' which refers principally to the cemetery in Beaufort, South Carolina, where Dr. Buzzard, the husband of Minerva, the folk - magic practitioner who figures in the story, is buried. It is over his grave that Minerva performed the incantations to ensure a more successful result in the retrial for the case of Jim Williams.
The famous Bird Girl statue, originally designed both as art and as a birdseed holder, was originally located at Savannah 's historic Bonaventure Cemetery. A Savannah photographer, Jack Leigh, was commissioned to take a photograph for the cover of the book. The cover image became immediately iconic, with author John Berendt calling it "one of the strongest covers I 've ever seen '', and the statue became a popular stop for tourists. Owing to rising concerns about the integrity of the statue and the cemetery 's privacy, Bird Girl was relocated in 1997 for display in Telfair Museums in Savannah. In late 2014, the statue was moved to a dedicated space in the Telfair Museums ' Jepson Center for the Arts on West York Street, in Savannah. Both Hugh W. Mercer and Johnny Mercer are buried in Bonaventure Cemetery.
The book won the 1995 Boeke Prize and was one of the finalists for the 1995 Pulitzer Prize for nonfiction.
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who supplied ballet box for first indian election | Ballot box - wikipedia
A ballot box is a temporarily sealed container, usually a square box though sometimes a tamper resistant bag, with a narrow slot in the top sufficient to accept a ballot paper in an election but which prevents anyone from accessing the votes cast until the close of the voting period.
It will usually be located in a polling station although in some countries, notably Ireland, Italy and Russia, there may also be ballot boxes that are taken to people 's homes where they would otherwise be unable to travel to the polling station. When very large ballot papers are used, there may be a feeder mechanism to assist in the deposit of the paper into the box.
Transparent ballot boxes may be used in order for people to be able to witness that the box is empty prior to the start of the election (i.e. not stuffed with fraudulent votes).
At the close of the election all boxes can be taken to a single location for tallying (The count) and the result declared. Alternately the boxes can be tallied at the polling station, with individual stations announcing their results to be tallied (known as precinct count).
Ballot boxes are obsolete in some jurisdictions because of the increase in paperless electronic voting.
The word ballot derives from voting systems based upon the use of a small ball instead of a voting paper: see blackball.
The first British secret ballot using ballot papers and a ballot box was held in Pontefract on 15 August 1872, under the terms of the recently enacted Ballot Act 1872. In a ministerial by - election following his appointment as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, Hugh Childers was re-elected as MP for Pontefract. The original ballot box, sealed in wax with a liquorice stamp, is held at Pontefract Museum.
A cardboard ballot box used during the first federal vote in Washington, D.C..
A wooden ballot box used in the northeastern United States c. 1870.
A galvanized metal ballot box used in Tulare County, California United States c. 1936.
A voter putting her envelope into a clear ballot box during the 2007 French presidential election.
A glass globe ballot jar c. 1884.
An Acme voting machine of Bridgewater, Connecticut c. 1880.
A translucent ballot box (Tiobox) used in Slovenia.
An old metal ballot box used in Norway.
A ballot box at the start of the controversial 2014 Crimean referendum.
Clear sided ballot boxes used in the Haitian general election in 2006
A man in Sarakhs put his vote to ballot, Iranian presidential election, 2013
Secured ballot boxes in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Ballot boxes used in the Philippines before automation was implemented in 2010.
A recycling bin as ballot box for the German federal election, 2017; Central Electoral Office of the City of Bochum
See Checkbox
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who sings vincent at the end of loving vincent | Loving Vincent - Wikipedia
Loving Vincent is a 2017 experimental animated biographical drama film about the life of painter Vincent van Gogh, and in particular, the circumstances of his death. It is the first fully painted animated feature film. The film, written and directed by Dorota Kobiela and Hugh Welchman, is a Polish production, funded by the Polish Film Institute, and partially through a Kickstarter campaign.
First conceived as a 7 minute short movie in 2008, Loving Vincent was idealized by Dorota Kobiela, a painter herself, after studying the techniques and the artist 's story through his letters.
Each of the film 's 65,000 frames is an oil painting on canvas, using the same technique as Van Gogh, created by a team of 125 painters. The film premiered at the 2017 Annecy International Animated Film Festival. It won Best Animated Feature Film Award at the 30th European Film Awards in Berlin and was nominated for Best Animated Feature at the 90th Academy Awards.
One year after Vincent van Gogh 's suicide, Postman Joseph Roulin asks his son Armand to deliver Van Gogh 's last letter to his brother, Theo. Roulin finds the death suspicious, as merely weeks earlier Van Gogh claimed through letters that his mood was calm and normal. Armand reluctantly agrees and heads for Paris.
Père Tanguy, a Montmartre art supplier, tells Armand that Theo actually died six months after Vincent. He suggests that Armand travel to Auvers - sur - Oise and look for Dr. Paul Gachet, who housed Van Gogh after his release from an asylum, shared his love for art, and attended the funeral. Once there, Armand learns that the doctor is out on business. So he stays at the same inn that Van Gogh did during his time in the area. There he meets the temporary proprietress Adeline Ravoux, who was fond of Van Gogh and who was also surprised by his death. At her suggestion, Armand visits the local boatman, who informs him that Van Gogh kept close company with Dr. Gachet 's sheltered daughter, Marguerite. When Armand visits her, Marguerite denies and is angered when Armand implies that Van Gogh 's suicidal mood could have resulted from an argument with her father.
Throughout the investigation, Armand begins to suspect a local boy named René Secretan, who reportedly liked to torment Van Gogh, was in possession of a gun, and had often drunkenly waved it around town. Dr. Mazery, who examined Van Gogh, also claims that the shot must have come from a few feet away, ruling out suicide. When Armand implicates René, Marguerite confesses that she was in close, but not romantic, relations with Van Gogh, but she does not believe that René was capable of murder.
Dr. Gachet finally returns and promises to deliver Armand 's letter to Theo 's widow. He admits there was an argument between them -- Van Gogh accused Gachet of being a coward for not pursuing his dreams, to which Gachet angrily accused Van Gogh of deteriorating Theo 's health by overly depending on his brother. Gachet posits that this accusation drove Van Gogh to suicide in order to release Theo from the burden. After Armand returns home, Postman Roulin later receives word from Theo 's widow, Johanna, thanking Armand for returning the letter. Johanna attaches to her letter to Armand one of van Gogh 's letters to her -- signed, "Your loving Vincent. ''
The leading cast is as follows:
The filmmakers chose classically trained painters over traditional animators. Welchman said he wanted to avoid animators with "personalised styles '' and opted for people who "were very pure oil painters ''. In total there were 125 painters from over twenty countries, which was more than envisioned and due to a difficulty in obtaining funding, resulting in a shorter schedule for the crew to work within. There were, in total, about 5,000 applicants, many of whom became interested after watching an online "recruitment teaser '' for the project.
Van Gogh paintings informed the storyboard for the project, which were modified for the screen. These modifications ranged from simple alterations to re-imaginings incorporating different weather effects or time of day. A total of 65,000 frames were painted, but since artists painted multiple frames from the same shot on a single surface, only 1,000 paintings survived.
Production for the film began with a live - action cast filming against a green screen. After filming, editors composited Van Gogh paintings into scene backgrounds, and finally cut the movie together as usual. However, once the actual film was complete, they shot each individual frame onto a blank canvas, and artists painted over each image. The entire process, from the actual filming to completion of the paintings, took four years to finish. Even Welchman himself admitted, "We have definitely without a doubt invented the slowest form of filmmaking ever devised in 120 years. ''
As of February 22, 2018, the film has grossed over $30.3 million (in USD) worldwide, with United States earnings totaling $6.6 million. The film has most notably grossed $2.9 million in South Korea, $1.5 million in Italy and $10.8 million in China.
On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 84 % based on 131 reviews, with an average rating of 7.2 / 10. The website 's critical consensus states: "Loving Vincent 's dazzling visual achievements make this Van Gogh biopic well worth seeking out -- even if its narrative is far less effectively composed. '' Metacritic reports a score of 62 out of 100 based on 21 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
The film won the "Most Popular International Feature '' award at the 2017 Vancouver International Film Festival. It was nominated in the Hollywood Music in Media Awards 2017 for Best Original Score in an Animated Film. It won the Audience Award at the 2017 Annecy International Animated Film Festival and the Golden Goblet for Best Animation Film at the Shanghai International Film Festival. It won the XII Festival de Cine Inédito de Mérida (FCIM) after obtaining the highest score among the projected films and also the highest score obtained in the history of the event. On December 9, 2017, the film won Best Animated Feature Film Award at the 30th European Film Awards in Berlin. The film also received Best Animated Feature nominations at both the Academy Awards and Golden Globes.
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what does the name harvey mean in the bible | Harvey (name) - wikipedia
Harvey is an English family and given name derived from the Old Breton name Huiarnviu, derived from the elements hoiarn, huiarn (modern Breton houarn) meaning "iron '' and viu (Breton bev) meaning "blazing ''. It is related to Old Welsh Haarnbiu.
Harvey emerged as a family name in the English county of Norfolk and Cambridgeshire.
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what term is used to describe changes in size shape and characteristics of the body | Anthropometry - wikipedia
Anthropometry (from Greek ἄνθρωπος anthropos, "human '', and μέτρον metron, "measure '') refers to the measurement of the human individual. An early tool of physical anthropology, it has been used for identification, for the purposes of understanding human physical variation, in paleoanthropology and in various attempts to correlate physical with racial and psychological traits. Anthropometry involves the systematic measurement of the physical properties of the human body, primarily dimensional descriptors of body size and shape. Alphonse Bertillon (1853 -- 1914) is considered to be the father of anthropometry because of his many contributions to the field, including what we know today as the "mug shot. ''
Today, anthropometry plays an important role in industrial design, clothing design, ergonomics and architecture where statistical data about the distribution of body dimensions in the population are used to optimize products. Changes in lifestyles, nutrition, and ethnic composition of populations lead to changes in the distribution of body dimensions (e.g. the rise in obesity), and require regular updating of anthropometric data collections.
The history of anthropometry includes and spans various concepts, both scientific and pseudoscientific, such as craniometry, paleoanthropology, biological anthropology, phrenology, physiognomy, forensics, criminology, phylogeography, human origins, and cranio - facial description, as well as correlations between various anthropometrics and personal identity, mental typology, personality, cranial vault and brain size, and other factors.
At various times in history, applications of anthropometry have ranged vastly -- from accurate scientific description and epidemiological analysis to rationales for eugenics and overtly racist social movements -- and its points of concern have been numerous, diverse, and sometimes highly unexpected.
Auxologic is a broad term covering the study of all aspects of human physical growth
Human height varies greatly between individuals and across populations for a variety of complex biological, genetic, and environmental factors, among others. Due to methodological and practical problems, its measurement is also subject to considerable error in statistical sampling.
The average height in genetically and environmentally homogeneous populations is often proportional across a large number of individuals. Exceptional height variation (around 20 % deviation from a population 's average) within such a population is sometimes due to gigantism or dwarfism, which are caused by specific genes or endocrine abnormalities.
In the most extreme population comparisons, for example, the average female height in Bolivia is 142.2 cm (4 ft 8.0 in) while the average male height in the Dinaric Alps is 185.6 cm (6 ft 1.1 in), an average difference of 43.4 cm (1 ft 5.1 in). Similarly, the shortest and tallest of individuals, Chandra Bahadur Dangi and Robert Wadlow, have ranged from 1 ft 9 in (53 cm) to 8 ft 11.1 in (272 cm), respectively.
Human weight varies extensively both individually and across populations, with the most extreme documented examples of adults being Lucia Zarate who weighed 4.7 pounds (2.1 kg), and Jon Brower Minnoch who weighed 1,400 pounds (640 kg), and with population extremes ranging from 109.3 pounds (49.6 kg) in Bangladesh to 192.7 pounds (87.4 kg) in Micronesia.
Adult brain size varies from 974.9 cm (59.49 cu in) to 1,498.1 cm (91.42 cu in) in females and 1,052.9 cm (64.25 cu in) to 1,498.5 cm (91.44 cu in) in males, with the average being 1,130 cm (69 cu in) and 1,260 cm (77 cu in), respectively. The right cerebral hemisphere is typically larger than the left, whereas the cerebellar hemispheres are typically of more similar size.
Size of the human stomach varies significantly in adults, with one study showing volumes ranging from 520 cm (32 cu in) to 1,536 cm (93.7 cu in) and weights ranging from 77 grams (2.7 oz) to 453 grams (16.0 oz).
Male and female genitalia exhibit considerable individual variation, with penis size differing substantially and vaginal size differing significantly in healthy adults.
Human beauty and physical attractiveness have been preoccupations throughout history which often intersect with anthropometric standards. Cosmetology, facial symmetry, and waist -- hip ratio are three such examples where measurements are commonly thought to be fundamental.
Anthropometric studies today are conducted to investigate the evolutionary significance of differences in body proportion between populations whose ancestors lived in different environments. Human populations exhibit climatic variation patterns similar to those of other large - bodied mammals, following Bergmann 's rule, which states that individuals in cold climates will tend to be larger than ones in warm climates, and Allen 's rule, which states that individuals in cold climates will tend to have shorter, stubbier limbs than those in warm climates.
On a micro evolutionary level anthropologists use anthropometric variation to reconstruct small - scale population history. For instance John Relethford 's studies of early 20th - century anthropometric data from Ireland show that the geographical patterning of body proportions still exhibits traces of the invasions by the English and Norse centuries ago.
Today anthropometry can be performed with three - dimensional scanners. A global collaborative study to examine the uses of three - dimensional scanners for health care was launched in March 2007. The Body Benchmark Study will investigate the use of three - dimensional scanners to calculate volumes and segmental volumes of an individual body scan. The aim is to establish whether the Body Volume Index has the potential to be used as a long - term computer - based anthropometric measurement for health care. In 2001 the UK conducted the largest sizing survey to date using scanners. Since then several national surveys have followed in the UK 's pioneering steps, notably SizeUSA, SizeMexico, and SizeThailand, the latter still ongoing. SizeUK showed that the nation had become taller and heavier but not as much as expected. Since 1951, when the last women 's survey had taken place, the average weight for women had gone up from 62 to 65 kg.
Baropodographic devices fall into two main categories: (i) floor - based, and (ii) in - shoe. The underlying technology is diverse, ranging from piezoelectric sensor arrays to light refraction, but the ultimate form of the data generated by all modern technologies is either a 2D image or a 2D image time series of the pressures acting under the plantar surface of the foot. From these data other variables may be calculated (see data analysis.)
The spatial and temporal resolutions of the images generated by commercial pedobarographic systems range from approximately 3 to 10 mm and 25 to 500 Hz, respectively. Finer resolution is limited by sensor technology. Such resolutions yield a contact area of approximately 500 sensors (for a typical adult human foot with surface area of approximately 100 cm). For a stance phase duration of approximately 0.6 seconds during normal walking, approximately 150,000 pressure values, depending on the hardware specifications, are recorded for each step.
Direct measurements involve examinations of brains from corpses, or more recently, imaging techniques such as MRI, which can be used on living persons. Such measurements are used in research on neuroscience and intelligence. Brain volume data and other craniometric data are used in mainstream science to compare modern - day animal species, and to analyze the evolution of the human species in archeology. With the discovery that many blood proteins vary consistently among populations, followed by the discovery of the DNA code, the invention of the polymerase chain reaction that amplifies trace amounts of DNA, and the decoding of the human genome, phylogeographers largely switched away from craniofacial anthropometry whenever DNA is available.
Anthropometric measurements also have uses in epidemiology and medical anthropology, for example in helping to determine the relationship between various body measurements (height, weight, percentage body fat, etc.) and medical outcomes. Anthropometric measurements are frequently used to diagnose malnutrition in resource - poor clinical settings.
Forensic anthropologists study the human skeleton in a legal setting. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of a decedent through various skeletal analyses that produce a biological profile. Forensic anthropologists utilize the Fordisc program to help in the interpretation of craniofacial measurements in regards to ancestry or race determination.
One part of a biological profile is a person 's racial or ancestral affinity. People with considerable European ancestry generally have relatively no prognathism; a relatively narrow face; a narrow, tear - shaped nasal cavity; a "silled '' nasal aperture; tower - shaped nasal bones; a triangular - shaped palate; and an angular and sloping eye orbit shape. People with considerable African ancestry typically have a broad and round nasal cavity; no dam or nasal sill; Quonset hut - shaped nasal bones; notable facial projection in the jaw and mouth area (prognathism); a rectangular - shaped palate; and a square or rectangular eye orbit shape. People with considerable East Asian ancestry are often characterized by a relatively small prognathism; no nasal sill or dam; an oval - shaped nasal cavity; tent - shaped nasal bones; a horseshoe - shaped palate; and a rounded and non-sloping eye orbit shape. Many of these characteristics are only a matter of frequency among particular races: their presence or absence of one or more does not automatically classify an individual into a racial group.
Today, ergonomics professionals apply an understanding of human factors to the design of equipment, systems and working methods in order to improve comfort, health, safety, and productivity. This includes physical ergonomics in relation to human anatomy, physiological and bio mechanical characteristics; cognitive ergonomics in relation to perception, memory, reasoning, motor response including human -- computer interaction, mental workloads, decision making, skilled performance, human reliability, work stress, training, and user experiences; organizational ergonomics in relation to metrics of communication, crew resource management, work design, schedules, teamwork, participation, community, cooperative work, new work programs, virtual organizations, and telework; environmental ergonomics in relation to human metrics affected by climate, temperature, pressure, vibration, and light; visual ergonomics; and others.
Biometrics refers to the identification of humans by their characteristics or traits. Biometrics is used in computer science as a form of identification and access control. It is also used to identify individuals in groups that are under surveillance. Biometric identifiers are the distinctive, measurable characteristics used to label and describe individuals. Biometric identifiers are often categorized as physiological versus behavioral characteristics. Example applications include dermatoglyphics and soft biometrics.
The US Military has conducted over 40 anthropometric surveys of U.S. Military personnel between 1945 and 1988, including the 1988 Army Anthropometric Survey (ANSUR) of men and women with its 240 measures. Statistical data from these surveys encompasses over 75,000 individuals.
CAESAR began in 1997 as a partnership between government and industry to collect and organize the most extensive sampling of consumer body measurements for comparison. The project collected and organized data on 2,400 U.S. & Canadian and 2,000 European civilians and a database was developed. This database records the anthropometric variability of men and women, aged 18 -- 65, of various weights, ethnic groups, gender, geographic regions, and socio - economic status. The study was conducted from April 1998 to early 2000 and included three scans per person in a standing pose, full - coverage pose and relaxed seating pose. Data collection methods were standardized and documented so that the database can be consistently expanded and updated. High - resolution measurements of body surfaces were made using 3D Surface Anthropometry. This technology can capture hundreds of thousands of points in three dimensions on the human body surface in a few seconds. It has many advantages over the old measurement system using tape measures, anthropometers, and other similar instruments. It provides detail about the surface shape as well as 3D locations of measurements relative to each other and enables easy transfer to Computer - Aided Design (CAD) or Manufacturing (CAM) tools. The resulting scan is independent of the measurer, making it easier to standardize. Automatic landmark recognition (ALR) technology was used to automatically extract anatomical landmarks from the 3D body scans. Eighty landmarks were placed on each subject. More than 100 univariate measures were provided, over 60 from the scan and approximately 40 using traditional measurements. Demographic data such as age, ethnic group, gender, geographic region, education level, and present occupation, family income and more were also captured.
Scientists working for private companies and government agencies conduct anthropometric studies to determine a range of sizes for clothing and other items. Measurements of the foot are used in the manufacture and sale of footwear: measurement devices may be used either to determine a retail shoe size directly (e.g. the Brannock Device) or to determine the detailed dimensions of the foot for custom manufacture (e.g. ALINEr).
In art Yves Klein termed his performance paintings anthropometries, where he covered nude women with paint, and used their bodies as paintbrushes.
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who sings the song at the end of lord of the rings two towers | Emilíana Torrini - Wikipedia
Emilíana Torrini Davíðsdóttir (born 16 May 1977), better known as Emilíana Torrini, is an Icelandic singer and songwriter. She is best known for her 1999 album Love in the Time of Science, her performance of "Gollum 's Song '' for the 2002 film The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers, and her 2009 single "Jungle Drum ''.
Emilíana was born in Iceland, where she grew up in Kópavogur. At the age of seven, she joined a choir as a soprano, until she went to opera school at the age of 15. Her father, Salvatore Torrini, is Italian (from Naples), while her mother, Anna Stella Snorradóttir, is Icelandic. Because of name regulations in Iceland at the time, her father had to change his name to "Davíð Eiríksson '', which also meant that Emilíana had to use the surname after her father in the traditional way. A few years later, the name regulations were changed, and she was again allowed to use her original surname. After being discovered singing in a restaurant in Iceland by Derek Birkett, the owner of One Little Indian Records, Emilíana was asked to visit London to record a song. She decided to stay in London.
Emilíana has been a member of Icelandic artist group GusGus, and contributed vocals to several songs on their debut Polydistortion (1997), most notably "Why ''. She co-wrote Kylie Minogue 's "Slow '' and "Someday '' from her Body Language album in 2003. She also produced "Slow '' along with Dan Carey; the two were nominated for a Best Dance Recording Grammy Award in 2005 for their work on the track. Prior to these, Emilíana contributed vocals to songs on Thievery Corporation 's 2002 record The Richest Man in Babylon and was credited with composing the songs "Resolution '', "Until The Morning '', and "Heaven 's Gonna Burn Your Eyes '' from that album. Also in 2002, she sang vocals on Paul Oakenfold 's song "Hold Your Hand '' taken from his Bunkka album.
On 3 June 2013, Emilíana revealed to fans that she would release her new album on 9 September 2013 in the UK. The album was released in Ireland, Iceland, Germany, Austria, and Switzerland on 6 September 2013. The new LP is titled Tookah. Emilíana will play a number of music festivals in the lead up to the album 's release in Russia and Budapest.
On 29 July 2013, Emilíana revealed the radio edition of a new track "Speed of Dark ''. Three additional tracks were also revealed allowing fans to stream these include "Autumn Sun '', "Animal Games '', and "Tookah ''.
Torrini contributed vocals on all tracks, otherwise noted.
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list of current chief ministers and governors of indian states | List of current Indian Chief ministers - Wikipedia
In the Republic of India, a chief minister is the head of government of each of twenty - nine states and two union territories (Delhi and Puducherry). According to the Constitution of India, at the state - level, the governor is de jure head, but de facto executive authority rests with the chief minister. Following elections to the state legislative assembly, the governor usually invites the party (or coalition) with a majority of seats to form the government. The governor appoints the chief minister, whose council of ministers are collectively responsible to the assembly. Given he has the assembly 's confidence, the chief minister 's term is usually for a maximum of five years; there are no limits to the number of terms he / she can serve.
Of the thirty - one incumbents, three are women -- Mamata Banerjee in West Bengal, Mehbooba Mufti in Jammu and Kashmir, and Vasundhara Raje in Rajasthan. Serving since December 1994 (for 7003840700000000000 ♠ 23 years, 6 days), Sikkim 's Pawan Kumar Chamling has the longest incumbency. Virbhadra Singh (b. 1934) of Himachal Pradesh was the oldest chief minister who lost the elections in 2017 to BJP, while Arunachal Pradesh 's Pema Khandu (b. 1979) is the youngest. Fourteen incumbents belong to the Bharatiya Janata Party, Five to the Indian National Congress and Two to the Communist Party of India (Marxist); no other party has more than one chief minister in office.
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guest star on blue bloods season 8 episode 17 | Blue Bloods (season 8) - wikipedia
The eighth season of Blue Bloods, a police procedural drama series created by Robin Green and Mitchell Burgess, premiered on CBS on September 29, 2017. The season contained 22 episodes and concluded on May 11, 2018.
Donnie Wahlberg (Danny Reagan), Bridget Moynahan (Erin Reagan), Will Estes (Jamie Reagan), and Len Cariou (Henry Reagan) are first credited. Sami Gayle (Nicky Reagan - Boyle) is credited next, marking the fourth season she has been included in the opening credits. Tom Selleck (Frank Reagan) receives an "and '' billing at the close of the main title sequence. Amy Carlson (Linda Reagan) left between Seasons 7 and 8.
Marisa Ramirez, as Danny 's partner Detective Maria Baez, and Vanessa Ray, as Jamie 's partner Eddie Janko, continue to receive "also starring '' billing for season 8. Appearing regularly and receiving "special guest star '' billing are Gregory Jbara as Deputy Commissioner of Public Information Garrett Moore, Robert Clohessy as Lt. Sidney Gormley, and Abigail Hawk as Detective Abigail Baker, Frank 's primary aide.
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what channel is the graham norton show on in america | The Graham Norton show - wikipedia
The Graham Norton Show (often simply as Graham Norton) is a British comedy chat show presented by Graham Norton.
It was initially broadcast on BBC Two, from 22 February 2007, before moving to BBC One in October 2009.
It currently airs on Friday evenings, and is usually repeated a few nights later.
The show mirrors So and V with strong adult humour along with Graham 's monologue at the beginning of the show and often a musical guest to play out over the credits. Although the rude objects in "Graham 's drawer '' did not survive, the phone calls and hidden camera surprises have. These surprises are sometimes based around the guests, such as Sarah Beeny 's dating website, a TARDIS on the South Bank when David Tennant appeared and a wine - tasting group drinking Gérard Depardieu 's wine whilst he was on the show. Some of the surprises, such as the wine - tasting, have been arranged through ideas submitted by viewers, stating where they will be when the show is recorded.
At the end of the show, after any band or artist performance, an extra 5 minute section of the show was recorded, known as the "Cooldown ''. This section was seen in an extended weekend repeat, called Graham Norton Uncut, and was also made available as a downloadable podcast. As well as showing the "Cooldown '', it also included previously unseen parts from the original episode. This section often involved the audience, such as guessing an audience member 's partner and playing mass charades.
After Graham 's short monologue, he always introduced two guests. If there was a third guest, they were usually introduced later in the show. If the two guests are connected in some way (for example, Dustin Hoffman and his wife), they were the only ones introduced at the start. If musical guests were involved in the show, one of several things happened. Some performers, such as Enrique Iglesias, were on stage from the very beginning. Others, such as Gareth Gates came on stage about 5 to 7 minutes before their performance for a short interview. Also, some musical guests only performed during the end credits and participated in the Cooldown section of the programme. However, all bands performed during the credits and were interviewed in the Cooldown segment.
Once the show moved to BBC One, it moved to Monday nights, and the guest list increased to three or occasionally four people, with an accompanying reduction in Norton 's signature pieces. A typical show consisted of one big celebrity name, a comedian sitting in the aforementioned comedy chair and a well - known musical personality who would all be introduced after the monologue. Sometimes three guests are introduced at the top of the show with the musical guest brought in about 10 to 15 minutes before the end of the show.
Unlike the BBC Two show, the BBC One show does not end with the musical performance, but with a new audience participation segment called That 's All We 've Got Time For, where audience members sit in the famous red chair and begin to tell a humorous story. Graham and his guests listen to the stories and if Graham gets bored, he -- or occasionally a guest -- pulls the lever and the chair falls backwards, dumping the speaker from it. The red chair segment was inspired by comedian Ronnie Corbett 's longwinded armchair monologues.
After the end of Friday Night with Jonathan Ross, it was announced that The Graham Norton Show would be taking over the coveted Friday night slot. The show premiered on 22 October 2010.
The first series began at 10pm on 22 February 2007 on BBC Two and was originally slated to end on 24 May 2007 after 13 episodes. However, the series proved such a hit that it was extended for an additional six episodes. A 12 - week second series began on 11 October 2007, and culminated with a Boxing Day special and New Year 's compilation from previous episodes.
The show made its North American premiere on BBC America on 2 June 2007, one week after what was supposed to be the final episode of Series 1 (before its extension).
Series 2 premiered on BBC America on 20 October 2007. Unlike the previous series, each episode premiered in the United States only 9 days after the initial UK broadcast. However, the final three episodes were broadcast in reverse order (with Episode 12 being shown on BBC America a few days earlier than on BBC Two. The same thing occurred in Series 4 with the Christmas special airing on BBC America 10 days before the BBC Two broadcast.
Series 3 began its run on 17 April 2008. For series 3, the "Cooldown '' segment had been dropped, and the show was just the full uncut 45 - minute version of the show. The show was originally recorded in studio 2 at The London Studios, but moved to studio 1, due to the slot of The Paul O'Grady Show and the high audience numbers.
The show continued to be broadcast in a 30 - minute version on Thursdays at 10pm with Graham Norton Uncut, the uncut version shown on Sundays at around 11pm in a 45 - minute version. However, BBC Two in Wales sometimes broadcast the Thursday edition later than the rest of the BBC Two regions, usually after Newsnight at 11.20 pm because they would usually have local programmes in the 10pm slot. BBC Two Northern Ireland did the same, and during series three, they broadcast Thursday 's show on Friday nights at 10pm on BBC Two Northern Ireland because of local programming on Thursdays.
Series 4 began its run on 3 October 2008 at 10pm on BBC Two (however, both BBC Two Wales and BBC Two Northern Ireland broadcast the show at a later time due to their regional programming). The Sunday uncut editions have been kept, with the first uncut edition broadcast on BBC Two late on Sunday night.
Since its sixth series, The Graham Norton Show has aired on BBC One. As of 2017, there have been 21 series of the show.
In late January 2017 it was confirmed that Graham Norton had signed a new three - year deal with the BBC which, along with his BBC Radio 2 show, Eurovision commentary duties and other projects for the BBC, will also keep The Graham Norton Show on BBC One until at least 2020. Graham said:
The Graham Norton Show had been produced from the ITV Studios on London 's Southbank since it began in 2007. Graham had used the London Studios since 1998 for his first talk show on Channel 4, "So Graham Norton ''. The show produced its final episode from The London Studios on Thursday 15 February 2018 which aired on BBC One on Friday 16 February 2018. At the end of the final show, a photograph was taken of all the crew on the sofa along with Graham, and a caption reading "Love, thanks and goodbye to The London Studios ''. The production of the show moves to Studio TC1 at BBC Television Centre in West London, operated by BBC Studioworks. The first edition to be recorded at Television Centre was on Thursday 5 April 2018, which aired on BBC One on Friday 6 April 2018.
Across Scandinavia, The Graham Norton Show is shown frequently on cable and satellite channels BBC Brit, formerly known as BBC Entertainment. Episodes are usually shown a week after their original UK airing on BBC One, while re-runs from past seasons are shown overnight or during the day.
In Latin America, Poland and several countries in continental Europe, The Graham Norton Show is aired on satellite channel BBC Entertainment. Episodes are usually shown a week after their original UK airing on BBC One, while re-runs from past seasons are shown over-night or during daytime.
In the United States, the show started airing on Saturday nights in June 2007. Starting 11 April 2013, cable / satellite network BBC America aired new episodes on Thursdays. From 2014 to 2015, it then aired every Saturday night on BBC America, normally eight days after the BBC. (1). In November 2015, The Weinstein Company bought the series rights in the United States and took a break while negotiating a new contract with BBC America. On 18 January 2016, BBC America aired the 2015 New Year 's Eve episode. On 21 January 2016, the network announced that the programme would be returning on Monday, 25 January 2016, with new episodes now airing three days after the BBC airing. In 2017, the series moved back to its original Saturday time slot. In 2018, the show moved to a Friday night time slot, which airs new episodes a week after the BBC airing.
In Canada, cable channel BBC Canada broadcasts the show Friday nights.
In Ireland, the show is broadcast on TV3 and its sister channel 3e one day after the BBC broadcast on Saturdays. In January 2015, UTV Ireland aired the show every Sunday night. TV3 Group continued to air "Best of '' Specials recorded prior to 2015. This arrangement changed in January 2017 when the TV3 Group bought UTV Ireland and changed it to "be3 ''. TV3 then moved The Graham Norton Show back to their main channel, where it airs every Saturday, 24 hours after UK transmission, usually at around 10.pm.
In Australia, the series is broadcast on Network Ten on Friday nights, airing one week after original broadcast in the UK. Additionally, for Pay TV viewers (Foxtel and Austar), it airs on UKTV at 9.30 pm Mondays, with repeats on Tuesdays and Saturdays. It previously aired on ABC2 on Thursday nights from 2007 to 2012. In New Zealand, the show was originally broadcast on UKTV. Since the start of Series 11 on 4 May 2012, the show has been broadcast on TV3 on Friday nights.
In India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and Maldives The Graham Norton Show airs Saturday nights on Comedy Central, a week after the BBC broadcast.
All ratings are taken from BARB.
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symbiosis relationship in which only one organism is benefited is | List of symbiotic relationships - wikipedia
Symbiosis can vary between mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism, though these grade into each other,. In mutualism, both organisms benefit. In commensalism, one benefits and the other is unaffected; in parasitism, one benefits and the other is harmed.
Some of these relationships are so close that we speak of the composite of two species as one unit; for example, we speak of the composite of algae and fungi as lichens.
A type of symbiotic interaction in which both organisms benefit.
An interaction in which one organism benefits in the relationship without causing benefit or harm to the other organism.
A type of symbiotic interaction in which one organism benefits and the other is harmed.
Many species are involved in cleaning symbiosis, though claimed symbioses grade into commensalism, scavenging and parasitism. A clearly symbiotic example is the cleaner wrasse Labroides, a small fish conspicuously shaped and marked, being longitudinally striped with blue. It eats only ectoparasites at "cleaning stations '' from the bodies of larger fish such as puffers, sweetlips and groupers.
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nobel laureates of india who worked as an accountant | List of Indian Nobel laureates - wikipedia
The Nobel Prize is a set of annual international awards bestowed on "those who conferred the greatest benefit on mankind '' in the fields of Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, Peace and Economics. Instituted by Alfred Nobel 's last will, which specified that his fortune be used to create a series of prizes, now known as the Nobel Prizes. They are widely recognized as one of the most prestigious honors awarded in the aforementioned fields.
A total of 835 individuals (791 men and 44 women) and 21 organizations were awarded the Nobel Prize, some more than once. Among the total recipients, 12 are Indians (5 Indian citizens and 7 of Indian origin or residency). Rabindranath Tagore was the first Indian citizen to be awarded and Mother Teresa is the only woman in the list. Notably, Sri Aurobindo was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1943 and for the Nobel Prize in Peace in 1950.
On 1 December 1999, the Norwegian Nobel Committee confirmed that Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was nominated for the Peace Prize thrice (in 1937 -- 39, 1947 and a few days before he was assassinated in January 1948). In 2006, Geir Lundestad, Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee said, "The greatest omission in our 106 year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace prize. Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace prize. Whether Nobel committee can do without Gandhi is the question ''.
The following are the Nobel laureates who were Indian citizens at the time they were awarded the Nobel Prize.
The following are Nobel laureates born in British India or who are of Indian origin but subsequently non-citizens of India; however, they are still often included in lists of Indian Nobel laureates.
The following are Nobel laureates with Indian linkages -- those foreigners who were born in India, those who are of Indian ancestry and those who were residents in India when they became recipients of the Nobel Prize.
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where are the natural vegetation types located in australia | Geography of Australia - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 27 ° S 144 ° E / 27 ° S 144 ° E / - 27; 144
The geography of Australia encompasses a wide variety of biogeographic regions being the world 's smallest continent but the sixth - largest country in the world. The population of Australia is concentrated along the eastern and southeastern coasts. The geography of the country is extremely diverse, ranging from the snow - capped mountains of the Australian Alps and Tasmania to large deserts, tropical and temperate forests.
Neighbouring countries include Indonesia, East Timor and Papua New Guinea to the north, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and the French dependency of New Caledonia to the east, and New Zealand to the southeast.
Australia is a country, a continent and an island. It is located in Oceania between the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean. It is the sixth largest country in the world with a total area of 7,686,850 square kilometres (2,967,910 sq mi) (including Lord Howe Island and Macquarie Island), making it slightly smaller than the 48 states of the contiguous United States and 31.5 times larger than the United Kingdom.
The Australian mainland has a total coastline length of 35,877 km (22,293 mi) with an additional 23,859 km (14,825 mi) of island coastlines. There are 758 estuaries around the country with most located in the tropical and sub-tropical zones. Australia claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of 8,148,250 square kilometres (3,146,057 sq. mi). This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory.
Australia has the largest area of ocean jurisdiction of any country on earth. It has no land borders. The northernmost points of the country are the Cape York Peninsula of Queensland and the Top End of the Northern Territory. The western half of Australia consists of the Western Plateau, which rises to mountain heights near the west coast and falls to lower elevations near the continental centre. The Western Plateau region is generally flat, though broken by various mountain ranges such as the Hamersley Range, the MacDonnell Ranges, and the Musgrave Range. Surface water is generally lacking in the Western Plateau, although there are several larger rivers in the west and north, such as the Murchison, Ashburton, and Victoria river.
The Eastern Highlands, or Great Dividing Range, lie near the eastern coast of Australia, separating the relatively narrow eastern coastal plain from the rest of the continent. These Eastern Australian temperate forests have the greatest relief, the most rainfall, the most abundant and varied flora and fauna, and the densest human settlement.
Between the Eastern Highlands and the Western Plateau, lie the Central Lowlands, which are made up of the Great Artesian Basin and Australia 's largest river systems, Murray - Darling Basin and Lake Eyre Basin.
Off the eastern coast of Australia is the world 's largest coral reef complex, the Great Barrier Reef. The State of Tasmania, a large and mountainous island, resides in the south - eastern corner of Australia.
Australia is the lowest, flattest, and oldest continental landmass on Earth and it has had a relatively stable geological history. Geological forces such as tectonic uplift of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia 's early history, when it was still a part of Gondwana. Its highest peak is Mount Kosciuszko at 2,228 metres (7,310 ft), which is relatively low in comparison to the highest mountains on other continents. Erosion has heavily weathered Australia 's surface.
Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, and therefore currently has no active volcanism. Minor earthquakes which produce no damage occur regularly, while major earthquakes measuring greater than magnitude 6 occur on average every five years. The terrain is mostly low plateau with deserts, rangelands and a fertile plain in the southeast. Tasmania and the Australian Alps do not contain any permanent icefields or glaciers, although they may have existed in the past. The Great Barrier Reef, by far the world 's largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north - east coast.
The Australian continental landmass consists of six distinct landform divisions. These are:
Because much of Australia 's interior is arid, the low average annual rainfall means interior rivers are often dry and lakes empty. The headwaters of some waterways are located in tropical regions where summer rains create a high rate of discharge. Flood events drastically alter the dry environment in which the ecology of central Australia has had to adapt to the boom and bust cycle.
The Great Artesian Basin is an important source of water, the world 's largest and deepest fresh water basin. Access to water from the basin has led to the expansion of grazing into areas that were previously far too dry for livestock. Towns and cities across the country sometimes face major water storage and usage crises in which restrictions and other measures are implemented to reduce water consumption. Water restrictions are based on a gradient of activities that become progressively banned as the situation worsens.
Billabong is the Australian name given to the oxbow lakes that can form along a meandering river 's course. In a worldwide comparison of height, Australia 's waterfalls are relatively insignificant, with the longest drop ranked 135th according to the World Waterfall Database.
Australia consists of six states, two major mainland territories, and other minor territories. The states are New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia. The two major mainland territories are the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory. Western Australia is the largest state covering just under one third of the Australian landmass, followed by Queensland, South Australia, and New South Wales.
Australia also has several minor territories; the federal government administers a separate area within New South Wales, the Jervis Bay Territory, as a naval base and sea port for the national capital. In addition Australia has the following inhabited, external territories: Norfolk Island, Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and several largely uninhabited external territories: Ashmore and Cartier Islands, Coral Sea Islands, and Heard Island and McDonald Islands. Australia also claims a portion of Antarctica as the Australian Antarctic Territory, although this claim is not widely recognized.
By far the largest part of Australia is arid or semi-arid. A total of 18 % of Australia 's mainland consists of named deserts, while additional areas are considered to have a desert climate based on low rainfall and high temperature. Only the south - east and south - west corners have a temperate climate and moderately fertile soil. The northern part of the country has a tropical climate: part is tropical rainforests, part grasslands, and part desert.
Rainfall is highly variable, with frequent droughts lasting several seasons thought to be caused in part by the El Niño - Southern Oscillation. Occasionally a dust storm will blanket a region or even several states and there are reports of the occasional large tornado. Rising levels of salinity and desertification in some areas is ravaging the landscape.
Australia 's tropical / subtropical location and cold waters off the western coast make most of western Australia a hot desert with aridity, a marked feature of the greater part of the continent. These cold waters produce little moisture needed on the mainland. A 2005 study by Australian and American researchers investigated the desertification of the interior, and suggested that one explanation was related to human settlers who arrived about 50,000 years ago. Regular burning by these settlers could have prevented monsoons from reaching interior Australia. The outback covers 70 percent of the continent.
Cyclones along the northern coasts, severe thunderstorms, droughts, occasional floods, heat waves, and frequent bushfires are natural hazards that are present in Australia.
Current environmental issues include: soil erosion from overgrazing, industrial development, urbanization, and poor farming practices; soil salinity rising due to the use of poor quality water; desertification (partly as a result of the introduction by European settlers of Rabbits); introduced pest species; clearing for agricultural purposes threatens the natural habitat of many unique animal and plant species; the Great Barrier Reef off the northeast coast, the largest coral reef in the world, is threatened by increased shipping and its popularity as a tourist site; limited natural fresh water resources; threats from invasive species.
International agreements:
Australia is antipodal to the North Atlantic. There are no land areas included, though Bermuda has its antipodes just off Perth, Flores Island in the western Azores just off Flinders Island, Tasmania, and Cape Verde is opposite the Coral Sea.
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when does the movie peter rabit come out | Peter Rabbit (film) - wikipedia
Peter Rabbit is a 2018 3D live - action animated comedy film directed by Will Gluck from a screenplay by Gluck and Rob Lieber, based on the stories of the character of the same name created by Beatrix Potter. The film stars Domhnall Gleeson, Rose Byrne and Sam Neill, with the voices of James Corden, Daisy Ridley, Margot Robbie and Elizabeth Debicki. The film was released on February 9, 2018. It has grossed over $74 million worldwide.
Peter Rabbit, his cousin Benjamin, and his triplet sisters Flopsy, Mopsy and Cottontail, spend most of their days picking on Mr. McGregor and stealing his vegetables from his garden. They are friends with a local woman named Bea who spends her time painting pictures of the rabbits as well as the surrounding nature. Bea takes on a mother - like relationship with the rabbits due to the passing of their mother and father. One day Peter accidentally leaves his jacket back in McGregor 's garden and goes back to retrieve it. McGregor spots and catches him, but suddenly dies of a heart attack. Enthralled, Peter invites all of the woodland critters, and then takes over McGregor 's old house.
Meanwhile in London, McGregor 's nephew Thomas works at the Harrod 's department store where he awaits for a promotion. He coldly accepts the news about his uncle 's death, but is infuriated over not getting the promotion and is fired. When he learns that his uncle 's house is valuable, he decides to refurbish it so he can sell it and start his own toy store to rival Harrod 's. He kicks out Peter and his friends and begins to secretly wall up the garden, despite Bea 's objections. When Peter and Benjamin sneak back into the garden, Thomas catches the latter and attempts to drown him. Peter and the triplets rescue him and Thomas accidentally tosses the binoculars that Bea had given him earlier.
Thomas and Peter start a war with each other by setting up traps and other offensive nuisances. Thomas and Bea end up falling in love with each other which causes Peter to become jealous and wanting to separate them more. Bea soon gets mad at Peter for unintentionally ruining her paintings during one excursion and soon she also turns on Thomas when his violent tendencies begin to show. This all culminates when Thomas throws dynamite at Peter 's burrow, and uses it to attack Peter in the garden, before telling him that his antics caused him to become aggressive. When Peter detonates the dynamite to prove to Bea that Thomas was using it, he ends up knocking down the tree on top of the burrow, which crushes Bea 's art studio. Thinking that Thomas was responsible for the detonation, Bea breaks up with him, and he goes back to London to work at Harrod 's again.
Peter feels bad for what he has done, and upon learning that Bea intends to leave Peter and his family, he and Benjamin head to London and finds Thomas at the store. They make up and rush back to the country where Peter reveals that he had activated the detonator, and he and Thomas apologize to Bea for their fighting. Thomas discovers that he can not go home because a snobbish couple, whom Thomas had an ugly encounter with prior, had just bought the house. Peter and his friends use their tricks to kick the couple out of the house.
During the end credits, it is shown that Bea, Thomas, and the rabbits eventually moved to London together where Thomas has his own toy shop and Bea begins to write and illustrate books based on Peter and his friends.
The Singing Sparrows were voiced by Jessica Freedman, Shana Halligan, Katharine Hoye, Chris Man, Chad Reisser, and Fletcher Sheridan
The film was first revealed in April 2015 through email leaks as a result of the Sony Pictures hack. The official announcement of the film came that December.
On August 4, 2016, it was reported that Will Gluck would be directing the live action / animated film from a script by Gluck and Rob Lieber, with James Corden cast to voice Peter Rabbit and Rose Byrne to play one of the live - action roles. Gluck will also be producing the film along with Zareh Nalbandian of Animal Logic, which will be providing the visual effects and animation for the film.
On September 26, 2016, Daisy Ridley and Elizabeth Debicki had joined the cast, with the live action production scheduled to commence in Sydney, Australia in January 2017. On October 18, Domhnall Gleeson was cast as Mr McGregor, known for chasing rabbits out of his vegetable garden, and on October 24, Margot Robbie joined the cast, expected to voice a bunny. On November 7, Sia was casted to join the film as Mrs Tiggy - Winkle.
On December 18, 2016, a first image of the title character, along with the movie 's logo, had been revealed. Production began in December 2016. Live action scenes were filmed at Centennial Park in Sydney. In March 2017, filming took place at Central railway station, Sydney which was depicted as London Paddington station.
In April 2017, a film crew were seen in Ambleside and Windermere in the Lake District. A local toy shop on Compston Road, Ambleside, was adapted to be Mr McGregors '.
Peter Rabbit was originally scheduled to be released on March 23, 2018, but it was moved up to February 9, 2018.
The first trailer was met with negative reception from critics and fans of the character, many of whom labelled the film as being too modern and insulting to Beatrix Potter 's works. Collider slammed the trailer as "garbage '' and a "low brow ' comedy ' cringe fest ''.
Stuart Heritage from The Guardian stated that "the Peter Rabbit film looks like the result of some blisteringly inept manhandling (...) there 's something genuinely harrowing about the sight of Peter Rabbit -- gentle, Edwardian Peter Rabbit -- thoughtlessly injuring some birds, or grabbing a pile of lettuce leaves and making it rain like a banker in a strip club, or literally twerking '' and argued "there is no way on Earth that (Beatrix Potter would) have ever given the green light to a slow motion car crash like this. ''
Metro writer James Baldock found that the trailer was "so gut wrenchingly bad '' and that "if the movie lives up to its two minute preview -- (it) is set to be the greatest abomination to grace the big screen since The Emoji Movie. '' He finished by writing "Listen carefully, and you can just about hear the sound of Beatrix Potter, turning furiously in her grave. '' On November 7, a new trailer for the United Kingdom was released.
As of February 25, 2018, Peter Rabbit has grossed $71.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $3 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $74.6 million, against a production budget of $50 million.
In the United States and Canada, the film was released alongside Fifty Shades Freed and The 15: 17 to Paris, and was projected to gross around $16 million from 3,725 theaters in its opening weekend, with some estimates as high as $25 million. It ended up making $25 million over the weekend, finishing second at the box office behind Fifty Shades ($38.8 million).
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 58 % based on 77 reviews and an average rating of 6 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Peter Rabbit updates Beatrix Potter 's classic characters with colorfully agreeable results that should entertain younger viewers while admittedly risking the wrath of purists. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 52 out of 100 based on 24 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A - '' on an A+ to F scale.
In the first week after the film 's release, groups in multiple countries criticized it for "allergy bullying '' and called for an apology from Sony. The accusations focused on a scene where Thomas McGregor -- whose character has a known severe allergy to blackberries -- is, in an act of self - defense by Peter Rabbit and his cohorts, pelted with the berries until one enters his mouth, causing him to enter anaphylactic shock and grab for his Epipen. In response, Sony published a statement saying "We sincerely regret not being more aware and sensitive to this issue, and we truly apologise ''.
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toni tennille do that to me one more time | Do That to Me One More Time - wikipedia
"Do That to Me One More Time '' is a song performed by the American pop duo Captain & Tennille. It was their 13th charting hit in the United States, and their second number 1 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. The song was included on the duo 's 1979 studio album, Make Your Move, and was written by Toni Tennille. It features a Lyricon solo by saxophonist Tom Scott, though Captain mimed to this part on a descant recorder in the promotional video. Even though an edited version was released as a single, yet another version was created for their many TV performances promoting the song. This version contained a "natural '' ending, opposed to the fade - out ending that was featured on the single and album versions. This version was mainly lip - synced by Tennille on such TV programs.
After a decline in popularity from the height of their success in the mid-1970s, the Captain and Tennille signed with Casablanca Records under the guidance of Neil Bogart. "Do That to Me One More Time '' was a comeback for the duo, but they failed to achieve further success on Casablanca and their contract was not renewed. Vocalist and songwriter Toni Tennille played the song for Bogart at her house with husband Daryl Dragon in Pacific Palisades, California on an electric piano. Bogart reacted enthusiastically, saying: "That 's a smash! There 's no doubt in my mind that 's going to be your first single. '' According to Billboard, the song is about sex, specifically "male virility. ''
"Do That to Me One More Time '' became Captain & Tennille 's second and final number - one hit (also their final Top 40 song in the U.S.) when it reached the pinnacle of the Billboard Hot 100 chart the week ending February 16, 1980. The song had logged four consecutive weeks in the runner - up position on this chart behind Michael Jackson 's hit "Rock with You '' before ascending to the top of the chart. The song spent a single week in the pole position before being succeeded on February 23 by Queen 's "Crazy Little Thing Called Love. '' The song also achieved some crossover success on the Billboard adult contemporary and R&B charts. It was their highest - charting hit on the UK Singles Chart, where it reached # 7 in March 1980. The duo also recorded a version of the song in Spanish translated as Amame Una Vez Mas.
Swedish band Tonfallet recorded a cover of the song (called "En Gång Till '') in Swedish which failed to hit charts, having only sold 1000 copies. Dutch eurodance singer Amber included a cover version (as well as a remix) of "Do That to Me One More Time '' on the 2001 re-issue of her 1999 album, Amber. Soul / R&B singer Miki Howard covered "Do That to Me One More Time '' on her 2006 covers album Pillow Talk. Acoustic Electro - Pop artist Andy Kuncl released his cover of "Do That To Me One More Time '' on April 27, 2010. The Association also did a cover version of that song in the 1970s. Argentinean singer Marcela Morelo recorded a Spanish version of the song in her 2010 album Otro plan. The song 's hook was repurposed by producers Dr. Luke and Cirkut for R. City 's hit single "Locked Away '' featuring Adam Levine.
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god save the king long live the queen | God Save the Queen - wikipedia
"God Save the Queen '' (alternatively "God Save the King '', depending on the gender of the reigning monarch) is the national or royal anthem in a number of Commonwealth realms, their territories, and the British Crown Dependencies. The author of the tune is unknown and it may originate in plainchant, but a 1619 attribution to John Bull is sometimes made.
It is the national anthem of the United Kingdom and one of two national anthems used by New Zealand since 1977, as well as for several of the UK 's territories that have their own additional local anthem. It is also the royal anthem -- played specifically in the presence of the monarch -- of all the aforementioned countries, as well as Australia (since 1984), Canada (since 1980), Barbados and Tuvalu. In countries not previously part of the British Empire, the tune of "God Save the Queen '' has provided the basis for various patriotic songs, though still generally connected with royal ceremony. In the United States, the melody is used for the patriotic song "My Country, ' Tis of Thee ''. The melody is also used for the national anthem of Liechtenstein, "Oben am jungen Rhein ''.
Beyond its first verse, which is consistent, "God Save the Queen / King '' has many historic and extant versions. Since its first publication, different verses have been added and taken away and, even today, different publications include various selections of verses in various orders. In general, only one verse is sung. Sometimes two verses are sung, and on rare occasions, three.
The sovereign and her or his spouse are saluted with the entire anthem, while other members of the Royal Family who are entitled to royal salute (such as the Prince of Wales) receive just the first six bars. The first six bars also form all or part of the Vice Regal Salute in some Commonwealth realms outside the UK (e.g., in Canada, governors general and lieutenant governors at official events are saluted with the first six bars of "God Save the Queen '' followed by the first four and last four bars of "O Canada ''), as well as the salute given to governors of British overseas territories.
In The Oxford Companion to Music, Percy Scholes points out the similarities to an early plainsong melody, although the rhythm is very distinctly that of a galliard, and he gives examples of several such dance tunes that bear a striking resemblance to "God Save the King / Queen ''. Scholes quotes a keyboard piece by John Bull (1619) which has some similarities to the modern tune, depending on the placing of accidentals which at that time were unwritten in certain cases and left to the discretion of the player (see musica ficta). He also points to several pieces by Henry Purcell, one of which includes the opening notes of the modern tune, set to the words "God Save the King ''. Nineteenth - century scholars and commentators mention the widespread belief that an old Scots carol, "Remember O Thou Man '' was the source of the tune.
The first published version of what is almost the present tune appeared in 1744 in Thesaurus Musicus. The 1744 version of the song was popularised in Scotland and England the following year, with the landing of Charles Edward Stuart and was published in The Gentleman 's Magazine (see illustration above). This manuscript has the tune depart from that which is used today at several points, one as early as the first bar, but is otherwise clearly a strong relative of the contemporary anthem. It was recorded as being sung in London theatres in 1745, with, for example, Thomas Arne writing a setting of the tune for the Drury Lane Theatre.
Scholes ' analysis includes mention of "untenable '' and "doubtful '' claims, as well as "an American misattribution ''. Some of these are:
Scholes recommends the attribution "traditional '' or "traditional; earliest known version by John Bull (1562 -- 1628) ''. The English Hymnal (musical editor Ralph Vaughan Williams) gives no attribution, stating merely "17th or 18th cent. ''
God save great George our king God save our noble king, God save the king! Send him victorious Happy and glorious Long to reign over us God save the king!
"God Save the Queen '' is the national anthem of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Like many aspects of British constitutional life, its official status derives from custom and use, not from Royal Proclamation or Act of Parliament. In general only one or two verses are sung, but on rare occasions three. The variation in the UK of the lyrics to "God Save the Queen '' is the oldest amongst those currently used, and forms the basis on which all other versions used throughout the Commonwealth are formed; though, again, the words have varied throughout these years.
England has no official national anthem of its own; "God Save the Queen '' is treated as the English national anthem when England is represented at sporting events (though there are some exceptions to this rule, such as cricket where Jerusalem is used). There is a movement to establish an English national anthem, with Blake and Parry 's "Jerusalem '' and Elgar 's "Land of Hope and Glory '' among the top contenders. Scotland has its own national song and Wales has its own national anthem for political and national events and for use at international football, rugby union and other sports in which those nations compete independently. On all occasions Wales ' national anthem is "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau '' (Land of my Fathers). Scotland has no single anthem; "Scotland the Brave '' was traditionally used until the 1990s, when "Flower of Scotland '' was adopted. In Northern Ireland, "God Save the Queen '' is still used as the official anthem.
The phrase "No surrender '' is occasionally sung in the bridge before "Send her victorious '' by England football fans at matches. The phrase "no surrender '' is also associated with Combat 18, a white supremacist group. The phrase is also associated with Ulster loyalism and can sometimes be heard at the same point before Northern Ireland football matches.
Since 2003, "God Save the Queen '', considered an all inclusive Anthem for Great Britain and Northern Ireland, as well as other countries within the Commonwealth, has been dropped from the Commonwealth Games. Northern Irish athletes receive their gold medals to the tune of the "Londonderry Air '', popularly known as "Danny Boy ''. In 2006, English winners heard Elgar 's Pomp and Circumstance March No. 1, usually known as "Land of Hope and Glory '', but after a poll conducted by the Commonwealth Games Council for England prior to the 2010 Games, "Jerusalem '' was adopted as England 's new Commonwealth Games anthem. In sports in which the UK competes as one nation, most notably as Great Britain at the Olympics, "God Save the Queen '' is used to represent anyone or any team that comes from the United Kingdom.
The phrase "God Save the King '' is much older than the song, appearing, for instance, several times in the King James Bible. A text based on the 1st Book of Kings Chapter 1: verses 38 -- 40, "... And all the people rejoic 'd, and said: God save the King! Long live the King! May the King live for ever, Amen '', has been sung at every coronation since that of King Edgar in 973. Scholes says that as early as 1545 "God Save the King '' was a watchword of the Royal Navy, with the response being "Long to reign over us ''. He also notes that the prayer read in churches on anniversaries of the Gunpowder Plot includes words which might have formed part of the basis for the second verse "Scatter our enemies... assuage their malice and confound their devices ''.
In 1745, The Gentleman 's Magazine published "God save our lord the king: A new song set for two voices '', describing it "As sung at both Playhouses '' (the Theatres Royal at Drury Lane and Covent Garden). Traditionally, the first performance was thought to have been in 1745, when it was sung in support of King George II, after his defeat at the Battle of Prestonpans by the army of Charles Edward Stuart, son of James Francis Edward Stuart, the Jacobite claimant to the British throne.
It is sometimes claimed that, ironically, the song was originally sung in support of the Jacobite cause: the word "send '' in the line "Send him victorious '' could imply that the king was absent. However, the Oxford English Dictionary cites examples of "(God) send (a person) safe, victorious, etc. '' meaning "God grant that he may be safe, etc. ''. There are also examples of early eighteenth century Jacobean drinking glasses which are inscribed with a version of the words and were apparently intended for drinking the health of King James II and VII.
Scholes acknowledges these possibilities but argues that the same words were probably being used by both Jacobite and Hanoverian supporters and directed at their respective kings.
In 1902, the musician William Hayman Cummings, quoting mid-18th century correspondence between Charles Burney and Sir Joseph Banks, proposed that the words were based on a Latin verse composed for King James II at the Chapel Royal.
O Deus optime Salvum nunc facito Regem nostrum Sic laeta victoria Comes et gloria Salvum iam facito Tu dominum.
God save our gracious Queen! Long live our noble Queen! God save the Queen! Send her victorious, Happy and glorious, Long to reign over us: God save the Queen! O Lord our God arise, Scatter her enemies, And make them fall: Confound their politics, Frustrate their knavish tricks, On Thee our hopes we fix: God save us all. Thy choicest gifts in store, On her be pleased to pour; Long may she reign: May she defend our laws, And ever give us cause, To sing with heart and voice, God save the Queen! When the monarch of the time is male, "Queen '' is replaced with "King '' and all feminine pronouns (in bold type) are replaced with their masculine equivalents.
There is no definitive version of the lyrics. However, the version consisting of the three verses reproduced in the box on the right hand side has the best claim to be regarded as the "standard '' British version, appearing not only in the 1745 Gentleman 's Magazine, but also in publications such as The Book of English Songs: From the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century (1851), National Hymns: How They Are Written and How They Are Not Written (1861), Household Book of Poetry (1882), and Hymns Ancient and Modern, Revised Version (1982).
The same version with verse two omitted appears in publications including Scouting for Boys (1908), and on the British Monarchy website. At the Queen 's Golden Jubilee Party at the Palace concert, Prince Charles referred in his speech to the "politically incorrect second verse '' of the National Anthem.
According to Alan Michie 's Rule, Britannia, which was published in 1952, after the death of King George VI but before the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, when the first General Assembly of the United Nations was held in London in January 1946 the King, in honour of the occasion, "ordered the belligerent imperious second stanza of ' God Save the King ' to be rewritten to bring it more into the spirit of the brotherhood of nations. ''
In the UK, the first verse is the only verse typically sung, even at official occasions, although the third verse is sung in addition on rare occasions such as during the opening ceremonies of the 2012 Summer Olympics and 2012 Summer Paralympics, and usually at the Last Night of the Proms. At the Closing Ceremony of the 2008 Beijing Olympics, the fourth verse of the William Hickson alternative lyrics was sung instead of the third verse.
The standard version of the melody and its key of G major are still those of the originally published version, although the start of the anthem is often signalled by an introductory timpani roll of two bars length. The bass line of the standard version differs little from the second voice part shown in the original, and there is a standard version in four - part harmony for choirs. The first three lines (six bars of music) are soft, ending with a short crescendo into "Send her victorious '', and then is another crescendo at "over us: '' into the final words "God save the Queen ''.
In the early part of the 20th century there existed a Military Band version, usually played in march time, in the higher key of B ♭, because it was easier for brass instruments to play in that key, though it had the disadvantage of being more difficult to sing: however now most Bands play it in the correct key of G.
Since 1953, the anthem is sometimes preceded by a fanfare composed by Gordon Jacob for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II.
There have been several attempts to improve the song by rewriting the words. In the nineteenth century there was some lively debate about the national anthem and, even then, verse two was considered to be slightly offensive. Notably, the question arose over the phrase "scatter her enemies. '' Some thought it placed better emphasis on the respective power of Parliament and the Crown to change "her '' to "our ''; others pointed out that the theology was somewhat dubious and substituted "thine '' instead. Sydney G.R. Coles wrote a completely new version, as did Canon F.K. Harford. In 1836, William Edward Hickson wrote four alternative verses. The first, third, and fourth of these verses are appended to the National Anthem in the English Hymnal (which only includes verses one and three of the original lyrics).
William Hickson 's alternative (1836) version includes the following verses, of which the first, third, and fourth have some currency as they are appended to the National Anthem in the English Hymnal. The fourth verse was sung after the traditional first verse at the Queen 's Golden Jubilee National Service of Thanksgiving in 2002 and during the raising of the Union Flag during the closing ceremonies of the 2008 Summer Olympics.
God bless our native land! May heaven 's protecting hand Still guard our shore: May peace her power extend, Foe be transformed to friend, And Britain 's rights depend On war no more. O Lord, our monarch bless With strength and righteousness: Long may she reign: Her heart inspire and move With wisdom from above; And in a nation 's love Her throne maintain May just and righteous laws Uphold the public cause, And bless our isle: Home of the brave and free, Thou land of liberty, We pray that still on thee Kind heaven may smile. Not in this land alone, But be God 's mercies known From shore to shore: Lord make the nations see That men should brothers be, And form one family The wide world over
A less militaristic version of the song, titled "Official peace version, 1919 '', was first published in the hymn book Songs of Praise in 1925. This was "official '' in the sense that it was approved by the British Privy Council in 1919. However, despite being reproduced in some other hymn books, it is largely unknown today.
God save our gracious Queen! Long live our noble Queen! God save The Queen! Send her victorious Happy and glorious Long to reign over us God save the Queen! One realm of races four Blest more and ever more God save our land! Home of the brave and free Set in the silver sea True nurse of chivalry God save our land! Of many a race and birth From utmost ends of earth God save us all! Bid strife and hatred cease Bid hope and joy increase Spread universal peace God save us all!
Around 1745, anti-Jacobite sentiment was captured in a verse appended to the song, with a prayer for the success of Field Marshal George Wade 's army then assembling at Newcastle. These words attained some short - term use, although they did not appear in the published version in the October 1745 Gentleman 's Magazine. This verse was first documented as an occasional addition to the original anthem by Richard Clark in 1822, and was also mentioned in a later article on the song, published by the Gentleman 's Magazine in October 1836. Therein, it is presented as an "additional verse... though being of temporary application only... stored in the memory of an old friend... who was born in the very year 1745, and was thus the associate of those who heard it first sung '', the lyrics given being:
Lord, grant that Marshal Wade, May by thy mighty aid, Victory bring. May he sedition hush, and like a torrent rush, Rebellious Scots to crush, God save the King.
The 1836 article and other sources make it clear that this verse was not used soon after 1745, and certainly before the song became accepted as the British national anthem in the 1780s and 1790s. It was included as an integral part of the song in the Oxford Book of Eighteenth Century Verse of 1926, although erroneously referencing the "fourth verse '' to the Gentleman 's Magazine article of 1745.
On the opposing side, Jacobite beliefs were demonstrated in an alternative verse used during the same period:
God bless the prince, I pray, God bless the prince, I pray, Charlie I mean; That Scotland we may see Freed from vile Presbyt'ry, Both George and his Feckie, Ever so, Amen.
In May 1800, following an attempt to assassinate King George III at London 's Drury Lane theatre, playwright Richard Sheridan immediately composed an additional verse, which was sung from the stage the same night:
From every latent foe From the assassins blow God save the King O'er him Thine arm extend For Britain 's sake defend Our father, king, and friend God save the King!
Various other attempts were made during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to add verses to commemorate particular royal or national events. For example, according to Fitzroy Maclean, when Jacobite forces bypassed Wade 's force and reached Derby, but then retreated and when their garrison at Carlisle Castle surrendered to a second government army led by King George 's son, the Duke of Cumberland, another verse was added. Other short - lived verses were notably anti-French, such as the following, quoted in the book Handel by Edward J. Dent:
From France and Pretender Great Britain defend her, Foes let them fall; From foreign slavery, Priests and their knavery, And Popish Reverie, God save us all.
However, none of these additional verses survived into the twentieth century. Updated "full '' versions including additional verses have been published more recently, including the standard three verses, Hickson 's fourth verse, Sheridan 's verse and the Marshal Wade verse.
The style most commonly heard in official performances was proposed as the "proper interpretation '' by King George V, who considered himself something of an expert (in view of the number of times he had heard it). An Army Order was duly issued in 1933, which laid down regulations for tempo, dynamics and orchestration. This included instructions such as that the opening "six bars will be played quietly by the reed band with horns and basses in a single phrase. Cornets and side - drum are to be added at the little scale - passage leading into the second half of the tune, and the full brass enters for the last eight bars ''. The official tempo for the opening section is a metronome setting of 60, with the second part played in a broader manner, at a metronome setting of 52. In recent years the prescribed sombre - paced introduction is often played at a faster and livelier tempo.
Until the latter part of the 20th century, theatre and concert goers were expected to stand while the anthem was played after the conclusion of a show. In cinemas this brought a tendency for audiences to rush out while the end credits played to avoid this formality. (This can be seen in the 1972 Dad 's Army episode A Soldier 's Farewell.)
The anthem continues to be played at some traditional events such as Wimbledon, Royal Variety Performance, the Edinburgh Tattoo, Royal Ascot, Henley Royal Regatta and The Proms.
The anthem was traditionally played at closedown on the BBC, and with the introduction of commercial television to the UK this practice was adopted by some ITV companies (with the notable exception of Granada). BBC Two never played the anthem at closedown, and ITV dropped the practice in the late 1980s, but it continued on BBC One until the final closedown on 8 November 1997 (thereafter BBC1 began to simulcast with BBC News after end of programmes). The tradition is carried on, however, by BBC Radio 4, which plays the anthem each night as a transition piece between the end of the Radio Four broadcasting and the move to BBC World Service. Radio 4 and Radio 2 also play the National Anthem at 0700 and 0800 on the actual and official birthdays of the Queen and the birthdays of senior members of the Royal Family.
The anthem usually prefaces The Queen 's Christmas Message (although in 2007 it appeared at the end, taken from a recording of the 1957 television broadcast), and important royal announcements, such as of royal deaths, when it is played in a slower, sombre arrangement.
Frequently, when an anthem is needed for one of the constituent countries of the United Kingdom -- at an international sporting event, for instance -- an alternative song is used:
In April 2007 there was an early day motion, number 1319, to the British Parliament to propose that there should be a separate England anthem: "That this House... believes that all English sporting associations should adopt an appropriate song that English sportsmen and women, and the English public, would favour when competing as England ''. An amendment (EDM 1319A3) was proposed by Evan Harris that the song "should have a bit more oomph than God Save The Queen and should also not involve God. ''
For more information see also:
"God Save the King / Queen '' was exported around the world via the expansion of the British Empire, serving as each country 's national anthem. Throughout the Empire 's evolution into the Commonwealth of Nations, the song declined in use in most states which became independent. In some countries it remains as one of the official national anthems, such as in New Zealand, or as an official royal anthem, as is the case in Australia, Canada, Jamaica, and Tuvalu, to be played during formal ceremonies involving national royalty or vice-royalty.
In Australia, the song has standing through a Royal Proclamation issued by Governor - General Sir Ninian Stephen on 19 April 1984. It declared "God Save the Queen '' to be the Royal Anthem and that it is to be played when the Australian monarch or a member of the Royal Family is present, though not exclusively in such circumstances. The same proclamation made "Advance Australia Fair '' the national anthem and the basis for the "Vice-Regal Salute '' (the first four and last two bars of the anthem). Prior to 1984, "God Save the Queen '' was the national anthem of Australia.
By convention, "God Save the Queen '' is the Royal Anthem of Canada. It is sometimes played or sung together with the national anthem, "O Canada '', at private and public events organised by groups such as the Government of Canada, the Royal Canadian Legion, police services, and loyal groups. The governor general and provincial lieutenant governors are accorded the "Viceregal Salute '', comprising the first three lines of "God Save the Queen '', followed by the first and last lines of "O Canada ''.
"God Save the Queen '' has been sung in Canada since the late 1700s and by the mid 20th century was, along with "O Canada '', one of the country 's two de facto national anthems, the first and last verses of the standard British version being used. By - laws and practices governing the use of either song during public events in municipalities varied; in Toronto, "God Save the Queen '' was employed, while in Montreal it was "O Canada ''. Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson in 1964 said one song would have to be chosen as the country 's national anthem and, three years later, he advised Governor General Georges Vanier to appoint the Special Joint Committee of the Senate and House of Commons on the National and Royal Anthems. Within two months, on 12 April 1967, the committee presented its conclusion that "God Save the Queen '', whose music and lyrics were found to be in the public domain, should be designated as the Royal Anthem of Canada and "O Canada '' as the national anthem, one verse from each, in both official languages, to be adopted by parliament. The group was then charged with establishing official lyrics for each song; for "God Save the Queen '', the English words were those inherited from the United Kingdom and the French words were taken from those that had been adopted in 1952 for the coronation of Elizabeth II. When the bill pronouncing "O Canada '' as the national anthem was put through parliament, the joint committee 's earlier recommendations regarding "God Save the Queen '' were not included.
The Department of National Defence and the Canadian Forces regulates that "God Save the Queen '' be played as a salute to the monarch and other members of the Canadian Royal Family, though it may also be used as a hymn, or prayer. The words are not to be sung when the song is played as a military royal salute and is abbreviated to the first three lines while arms are being presented. Elizabeth II stipulated that the arrangement in G major by Lieutenant Colonel Basil H. Brown be used in Canada. The authorised version to be played by pipe bands is Mallorca.
The first verse of "God Save the Queen '' has been translated into French, as shown below:
There is a special Canadian verse in English which was once commonly sung in addition to the two standing verses:
"God Save the Queen '' was the sole official national anthem until 1977 when "God Defend New Zealand '' was added as a second. "God Save the Queen '' is now most often only played when the sovereign, governor - general or other member of the Royal Family is present, or on some occasions such as Anzac Day.
In New Zealand, the second more militaristic verse is sometimes replaced with Hickson 's verse "Nor in this land alone... '' (often sung as "Not in this land alone ''), otherwise known as a "Commonwealth verse ''.
When Rhodesia issued its Unilateral Declaration of Independence from the UK on 11 November 1965, it did so while still maintaining loyalty to Queen Elizabeth II as the Rhodesian head of state, despite the non-recognition of the Rhodesian government by the United Kingdom and the United Nations; "God Save the Queen '' therefore remained the Rhodesian national anthem. This was supposed to demonstrate the continued allegiance of the Rhodesian people to the monarch, but the retention in Rhodesia of a song so associated with the UK while the two countries were at loggerheads regarding its constitutional status caused Rhodesian state occasions to have "a faintly ironic tone '', in the words of The Times. Nevertheless, "God Save the Queen '' remained Rhodesia 's national anthem until March 1970, when the country formally declared itself a republic. "Rise, O Voices of Rhodesia '' was adopted in its stead in 1974 and remained in use until the country returned to British control in December 1979. Since the internationally recognised independence of the Republic of Zimbabwe in April 1980, "God Save the Queen '' has had no official status there.
"God Save the King '' was one of the first songs to successfully be used as a national anthem, only the Dutch Het Wilhelmus (~ 1568) is older. (The Spanish La Marcha Real is older as well, but took longer to become popular. Japan 's anthem Kimigayo has lyrics which are older still, but a more recent melody). Its success prompted a number of other countries to pen similar anthems to help construct a concrete national identity - many of which used the same tune:
The melody is also used as a hymn tune by Christian churches in various countries, including by the United Methodists of the southern United States, Mexico, and Latin America, among other denominations. "Glory to God on High '' is frequently sung to the tune, as is "Since I Have My Retreat '' in the Protestant Church of Korea, and the Dutch hymn "Eeuwig en machtig Heer ''.
The Ren & Stimpy Show uses a parody version of the tune for the anthem of the "Royal Canadian Kilted Yaksmen ''.
About 140 composers have used the tune in their compositions, including Beethoven, Haydn, Brahms, Clementi, J.C. Bach, Liszt, Britten, Carl Maria von Weber, Niccolò Paganini, Johann Strauss I, and Edward Elgar.
Ludwig van Beethoven composed a set of seven piano variations in the key of C major to the theme of "God Save the King '', catalogued as WoO. 78 (1802 -- 1803). He also quotes it in his orchestral work Wellington 's Victory.
Muzio Clementi used the theme to "God Save the King '' in his Symphony No. 3 in G major, often called the "Great National Symphony '', catalogued as WoO. 34. Clementi paid a high tribute to his adopted homeland (the United Kingdom) where he grew up and stayed most of his lifetime. He based the Symphony (about 1816 -- 1824) on "God Save the King '', which is hinted at earlier in the work, not least in the second movement, and announced by the trombones in the finale. Symphony No. 3 "Great National Symphony '' in en sol majeur / G - dur / G major / sol maggiore 1. Andante sostenuto -- Allegro con brio 2. Andante un poco mosso 3. Minuetto. Allegretto 4. Finale. Vivace
Johann Christian Bach composed a set of variations on "God Save the King '' for the finale to his sixth keyboard concerto (Op. 1) written c. 1763.
Joseph Haydn was impressed by the use of "God Save the King '' as a national anthem during his visit to London in 1794, and on his return to Austria composed "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser '' ("God Save Emperor Francis '') for the birthday of the last Holy Roman Emperor and Roman - German King, Francis II. It became the anthem of the Austrian Empire after the end of the Holy Roman Empire with revised lyrics, its tune ultimately being used for the German national anthem. The tune of "God Save the King '' was adopted for the Prussian royal anthem "Heil Dir im Siegerkranz ''.
Franz Liszt wrote a piano paraphrase on the anthem (S. 259 in the official catalogue, c. 1841).
Johann Strauss I quoted "God Save the Queen '' in full at the end of his waltz Huldigung der Königin Victoria von Grossbritannien (Homage to Queen Victoria of Great Britain) Op. 103, where he also quoted Rule, Britannia! in full at the beginning of the piece.
Siegfried August Mahlmann in the early 19th century wrote alternate lyrics to adapt the hymn for the Kingdom of Saxony, as "Gott segne Sachsenland '' ("God Bless Saxony '').
Heinrich Marschner used the anthem in his "Grande Ouverture solenne '', op. 78 (1842).
Gaetano Donizetti used this anthem in his opera "Roberto Devereux ''.
Joachim Raff used this anthem in his Jubelouverture, Opus 103 (1864) dedicated to Adolf, Herzog von Nassau, on the 25th anniversary of his reign.
Gioachino Rossini used this anthem in the last scene of his "Il viaggio a Reims '', when all the characters, coming from many different European countries, sing a song which recalls their own homeland. Lord Sidney, bass, sings "Della real pianta '' on the notes of "God Save the King ''. Samuel Ramey used to interpolate a spectacular virtuoso cadenza at the end of the song.
Fernando Sor used the anthem in his 12 Studies, Op. 6: No. 10 in C Major in the section marked ' Maestoso. '
Arthur Sullivan quotes the anthem at the end of his ballet Victoria and Merrie England.
Claude Debussy opens with a brief introduction of "God Save the King '' in one of his Preludes, Hommage à S. Pickwick Esq. P.P.M.P.C.. The piece draws its inspiration from the main character of the Charles Dickens novel The Pickwick Papers.
Niccolò Paganini wrote a set of highly virtuosic variations on "God Save the King '' as his Opus 9.
Max Reger wrote Variations and Fugue on ' Heil dir im Siegerkranz ' (God Save the King) for organ in 1901 after the death of Queen Victoria. It does not have an opus number.
A week before the Coronation Ode was due to be premiered at the June 1902 "Coronation Gala Concert '' at Covent Garden (it was cancelled, owing to the King 's illness), Sir Edward Elgar introduced an arrangement of "Land of Hope and Glory '' as a solo song performed by Clara Butt at a "Coronation Concert '' at the Albert Hall. Novello seized upon the prevailing patriotism and requested that Elgar arrange the National Anthem as an appropriate opening for a concert performed in front of the Court and numerous British and foreign dignitaries. This version for orchestra and chorus, which is enlivened by use of a cappella and marcato effects, was also performed at the opening of the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley on St. George 's Day, 1924, and recorded under the composer 's Baton in 1928, with the LSO and the Philharmonic Choir. Elgar also used the first verse of the Anthem as the climax of a short "Civic Procession and Anthem '', written to accompany the mayoral procession at the opening of the Hereford Music Festival on 4 September 1927. This premiere performance was recorded, and is today available on CD; the score was lost following the festival, and Elgar resorted to reconstructing it by ear from the recording.
Carl Maria von Weber uses the "God Save the King '' theme at the end of his "Jubel Overture ''
Giuseppe Verdi included "God Save the Queen '' in his "Inno delle nazioni '' (Hymn of the Nations), composed for the London 1862 International Exhibition.
Benjamin Britten arranged "God Save the Queen '' in 1961 for the Leeds Festival. This version has been programmed several times at the Last Night of the Proms.
Charles Ives wrote Variations on "America '' for organ in 1891 at age seventeen. It included a polytonal section in three simultaneous keys, though this was omitted from performances at his father 's request, because "it made the boys laugh out loud ''. Ives was fond of the rapid pedal line in the final variation, which he said was "almost as much fun as playing baseball ''. The piece was not published until 1949; the final version includes an introduction, seven variations and a polytonal interlude. The piece was adapted for orchestra in 1963 by William Schuman. This version became popular during the bicentennial celebrations, and is often heard at pops concerts.
Muthuswami Dikshitar (1776 -- 1835), one of the musical trinity in South Indian classical (Carnatic) music composed some Sanskrit pieces set to Western tunes. These are in the raga Sankarabharanam and are referred to as "nottu swaras ''. Among these, the composition "Santatam Pahimam Sangita Shyamale '' is set to the tune of "God Save the Queen ''.
Sigismond Thalberg (1812 - 1871), Swiss composer and one of the most famous virtuoso pianists of the 19th century, wrote a fantasia on "God Save the Queen ''.
Johan Nepomuk Hummel (1778 - 1837) wrote the Variations from God Save the King in D major, op. 10.
Adrien - François Servais (1807 -- 66) and Joseph Ghys (1801 -- 48) wrote Variations brillantes et concertantes sur l'air "God Save the King '', op. 38, for violin and cello and performed it in London and St Petersburg.
Georges Onslow (1784 - 1853) used the tune in his String Quartet No. 7 in G Minor, op. 9, second movement.
A nineteenth - century convert to Islam and leading Islamic scholar in the UK at the time wrote an Islamic adaptation to what was "God Save The King. ''
A MUSLIM ANTHEM by Abdullah Quilliam
Tune -- "God Save the Queen / King ''
God bless the Muslim cause: Bless all who keep Thy laws And do the right. Uphold the Muslim band, In this and every land; Give them full strength to stand Firm in the fight. Strengthen and help the weak, And teach us all to speak, Thy truth abound. May love and liberty, Truth and sweet purity, With plenteous charity, In us be found. Hear Thou the orphan 's cry, Assuage the widow 's sigh, The foolish chide. Let vice no more abound, But happiness be found In every home and round The world so wide.
1st Muharram, 1319 21st April, 1901.
The British rock band Family sampled "God Save the Queen '' at the end of their 1968 debut album, Music in a Doll 's House, following the final track, "3 x Time ''.
The Beatles performed an impromptu version of "God Save the Queen '' during their 30 January 1969 rooftop concert, atop the Apple building. They had also whistled the melody of the song on their first fan club Christmas record in 1963.
Jimi Hendrix of The Jimi Hendrix Experience played an impromptu version of "God Save the Queen '' to open his set at the Isle of Wight Festival 1970. Just before walking onto the stage, he can be seen (on the DVD) and heard to ask "How does it go again? '' in reference to said UK national anthem. He may have been able to simply hear it mimicked by voice and then perform it, though the same melody was (and is) widely known in the United States to the lyrics "My country, ' tis of thee ''. Hendrix gave the same sort of distortion and improvisation of "God Save the Queen '', as he had done with "The Star - Spangled Banner '' at the Woodstock Festival, 1969.
Gentle Giant performed a version -- titled The Queen -- on their 1970 eponymous debut album.
The rock band Queen recorded an instrumental version of "God Save the Queen '' on their 1975 album A Night at the Opera. It was arranged by guitarist Brian May and features his distinctive layers of overdubbed electric guitars. A tape of this version would be played at the end of almost every concert, with Freddie Mercury walking around the stage wearing a crown and a cloak on their Magic Tour in 1986. The song was played whilst all the Queen members would take their bows. On 3 June 2002, during the Queen 's Golden Jubilee, Brian May performed the anthem on his Red Special electric guitar for Party at the Palace, performing from the roof of Buckingham Palace, and features on the 30th Anniversary DVD edition of A Night at the Opera.
In 1977, the Sex Pistols recorded a song titled "God Save the Queen '' in open reference to the National Anthem and the Queen 's Silver Jubilee celebrations that year, with the song intending to stand for sympathy for the working class and resentment of the monarchy. They were banned from many venues, censored by mainstream media, and reached number 2 on the official U.K. singles charts and number 1 on the NME chart.
A version of "God Save the Queen '' by Madness features the melody of the song played on kazoos. It was included on the compilation album The Business -- the Definitive Singles Collection.
Composer Steve Ouimette recorded a rock version as downloadable content for the video game Guitar Hero 5.
Canadian rocker Neil Young recorded a rock version of "God Save the Queen '', merged with "America (My Country ' Tis of Thee) '', for his 2012 Americana album with Crazy Horse.
The anthem was the first piece of music played on a computer, and the first computer music to be recorded.
Musical notes were first generated by a computer programmed by Alan Turing at the Computing Machine Laboratory of the University of Manchester in 1948. The first music proper, a performance of the National Anthem was programmed by Christopher Strachey on the Mark II Manchester Electronic Computer at same venue, in 1951. Later that year, short extracts of three pieces, the first being the National Anthem, were recorded there by a BBC outside broadcasting unit: the other pieces being "Ba Ba Black Sheep, and "In the Mood ''. Researchers at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch restored the acetate master disc in 2016 and the results may be heard on Soundcloud.
The philosopher and reformer Jeremy Bentham praised "God Save the King '' in 1796: "the melody recommending itself by beauty to the most polished ears, and by its simplicity to the rudest ear. A song of this complexion, implanted by the habit of half a century in the mass of popular sentiment, can not be refused a place in the inventory of the national blessings. '' Ludwig van Beethoven wrote "I have to show the English a little of what a blessing ' God Save the King ' is ''. Alex Marshall, the British author of Republic or Death!: Travels in Search of National Anthems, called the anthem "ludicrous ''.
There have been calls within the UK for a new national anthem, whether it be for the United Kingdom itself, Britain and / or England (which all currently use God Save the Queen). There are many reasons people cite for wishing for a new national anthem, such as: from a non-religious standpoint (most people in the UK appear to no longer be religious), claims of God Save the Queen being long outdated and irrelevant in the 21st century, rejection of odes to promoting war and rejection of praising the monarchy from a republican perspective.
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what is the function of the switch in the electromagnet | Electromagnet - wikipedia
An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off. Electromagnets usually consist of insulated wire wound into a coil. A current through the wire creates a magnetic field which is concentrated in the hole in the center of the coil. The wire turns are often wound around a magnetic core made from a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material such as iron; the magnetic core concentrates the magnetic flux and makes a more powerful magnet.
The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that the magnetic field can be quickly changed by controlling the amount of electric current in the winding. However, unlike a permanent magnet that needs no power, an electromagnet requires a continuous supply of current to maintain the magnetic field.
Electromagnets are widely used as components of other electrical devices, such as motors, generators, relays, loudspeakers, hard disks, MRI machines, scientific instruments, and magnetic separation equipment. Electromagnets are also employed in industry for picking up and moving heavy iron objects such as scrap iron and steel.
Danish scientist Hans Christian Ørsted discovered in 1820 that electric currents create magnetic fields. British scientist William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet in 1824. His first electromagnet was a horseshoe - shaped piece of iron that was wrapped with about 18 turns of bare copper wire (insulated wire did n't exist yet). The iron was varnished to insulate it from the windings. When a current was passed through the coil, the iron became magnetized and attracted other pieces of iron; when the current was stopped, it lost magnetization. Sturgeon displayed its power by showing that although it only weighed seven ounces (roughly 200 grams), it could lift nine pounds (roughly 4 kilos) when the current of a single - cell battery was applied. However, Sturgeon 's magnets were weak because the uninsulated wire he used could only be wrapped in a single spaced out layer around the core, limiting the number of turns.
Beginning in 1830, US scientist Joseph Henry systematically improved and popularized the electromagnet. By using wire insulated by silk thread, and inspired by Schweigger 's use of multiple turns of wire to make a galvanometer, he was able to wind multiple layers of wire on cores, creating powerful magnets with thousands of turns of wire, including one that could support 2,063 lb (936 kg). The first major use for electromagnets was in telegraph sounders.
The magnetic domain theory of how ferromagnetic cores work was first proposed in 1906 by French physicist Pierre - Ernest Weiss, and the detailed modern quantum mechanical theory of ferromagnetism was worked out in the 1920s by Werner Heisenberg, Lev Landau, Felix Bloch and others.
A portative electromagnet is one designed to just hold material in place; an example is a lifting magnet. A tractive electromagnet applies a force and moves something.
Electromagnets are very widely used in electric and electromechanical devices, including:
A common tractive electromagnet is a uniformly - wound solenoid and plunger. The solenoid is a coil of wire, and the plunger is made of a material such as soft iron. Applying a current to the solenoid applies a force to the plunger and may make it move. The plunger stops moving when the forces upon it are balanced. For example, the forces are balanced when the plunger is centered in the solenoid.
The maximum uniform pull happens when one end of the plunger is at the middle of the solenoid. An approximation for the force F is
where C is a proportionality constant, A is the cross-sectional area of the plunger, n is the number of turns in the solenoid, I is the current through the solenoid wire, and l is the length of the solenoid. For units using inches, pounds force, and amperes with long, slender, solenoids, the value of C is around 0.009 to 0.010 psi (maximum pull pounds per square inch of plunger cross-sectional area). For example, a 12 - inch long coil (l = 12 in) with a long plunger of 1 - square inch cross section (A = 1 in) and 11,200 ampere - turns (n I = 11,200 Aturn) had a maximum pull of 8.75 pounds (corresponding to C = 0.0094 psi).
The maximum pull is increased when a magnetic stop is inserted into the solenoid. The stop becomes a magnet that will attract the plunger; it adds little to the solenoid pull when the plunger is far away but dramatically increases the pull when they are close. An approximation for the pull P is
Here l is the distance between the end of the stop and the end of the plunger. The additional constant C for units of inches, pounds, and amperes with slender solenoids is about 2660. The second term within the bracket represents the same force as the stop-less solenoid above; the first term represents the attraction between the stop and the plunger.
Some improvements can be made on the basic design. The ends of the stop and plunger are often conical. For example, the plunger may have a pointed end that fits into a matching recess in the stop. The shape makes the solenoid 's pull more uniform as a function of separation. Another improvement is to add a magnetic return path around the outside of the solenoid (an "iron - clad solenoid ''). The magnetic return path, just as the stop, has little impact until the air gap is small.
An electric current flowing in a wire creates a magnetic field around the wire, due to Ampere 's law (see drawing below). To concentrate the magnetic field, in an electromagnet the wire is wound into a coil with many turns of wire lying side by side. The magnetic field of all the turns of wire passes through the center of the coil, creating a strong magnetic field there. A coil forming the shape of a straight tube (a helix) is called a solenoid.
The direction of the magnetic field through a coil of wire can be found from a form of the right - hand rule. If the fingers of the right hand are curled around the coil in the direction of current flow (conventional current, flow of positive charge) through the windings, the thumb points in the direction of the field inside the coil. The side of the magnet that the field lines emerge from is defined to be the north pole.
Much stronger magnetic fields can be produced if a "magnetic core '' of a soft ferromagnetic (or ferrimagnetic) material, such as iron, is placed inside the coil. A core can increase the magnetic field to thousands of times the strength of the field of the coil alone, due to the high magnetic permeability μ of the material. This is called a ferromagnetic - core or iron - core electromagnet. However, not all electromagnets use cores, and the very strongest electromagnets, such as superconducting and the very high current electromagnets, can not use them due to saturation.
For definitions of the variables below, see box at end of article.
The magnetic field of electromagnets in the general case is given by Ampere 's Law:
which says that the integral of the magnetizing field H around any closed loop of the field is equal to the sum of the current flowing through the loop. Another equation used, that gives the magnetic field due to each small segment of current, is the Biot -- Savart law. Computing the magnetic field and force exerted by ferromagnetic materials is difficult for two reasons. First, because the strength of the field varies from point to point in a complicated way, particularly outside the core and in air gaps, where fringing fields and leakage flux must be considered. Second, because the magnetic field B and force are nonlinear functions of the current, depending on the nonlinear relation between B and H for the particular core material used. For precise calculations, computer programs that can produce a model of the magnetic field using the finite element method are employed.
The material of a magnetic core (often made of iron or steel) is composed of small regions called magnetic domains that act like tiny magnets (see ferromagnetism). Before the current in the electromagnet is turned on, the domains in the iron core point in random directions, so their tiny magnetic fields cancel each other out, and the iron has no large scale magnetic field. When a current is passed through the wire wrapped around the iron, its magnetic field penetrates the iron, and causes the domains to turn, aligning parallel to the magnetic field, so their tiny magnetic fields add to the wire 's field, creating a large magnetic field that extends into the space around the magnet. The effect of the core is to concentrate the field, and the magnetic field passes through the core more easily than it would pass through air.
The larger the current passed through the wire coil, the more the domains align, and the stronger the magnetic field is. Finally all the domains are lined up, and further increases in current only cause slight increases in the magnetic field: this phenomenon is called saturation.
When the current in the coil is turned off, in the magnetically soft materials that are nearly always used as cores, most of the domains lose alignment and return to a random state and the field disappears. However some of the alignment persists, because the domains have difficulty turning their direction of magnetization, leaving the core a weak permanent magnet. This phenomenon is called hysteresis and the remaining magnetic field is called remanent magnetism. The residual magnetization of the core can be removed by degaussing. In alternating current electromagnets, such as are used in motors, the core 's magnetisation is constantly reversed, and the remanence contributes to the motor 's losses.
In many practical applications of electromagnets, such as motors, generators, transformers, lifting magnets, and loudspeakers, the iron core is in the form of a loop or magnetic circuit, possibly broken by a few narrow air gaps. This is because the magnetic field lines are in the form of closed loops. Iron presents much less "resistance '' (reluctance) to the magnetic field than air, so a stronger field can be obtained if most of the magnetic field 's path is within the core.
Since most of the magnetic field is confined within the outlines of the core loop, this allows a simplification of the mathematical analysis. See the drawing at right. A common simplifying assumption satisfied by many electromagnets, which will be used in this section, is that the magnetic field strength B is constant around the magnetic circuit (within the core and air gaps) and zero outside it. Most of the magnetic field will be concentrated in the core material (C). Within the core the magnetic field (B) will be approximately uniform across any cross section, so if in addition the core has roughly constant area throughout its length, the field in the core will be constant. This just leaves the air gaps (G), if any, between core sections. In the gaps the magnetic field lines are no longer confined by the core, so they ' bulge ' out beyond the outlines of the core before curving back to enter the next piece of core material, reducing the field strength in the gap. The bulges (B) are called fringing fields. However, as long as the length of the gap is smaller than the cross section dimensions of the core, the field in the gap will be approximately the same as in the core. In addition, some of the magnetic field lines (B) will take ' short cuts ' and not pass through the entire core circuit, and thus will not contribute to the force exerted by the magnet. This also includes field lines that encircle the wire windings but do not enter the core. This is called leakage flux. Therefore, the equations in this section are valid for electromagnets for which:
The main nonlinear feature of ferromagnetic materials is that the B field saturates at a certain value, which is around 1.6 to 2 teslas (T) for most high permeability core steels. The B field increases quickly with increasing current up to that value, but above that value the field levels off and becomes almost constant, regardless of how much current is sent through the windings. So the maximum strength of the magnetic field possible from an iron core electromagnet is limited to around 1.6 to 2 T.
The magnetic field created by an electromagnet is proportional to both the number of turns in the winding, N, and the current in the wire, I, hence this product, NI, in ampere - turns, is given the name magnetomotive force. For an electromagnet with a single magnetic circuit, of which length L of the magnetic field path is in the core material and length L is in air gaps, Ampere 's Law reduces to:
This is a nonlinear equation, because the permeability of the core, μ, varies with the magnetic field B. For an exact solution, the value of μ at the B value used must be obtained from the core material hysteresis curve. If B is unknown, the equation must be solved by numerical methods. However, if the magnetomotive force is well above saturation, so the core material is in saturation, the magnetic field will be approximately the saturation value B for the material, and wo n't vary much with changes in NI. For a closed magnetic circuit (no air gap) most core materials saturate at a magnetomotive force of roughly 800 ampere - turns per meter of flux path.
For most core materials, μ r = μ / μ 0 ≈ 2000 − 6000 (\ displaystyle \ mu _ (r) = \ mu / \ mu _ (0) \ approx 2000 - 6000 \,). So in equation (1) above, the second term dominates. Therefore, in magnetic circuits with an air gap, the strength of the magnetic field B depends strongly on the length of the air gap, and the length of the flux path in the core does n't matter much. Given an air gap of 1mm, a magnetomotive force of about 796 Ampere - turns is required to produce a magnetic field of 1T.
The force exerted by an electromagnet on a section of core material is:
The force equation can be derived from the energy stored in a magnetic field. Energy is force times distance. Rearranging terms yields the equation above.
The 1.6 T limit on the field mentioned above sets a limit on the maximum force per unit core area, or pressure, an iron - core electromagnet can exert; roughly:
In more intuitive units it 's useful to remember that at 1T the magnetic pressure is approximately 4 atmospheres, or kg / cm.
Given a core geometry, the B field needed for a given force can be calculated from (2); if it comes out to much more than 1.6 T, a larger core must be used.
For a closed magnetic circuit (no air gap), such as would be found in an electromagnet lifting a piece of iron bridged across its poles, equation (1) becomes:
Substituting into (2), the force is:
It can be seen that to maximize the force, a core with a short flux path L and a wide cross sectional area A is preferred (this also applies to magnets with an air gap). To achieve this, in applications like lifting magnets (see photo above) and loudspeakers a flat cylindrical design is often used. The winding is wrapped around a short wide cylindrical core that forms one pole, and a thick metal housing that wraps around the outside of the windings forms the other part of the magnetic circuit, bringing the magnetic field to the front to form the other pole.
The above methods are applicable to electromagnets with a magnetic circuit, and do not apply when a large part of the magnetic field path is outside the core. An example would be a magnet with a straight cylindrical core like the one shown at the top of this article. For electromagnets (or permanent magnets) with well defined ' poles ' where the field lines emerge from the core, the force between two electromagnets can be found using the ' Gilbert model ' which assumes the magnetic field is produced by fictitious ' magnetic charges ' on the surface of the poles, with pole strength m and units of Ampere - turn meter. Magnetic pole strength of electromagnets can be found from:
m = N I A L (\ displaystyle m = (\ frac (NIA) (L)))
The force between two poles is:
F = μ 0 m 1 m 2 4 π r 2 (\ displaystyle F = (\ frac (\ mu _ (0) m_ (1) m_ (2)) (4 \ pi r ^ (2))))
This model does n't give the correct magnetic field inside the core, and thus gives incorrect results if the pole of one magnet gets too close to another magnet.
There are several side effects which occur in electromagnets which must be provided for in their design. These generally become more significant in larger electromagnets.
The only power consumed in a DC electromagnet is due to the resistance of the windings, and is dissipated as heat. Some large electromagnets require cooling water circulating through pipes in the windings to carry off the waste heat.
Since the magnetic field is proportional to the product NI, the number of turns in the windings N and the current I can be chosen to minimize heat losses, as long as their product is constant. Since the power dissipation, P = I R, increases with the square of the current but only increases approximately linearly with the number of windings, the power lost in the windings can be minimized by reducing I and increasing the number of turns N proportionally, or using thicker wire to reduce the resistance. For example, halving I and doubling N halves the power loss, as does doubling the area of the wire. In either case, increasing the amount of wire reduces the ohmic losses. For this reason, electromagnets often have a significant thickness of windings.
However, the limit to increasing N or lowering the resistance is that the windings take up more room between the magnet 's core pieces. If the area available for the windings is filled up, more turns require going to a smaller diameter of wire, which has higher resistance, which cancels the advantage of using more turns. So in large magnets there is a minimum amount of heat loss that ca n't be reduced. This increases with the square of the magnetic flux B.
An electromagnet has significant inductance, and resists changes in the current through its windings. Any sudden changes in the winding current cause large voltage spikes across the windings. This is because when the current through the magnet is increased, such as when it is turned on, energy from the circuit must be stored in the magnetic field. When it is turned off the energy in the field is returned to the circuit.
If an ordinary switch is used to control the winding current, this can cause sparks at the terminals of the switch. This does n't occur when the magnet is switched on, because the voltage is limited to the power supply voltage, but when it is switched off, the energy in the magnetic field is suddenly returned to the circuit, causing a large voltage spike and an arc across the switch contacts, which can damage them. With small electromagnets a capacitor is often used across the contacts, which reduces arcing by temporarily storing the current. More often a diode is used to prevent voltage spikes by providing a path for the current to recirculate through the winding until the energy is dissipated as heat. The diode is connected across the winding, oriented so it is reverse - biased during steady state operation and does n't conduct. When the supply voltage is removed, the voltage spike forward - biases the diode and the reactive current continues to flow through the winding, through the diode and back into the winding. A diode used in this way is called a flyback diode.
Large electromagnets are usually powered by variable current electronic power supplies, controlled by a microprocessor, which prevent voltage spikes by accomplishing current changes slowly, in gentle ramps. It may take several minutes to energize or deenergize a large magnet.
In powerful electromagnets, the magnetic field exerts a force on each turn of the windings, due to the Lorentz force q v × B (\ displaystyle q \ mathbf (v) \ times \ mathbf (B) \,) acting on the moving charges within the wire. The Lorentz force is perpendicular to both the axis of the wire and the magnetic field. It can be visualized as a pressure between the magnetic field lines, pushing them apart. It has two effects on an electromagnet 's windings:
The Lorentz forces increase with B. In large electromagnets the windings must be firmly clamped in place, to prevent motion on power - up and power - down from causing metal fatigue in the windings. In the Bitter design, below, used in very high field research magnets, the windings are constructed as flat disks to resist the radial forces, and clamped in an axial direction to resist the axial ones.
In alternating current (AC) electromagnets, used in transformers, inductors, and AC motors and generators, the magnetic field is constantly changing. This causes energy losses in their magnetic cores that are dissipated as heat in the core. The losses stem from two processes:
The energy loss per cycle of the AC current is constant for each of these processes, so the power loss increases linearly with frequency.
When a magnetic field higher than the ferromagnetic limit of 1.6 T is needed, superconducting electromagnets can be used. Instead of using ferromagnetic materials, these use superconducting windings cooled with liquid helium, which conduct current without electrical resistance. These allow enormous currents to flow, which generate intense magnetic fields. Superconducting magnets are limited by the field strength at which the winding material ceases to be superconducting. Current designs are limited to 10 -- 20 T, with the current (2009) record of 33.8 T. The necessary refrigeration equipment and cryostat make them much more expensive than ordinary electromagnets. However, in high power applications this can be offset by lower operating costs, since after startup no power is required for the windings, since no energy is lost to ohmic heating. They are used in particle accelerators and MRI machines.
Both iron - core and superconducting electromagnets have limits to the field they can produce. Therefore, the most powerful man - made magnetic fields have been generated by air - core nonsuperconducting electromagnets of a design invented by Francis Bitter in 1933, called Bitter electromagnets. Instead of wire windings, a Bitter magnet consists of a solenoid made of a stack of conducting disks, arranged so that the current moves in a helical path through them, with a hole through the center where the maximum field is created. This design has the mechanical strength to withstand the extreme Lorentz forces of the field, which increase with B. The disks are pierced with holes through which cooling water passes to carry away the heat caused by the high current. The strongest continuous field achieved solely with a resistive magnet is 37.5 T as of 31 March 2014, produced by a Bitter electromagnet at the Radboud University High Field Magnet Laboratory in Nijmegen, Holland. The previous record was 35 T. The strongest continuous magnetic field overall, 45 T, was achieved in June 2000 with a hybrid device consisting of a Bitter magnet inside a superconducting magnet.
The factor limiting the strength of electromagnets is the inability to dissipate the enormous waste heat, so more powerful fields, up to 100 T, have been obtained from resistive magnets by sending brief pulses of high current through them; the inactive period after each pulse allows the heat produced during the pulse to be removed, before the next pulse. The most powerful manmade magnetic fields have been created by using explosives to compress the magnetic field inside an electromagnet as it is pulsed, using explosively pumped flux compression generators.
The implosion compresses the magnetic field to values of around 1000 T for a few microseconds. While this method may seem very destructive, it is possible to redirect the brunt of the blast radially outwards so that neither the experiment nor the magnetic structure are harmed. These devices are known as destructive pulsed electromagnets. They are used in physics and materials science research to study the properties of materials at high magnetic fields.
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how long does it take the earth to make a diamond | Diamond - Wikipedia
Diamond (/ ˈdaɪəmənd / or / ˈdaɪmənd /) is a metastable allotrope of carbon, where the carbon atoms are arranged in a variation of the face - centered cubic crystal structure called a diamond lattice. Diamond is less stable than graphite, but the conversion rate from diamond to graphite is negligible at standard conditions. Diamond is renowned as a material with superlative physical qualities, most of which originate from the strong covalent bonding between its atoms. In particular, diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any bulk material. Those properties determine the major industrial application of diamond in cutting and polishing tools and the scientific applications in diamond knives and diamond anvil cells.
Because of its extremely rigid lattice, it can be contaminated by very few types of impurities, such as boron and nitrogen. Small amounts of defects or impurities (about one per million of lattice atoms) color diamond blue (boron), yellow (nitrogen), brown (lattice defects), green (radiation exposure), purple, pink, orange or red. Diamond also has relatively high optical dispersion (ability to disperse light of different colors).
Most natural diamonds are formed at high temperature and pressure at depths of 140 to 190 kilometers (87 to 118 mi) in the Earth 's mantle. Carbon - containing minerals provide the carbon source, and the growth occurs over periods from 1 billion to 3.3 billion years (25 % to 75 % of the age of the Earth). Diamonds are brought close to the Earth 's surface through deep volcanic eruptions by magma, which cools into igneous rocks known as kimberlites and lamproites. Diamonds can also be produced synthetically in a HPHT method which approximately simulates the conditions in the Earth 's mantle. An alternative, and completely different growth technique is chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Several non-diamond materials, which include cubic zirconia and silicon carbide and are often called diamond simulants, resemble diamond in appearance and many properties. Special gemological techniques have been developed to distinguish natural diamonds, synthetic diamonds, and diamond simulants. The word is from the ancient Greek ἀδάμας -- adámas "unbreakable ''.
The name diamond is derived from the ancient Greek αδάμας (adámas), "proper '', "unalterable '', "unbreakable '', "untamed '', from ἀ - (a -), "un - '' + δαμάω (damáō), "I overpower '', "I tame ''. Diamonds are thought to have been first recognized and mined in India, where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could be found many centuries ago along the rivers Penner, Krishna and Godavari. Diamonds have been known in India for at least 3,000 years but most likely 6,000 years.
Diamonds have been treasured as gemstones since their use as religious icons in ancient India. Their usage in engraving tools also dates to early human history. The popularity of diamonds has risen since the 19th century because of increased supply, improved cutting and polishing techniques, growth in the world economy, and innovative and successful advertising campaigns.
In 1772, the French scientist Antoine Lavoisier used a lens to concentrate the rays of the sun on a diamond in an atmosphere of oxygen, and showed that the only product of the combustion was carbon dioxide, proving that diamond is composed of carbon. Later in 1797, the English chemist Smithson Tennant repeated and expanded that experiment. By demonstrating that burning diamond and graphite releases the same amount of gas, he established the chemical equivalence of these substances.
The most familiar uses of diamonds today are as gemstones used for adornment, a use which dates back into antiquity, and as industrial abrasives for cutting hard materials. The dispersion of white light into spectral colors is the primary gemological characteristic of gem diamonds. In the 20th century, experts in gemology developed methods of grading diamonds and other gemstones based on the characteristics most important to their value as a gem. Four characteristics, known informally as the four Cs, are now commonly used as the basic descriptors of diamonds: these are carat (its weight), cut (quality of the cut is graded according to proportions, symmetry and polish), color (how close to white or colorless; for fancy diamonds how intense is its hue), and clarity (how free is it from inclusions). A large, flawless diamond is known as a paragon.
The formation of natural diamond requires very specific conditions -- exposure of carbon - bearing materials to high pressure, ranging approximately between 45 and 60 kilobars (4.5 and 6 GPa), but at a comparatively low temperature range between approximately 900 and 1,300 ° C (1,650 and 2,370 ° F). These conditions are met in two places on Earth; in the lithospheric mantle below relatively stable continental plates, and at the site of a meteorite strike.
The conditions for diamond formation to happen in the lithospheric mantle occur at considerable depth corresponding to the requirements of temperature and pressure. These depths are estimated between 140 and 190 kilometers (87 and 118 mi) though occasionally diamonds have crystallized at depths about 300 km (190 mi). The rate at which temperature changes with increasing depth into the Earth varies greatly in different parts of the Earth. In particular, under oceanic plates the temperature rises more quickly with depth, beyond the range required for diamond formation at the depth required. The correct combination of temperature and pressure is only found in the thick, ancient, and stable parts of continental plates where regions of lithosphere known as cratons exist. Long residence in the cratonic lithosphere allows diamond crystals to grow larger.
Through studies of carbon isotope ratios (similar to the methodology used in carbon dating, except with the stable isotopes C - 12 and C - 13), it has been shown that the carbon found in diamonds comes from both inorganic and organic sources. Some diamonds, known as harzburgitic, are formed from inorganic carbon originally found deep in the Earth 's mantle. In contrast, eclogitic diamonds contain organic carbon from organic detritus that has been pushed down from the surface of the Earth 's crust through subduction (see plate tectonics) before transforming into diamond. These two different source of carbon have measurably different C: C ratios. Diamonds that have come to the Earth 's surface are generally quite old, ranging from under 1 billion to 3.3 billion years old. This is 22 % to 73 % of the age of the Earth.
Diamond - bearing rock is carried from the mantle to the Earth 's surface by deep - origin volcanic eruptions. The magma for such a volcano must originate at a depth where diamonds can be formed -- 150 km (93 mi) or more (three times or more the depth of source magma for most volcanoes). This is a relatively rare occurrence. These typically small surface volcanic craters extend downward in formations known as volcanic pipes. The pipes contain material that was transported toward the surface by volcanic action, but was not ejected before the volcanic activity ceased. During eruption these pipes are open to the surface, resulting in open circulation; many xenoliths of surface rock and even wood and fossils are found in volcanic pipes. Diamond - bearing volcanic pipes are closely related to the oldest, coolest regions of continental crust (cratons). This is because cratons are very thick, and their lithospheric mantle extends to great enough depth that diamonds are stable. Not all pipes contain diamonds, and even fewer contain enough diamonds to make mining economically viable.
The magma in volcanic pipes is usually one of two characteristic types, which cool into igneous rock known as either kimberlite or lamproite. The magma itself does not contain diamond; instead, it acts as an elevator that carries deep - formed rocks (xenoliths), minerals (xenocrysts), and fluids upward. These rocks are characteristically rich in magnesium - bearing olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole minerals which are often altered to serpentine by heat and fluids during and after eruption. Certain indicator minerals typically occur within diamantiferous kimberlites and are used as mineralogical tracers by prospectors, who follow the indicator trail back to the volcanic pipe which may contain diamonds. These minerals are rich in chromium (Cr) or titanium (Ti), elements which impart bright colors to the minerals. The most common indicator minerals are chromium garnets (usually bright red chromium - pyrope, and occasionally green ugrandite - series garnets), eclogitic garnets, orange titanium - pyrope, red high - chromium spinels, dark chromite, bright green chromium - diopside, glassy green olivine, black picroilmenite, and magnetite. Kimberlite deposits are known as blue ground for the deeper serpentinized part of the deposits, or as yellow ground for the near surface smectite clay and carbonate weathered and oxidized portion.
Once diamonds have been transported to the surface by magma in a volcanic pipe, they may erode out and be distributed over a large area. A volcanic pipe containing diamonds is known as a primary source of diamonds. Secondary sources of diamonds include all areas where a significant number of diamonds have been eroded out of their kimberlite or lamproite matrix, and accumulated because of water or wind action. These include alluvial deposits and deposits along existing and ancient shorelines, where loose diamonds tend to accumulate because of their size and density. Diamonds have also rarely been found in deposits left behind by glaciers (notably in Wisconsin and Indiana); in contrast to alluvial deposits, glacial deposits are minor and are therefore not viable commercial sources of diamond.
Not all diamonds found on Earth originated on Earth. Primitive interstellar meteorites were found to contain carbon possibly in the form of diamond. A type of diamond called carbonado that is found in South America and Africa may have been deposited there via an asteroid impact (not formed from the impact) about 3 billion years ago. These diamonds may have formed in the intrastellar environment, but as of 2008, there was no scientific consensus on how carbonado diamonds originated.
Diamonds can also form under other naturally occurring high - pressure conditions. Very small diamonds of micrometer and nanometer sizes, known as microdiamonds or nanodiamonds respectively, have been found in meteorite impact craters. Such impact events create shock zones of high pressure and temperature suitable for diamond formation. Impact - type microdiamonds can be used as an indicator of ancient impact craters. Popigai crater in Russia may have the world 's largest diamond deposit, estimated at trillions of carats, and formed by an asteroid impact.
Scientific evidence indicates that white dwarf stars have a core of crystallized carbon and oxygen nuclei. The largest of these found in the universe so far, BPM 37093, is located 50 light - years (4.7 × 10 km) away in the constellation Centaurus. A news release from the Harvard - Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics described the 2,500 - mile (4,000 km) - wide stellar core as a diamond.
Few diamonds are formed from highly compressed coal. More than 99 % of diamonds ever mined have formed in the conditions of extreme heat and pressure about 90 miles (140 km) below the Earth 's surface. Coal is formed from prehistoric plants buried much closer to the surface and is unlikely to migrate below 2 miles (3.2 km) through common geological processes. Most diamonds that have been dated are older than the first land plants and are therefore older than coal. It is possible that diamonds can form from coal in subduction zones and in meteoroid impacts, but diamonds formed in this way are rare, and the carbon source is more likely carbonate rocks and organic carbon in sediments, rather than coal.
A diamond is a transparent crystal of tetrahedrally bonded carbon atoms in a covalent network lattice (sp) that crystallizes into the diamond lattice which is a variation of the face - centered cubic structure. Diamonds have been adapted for many uses because of the material 's exceptional physical characteristics. Most notable are its extreme hardness and thermal conductivity (900 -- 7003232000000000000 ♠ 2320 W m K), as well as wide bandgap and high optical dispersion. Above 7003197315000000000 ♠ 1700 ° C (7003197300000000000 ♠ 1973 K / 7003224592777777777 ♠ 3583 ° F) in vacuum or oxygen - free atmosphere, diamond converts to graphite; in air, transformation starts at ~ 7002973150000000000 ♠ 700 ° C. Diamond 's ignition point is 720 -- 7003107315000000000 ♠ 800 ° C in oxygen and 850 -- 7003127315000000000 ♠ 1000 ° C in air. Naturally occurring diamonds have a density ranging from 3.15 to 7003353000000000000 ♠ 3.53 g / cm, with pure diamond close to 7003352000000000000 ♠ 3.52 g / cm. The chemical bonds that hold the carbon atoms in diamonds together are weaker than those in graphite. In diamonds, the bonds form an inflexible three - dimensional lattice, whereas in graphite, the atoms are tightly bonded into sheets, which can slide easily over one another, making the overall structure weaker. In a diamond, each carbon atom is surrounded by neighboring four carbon atoms forming a tetrahedral shaped unit.
Diamonds occur most often as euhedral or rounded octahedra and twinned octahedra known as macles. As diamond 's crystal structure has a cubic arrangement of the atoms, they have many facets that belong to a cube, octahedron, rhombicosidodecahedron, tetrakis hexahedron or disdyakis dodecahedron. The crystals can have rounded off and unexpressive edges and can be elongated. Diamonds (especially those with rounded crystal faces) are commonly found coated in nyf, an opaque gum - like skin.
Diamond is the hardest known natural material on both the Vickers and the Mohs scale. Diamond 's hardness has been known since antiquity, and is the source of its name.
Diamond hardness depends on its purity, crystalline perfection and orientation: hardness is higher for flawless, pure crystals oriented to the < 111 > direction (along the longest diagonal of the cubic diamond lattice). Therefore, whereas it might be possible to scratch some diamonds with other materials, such as boron nitride, the hardest diamonds can only be scratched by other diamonds and nanocrystalline diamond aggregates.
The hardness of diamond contributes to its suitability as a gemstone. Because it can only be scratched by other diamonds, it maintains its polish extremely well. Unlike many other gems, it is well - suited to daily wear because of its resistance to scratching -- perhaps contributing to its popularity as the preferred gem in engagement or wedding rings, which are often worn every day.
The hardest natural diamonds mostly originate from the Copeton and Bingara fields located in the New England area in New South Wales, Australia. These diamonds are generally small, perfect to semiperfect octahedra, and are used to polish other diamonds. Their hardness is associated with the crystal growth form, which is single - stage crystal growth. Most other diamonds show more evidence of multiple growth stages, which produce inclusions, flaws, and defect planes in the crystal lattice, all of which affect their hardness. It is possible to treat regular diamonds under a combination of high pressure and high temperature to produce diamonds that are harder than the diamonds used in hardness gauges.
Somewhat related to hardness is another mechanical property toughness, which is a material 's ability to resist breakage from forceful impact. The toughness of natural diamond has been measured as 7.5 -- 10 MPa m. This value is good compared to other ceramic materials, but poor compared to most engineering materials such as engineering alloys, which typically exhibit toughnesses over 100 MPa m. As with any material, the macroscopic geometry of a diamond contributes to its resistance to breakage. Diamond has a cleavage plane and is therefore more fragile in some orientations than others. Diamond cutters use this attribute to cleave some stones, prior to faceting. "Impact toughness '' is one of the main indexes to measure the quality of synthetic industrial diamonds.
Used in so - called diamond anvil experiments to create high - pressure environments, diamonds are able to withstand crushing pressures in excess of 600 gigapascals (6 million atmospheres).
Other specialized applications also exist or are being developed, including use as semiconductors: some blue diamonds are natural semiconductors, in contrast to most diamonds, which are excellent electrical insulators. The conductivity and blue color originate from boron impurity. Boron substitutes for carbon atoms in the diamond lattice, donating a hole into the valence band.
Substantial conductivity is commonly observed in nominally undoped diamond grown by chemical vapor deposition. This conductivity is associated with hydrogen - related species adsorbed at the surface, and it can be removed by annealing or other surface treatments.
Diamonds are naturally lipophilic and hydrophobic, which means the diamonds ' surface can not be wet by water, but can be easily wet and stuck by oil. This property can be utilized to extract diamonds using oil when making synthetic diamonds. However, when diamond surfaces are chemically modified with certain ions, they are expected to become so hydrophilic that they can stabilize multiple layers of water ice at human body temperature.
The surface of diamonds is partially oxidized. The oxidized surface can be reduced by heat treatment under hydrogen flow. That is to say, this heat treatment partially removes oxygen - containing functional groups. But diamonds (sp C) are unstable against high temperature (above about 400 ° C (752 ° F)) under atmospheric pressure. The structure gradually changes into sp C above this temperature. Thus, diamonds should be reduced under this temperature.
Diamonds are not very reactive. Under room temperature diamonds do not react with any chemical reagents including strong acids and bases. A diamond 's surface can only be oxidized at temperatures above about 850 ° C (1,560 ° F) in air. Diamond also reacts with fluorine gas above about 700 ° C (1,292 ° F).
Diamond has a wide bandgap of 6981881197067849999 ♠ 5.5 eV corresponding to the deep ultraviolet wavelength of 225 nanometers. This means that pure diamond should transmit visible light and appear as a clear colorless crystal. Colors in diamond originate from lattice defects and impurities. The diamond crystal lattice is exceptionally strong, and only atoms of nitrogen, boron and hydrogen can be introduced into diamond during the growth at significant concentrations (up to atomic percents). Transition metals nickel and cobalt, which are commonly used for growth of synthetic diamond by high - pressure high - temperature techniques, have been detected in diamond as individual atoms; the maximum concentration is 0.01 % for nickel and even less for cobalt. Virtually any element can be introduced to diamond by ion implantation.
Nitrogen is by far the most common impurity found in gem diamonds and is responsible for the yellow and brown color in diamonds. Boron is responsible for the blue color. Color in diamond has two additional sources: irradiation (usually by alpha particles), that causes the color in green diamonds, and plastic deformation of the diamond crystal lattice. Plastic deformation is the cause of color in some brown and perhaps pink and red diamonds. In order of increasing rarity, yellow diamond is followed by brown, colorless, then by blue, green, black, pink, orange, purple, and red. "Black '', or Carbonado, diamonds are not truly black, but rather contain numerous dark inclusions that give the gems their dark appearance. Colored diamonds contain impurities or structural defects that cause the coloration, while pure or nearly pure diamonds are transparent and colorless. Most diamond impurities replace a carbon atom in the crystal lattice, known as a carbon flaw. The most common impurity, nitrogen, causes a slight to intense yellow coloration depending upon the type and concentration of nitrogen present. The Gemological Institute of America (GIA) classifies low saturation yellow and brown diamonds as diamonds in the normal color range, and applies a grading scale from "D '' (colorless) to "Z '' (light yellow). Diamonds of a different color, such as blue, are called fancy colored diamonds and fall under a different grading scale.
In 2008, the Wittelsbach Diamond, a 35.56 - carat (7.112 g) blue diamond once belonging to the King of Spain, fetched over US $24 million at a Christie 's auction. In May 2009, a 7.03 - carat (1.406 g) blue diamond fetched the highest price per carat ever paid for a diamond when it was sold at auction for 10.5 million Swiss francs (6.97 million euros, or US $9.5 million at the time). That record was, however, beaten the same year: a 5 - carat (1.0 g) vivid pink diamond was sold for $10.8 million in Hong Kong on December 1, 2009.
Diamonds can be identified by their high thermal conductivity. Their high refractive index is also indicative, but other materials have similar refractivity. Diamonds cut glass, but this does not positively identify a diamond because other materials, such as quartz, also lie above glass on the Mohs scale and can also cut it. Diamonds can scratch other diamonds, but this can result in damage to one or both stones. Hardness tests are infrequently used in practical gemology because of their potentially destructive nature. The extreme hardness and high value of diamond means that gems are typically polished slowly, using painstaking traditional techniques and greater attention to detail than is the case with most other gemstones; these tend to result in extremely flat, highly polished facets with exceptionally sharp facet edges. Diamonds also possess an extremely high refractive index and fairly high dispersion. Taken together, these factors affect the overall appearance of a polished diamond and most diamantaires still rely upon skilled use of a loupe (magnifying glass) to identify diamonds "by eye ''.
The diamond industry can be separated into two distinct categories: one dealing with gem - grade diamonds and another for industrial - grade diamonds. Both markets value diamonds differently.
A large trade in gem - grade diamonds exists. Although most gem - grade diamonds are sold newly polished, there is a well - established market for resale of polished diamonds (e.g. pawnbroking, auctions, second - hand jewelry stores, diamantaires, bourses, etc.). One hallmark of the trade in gem - quality diamonds is its remarkable concentration: wholesale trade and diamond cutting is limited to just a few locations; in 2003, 92 % of the world 's diamonds were cut and polished in Surat, India. Other important centers of diamond cutting and trading are the Antwerp diamond district in Belgium, where the International Gemological Institute is based, London, the Diamond District in New York City, the Diamond Exchange District in Tel Aviv, and Amsterdam. One contributory factor is the geological nature of diamond deposits: several large primary kimberlite - pipe mines each account for significant portions of market share (such as the Jwaneng mine in Botswana, which is a single large - pit mine that can produce between 12,500,000 and 15,000,000 carats (2,500 and 3,000 kg) of diamonds per year). Secondary alluvial diamond deposits, on the other hand, tend to be fragmented amongst many different operators because they can be dispersed over many hundreds of square kilometers (e.g., alluvial deposits in Brazil).
The production and distribution of diamonds is largely consolidated in the hands of a few key players, and concentrated in traditional diamond trading centers, the most important being Antwerp, where 80 % of all rough diamonds, 50 % of all cut diamonds and more than 50 % of all rough, cut and industrial diamonds combined are handled. This makes Antwerp a de facto "world diamond capital ''. The city of Antwerp also hosts the Antwerpsche Diamantkring, created in 1929 to become the first and biggest diamond bourse dedicated to rough diamonds. Another important diamond center is New York City, where almost 80 % of the world 's diamonds are sold, including auction sales.
The De Beers company, as the world 's largest diamond mining company, holds a dominant position in the industry, and has done so since soon after its founding in 1888 by the British imperialist Cecil Rhodes. De Beers is currently the world 's largest operator of diamond production facilities (mines) and distribution channels for gem - quality diamonds. The Diamond Trading Company (DTC) is a subsidiary of De Beers and markets rough diamonds from De Beers - operated mines. De Beers and its subsidiaries own mines that produce some 40 % of annual world diamond production. For most of the 20th century over 80 % of the world 's rough diamonds passed through De Beers, but by 2001 -- 2009 the figure had decreased to around 45 %, and by 2013 the company 's market share had further decreased to around 38 % in value terms and even less by volume. De Beers sold off the vast majority of its diamond stockpile in the late 1990s -- early 2000s and the remainder largely represents working stock (diamonds that are being sorted before sale). This was well documented in the press but remains little known to the general public.
As a part of reducing its influence, De Beers withdrew from purchasing diamonds on the open market in 1999 and ceased, at the end of 2008, purchasing Russian diamonds mined by the largest Russian diamond company Alrosa. As of January 2011, De Beers states that it only sells diamonds from the following four countries: Botswana, Namibia, South Africa and Canada. Alrosa had to suspend their sales in October 2008 due to the global energy crisis, but the company reported that it had resumed selling rough diamonds on the open market by October 2009. Apart from Alrosa, other important diamond mining companies include BHP Billiton, which is the world 's largest mining company; Rio Tinto Group, the owner of the Argyle (100 %), Diavik (60 %), and Murowa (78 %) diamond mines; and Petra Diamonds, the owner of several major diamond mines in Africa.
Further down the supply chain, members of The World Federation of Diamond Bourses (WFDB) act as a medium for wholesale diamond exchange, trading both polished and rough diamonds. The WFDB consists of independent diamond bourses in major cutting centers such as Tel Aviv, Antwerp, Johannesburg and other cities across the USA, Europe and Asia. In 2000, the WFDB and The International Diamond Manufacturers Association established the World Diamond Council to prevent the trading of diamonds used to fund war and inhumane acts. WFDB 's additional activities include sponsoring the World Diamond Congress every two years, as well as the establishment of the International Diamond Council (IDC) to oversee diamond grading.
Once purchased by Sightholders (which is a trademark term referring to the companies that have a three - year supply contract with DTC), diamonds are cut and polished in preparation for sale as gemstones (' industrial ' stones are regarded as a by - product of the gemstone market; they are used for abrasives). The cutting and polishing of rough diamonds is a specialized skill that is concentrated in a limited number of locations worldwide. Traditional diamond cutting centers are Antwerp, Amsterdam, Johannesburg, New York City, and Tel Aviv. Recently, diamond cutting centers have been established in China, India, Thailand, Namibia and Botswana. Cutting centers with lower cost of labor, notably Surat in Gujarat, India, handle a larger number of smaller carat diamonds, while smaller quantities of larger or more valuable diamonds are more likely to be handled in Europe or North America. The recent expansion of this industry in India, employing low cost labor, has allowed smaller diamonds to be prepared as gems in greater quantities than was previously economically feasible.
Diamonds prepared as gemstones are sold on diamond exchanges called bourses. There are 28 registered diamond bourses in the world. Bourses are the final tightly controlled step in the diamond supply chain; wholesalers and even retailers are able to buy relatively small lots of diamonds at the bourses, after which they are prepared for final sale to the consumer. Diamonds can be sold already set in jewelry, or sold unset ("loose ''). According to the Rio Tinto Group, in 2002 the diamonds produced and released to the market were valued at US $9 billion as rough diamonds, US $14 billion after being cut and polished, US $28 billion in wholesale diamond jewelry, and US $57 billion in retail sales.
Mined rough diamonds are converted into gems through a multi-step process called "cutting ''. Diamonds are extremely hard, but also brittle and can be split up by a single blow. Therefore, diamond cutting is traditionally considered as a delicate procedure requiring skills, scientific knowledge, tools and experience. Its final goal is to produce a faceted jewel where the specific angles between the facets would optimize the diamond luster, that is dispersion of white light, whereas the number and area of facets would determine the weight of the final product. The weight reduction upon cutting is significant and can be of the order of 50 %. Several possible shapes are considered, but the final decision is often determined not only by scientific, but also practical considerations. For example, the diamond might be intended for display or for wear, in a ring or a necklace, singled or surrounded by other gems of certain color and shape. Some of them may be considered as classical, such as round, pear, marquise, oval, hearts and arrows diamonds, etc. Some of them are special, produced by certain companies, for example, Phoenix, Cushion, Sole Mio diamonds, etc.
The most time - consuming part of the cutting is the preliminary analysis of the rough stone. It needs to address a large number of issues, bears much responsibility, and therefore can last years in case of unique diamonds. The following issues are considered:
After initial cutting, the diamond is shaped in numerous stages of polishing. Unlike cutting, which is a responsible but quick operation, polishing removes material by gradual erosion and is extremely time consuming. The associated technique is well developed; it is considered as a routine and can be performed by technicians. After polishing, the diamond is reexamined for possible flaws, either remaining or induced by the process. Those flaws are concealed through various diamond enhancement techniques, such as repolishing, crack filling, or clever arrangement of the stone in the jewelry. Remaining non-diamond inclusions are removed through laser drilling and filling of the voids produced.
Marketing has significantly affected the image of diamond as a valuable commodity.
N.W. Ayer & Son, the advertising firm retained by De Beers in the mid-20th century, succeeded in reviving the American diamond market. And the firm created new markets in countries where no diamond tradition had existed before. N.W. Ayer 's marketing included product placement, advertising focused on the diamond product itself rather than the De Beers brand, and associations with celebrities and royalty. Without advertising the De Beers brand, De Beers was advertising its competitors ' diamond products as well, but this was not a concern as De Beers dominated the diamond market throughout the 20th century. De Beers ' market share dipped temporarily to 2nd place in the global market below Alrosa in the aftermath of the global economic crisis of 2008, down to less than 29 % in terms of carats mined, rather than sold. The campaign lasted for decades but was effectively discontinued by early 2011. De Beers still advertises diamonds, but the advertising now mostly promotes its own brands, or licensed product lines, rather than completely "generic '' diamond products. The campaign was perhaps best captured by the slogan "a diamond is forever ''. This slogan is now being used by De Beers Diamond Jewelers, a jewelry firm which is a 50 % / 50 % joint venture between the De Beers mining company and LVMH, the luxury goods conglomerate.
Brown - colored diamonds constituted a significant part of the diamond production, and were predominantly used for industrial purposes. They were seen as worthless for jewelry (not even being assessed on the diamond color scale). After the development of Argyle diamond mine in Australia in 1986, and marketing, brown diamonds have become acceptable gems. The change was mostly due to the numbers: the Argyle mine, with its 35,000,000 carats (7,000 kg) of diamonds per year, makes about one - third of global production of natural diamonds; 80 % of Argyle diamonds are brown.
Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and thermal conductivity, making many of the gemological characteristics of diamonds, such as the 4 Cs, irrelevant for most applications. 80 % of mined diamonds (equal to about 135,000,000 carats (27,000 kg) annually) are unsuitable for use as gemstones and are used industrially. In addition to mined diamonds, synthetic diamonds found industrial applications almost immediately after their invention in the 1950s; another 570,000,000 carats (114,000 kg) of synthetic diamond is produced annually for industrial use (in 2004; in 2014 it is 4,500,000,000 carats (900,000 kg), 90 % of which is produced in China). Approximately 90 % of diamond grinding grit is currently of synthetic origin.
The boundary between gem - quality diamonds and industrial diamonds is poorly defined and partly depends on market conditions (for example, if demand for polished diamonds is high, some lower - grade stones will be polished into low - quality or small gemstones rather than being sold for industrial use). Within the category of industrial diamonds, there is a sub-category comprising the lowest - quality, mostly opaque stones, which are known as bort.
Industrial use of diamonds has historically been associated with their hardness, which makes diamond the ideal material for cutting and grinding tools. As the hardest known naturally occurring material, diamond can be used to polish, cut, or wear away any material, including other diamonds. Common industrial applications of this property include diamond - tipped drill bits and saws, and the use of diamond powder as an abrasive. Less expensive industrial - grade diamonds, known as bort, with more flaws and poorer color than gems, are used for such purposes. Diamond is not suitable for machining ferrous alloys at high speeds, as carbon is soluble in iron at the high temperatures created by high - speed machining, leading to greatly increased wear on diamond tools compared to alternatives.
Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high - pressure experiments (see diamond anvil cell), high - performance bearings, and limited use in specialized windows. With the continuing advances being made in the production of synthetic diamonds, future applications are becoming feasible. The high thermal conductivity of diamond makes it suitable as a heat sink for integrated circuits in electronics.
Approximately 130,000,000 carats (26,000 kg) of diamonds are mined annually, with a total value of nearly US $9 billion, and about 100,000 kg (220,000 lb) are synthesized annually.
Roughly 49 % of diamonds originate from Central and Southern Africa, although significant sources of the mineral have been discovered in Canada, India, Russia, Brazil, and Australia. They are mined from kimberlite and lamproite volcanic pipes, which can bring diamond crystals, originating from deep within the Earth where high pressures and temperatures enable them to form, to the surface. The mining and distribution of natural diamonds are subjects of frequent controversy such as concerns over the sale of blood diamonds or conflict diamonds by African paramilitary groups. The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses, and is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world.
Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actual diamonds. The ore is crushed, during which care is required not to destroy larger diamonds, and then sorted by density. Today, diamonds are located in the diamond - rich density fraction with the help of X-ray fluorescence, after which the final sorting steps are done by hand. Before the use of X-rays became commonplace, the separation was done with grease belts; diamonds have a stronger tendency to stick to grease than the other minerals in the ore.
Historically, diamonds were found only in alluvial deposits in Guntur and Krishna district of the Krishna River delta in Southern India. India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in approximately the 9th century BC to the mid-18th century AD, but the commercial potential of these sources had been exhausted by the late 18th century and at that time India was eclipsed by Brazil where the first non-Indian diamonds were found in 1725. Currently, one of the most prominent Indian mines is located at Panna.
Diamond extraction from primary deposits (kimberlites and lamproites) started in the 1870s after the discovery of the Diamond Fields in South Africa. Production has increased over time and now an accumulated total of 4,500,000,000 carats (900,000 kg) have been mined since that date. Twenty percent of that amount has been mined in the last five years, and during the last 10 years, nine new mines have started production; four more are waiting to be opened soon. Most of these mines are located in Canada, Zimbabwe, Angola, and one in Russia.
In the U.S., diamonds have been found in Arkansas, Colorado, New Mexico, Wyoming, and Montana. In 2004, the discovery of a microscopic diamond in the U.S. led to the January 2008 bulk - sampling of kimberlite pipes in a remote part of Montana. The Crater of Diamonds State Park in Arkansas is open to the public, and is the only mine in the world where members of the public can dig for diamonds.
Today, most commercially viable diamond deposits are in Russia (mostly in Sakha Republic, for example Mir pipe and Udachnaya pipe), Botswana, Australia (Northern and Western Australia) and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In 2005, Russia produced almost one - fifth of the global diamond output, according to the British Geological Survey. Australia boasts the richest diamantiferous pipe, with production from the Argyle diamond mine reaching peak levels of 42 metric tons per year in the 1990s. There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in the Northwest Territories of Canada and Brazil. Diamond prospectors continue to search the globe for diamond - bearing kimberlite and lamproite pipes.
In some of the more politically unstable central African and west African countries, revolutionary groups have taken control of diamond mines, using proceeds from diamond sales to finance their operations. Diamonds sold through this process are known as conflict diamonds or blood diamonds.
In response to public concerns that their diamond purchases were contributing to war and human rights abuses in central and western Africa, the United Nations, the diamond industry and diamond - trading nations introduced the Kimberley Process in 2002. The Kimberley Process aims to ensure that conflict diamonds do not become intermixed with the diamonds not controlled by such rebel groups. This is done by requiring diamond - producing countries to provide proof that the money they make from selling the diamonds is not used to fund criminal or revolutionary activities. Although the Kimberley Process has been moderately successful in limiting the number of conflict diamonds entering the market, some still find their way in. According to the International Diamond Manufacturers Association, conflict diamonds constitute 2 -- 3 % of all diamonds traded. Two major flaws still hinder the effectiveness of the Kimberley Process: (1) the relative ease of smuggling diamonds across African borders, and (2) the violent nature of diamond mining in nations that are not in a technical state of war and whose diamonds are therefore considered "clean ''.
The Canadian Government has set up a body known as the Canadian Diamond Code of Conduct to help authenticate Canadian diamonds. This is a stringent tracking system of diamonds and helps protect the "conflict free '' label of Canadian diamonds.
Synthetic diamonds are diamonds manufactured in a laboratory, as opposed to diamonds mined from the Earth. The gemological and industrial uses of diamond have created a large demand for rough stones. This demand has been satisfied in large part by synthetic diamonds, which have been manufactured by various processes for more than half a century. However, in recent years it has become possible to produce gem - quality synthetic diamonds of significant size. It is possible to make colorless synthetic gemstones that, on a molecular level, are identical to natural stones and so visually similar that only a gemologist with special equipment can tell the difference.
The majority of commercially available synthetic diamonds are yellow and are produced by so - called high - pressure high - temperature (HPHT) processes. The yellow color is caused by nitrogen impurities. Other colors may also be reproduced such as blue, green or pink, which are a result of the addition of boron or from irradiation after synthesis.
Another popular method of growing synthetic diamond is chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The growth occurs under low pressure (below atmospheric pressure). It involves feeding a mixture of gases (typically 1 to 99 methane to hydrogen) into a chamber and splitting them to chemically active radicals in a plasma ignited by microwaves, hot filament, arc discharge, welding torch or laser. This method is mostly used for coatings, but can also produce single crystals several millimeters in size (see picture).
As of 2010, nearly all 5,000 million carats (1,000 tonnes) of synthetic diamonds produced per year are for industrial use. Around 50 % of the 133 million carats of natural diamonds mined per year end up in industrial use. Mining companies ' expenses average $40 to $60 per carat for natural colorless diamonds, while synthetic manufacturers ' expenses average $2,500 per carat for synthetic, gem - quality colorless diamonds. However, a purchaser is more likely to encounter a synthetic when looking for a fancy - colored diamond because nearly all synthetic diamonds are fancy - colored, while only 0.01 % of natural diamonds are.
A diamond simulant is a non-diamond material that is used to simulate the appearance of a diamond, and may be referred to as diamante. Cubic zirconia is the most common. The gemstone moissanite (silicon carbide) can be treated as a diamond simulant, though more costly to produce than cubic zirconia. Both are produced synthetically.
Diamond enhancements are specific treatments performed on natural or synthetic diamonds (usually those already cut and polished into a gem), which are designed to better the gemological characteristics of the stone in one or more ways. These include laser drilling to remove inclusions, application of sealants to fill cracks, treatments to improve a white diamond 's color grade, and treatments to give fancy color to a white diamond.
Coatings are increasingly used to give a diamond simulant such as cubic zirconia a more "diamond - like '' appearance. One such substance is diamond - like carbon -- an amorphous carbonaceous material that has some physical properties similar to those of the diamond. Advertising suggests that such a coating would transfer some of these diamond - like properties to the coated stone, hence enhancing the diamond simulant. Techniques such as Raman spectroscopy should easily identify such a treatment.
Early diamond identification tests included a scratch test relying on the superior hardness of diamond. This test is destructive, as a diamond can scratch another diamond, and is rarely used nowadays. Instead, diamond identification relies on its superior thermal conductivity. Electronic thermal probes are widely used in the gemological centers to separate diamonds from their imitations. These probes consist of a pair of battery - powered thermistors mounted in a fine copper tip. One thermistor functions as a heating device while the other measures the temperature of the copper tip: if the stone being tested is a diamond, it will conduct the tip 's thermal energy rapidly enough to produce a measurable temperature drop. This test takes about 2 -- 3 seconds.
Whereas the thermal probe can separate diamonds from most of their simulants, distinguishing between various types of diamond, for example synthetic or natural, irradiated or non-irradiated, etc., requires more advanced, optical techniques. Those techniques are also used for some diamonds simulants, such as silicon carbide, which pass the thermal conductivity test. Optical techniques can distinguish between natural diamonds and synthetic diamonds. They can also identify the vast majority of treated natural diamonds. "Perfect '' crystals (at the atomic lattice level) have never been found, so both natural and synthetic diamonds always possess characteristic imperfections, arising from the circumstances of their crystal growth, that allow them to be distinguished from each other.
Laboratories use techniques such as spectroscopy, microscopy and luminescence under shortwave ultraviolet light to determine a diamond 's origin. They also use specially made instruments to aid them in the identification process. Two screening instruments are the DiamondSure and the DiamondView, both produced by the DTC and marketed by the GIA.
Several methods for identifying synthetic diamonds can be performed, depending on the method of production and the color of the diamond. CVD diamonds can usually be identified by an orange fluorescence. D-J colored diamonds can be screened through the Swiss Gemmological Institute 's Diamond Spotter. Stones in the D-Z color range can be examined through the DiamondSure UV / visible spectrometer, a tool developed by De Beers. Similarly, natural diamonds usually have minor imperfections and flaws, such as inclusions of foreign material, that are not seen in synthetic diamonds.
Screening devices based on diamond type detection can be used to make a distinction between diamonds that are certainly natural and diamonds that are potentially synthetic. Those potentially synthetic diamonds require more investigation in a specialized lab. Examples of commercial screening devices are D - Screen (WTOCD / HRD Antwerp) and Alpha Diamond Analyzer (Bruker / HRD Antwerp).
Occasionally large thefts of diamonds take place. In February 2013 armed robbers carried out a raid at Brussels Airport and escaped with gems estimated to be worth $50 m (£ 32m; 37m euros). The gang broke through a perimeter fence and raided the cargo hold of a Swiss - bound plane. The gang have since been arrested and large amounts of cash and diamonds recovered.
The identification of stolen diamonds presents a set of difficult problems. Rough diamonds will have a distinctive shape depending on whether their source is a mine or from an alluvial environment such as a beach or river - alluvial diamonds have smoother surfaces than those that have been mined. Determining the provenance of cut and polished stones is much more complex.
The Kimberley Process was developed to monitor the trade in rough diamonds and prevent their being used to fund violence. Before exporting, rough diamonds are certificated by the government of the country of origin. Some countries, such as Venezuela, are not party to the agreement. The Kimberley Process does not apply to local sales of rough diamonds within a country.
Diamonds may be etched by laser with marks invisible to the naked eye. Lazare Kaplan, a US - based company, developed this method. However, whatever is marked on a diamond can readily be removed.
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how can i tell how many gb is my ps3 | PlayStation 3 models - wikipedia
The PlayStation 3 video game console has been produced in various models during its life cycle. At launch, the PlayStation 3 was available with either a 20, 40, 60, or 80 GB hard disk drive in the US and Japan, priced from US $499 to US $599; and with either a 40, 60, or 80 GB hard disk drive in Europe, priced from £ 299 to £ 425. Since then, Sony have released two further redesigned models, the "Slim '' and "Super Slim '' models. As of December 2013, the total number of consoles sold is estimated at 77 million.
There are several original PlayStation 3 hardware models, which are commonly referred to by the size of their included hard disk drive: 20, 40, 60, 80, or 160 GB. Although referred to by their HDD size, the capabilities of the consoles vary by region and release date. The only difference in the appearance of the first five models was the color of the trim, number of USB ports, the presence or absence of a door (which covers the flash card readers on equipped models) and some minor changes to the air vents. All retail packages include one or two Sixaxis controllers or a DualShock 3 controller (beginning June 12, 2008), one Type - A to Mini-B USB cable (for connecting the controller and PlayStation Portable to the system), one composite video / stereo audio output cable, one Ethernet cable (20, 60 and CECHExx 80 GB only) and one power cable. All models support software emulation of the original PlayStation, but support for PlayStation 2 backward compatibility diminished with later compatible models and the last model to have integrated backward compatibility was the NTSC 80 GB (CECHE) Metal Gear Solid 4 Bundle. Compatibility issues with games for both systems are detailed in a public database hosted by the manufacturer. All models, excluding the 20 GB model, include 802.11 b / g Wi - Fi.
In addition to all of the features of the 20 GB model, the 60 GB model has internal IEEE 802.11 b / g Wi - Fi, multiple flash card readers (SD / MultiMedia Card, CompactFlash Type I / Type II, Microdrive, Memory Stick / PRO / Duo) and a chrome colored trim. In terms of hardware, the 80 GB model CECHE released in South Korea is identical to the 60 GB model CECHC released in the PAL regions, except for the difference in hard drive size. The European 60GB model (CECHC), the South Korean and North American CECHE 80GB model excludes the PlayStation 2 "Emotion Engine '' CPU chip with it being replaced by an emulated version via the Cell Broadband Engine. However, it retains the "Graphics Synthesizer '' GPU resulting in a hybrid hardware and software emulation. Due to the elimination of the "Emotion Engine '' and its replacement with a software - emulated version, the level of PlayStation 2 compatibility was slightly reduced. The 40 GB, 80 GB (CECHL, CECHM, and CECHK) and 160 GB models have two USB ports instead of the four USB ports on other models and do not include multiple flash card readers, SACD support, or backward compatibility with PlayStation 2 games. This was due to the removal of "Graphics Synthesizer '' GPU, which stripped the units of all PlayStation 2 based hardware.
No official Wi - Fi or flash memory card readers were ever released by Sony for the 20 GB system, although Sony had plans to do so. As of September 2009, Sony had placed no further emphasis on these proposed add - ons. Nevertheless, as the model features four USB 2.0 ports, wireless networking and flash memory card support can already be obtained through the use of widely available external USB adapters and third - party PS3 - specific media hubs.
It was rumored that the Cell processors in the third - generation PS3s (40 GB, 2008 80 GB (CECHL, CECHM, CECHK) and 160 GB) would move from a 90 nm process to the newer 65 nm process, which SCEI CEO Kaz Hirai later confirmed, and later to 45 nm. This change lowers the power consumption of the console and makes it less expensive to produce.
The redesigned version of the PlayStation 3 (commonly referred to as the "PS3 Slim '' and officially branded "PS3 '') features an upgradeable 120 GB, 160 GB, 250 GB or 320 GB hard drive and is 33 % smaller, 36 % lighter and consumes 34 % (CECH - 20xx) or 45 % (CECH - 21xx) less power than the previous model, or one third of the original PS3 model. The Cell microprocessor has moved to a 45 nm manufacturing process, which lets it run cooler and quieter than previous models, and the cooling system has been redesigned. The RSX moved to a 40 nm process in the latest revision. The PS3 slim also includes support for CEC (more commonly referred to by its manufacturer brandings of BraviaSync, VIERA Link, EasyLink etc.) which allows control of the console over HDMI by using the TV 's remote control. The PS3 Slim no longer has the "main power '' switch like the previous PS3 models, similar to redesigned slimline PlayStation 2. Support for emulation to play PS2 titles is not present in the Slim version, however shortly after the release of the PS3 slim, Sony announced a new series of PS2 remasters called Classics HD as in PS2 and PSP titles remastered in HD for the PS3 with trophies added and sometimes PlayStation Move compatibility. As of October 2011, PS2 classics are available for purchase in the PlayStation Store.
The PS3 slim was officially released on September 1, 2009, in North America and Europe and on September 3, 2009, in Japan, Australia and New Zealand. However, some retailers such as Amazon.com, Best Buy and GameStop started to sell the PS3 slim on August 25, 2009. The PS3 Slim sold in excess of a million units in its first 3 weeks on sale. A 250 GB Final Fantasy XIII - themed PS3 Slim, which was white in color with pink designs, was officially announced on September 24, 2009 at the Tokyo Game Show as part of a bundle in Japan for Final Fantasy XIII, it was initially revealed in U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) filings as the PS3 CECH - 2000B. Sony Computer Entertainment Australia also announced later that day that it would be bringing the 250 GB PS3 slim to Australia which would be bundled with other games and will not feature the Final Fantasy XIII theme. Although no North American bundles have been announced for the 250 GB PS3 slim, it is sold as a stand - alone console in North America.
In July 2010, Sony announced two new sizes of Slim PS3, 160 GB and 320 GB, with the 120 GB model being discontinued in Japan. These were launched on July 29, 2010, in Japan, with the 160 GB version available in "Classic White '' as well as the standard "Charcoal Black ''. The black 160 GB version was also made available as a bundle with the Japan - only DVR accessory torne. It was later announced that the new sizes were to be launched in other regions, with the 160 GB model available from August 2010 in North America and October 2010 in Europe. The 320 GB model is to be available in North America only as part of a bundle with PlayStation Move, a PlayStation Eye and a copy of Sports Champions, and in Europe with PlayStation Move, a PlayStation Eye and a demo disc. The bundles were released on September 19, 2010, and September 15, 2010, respectively, to coincide with the launch of PlayStation Move.
In September 2012, Sony announced that a new slimmer PS3 redesign (CECH - 4000) was due to be released in late 2012 and that it would be available with either a 250 GB or 500 GB hard drive.
In PAL regions, the 250 GB model is not available; a model with 12 GB of flash memory (CECH - 4000A) is available in its place. A standalone 250 GB hard drive (CECH - ZHD1) is available to upgrade this model. In the UK, the 500 GB model was released on September 28, 2012, while the 12 GB model was made available on October 12, 2012.
CECH - 4000B consoles (those with hard drives) weigh approximately 2.1 kg (4.6 lb), while the CECH - 4000A weighs approximately 2.0 kg (4.4 lb). Both are roughly 25 % smaller and about 20 % lighter than the original PS3 Slim. This version has a sliding disc cover rather than the slot - loading drive found on previous PlayStation 3 consoles.
A CECH - 4200 model with nearly identical hardware to that of the CECH - 4000 model was introduced in 2013 to follow the AACS rule of inhibiting analog (component and composite) output of Blu - ray disc content effective since 2014. While in previous 3000 and 4000 models the output limit was already set at 480i to meet a Jan 1st 2011 deadline in agreement also with the aforementioned AACS.
A vertical stand (CECH - ZST1J) is also available for these models and was launched on the same day as the consoles in their respective regions.
(MGS4 bundles sold with DualShock 3 controller)
(All with Satin Silver trim)
(All with Satin Silver trim)
Key: 1st Generation 2nd Generation 3rd Generation 4th Generation 5th Generation
All Piano Black and Ceramic White models have a glossy finish All models include: Blu - ray / DVD / CD drive, HDMI 1.3 a (upgraded to HDMI 1.4 via firmware update), Bluetooth 2.0, Gigabit Ethernet (10BASE - T, 100BASE - TX, 1000BASE - T) and PlayStation backward compatibility through software emulation. Model numbers differ by region. See PlayStation 3 hardware -- model numbers for details.
^ a Linux support removed in firmware version 3.21. See OtherOS support for details ^ b Ceramic white model available in Asia and Japan only. ^ c Satin silver model available in Asia and Japan only. ^ d Gun - Metal Gray model is only available as part of the MGS4 bundle. ^ e Yakuza 3 bundle features a Ceramic White model with custom grey dragon designs on its case. This version had a limited run of 10,000 units. ^ f "Cloud Black '' (dark grey) console is only available as part of a Japanese limited edition Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children bundle and features a custom white design on the console ^ g White and Pink model is only available as part of the Japanese Final Fantasy XIII bundle and features a pink design of Final Fantasy XIII character "Lightning '' on its case. ^ h Titanium Blue model is only available as part of the Japanese Gran Turismo 5 Titanium Blue bundle ^ i Magical Gold model is only available as part of the Japanese Ni no Kuni bundle ^ j Black and Pink model is only available as part of the Japanese Final Fantasy XIII - 2 bundle and features a pink design of Final Fantasy XIII character "Lightning '' on its case. ^ k Gold model is only available as part of the Japanese One Piece: Pirate Warriors Gold bundle ^ l Black and Gold model is only available as part of the Japanese Yakuza 5 bundle and features a gold emblem design on its case. ^ m Black and White model is only available as part of the Japanese Fist of the North Star: Ken 's Rage 2 bundle and features a white emblem design on its case ^ n Black and Blue model is only available as part of the Japanese Metal Gear Rising: Revengeance bundle
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according to social control theory crime is a result of weak or broken social bond | Social control theory - wikipedia
In criminology, social control theory proposes that exploiting the process of socialization and social learning builds self - control and reduces the inclination to indulge in behavior recognized as antisocial. It derives from functionalist theories of crime and was developed by Ivan Nye (1958), who proposed that there were four types of control:
Social control theory proposes that people 's relationships, commitments, values, norms, and beliefs encourage them not to break the law. Thus, if moral codes are internalized and individuals are tied into and have a stake in their wider community, they will voluntarily limit their propensity to commit deviant acts. The theory seeks to understand the ways in which it is possible to reduce the likelihood of criminality developing in individuals. It does not consider motivational issues, simply stating that human beings may choose to engage in a wide range of activities, unless the range is limited by the processes of socialization and social learning. The theory derives from a Hobbesian view of human nature as represented in Leviathan, i.e. that all choices are constrained by implicit social contracts, agreements and arrangements among people. Thus, morality is created in the construction of social order, assigning costs and consequences to certain choices and defining some as evil, immoral and / or illegal.
The earliest form of the theory (or at least the earliest recorded) was proposed by Edward A. Ross in 1901, who defined social control as "the more that the smooth running of social machinery implies the frequent breaking off or turning aside of individual activities, the more perfect is the social order. '' Hence, the more perfect that the social order is, the more social control is achieved. His best - known work, Social Control (1901), deals with the reasons for and the means of societal limitation of the individual.
Another early form of the theory was proposed by Reiss (1951: 196) who defined delinquency as, "... behavior consequent to the failure of personal and social controls. '' Personal control was defined as, "... the ability of the individual to refrain from meeting needs in ways which conflict with the norms and rules of the community '' while social control was, "... the ability of social groups or institutions to make norms or rules effective. '' Reiss ' version did not specify the sources of such "abilities '' nor the specific control mechanisms leading to conformity, but he did assert that the failure of primary groups such as the family to provide reinforcement for non-delinquent roles and values was crucial to the explanation of delinquency. Reiss also wrote extensively on the application of his work to criminology.
Jackson Toby (1957), argued that "the uncommitted adolescent is a candidate for gang socialization. '' acknowledging "gang socialization '' as part of the causal, motivational dynamic leading to delinquency, but introduced the concept of stakes in conformity to explain "candidacy '' for such learning experiences. He believed that all could be tempted into delinquency, but most refused because they considered that they had too much to lose. The young who had few stakes or investments in conformity were more likely to be drawn into gang activity. The notion of stakes in conformity fits very well with concepts invoked in later versions of social control theory.
Ivan Nye (1958) not only elaborated a social control theory of delinquency, but specified ways to "operationalize '' (measure) control mechanisms and related them to self - reports of delinquent behavior. He formulated the theory after interviewing 780 young people in Washington State. The sample was criticized because it did not represent any urban environments, and those selected might have been more apt to describe their families unfavorably. Some were concerned that criminal activity was only mentioned in two of the questions, so the extrapolations to crime in general were considered unsafe. Like Reiss, he focused on the family as a source of control. Moreover, Nye specified three different types of control:
Youth may be directly controlled through constraints imposed by parents, limiting the opportunity for delinquency, as well as through parental rewards and punishments. However, they may be constrained when free from direct control by their anticipation of parental disapproval (indirect control), or through the development of a conscience, an internal constraint on behavior. The focus on the family as a source of control was in marked contrast to the emphasis on economic circumstances as a source of criminogenic motivation at the time. Although he acknowledged motivational forces by stating that, "... some delinquent behavior results from a combination of positive learning and weak and ineffective social control '' (1958: 4), he adopted a control - theory position when he proposed that, "... most delinquent behavior is the result of insufficient social control... ''
Walter Reckless (1961) developed containment theory by focusing on a youth 's self - conception or self - image of being a good person as an insulator against peer pressure to engage in delinquency.
This inner containment through self - images is developed within the family and is essentially formed by about the age of twelve. Outer containment was a reflection of strong social relationships with teachers and other sources of conventional socialization within the neighborhood. The basic proposition is there are "pushes '' and "pulls '' that will produce delinquent behavior unless they are counteracted by containment. The motivations to deviate as pushes are:
and the pulls are:
An analysis of ' neutralization ' was developed by Sykes and Matza (1957) who believed that there was little difference between delinquents and non-delinquents, with delinquents engaging in non-delinquent behavior most of the time. They also asserted that most delinquents eventually opt out of the delinquent lifestyle as they grow older, suggesting that there is a basic code of morality in place but that the young are able to deviate by using techniques of neutralization, i.e. they can temporarily suspend the applicability of norms by developing attitudes "favorable to deviant behavior ''. The five common techniques were:
Later Matza (1964) developed his theory of "drift '' which proposed that people used neutralization to drift in and out of conventional behaviour, taking a temporary break from moral restraints. Matza based his "drift '' theory upon four observations which were:
Although this theory of drift has not been widely supported by empirical tests, it remains a key idea in criminology despite not answering why some conform and others do n't.
Travis Hirschi adopted Toby 's concept of an investment in conventionality or "stake in conformity ''. He stressed the rationality in the decision whether to engage in crime and argued that a person was less likely to choose crime if they had strong social bonds.
Hirschi has since moved away from his bonding theory, and in co-operation with Michael R. Gottfredson, developed a general theory or "self - control theory '' in 1990. Akers (1991) argued that a major weakness of this new theory was that Gottfredson and Hirschi did not define self - control and the tendency toward criminal behavior separately. By not deliberately operationalizing self - control traits and criminal behavior or criminal acts individually, it suggests that the concepts of low self - control and propensity for criminal behavior are the same. Hirschi and Gottfredson (1993) rebutted Akers argument by suggesting it was actually an indication of the consistency of general theory. That is, the theory is internally consistent by conceptualizing crime and deriving from that a concept of the offender 's traits. The research community remains divided on whether the general theory is sustainable but there is emerging confirmation of some of its predictions (e.g. LaGrange & Silverman: 1999)
Gibbs (1989) has redefined social control and applied it to develop a control theory of homicide. Any attempt to get an individual to do or refrain from doing something can be considered an attempt at control. To qualify as ' social ' control, such attempts must involve three parties. One or more individuals intends to manipulate the behavior of another by or through a third party. Gibbs ' third party can be an actual person or a reference to "society '', "expectations '' or "norms ''. For example, if one party attempts to influence another by threatening to refer the matter to a third party assumed to have authority, this is referential social control. If one party attempts to control another by punishing a third (e.g. general deterrence), it is a form of vicarious social control. The presence of the third party distinguishes social control from mere external behavioral control, simple interpersonal responses, or issuing orders for someone to do something. This definition clearly distinguishes social control from mere "reactions to deviance '' and from deviant behavior itself.
Gibbs argues that "Homicide can be described either as control or as resulting from control failure '' (1989: 35), and proposes that the homicide rate is a function not just of the sheer volume of disputes, but also of the frequency of recourse to a third party for peaceful dispute settlement (p37). When one person fails to control the actions of another through the third party, murder represents another violent attempt at direct control. People resort to self - help when forms of social control are unavailable or fail. Gibbs is critical of Hirschi 's Social Control Theory because it merely assumes that social relationships, personal investments and beliefs that discourage delinquency are social controls (which is one reason why Hirschi 's theory is often referred to as a Social Bond Theory).
Much of the early research on social control theory is based on self - reporting studies. Critics of self - report data note that there may be various motives for disclosing information, and that questions may be interpreted differently by individual participants. Nevertheless, many of the conclusions are intuitively convincing, e.g. that individuals will not engage in crime if they think that this will sacrifice the affection or respect of significant others, or cause them to lose employment or their autonomy if they face imprisonment. Davies (1994 and 2004), reports that in late - nineteenth century Britain, crime rates fell dramatically, as did drug and alcohol abuse, and illegitimacy became less common. All of these indexes of deviance were fairly steady between World War I and 1955. After 1955, they all rose to create a U-curve of deviance, over the period from 1847 to 1997. He attributes the initial shift to adoption of a culture in which the assumptions of Protestant Christianity were taken for granted. Everyone at the time believed -- at least somewhat -- in a moral code of helping others. This belief was rooted in religion. The same social norms for the defense of the person and property that informed the law before 1955 remain the policy norms. Furthermore, the concept that people are uncontrollable and may offend against those norms in social interactions, can not be explained by simply counting how many people practice the golden rule (see the general discussion in Braithwaite: 1989).
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setting for the mary tyler moore show abbr | The Mary Tyler Moore show - wikipedia
The Mary Tyler Moore Show, originally known simply by the name of the show 's star, Mary Tyler Moore, is an American sitcom created by James L. Brooks and Allan Burns that aired on CBS from 1970 to 1977. The program featured American television 's first never - married, independent career woman as the central character.
It is one of the most acclaimed television programs in US television history. It received high praise from critics during its run, including Emmy Awards for Outstanding Comedy Series three years in a row (1975 -- 77), and continued to be honored long after the final episode aired. In 2013, the Writers Guild of America ranked The Mary Tyler Moore Show No. 6 in its list of the 101 Best Written TV Series of All Time.
Mary Richards (Moore) is a single woman who, at age 30, moves to Minneapolis on the heels of a broken engagement. She applies for a secretarial job at fictional television station WJM, but that is already taken. She is instead offered the position of associate producer of the station 's Six O'Clock News. She befriends her tough but lovable boss Lou Grant (Ed Asner), newswriter Murray Slaughter (Gavin MacLeod), and buffoonish anchorman Ted Baxter (Ted Knight). Mary later becomes producer of the show.
Mary rents a third - floor studio apartment in a 19th - century house from acquaintance and downstairs landlady, Phyllis Lindstrom (Cloris Leachman), and she and upstairs neighbor Rhoda Morgenstern (Valerie Harper) become best friends. Characters introduced later in the series are acerbic, man - hungry TV hostess Sue Ann Nivens (Betty White), and sweet - natured Georgette Franklin (Georgia Engel), as Ted Baxter 's girlfriend (and later, wife). At the beginning of season 6, after both Rhoda and Phyllis have moved away (providing a premise for two spinoffs), Mary relocates to a one - bedroom high - rise apartment.
In the third season, issues such as equal pay for women, pre-marital sex, and homosexuality are woven into the show 's comedic plots. In the fourth season, such subjects as marital infidelity and divorce are explored with Phyllis and Lou, respectively. In the fifth season, Mary refuses to reveal a news source and is jailed for contempt of court. While in jail, she befriends a prostitute who seeks Mary 's help in a subsequent episode. In the final seasons, the show explores humor in death in the episode "Chuckles Bites the Dust '' and juvenile delinquency; Ted deals with intimate marital problems, infertility, and adoption, and suffers a heart attack; and Mary overcomes an addiction to sleeping pills. Mary dates several men on and off over the years, two seriously, but remains single throughout the series.
In 1995, Entertainment Weekly said that "TV 's most famous bachelorette pad '' was Mary 's apartment. The fictitious address was 119 North Weatherly, but the exterior establishing shots were of a real house in Minneapolis at 2104 Kenwood Parkway. In the real house, an unfinished attic occupied the space behind the window recreated on the interior studio set of Mary 's apartment.
Once fans of the series discovered where exterior shots had been taken, the house became a popular tourist destination. According to Moore, the woman who lived in the house "was overwhelmed by the people showing up and asking if Mary was around ''. To discourage crews from filming additional footage of the house, the owners placed an "Impeach Nixon '' sign beneath the window where Mary supposedly lived. The house continued to attract 30 tour buses a day more than a decade after production ended.
At the time of Mary Tyler Moore 's death, on January 25, 2017, the Kenwood Parkway house was for sale at $1.7 million.
When Moore was first approached about the show, she "was unsure and unwilling to commit, fearing any new role might suffer in comparison with her Laura Petrie character in The Dick Van Dyke Show, which also aired on CBS, and was already cemented as one of the most popular parts in TV history ''. Moore 's character was initially intended to be a divorcée, but as divorce was still controversial at the time, and CBS was afraid viewers might think that Mary had divorced Rob Petrie, Laura 's husband on The Dick Van Dyke Show, the premise was changed to that of a single woman with a recently broken engagement. Notably, Van Dyke never guest starred in any episode, although his brother Jerry Van Dyke guest - starred in a couple of episodes during the third and fourth seasons. (Jerry had also regularly appeared on The Dick Van Dyke Show.)
According to co-creator Allan Burns, Minnesota was selected for the show 's location after "one of the writers began talking about the strengths and weaknesses of the Vikings ''. A television newsroom was chosen for the show 's workplace because of the supporting characters often found there, stated co-creator James Brooks.
The opening title sequence features many scenes filmed on location in Minneapolis in both summer and winter, as well as a few clips from the show 's studio scenes. The sequence changed each season, but always ended with Mary tossing her hat into the air in front of what was then the flagship Donaldson 's department store at the intersection of South 7th Street and Nicollet Mall in downtown Minneapolis. The hat toss was ranked by Entertainment Weekly as the second greatest moment in television. On May 8, 2002, Moore was in attendance when basic cable network TV Land dedicated a statue to her that captured her iconic throw. In 2010, TV Guide ranked the show 's opening title sequence No. 3 on a list of TV 's Top Ten credit sequences, as selected by readers. In 2017, James Charisma of Paste (magazine) ranked the show 's opening sequence # 15 on a list of The 75 Best TV Title Sequences of All Time.
The theme song played during the opening, "Love Is All Around '', was written and performed by Sonny Curtis. The lyrics changed between the first and second seasons, in part to reflect Mary Richards having become settled in her new home. The later lyrics, which accompanied many more episodes at a time when the show 's popularity was at a peak, are more widely known, and most covers of the song use these words.
No supporting cast members are credited during the show 's opening (though from the second season on, shots of them appear). The ending sequences show snippets of the cast and guest stars from the show with the respective actors ' names. Other on - location scenes are also shown during the closing credits, including a rear shot of Mary holding hands with her date, played by Moore 's then husband, Grant Tinker, and Moore and Valerie Harper feeding ducks on the bank of a pond in a Minneapolis park (this shot remained in the credits, even after Harper left the show). The ending sequence music is an instrumental version of "Love is All Around ''. The ending finishes with a cat meowing within the MTM company logo.
In 2007, Time magazine put The Mary Tyler Moore Show on its list of "17 Shows That Changed TV ''. Time stated that the series "liberated TV for adults -- of both sexes '' by being "a sophisticated show about grownups among other grownups, having grownup conversations ''. The Associated Press said that the show "took 20 years of pointless, insipid situation comedy and spun it on its heels. (It did this by) pioneer (ing) reality comedy and the establishment of clearly defined and motivated secondary characters. ''
Tina Fey, creator and lead actress of the 2006 - debut sitcom 30 Rock, explained that Moore 's show helped inspire 30 Rock 's emphasis on office relationships. "Our goal is to try to be like The Mary Tyler Moore Show, where it 's not about doing the news, '' said Fey. Entertainment Weekly also noted that the main characters of 30 Rock mirror those of The Mary Tyler Moore Show.
When the writers of the sitcom Friends were about to create their series finale, they watched several other sitcom finales. Co-creator Marta Kauffman said that the last episode of The Mary Tyler Moore Show was the "gold standard '' and that it influenced the finale of Friends.
The show spun off three television series, all of which aired on CBS: the sitcoms Rhoda (1974 -- 78) and Phyllis (1975 -- 77), and the one - hour drama Lou Grant (1977 -- 82). In 2000, Moore and Harper reprised their roles in a two - hour ABC TV - movie, Mary and Rhoda.
Two retrospective specials were produced by CBS: Mary Tyler Moore: The 20th Anniversary Show (1991) and The Mary Tyler Moore Reunion (2002). On May 19, 2008, the surviving cast members of The Mary Tyler Moore Show reunited on The Oprah Winfrey Show to reminisce about the series. Winfrey, a longtime admirer of Moore and the show, had her staff recreate the sets of the WJM - TV newsroom and Mary 's apartment (seasons 1 -- 5) for the reunion.
In 2013, the women of The Mary Tyler Moore Show, Cloris Leachman, Valerie Harper, Mary Tyler Moore, Betty White, and Georgia Engel, reunited on the TV Land sitcom Hot In Cleveland, which aired on September 4. The cast was interviewed by Katie Couric on Katie as they celebrated acting together for the first time in more than 30 years.
The show has remained popular since the final episode was broadcast in 1977. Several songs, films and other television programs, including The Simpsons, reference or parody characters and events from the show, including the memorable "... can turn the world on with her smile '' line from the title song. Parodies were done on shows such as Saturday Night Live, MadTV, and Mystery Science Theater 3000 (which was produced in Minneapolis). Barbara Kessler and Relient K are two artists who have referred to the show in their songs. The show has been mentioned in film as well. In the film Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy, the name of Burgundy 's dog, Baxter, refers to the character Ted Baxter, and the head of the newsroom staff is named Ed, honouring Ed Asner. In Romy & Michele 's High School Reunion, the characters argue with each other while exclaiming "I 'm the Mary and you 're the Rhoda. '' Frank DeCaro of The New York Times wrote that this was the highlight of the film.
The show 's Emmy - winning final episode has been alluded to many times in other series ' closing episodes, such as the finale of St. Elsewhere (including the group shuffle to the tissue box), Mystery Science Theater 3000 and Just Shoot Me!.
The program was the lead - in for The Bob Newhart Show, for most of its broadcasting run, which was also produced by MTM Enterprises.
The show did not do well initially in syndication, never being shown in more than 25 percent of the United States at a time, according to Robert S. Alley, the co-author of a book about the series. In the fall of 1992, Nick at Nite began broadcasting the series nightly, launching it with a week - long "Mary - thon '', and it became the network 's top - rated series.
The series was broadcast on BBC1 from February 13, 1971, to December 29, 1972. The BBC broadcast the first 34 episodes before the series was dropped. Beginning in 1975 a number of ITV companies picked up the series. Channel 4 repeated the first 39 episodes between January 30, 1984, and August 23, 1985. The full series was repeated on The Family Channel from 1993 to 1996.
20th Century Fox Home Entertainment has released all 7 seasons on DVD in Region 1.
On the season 7 DVD, the last episode 's "final curtain call '', broadcast only once on March 19, 1977 (March 18 in Canada), was included at the request of fans. However, some of the season 7 sets did not include the curtain call; a replacement disc is reported to be available from the manufacturer.
All seven seasons of the show were also made available for streaming and download in the digital format.
In addition to numerous nominations, The Mary Tyler Moore Show won 29 Emmy Awards. This was a record unbroken until Frasier earned its 30th in 2002.
Wins:
Notes
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pirates of the caribbean dead man's chest psp | Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man 's Chest (video game) - Wikipedia
Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man 's Chest is an action - adventure game based on the film of the same name developed by Griptonite Games and Amaze Entertainment for the Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS and PSP.
The game incorporates role playing elements where Jack Sparrow and the Black Pearl can be customized. Dead Man 's Chest is played on land and sea, on land the player must defeat enemies, search for treasure or for comrades, items, rumors and boat enhancements can be bought from towns. When on sea the player must travel from one island to another to play through the story or to explore the world. Sea battles can take place when the Black Pearl is steered towards other boats, during these battles the cannons are fired to damage the opposing ship and once when it has been sufficiently damaged, it 's possible to board the burning ship and plunder it for food, grog and even treasures. The GBA version 's gameplay is similar to the Castlevania game engine.
The game was met with average to very mixed reception upon release. GameRankings and Metacritic gave it a score of 74.30 % and 70 out of 100 for the Game Boy Advance version; 63.54 % and 63 out of 100 for the DS version; and 52.71 % and 52 out of 100 for the PSP version.
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the current in the northwestern part of the north atlantic subtropical | North Atlantic Current - Wikipedia
The North Atlantic Current (NAC), also known as North Atlantic Drift and North Atlantic Sea Movement, is a powerful warm western boundary current that extends the Gulf Stream north - eastward.
The NAC originates from where the Gulf Stream turns north at the Southeast Newfoundland Rise, a submarine ridge that stretches south - east from the Grand Banks. The NAC flows northward east of the Grand Banks, from 40 ° N to 51 ° N, before turning sharply east to cross the Atlantic. It transports more warm tropical water to northern latitudes than any other boundary current; more than 40 Sv in the south and 20 Sv as it crosses the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It reaches speeds of 2 knots near the North American coast. Directed by topography, the NAC meanders heavily but, in contrast to the meanders of the Gulf Stream, the NAC meanders remain stable without breaking off into eddies.
The colder parts of the Gulf Stream turn northward near the "tail '' of the Grand Banks at 50 ° W where the Azores Current branches off to flow south of the Azores. From there the NAC flows north - eastward east of the Flemish Cap (47 ° N, 45 ° W). Approaching the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, it then turns eastward and becomes much broader and more diffuse. It then splits into a colder, north - eastern branch and a warmer eastern branch. As the warmer branch turns southward most of the subtropical component of the Gulf Stream has been diverted southward and, as a consequence, the North Atlantic is mostly supplied by subpolar waters, including a contribution from the Labrador Current recirculated into the NAC at 45 ° N.
West of Continental Europe, it splits into two major branches. One branch goes southeast, later to become the Canary Current as it passes northwest Africa and turns southwest. The other major branch continues north along the coast of Northwestern Europe. Other branches include the Irminger Current and the Norwegian Current. Driven by the global thermohaline circulation (THC), the North Atlantic Current is part of the wind - driven Gulf Stream, which goes further east and north from the North American coast across the Atlantic and into the Arctic Ocean.
The North Atlantic Current, together with the Gulf Stream, have a long - lived reputation for having a considerable warming influence on European climate. The principal cause for differences in winter climate between North America and Europe is, however, winds rather than ocean currents.
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who plays casey in ten days in the valley | Ten Days in the Valley - wikipedia
Ten Days in the Valley is an American drama television series that aired on ABC from October 1, 2017, through January 6, 2018. The series, starring Kyra Sedgwick, was ordered direct - to - series on August 4, 2016. After airing four episodes, ABC announced that they were pulling the series from their schedule but would air the rest of the episodes beginning December 16, 2017.
A television producer 's life gets complicated after her young daughter disappears in the middle of the night and the two worlds she tries to navigate violently collide.
The series began development in early 2016 with Demi Moore set to star. She left the project for unknown reasons, and was replaced by Kyra Sedgwick.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 61 % approval rating with an average rating of 7.45 / 10 based on 18 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "Ten Days in the Valley 's instantly tense delivery of familiar material leads to an intriguing character study and engrossing mystery despite naggingly untapped potential. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 63 out of 100 based on 12 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
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who scored england's goals in 1966 final | 1966 FIFA World Cup final - wikipedia
The 1966 FIFA World Cup Final was the final match in the 1966 FIFA World Cup, the eighth football World Cup and one of the most controversial finals ever. The match was played by England and West Germany on 30 July 1966 at Wembley Stadium in London, and had an attendance of 96,924. The British television audience peaked at 32.30 million viewers, making the final the most watched television event ever in the United Kingdom.
England won 4 -- 2 after extra time to win the Jules Rimet Trophy. The England team became known as the "wingless wonders '', on account of their then - unconventional narrow attacking formation, described at the time as a 4 -- 4 -- 2. The match is remembered for England 's only World Cup trophy, Geoff Hurst 's hat - trick -- the first, and to date, only one ever scored in a World Cup Final -- and the controversial third goal awarded to England by referee Gottfried Dienst and linesman Tofiq Bahramov.
Both teams were strong throughout the tournament. Each won two and drew one of their three matches in the group stages. England did not concede a goal until their semi-final against Portugal.
England, managed by Alf Ramsey and captained by Bobby Moore, won the toss and elected to kick off. After 12 minutes, Sigfried Held sent a cross into the English penalty area which Ray Wilson misheaded to Helmut Haller, who got his shot on target. Jackie Charlton and goalkeeper Gordon Banks failed to deal with the shot which went in making it 1 -- 0 to West Germany.
In the 19th minute, Wolfgang Overath conceded a free kick, which Moore took immediately, floating a cross into the West German area, where Geoff Hurst rose unchallenged and levelled the scores with a downward glancing header. The teams were level at half - time, and after 77 minutes England won a corner. Alan Ball delivered the ball to Geoff Hurst whose deflected shot from the edge of the area found Martin Peters. He produced the final shot, beating the West German keeper from eight yards to make the score 2 -- 1 to England.
Germany pressed for an equaliser in the closing moments, and in the 89th minute Jack Charlton conceded a free kick for climbing on Uwe Seeler as they both went up for a header. The kick was taken by Lothar Emmerich, who struck it into George Cohen in the wall; the rebound fell to Held, who shot across the face of goal and into the body of Karl - Heinz Schnellinger. The ball deflected across the England six - yard box, wrong - footing the England defence and allowing Wolfgang Weber to level the score at 2 -- 2 and force the match into extra time. Banks protested that the ball had struck Schnellinger on the arm, and reiterated the claim in his 2002 autobiography, but replays showed that it actually struck Schnellinger on the back.
England pressed forward and created several chances. In particular, with five minutes gone, Bobby Charlton struck the post and sent another shot just wide. With 11 minutes of extra time gone, Alan Ball put in a cross and Geoff Hurst swivelled and shot from close range. The ball hit the underside of the cross bar, bounced down and was cleared. The referee Gottfried Dienst was uncertain if it had been a goal and consulted his linesman, Tofiq Bahramov from Azerbaijan in the USSR, who in a moment of drama indicated that it was. After non-verbal communication, as they had no common language, the Swiss referee awarded the goal to the home team. The crowd and the audience of 400 million television viewers were left arguing whether the goal should have been given or not.
England 's third goal has remained controversial ever since the match. According to the Laws of the Game the definition of a goal is when "the whole of the ball passes over the goal line ''.
In England, supporters cite the good position of the linesman and the statement of Roger Hunt, the nearest England player to the ball, who claimed it was a goal and that was why he wheeled away in celebration rather than attempting to tap the rebounding ball in.
Modern studies using film analysis and computer simulation show that the ball never crossed the line -- both Duncan Gillies of the Visual Information Processing Group at Imperial College London and Ian Reid and Andrew Zisserman of the Department of Engineering Science at University of Oxford agree that the ball would have needed to travel a further 2.5 -- 6.0 cm to fully cross the line, and that therefore it was not a goal. Furthermore, there exists colour footage of Hurst 's goal, taken from another angle by an amateur cameraman in the stands and having a view almost parallel to the English goal line. This film material shows that the ball did not cross the goal line in full.
Some Germans cited possible bias of the Soviet linesman (Bakhramov was from Azerbaijan), especially as the USSR had just been defeated in the semi-finals by West Germany. Bakhramov later stated in his memoirs that he believed the ball had bounced back not from the crossbar, but from the net and that he was not able to observe the rest of the scene, so it did not matter where the ball hit the ground anyway. (An apocryphal story exists that Bakhramov, when asked later why he gave the goal, simply replied "Stalingrad. '' There is no evidence that this is genuine.) Swiss referee Gottfried Dienst did not see the scene.
One minute before the end of play, the West Germans sent their defenders forward in a desperate attempt to score a last - minute equaliser. Winning the ball, Bobby Moore picked out the unmarked Geoff Hurst with a long pass, which Hurst carried forward while some spectators began streaming onto the field and Hurst scored moments later. Hurst later admitted that his blistering shot was as much intended to send the ball as far into the Wembley stands as possible should it miss, in order to kill time on the clock.
The final goal gave rise to one of the most famous sayings in English football, when BBC commentator Kenneth Wolstenholme described the situation as follows:
One of the balls from the final is now on display in the National Football Museum in Manchester.
England v West Germany
Officials
Match rules
One of the enduring images of the celebrations in Wembley immediately after the game was the picture of the captain Bobby Moore holding the Jules Rimet Trophy aloft, on the shoulders of Geoff Hurst and Ray Wilson, together with Martin Peters. In recognition of Moore and other West Ham United players ' contribution to the win, the club and Newham Borough Council jointly commissioned a statue of this scene. On 28 April 2003 Prince Andrew as president of The Football Association, duly unveiled the World Cup Sculpture (also called The Champions) in a prominent place near West Ham 's ground, at the time, the Boleyn Ground, at the junction of Barking Road and Green Street. The 4 metres (13 ft) high bronze piece was sculpted by Philip Jackson.
The final is the most watched event ever on British television, as of January 2012, attracting 32.30 million viewers. In Germany, a goal resulting from a shot bouncing off the crossbar and hitting the line is called a Wembley - Tor (Wembley Goal) due to the controversial nature of Hurst 's second goal. This goal has been parodied a large number of times. Some of the most notable include:
In August 1966 a special 4d stamp marked ENGLAND WINNERS was issued by the Royal Mail to celebrate the victory and which soared in value to up to 15 shillings each on the back of public enthusiasm for the victory before falling back in value when the public realised it was not rare.
The 1991 BBC miniseries Sleepers, about a pair of deep - cover KGB agents placed in England in the mid-1960s and then forgotten includes a subplot about an archive film of the match recorded by Soviet agents and then placed in archives. A KGB officer who sees the film in the early 1990s is excited to discover it includes footage of the disputed goal and attempts to sell it to a contact at a television network (pointedly described as not the BBC). Sleepers is coy about what the film depicts and in the course of the story, the film is destroyed.
Marking the 50th anniversary of England 's World Cup victory in July 2016, ITV broadcast 1966 - A Nation Remembers, which was narrated by the actor Terence Stamp who attended every England game at the tournament.
England 's win in the final also helped fans to create the "Two World Wars and One World Cup '' chant.
The players and staff of England 's winning squad who did not get medals in 1966 received them on 10 June 2009 after a ceremony at 10 Downing Street in London. Initially, only the 11 players on the pitch at the end of the match received medals, but FIFA later awarded medals to every non-playing squad and staff member from every World Cup - winning country from 1930 to 1974.
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when does the great seducer episodes come out | The Great Seducer - wikipedia
The Great Seducer (Hangul: 위대한 유혹자; RR: Widaehan Yuhokja) is a 2018 South Korean television series starring Woo Do - hwan, Park Soo - young, Moon Ga - young and Kim Min - jae. It is loosely based on the French novel titled Les Liaisons dangereuses by Pierre Choderlos de Laclos. It first aired on MBC from March 12, 2018 to May 1, 2018 on Mondays and Tuesdays at 22: 00 (KST) time slot.
The series depicts rich young men and women in their twenties who discover their true feeling while playing the dangerous game of love. Kwon Shi - hyun bets his life to seduce Eun Tae - hee, who believes people that are swayed by love are pathetic. After Eun Tae - hee meets Kwon Shi - hyun, her view on love starts to change. As Si - hyun 's secret deepens, he starts to fall in love with Tae - hee.
The series recorded the lowest rating ever in MBC 's history, receiving only 1.6 %, according to Nielsen Korea, The lead actors met with heavy criticism due to their poor acting as well as viewers labelling the development and direction distracting.
The drama is being aired in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, Hong Kong and Thailand on Oh! K starting March 13, 2018.
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aba daba said the monkey to the chimp | Aba daba Honeymoon - wikipedia
"Aba Daba Honeymoon '' is a popular song written and published by Arthur Fields and Walter Donovan in 1914, known through its chorus, "Aba daba daba daba daba daba dab, Said the chimpie to the monk; Baba daba daba daba daba daba dab, Said the monkey to the chimp, '' and first recorded in 1914 by the comic duo team of Collins & Harlan.
The song has had many cover versions over the years. In 1951 a version by Debbie Reynolds and Carleton Carpenter was a top five hit on the Billboard pop chart. Richard Hayes and Kitty Kallen also recorded the song and scored a top ten hit of their own.
A cover of the song "Aba Daba Honeymoon '' was featured in the 1950 film, Two Weeks with Love. The single released from that film was recorded by Debbie Reynolds and Carleton Carpenter on August 4, 1950, and issued as a single by MGM Records as catalog number 30282. It reached number 3 on the Billboard charts in 1951.
M-G-M sent the pair on a multicity personal appearance tour of Loews theaters to capitalize on its success, beginning in Washington, D.C.
American novelist Thomas Pynchon referred to the song in a 1964 letter to a friend as "the nadir of all American expression '': "Our souls (the world) leaves to whatever obsolescenses, bigotries, theories of education workable and un, parental wisdom or lack of it, happen to get in its more or less Brownian (your phrase) pilgrimage between the cord - cutting ceremony and the time they slide you down the chute into the oven, while the guy on the Wurlitzer plays ' Aba Daba Honeymoon ' because you had once told somebody it was the nadir of all American expression; only they did n't know what nadir meant but it must be good because of the vehemence with which you expressed yourself. ''
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Fritos corn chips used the tune as the melody of their commercial jingle "Muncha buncha, muncha buncha, muncha buncha, muncha buncha, Fritos goes with lunch ''. The Houston, TX jewelry chain The Diamond Jewelry Factory used the melody in their TV advertisements.
Ballpark organists used the song to introduce relief pitcher and, later, pitching coach Bob Apodaca
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is american airlines a member of star alliance | Star Alliance - wikipedia
Star Alliance is one of the world 's largest global airline alliances. Founded on 14 May 1997, its current CEO is Jeffrey Goh and its headquarters is located in Frankfurt am Main, Germany. As of April 2018, Star Alliance is the second largest global alliance by passenger count with 728 million, behind SkyTeam (730 million) and ahead of Oneworld (528 million). Its slogan is "The Way The Earth Connects ''.
Star Alliance 's 27 member airlines operate a fleet of approximately 4,657 aircraft, serving more than 1,330 airports in 192 countries on more than 18,500 daily departures. The alliance has a two - tier rewards program, Silver and Gold, with incentives including priority boarding and upgrades. Like other airline alliances, Star Alliance airlines share airport terminals (known as co-location) and many member planes are painted in the alliance 's livery.
On 14 May 1997, an agreement was announced forming Star Alliance from five airlines on three continents: United Airlines, Scandinavian Airlines, Thai Airways, Air Canada, and Lufthansa. The alliance chose Young & Rubicam for advertising, with a budget of $25 million (€ 18 million). The airlines shared the star logo from the beginning, with its five points representing the founding airlines. The alliance adopted its first slogan, "The Airline Network for Earth '', with its goal "an alliance that will take passengers to every major city on earth ''.
The now defunct Brazilian airline VARIG joined the Star Alliance network on 22 October 1997, extending the alliance into South America. Also joining were Ansett Australia and Air New Zealand, expanding Star Alliance to Australia and the Pacific. With the addition of the latter two carriers, the alliance served 720 destinations in 110 countries with a combined fleet of 1,650 aircraft. The next airline to join was All Nippon Airways (ANA), the group 's second Asian airline, on 15 October 1999.
During the early 2000s, a number of airlines joined Star Alliance; the Austrian Airlines Group (Austrian Airlines, Tyrolean Airways and Lauda Air) joined on 26 March 2000 and Singapore Airlines on 1 April. BMI (British Midland) and Mexicana Airlines joined on 1 July, bringing the alliance 's membership to 13. The addition of BMI made London Heathrow the only European hub with two alliances. During the year, Emirates considered joining Star Alliance, but decided against it. That year the now - defunct BWIA West Indies Airways, which had entered an alliance with United Airlines, considered becoming a member but did not. In 2000, the alliance also opened its first three business centers (in Los Angeles, Frankfurt, and Bangkok) and announced the formation of an Alliance Management Team (AMT), the partnership 's executive body. In September 2001, Ansett Australia (the alliance 's only Australian member) left Star Alliance due to bankruptcy, giving most of the Australian market to Qantas (a Oneworld member). That year, Star Alliance announced the appointment of a new CEO, Jaan Albrecht.
Asiana Airlines joined the alliance on 1 March 2003, Spanair on 1 May, and LOT Polish Airlines (Poland 's flag carrier) in October. Around this time, Mexicana Airlines left the alliance after deciding not to renew a codeshare agreement with United Airlines, later joining Oneworld. US Airways joined the alliance in May 2004, becoming its second US - based airline. In November Adria Airways, Blue1 and Croatia Airlines joined the alliance as its first three regional members.
Although Star Alliance invited Lineas Aereas Azteca in 2005 to join in mid-2007, the airline filed for bankruptcy. TAP Air Portugal joined on 14 March 2005, adding African destinations to the network. In April 2006 Swiss International Air Lines, the alliance 's sixth European airline, and South African Airways (its first African carrier) became the 17th and 18th members.
By May 2007, Star Alliance 's 10th anniversary, its members had a combined 16,000 daily departures to 855 destinations in 155 countries and served 406 million passengers annually. The alliance introduced Biosphere Connections, a partnership with UNESCO, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and the Ramsar Convention On Wetlands to promote environmental sustainability.
Today, nearly 30 % of global air travellers use the services of our member carriers or, looking at it from an overall industry perspective, two thirds of worldwide air travellers use one of the three airline alliances.
VARIG left the alliance on 31 January 2007, and the two Chinese airlines, Air China and Shanghai Airlines joined on 12 December.
On 1 April 2008, Turkish Airlines joined the alliance after a 15 - month integration process beginning in December 2006, becoming its seventh European airline and 20th member. EgyptAir, Egypt 's national airline and Star Alliance 's second African carrier, joined on 11 July 2008.
On 27 October 2009, Continental Airlines became the 25th member of Star Alliance after leaving SkyTeam three days earlier. According to alliance CEO Jaan Albrecht, "Bringing Continental Airlines into Star Alliance has been a truly unique experience. This is the first time an airline has moved directly from one alliance to another and I would like to thank all those involved in ensuring a smooth switch ''. At the time, it was rumored that the switch was Continental 's first move in a planned merger with United Airlines. Two months later, Brussels Airlines joined the alliance.
Brazilian carrier TAM Airlines joined Star Alliance on 13 May 2010, increasing its foothold in South America. Aegean Airlines, Greece 's largest airline by number of passengers, joined on 30 June.
Shanghai Airlines left the alliance on 31 October 2010 when it merged with China Eastern Airlines, a SkyTeam member. On 29 September, the chief executive board approved Ethiopian Airlines as Star Alliance 's 30th member. In 2010 the alliance flew to 1,172 airports in 181 countries, with about 21,200 daily departures.
Since 2011, the alliance has gained several large members but has lost others due to collapse or mergers. On 13 December 2011, Ethiopian Airlines joined, adding five countries and 24 destinations to the alliance 's map.
Star Alliance saw a tumultuous 2012 -- 13, starting with two key departures but ending with a major move into Latin America. In Europe, Spanair ceased operations, and BMI left after being acquired by International Airlines Group (IAG), the parent company of Oneworld members Iberia and British Airways. BMI was integrated into British Airways. In North America, Continental merged with United Airlines, reducing Star 's membership further, even if it effectively stayed in the alliance after the merger. On 21 June, though, Avianca, TACA Airlines and Copa Airlines joined, massively increasing the alliance 's Latin American presence. In November, Blue1 left after becoming an affiliate of parent Scandinavian Airlines. and Shenzhen Airlines joined, augmenting Air China 's Chinese network. Taiwanese carrier EVA Air then joined on 18 June 2013, and after TACA 's integration into Avianca, the alliance grew to 28 members, making it the largest of the three major airline alliances. On 13 December, Air India was again invited to begin an integration process with Star Alliance and joined the alliance on 3 July 2014.
Following this string of expansions, 2014 opened with two major departures through mergers. First, Brazilian carrier TAM Airlines merged with LAN Airlines to become LATAM Airlines Group, leaving the alliance without a presence in the world 's fifth - largest country. Next, US Airways completed its merger with American Airlines and also left the alliance. Both parent companies stayed with Oneworld. On 24 June, though, the alliance finally approved Air India which joined on 11 July, leaving the alliance at 27 members, where it stands today.
Future expansion centers around the addition of Connecting Partners, subsidiaries or partners of alliance members which will add connectivity to the alliance without becoming full members. Avianca Brazil joined in this way on 22 July 2015, bringing the alliance back into the Brazilian market partially filling the void left by TAM. South African Airways ' low - cost subsidiary, Mango, was initially announced to join as a Connecting Partner in Q3 2016 but has since been delayed. Juneyao Airlines, which codeshares with Shenzhen Airlines, joined as a Connecting Partner on 23 May 2017.
Founding member. Airlines operating under Air Canada Express, Air New Zealand Link, Cimber A / S, Lufthansa Regional and United Express are not necessarily members of Star Alliance. However, flights are operated on behalf of the respective member airlines, carry their designator code and are Star Alliance flights. Members of Lufthansa Regional that are fully owned by Deutsche Lufthansa AG. Air Canada Express flights are operated by Air Georgian, EVAS Air, Jazz Aviation, Sky Regional Airlines. Air India Regional flights are operated by Alliance Air. Air New Zealand Link flights are operated by Air Nelson and Mount Cook Airline. Lufthansa Regional flights are operated by Air Dolomiti and Lufthansa CityLine. United Express flights are operated by Air Wisconsin, CommutAir, ExpressJet, GoJet Airlines, Mesa Airlines, Republic Airline, SkyWest Airlines and Trans States Airlines. South African low - cost airline Mango will join the alliance as a Connecting Partner but until now the new date is still unannounced. SunExpress (owned by member airlines Turkish Airlines and Lufthansa) and SunExpress Deutschland (owned by SunExpress) is not part of Star Alliance UNI Air is a wholly owned subsidiary of Eva Air, although it is not a part of Star Alliance. Kunming Airlines is a wholly owned subsidiary of Shenzhen Airlines, although it is not a part of Star Alliance. Thai Smile is a subsidiary of Thai Airways but not a Star Alliance member. Edelweiss Air is a subsidiary of Swiss International Air Lines but not a Star Alliance member.
Codeshare flights of Star Alliance airlines are consistent. This cooperation led to suspicions of anti-competitive behavior; the alliance was suspected by the European Union of being a virtual merger of its members, and speculation existed that if government regulations were relaxed the members would merge into one corporation.
Star Alliance developed a "regional '' concept in 2004, which helped it penetrate markets with participation by smaller regional carriers. Regional Star Alliance members had to be sponsored by an alliance member. The alliance no longer designates airlines as "regional '' members, now referring to its 27 airlines as "members ''.
In 2007, alliance members flew 18,521 daily flights to 1,321 airports in 193 countries with a fleet of 4,025 aircraft. Its members carried a total of 627.52 million passengers, with revenue of US $156.8 billion (€ 145 billion). It had 28 percent of the global market based on revenue passenger kilometers (RPK), greater than the combined market share of all airlines not in one of the three major alliances. All alliance carriers combined employed over 405,000 pilots, flight attendants, and other staff.
Adria Airways (Terminal 3)
Star Alliance has two premium levels (Silver and Gold), based on a customer 's status in a member 's frequent - flyer program. Member and regional airlines recognize Star Silver and Gold status, with a few exceptions mostly pertaining to airport lounge access. Membership is based on the frequent - flyer programs of the individual airlines. Many members have a premium status beyond Gold, which is not recognized across the alliance.
Star Alliance Silver status is given to customers who have reached a premium level of a member carrier 's frequent - flyer program. Benefits are priority reservation wait - listing and airport stand - by. Some airlines also offer priority airport check - in, baggage handling and boarding; preferred seating; an additional checked - luggage allowance, and waived fees for two checked bags.
Star Alliance Gold status is given to customers who have reached a higher level of a member airline 's frequent - flyer program. Benefits are priority reservations wait - listing, airport stand - by and check - in and baggage handling; an additional checked luggage allowance of 20 kg (or one extra piece, where the piece rule applies), and access to designated Star Alliance Gold lounges the day and place of departure with the presentation of a Star Alliance boarding pass. Some airlines also offer preferred seating (an exit seat or a special section of the plane); guaranteed seating on fully booked flights, subject to the booking class code and notice period, and free upgrades in the form of a voucher, certificate or automatic upgrade at check - in. United restricts US lounge access for their Gold Members to long - haul international passengers; Gold members from other carriers are welcome in US lounges run by United on all itineraries.
Some Star Alliance members paint some of their aircraft with the alliance livery, usually a white fuselage with "Star Alliance '' across it and a black tail fin with the alliance logo; the color or design of the engine cowlings or winglets remains, depending on the member 's livery. Singapore Airlines is the only exception, formerly keeping its own logo on the tails of its aircraft but now using the Star Alliance logo on white tails. Asiana Airlines was the first Star Alliance member to paint its aircraft in the current Star Alliance livery. Aircraft painted in an airline 's regular livery have the Star Alliance logo between the cockpit and the first set of cabin doors.
Egyptair Airbus A330 with Star Alliance livery
Turkish Airlines Airbus A340 with alliance livery
Air India Boeing 787 - 8 with special Star Alliance livery
Thai Airways International Airbus A330 with Star Alliance livery
Media related to Star Alliance at Wikimedia Commons
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which is the first public sector corporation of independent india | List of public sector undertakings in India - wikipedia
The list details all government of India - owned public sector undertakings in India.
Central public sector enterprises (CPSEs) are those companies in which the direct holding of the Central Government or other CPSEs is 51 % or more.
As on 31.3. 2015 there were 298 CPSEs wherein, 63 enterprises are yet to commence commercial operation. The remaining 235 are operating enterprises (covering 181 scheduled CPSEs & 54 CPSEs has been considered provisional).
There are 181 scheduled CPSEs, i.e. 64 Schedule ' A ', 68 Schedule ' B ', 45 Schedule ' C ' and 4 Schedule ' D ' CPSEs.
Uttar Pradesh
Maharashtra Elektrosmelt
Catagory - 1
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where was aramaic spoken in the 13th century | Aramaic language - wikipedia
Aramaic (אַרָמָיָא Arāmāyā, Classical Syriac: ܐܪܡܝܐ , Arabic: آرامية ) is a language or group of languages belonging to the Semitic subfamily of the Afroasiatic language family. More specifically, it is part of the Northwest Semitic group, which also includes the Canaanite languages such as Hebrew and Phoenician. The Aramaic alphabet was widely adopted for other languages and is ancestral to the Hebrew, Syriac and Arabic alphabets.
During its approximately 3100 years of written history, Aramaic has served variously as a language of administration of empires and as a language of divine worship, religious study and as the spoken tongue of a number of Semitic peoples from the Near East.
Historically, Aramaic was the language of Aramean tribes, a Semitic people of the region around between the Levant and the northern Euphrates valley. By around 1000 BC, the Arameans had a string of kingdoms in what is now part of western Syria. Aramaic rose to prominence under the Neo-Assyrians (911 -- 605 BC), under whose influence Aramaic became a prestige language and its use spread throughout most of Mesopotamia and the Levant. At its height, variants of Aramaic were spoken in all over what is today Iraq, Syria, southeast and south central Turkey, northwest Iran, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, Palestinian territories, Kuwait and parts of Eastern Arabia and Northern Arabia. Aramaic was the language of Jesus, who spoke the Galilean dialect during his public ministry, as well as the language of large sections of the biblical books of Daniel and Ezra, and also one of the languages of the Talmud.
The scribes of the Neo-Assyrian bureaucracy had also used Aramaic, and this practice -- together with other administrative practices -- was subsequently inherited by the succeeding Neo-Babylonians (605 -- 539 BC), and the Achaemenids (539 -- 323 BC). Mediated by scribes that had been trained in the language, highly standardized written Aramaic (in its Achaemenid form called Imperial Aramaic) progressively also become the lingua franca of trade and commerce throughout the Achaemenid territories, which extended as far east as the Indus valley. (That use of written Aramaic subsequently led to the adoption of Aramaic script and -- as logograms -- some Aramaic vocabulary in the written forms of several Middle Iranian languages, including those of Parthia, Persia, Sogdiana, and Chorasmia.)
Aramaic 's long history and diverse and widespread use has led to the development of many divergent varieties, which are sometimes considered dialects, though they have become distinct enough over time that they are now sometimes considered as separate languages. Therefore, there is not one singular, static Aramaic language; each time and place rather has had its own variation. The more widely spoken Eastern Aramaic and Mandaic forms is today largely restricted to northern Iraq, north east Syria, north west Iran and south east Turkey, whilst the severely endangered Western Aramaic is spoken by small communities in north western Syria and Israel.
Certain dialects of Aramaic are also retained as a liturgical language by certain religious communities. One of those liturgical dialects is Mandaic, which besides being a living variant of Aramaic is also the liturgical language of Mandaeism. Significantly more widespread is Syriac, the liturgical language of Syriac Christianity, in particular the Assyrian Church of the East, the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Assyrian Pentecostal Church, Assyrian Evangelical Church, Ancient Church of the East, Syriac Catholic Church, the Maronite Church, and the Indian Saint Thomas Christian Churches. Syriac was also the liturgical language of several now - extinct gnostic faiths, such as Manichaeism.
Neo-Aramaic languages are still spoken today as a first language by many communities of Syriac Christians, Jews, and Mandaeans of Western Asia, most numerously by Assyrians with numbers of fluent speakers among Assyrian people ranging from approximately 575,000 to 1,000,000, with the main languages being Assyrian Neo-Aramaic (235,000 speakers), Chaldean Neo-Aramaic (216,000 speakers) and Surayt / Turoyo (112,000 to 450,000 speakers), together with a number of smaller closely related languages with no more than 5,000 to 10,000 speakers between them. They have retained use of the once dominant lingua franca despite subsequent language shifts experienced throughout the Middle East. However, the Aramaic languages are now considered endangered. The languages are used by the older generation, all beyond retirement age, and so could go extinct within a generation. However, researchers are working to record all the dialects of Neo-Aramaic languages before they go extinct.
"Aram '' is used as a proper name of several people in the Torah (Hebrew Bible) including descendants of Shem (Genesis 10: 22), Nahor (Genesis 22: 21), and Jacob (1 Chronicles 7: 34).
Ancient Aram, bordering northern Israel and now called Syria, is considered the linguistic epicenter of Aramaic, the language of the Arameans who settled the area during the Bronze Age circa 3500 BC. The language is often mistakenly considered to have originated within Assyria (Iraq). In fact, Arameans carried their language and writing into Mesopotamia by voluntary migration, by forced exile of conquering armies, and by nomadic Chaldean invasions of Babylonia during the period from 1200 to 1000 BC.
Interestingly, the Christian New Testament, for which the constituent texts are largely written in Koine Greek, translates the word "Hebrew '' as "Aramaic ''. The Hellenized Jewish community of Alexandria instead translated "Aramaic '' to "the Syrian tongue ''.
During the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Empires, Arameans, the native speakers of Aramaic, began to settle in greater numbers, at first in Babylonia, and later in Assyria (Upper Mesopotamia, modern - day northern Iraq, northeast Syria, northwest Iran, and south eastern Turkey (what was Armenia at the time). The influx eventually resulted in the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911 -- 605 BC) adopting an Akkadian - influenced Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of its empire. This policy was continued by the short - lived Neo-Babylonian Empire and Medes, and all three empires became operationally bilingual in written sources, with Aramaic used alongside Akkadian. The Achaemenid Empire (539 -- 323 BC) continued this tradition, and the extensive influence of these empires led to Aramaic gradually becoming the lingua franca of most of western Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, Anatolia, the Caucasus, and Egypt.
Beginning with the rise of the Rashidun Caliphate in the late 7th century, Arabic gradually replaced Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Middle East. However, Aramaic remains a spoken, literary, and liturgical language for local Christians and also some Jews. Aramaic also continues to be spoken by the Assyrians of Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and northwest Iran, with diaspora communities in Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan and southern Russia. The Mandaeans also continue to use Mandaic Aramaic as a liturgical language, although most now speak Arabic as their first language. There are still also a small number of first - language speakers of Western Aramaic varieties in isolated villages in western Syria.
The turbulence of the last two centuries (particularly the Assyrian genocide) has seen speakers of first - language and literary Aramaic dispersed throughout the world. However, there are a number of sizable Assyrian towns in northern Iraq such as Alqosh, Bakhdida, Bartella, Tesqopa, and Tel Keppe, and numerous small villages, where Aramaic is still the main spoken language, and many large cities in this region also have Assyrian Aramaic - speaking communities, particularly Mosul, Erbil, Kirkuk, Dohuk, and al - Hasakah. Aramaic is also experiencing a revival among Maronites in Israel in Jish.
Aramaic is often spoken of as a single language, but is in reality a group of related languages. Some Aramaic languages differ more from each other than the Romance languages do among themselves. Its long history, extensive literature, and use by different religious communities are all factors in the diversification of the language. Some Aramaic dialects are mutually intelligible, whereas others are not, not unlike the situation with modern varieties of Arabic. Some Aramaic languages are known under different names; for example, Syriac is particularly used to describe the Eastern Aramaic variety used in Christian ethnic communities in Iraq, southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria, and northwestern Iran, and Saint Thomas Christians in India. Most dialects can be described as either "Eastern '' or "Western '', the dividing line being roughly the Euphrates, or slightly west of it. It is also helpful to draw a distinction between those Aramaic languages that are modern living languages (often called "Neo-Aramaic ''), those that are still in use as literary languages, and those that are extinct and are only of interest to scholars. Although there are some exceptions to this rule, this classification gives "Modern '', "Middle '', and "Old '' periods, alongside "Eastern '' and "Western '' areas, to distinguish between the various languages and dialects that are Aramaic.
The earliest Aramaic alphabet was based on the Phoenician alphabet. In time, Aramaic developed its distinctive "square '' style. The ancient Israelites and other peoples of Canaan adopted this alphabet for writing their own languages. Thus, it is better known as the Hebrew alphabet today. This is the writing system used in Biblical Aramaic and other Jewish writing in Aramaic. The other main writing system used for Aramaic was developed by Christian communities: a cursive form known as the Syriac alphabet. A highly modified form of the Aramaic alphabet, the Mandaic alphabet, is used by the Mandaeans.
In addition to these writing systems, certain derivatives of the Aramaic alphabet were used in ancient times by particular groups: the Nabataean alphabet in Petra and the Palmyrene alphabet in Palmyra. In modern times, Turoyo (see below) has sometimes been written in a Latin script.
The history of Aramaic is broken down into three broad periods:
This classification is based on that used by Klaus Beyer.
The term "Old Aramaic '' is used to describe the varieties of the language from its first known use until the point roughly marked by the rise of the Sasanian Empire (224 AD), dominating the influential, eastern dialect region. As such, the term covers over thirteen centuries of the development of Aramaic. This vast time span includes all Aramaic that is now effectively extinct.
The central phase in the development of Old Aramaic was its official use by the Achaemenid Empire (500 -- 330 BC). The period before this, dubbed "Ancient Aramaic '', saw the development of the language from being spoken in Aramaean city - states to become a major means of communication in diplomacy and trade throughout Mesopotamia, the Levant and Egypt. After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, local vernaculars became increasingly prominent, fanning the divergence of an Aramaic dialect continuum and the development of differing written standards.
"Ancient Aramaic '' refers to the earliest known period of the language, from its origin until it becomes the lingua franca of the Fertile Crescent. It was the language of the Aramean city - states of Damascus, Hamath and Arpad.
There are inscriptions that evidence the earliest use of the language, dating from the 10th century BC. These inscriptions are mostly diplomatic documents between Aramaean city - states. The alphabet of Aramaic at this early period seems to be based on the Phoenician alphabet, and there is a unity in the written language. It seems that, in time, a more refined alphabet, suited to the needs of the language, began to develop from this in the eastern regions of Aram. Due to increasing Aramean migration eastward, the Western periphery of Assyria became bilingual in Akkadian and Aramean at least as early as the mid-9th century BC. As the Neo-Assyrian Empire conquered Aramean lands west of the Euphrates, Tiglath - Pileser III made Aramaic the Empire 's second official language, and it eventually supplanted Akkadian completely.
From 700 BC, the language began to spread in all directions, but lost much of its unity. Different dialects emerged in Assyria, Babylonia, the Levant and Egypt. Around 600 BC, Adon, a Canaanite king, used Aramaic to write to an Egyptian Pharaoh.
"Chaldee '' or "Chaldean Aramaic '' used to be common terms for the Aramaic of the Chaldean dynasty of Babylonia. It was used to describe Biblical Aramaic, which was, however, written in a later style. It is not to be confused with the modern language Chaldean Neo-Aramaic.
Around 500 BC, following the Achaemenid conquest of Mesopotamia under Darius I, Aramaic (as had been used in that region) was adopted by the conquerors as the "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages. The use of a single official language, which modern scholarship has dubbed Official Aramaic or Imperial Aramaic, can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the Achaemenids in holding their far - flung empire together for as long as they did ''. In 1955, Richard Frye questioned the classification of Imperial Aramaic as an "official language '', noting that no surviving edict expressly and unambiguously accorded that status to any particular language. Frye reclassifies Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of the Achaemenid territories, suggesting then that the Achaemenid - era use of Aramaic was more pervasive than generally thought.
Imperial Aramaic was highly standardised; its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect, and the inevitable influence of Persian gave the language a new clarity and robust flexibility. For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire (in 331 BC), Imperial Aramaic -- or near enough for it to be recognisable -- would remain an influence on the various native Iranian languages. Aramaic script and -- as ideograms -- Aramaic vocabulary would survive as the essential characteristics of the Pahlavi scripts.
One of the largest collections of Imperial Aramaic texts is that of the Persepolis fortification tablets, which number about five hundred. Many of the extant documents witnessing to this form of Aramaic come from Egypt, and Elephantine in particular (see Elephantine papyri). Of them, the best known is the Story of Ahikar, a book of instructive aphorisms quite similar in style to the biblical Book of Proverbs. Achaemenid Aramaic is sufficiently uniform that it is often difficult to know where any particular example of the language was written. Only careful examination reveals the occasional loan word from a local language.
A group of thirty Aramaic documents from Bactria have been discovered, and an analysis was published in November 2006. The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BC Achaemenid administration of Bactria and Sogdia.
The conquest by Alexander the Great did not destroy the unity of Aramaic language and literature immediately. Aramaic that bears a relatively close resemblance to that of the 5th century BC can be found right up to the early 2nd century BC. The Seleucids imposed Greek in the administration of Syria and Mesopotamia from the start of their rule. In the 3rd century BC, Greek overtook Aramaic as the common language in Egypt and Syria. However, a post-Achaemenid Aramaic continued to flourish from Judaea, Assyria, Mesopotamia, through the Syrian Desert and into northern Arabia.
Biblical Aramaic is the Aramaic found in four discrete sections of the Hebrew Bible:
Biblical Aramaic is a somewhat hybrid dialect. It is theorized that some Biblical Aramaic material originated in both Babylonia and Judaea before the fall of the Achaemenid dynasty. According to historical criticism, defiant Jewish propaganda shaped Aramaic Daniel during Seleucid rule. These stories might have existed as oral traditions at their earliest stage. This might be one factor that led to differing collections of Daniel in the Greek Septuagint and the Masoretic Text, which presents a lightly Hebrew - influenced Aramaic.
Under the category of post-Achaemenid is Hasmonaean Aramaic, the official language of Hasmonaean Judaea (142 -- 37 BC). It influenced the Biblical Aramaic of the Qumran texts, and was the main language of non-biblical theological texts of that community. The major Targums, translations of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, were originally composed in Hasmonaean. Hasmonaean also appears in quotations in the Mishnah and Tosefta, although smoothed into its later context. It is written quite differently from Achaemenid Aramaic; there is an emphasis on writing as words are pronounced rather than using etymological forms.
Babylonian Targumic is the later post-Achaemenid dialect found in the Targum Onqelos and Targum Jonathan, the "official '' targums. The original, Hasmonaean targums had reached Babylon sometime in the 2nd or 3rd century AD. They were then reworked according to the contemporary dialect of Babylon to create the language of the standard targums. This combination formed the basis of Babylonian Jewish literature for centuries to follow.
Galilean Targumic is similar to Babylonian Targumic. It is the mixing of literary Hasmonaean with the dialect of Galilee. The Hasmonaean targums reached Galilee in the 2nd century AD, and were reworked into this Galilean dialect for local use. The Galilean Targum was not considered an authoritative work by other communities, and documentary evidence shows that its text was amended. From the 11th century AD onwards, once the Babylonian Targum had become normative, the Galilean version became heavily influenced by it.
Babylonian Documentary Aramaic is a dialect in use from the 3rd century AD onwards. It is the dialect of Babylonian private documents, and, from the 12th century, all Jewish private documents are in Aramaic. It is based on Hasmonaean with very few changes. This was perhaps because many of the documents in BDA are legal documents, the language in them had to be sensible throughout the Jewish community from the start, and Hasmonaean was the old standard.
Nabataean Aramaic is the language of the Arameo - Arab kingdom of Petra. The kingdom (c. 200 BC -- 106 AD) covered the east bank of the Jordan River, the Sinai Peninsula and northern Arabia. Perhaps because of the importance of the caravan trade, the Nabataeans began to use Aramaic in preference to Old North Arabic. The dialect is based on Achaemenid with a little influence from Arabic: "l '' is often turned into "n '', and there are a few Arabic loanwords. Some Nabataean Aramaic inscriptions exist from the early days of the kingdom, but most are from the first four centuries AD The language is written in a cursive script that is the precursor to the modern Arabic alphabet. The number of Arabic loanwords increases through the centuries, until, in the 4th century, Nabataean merges seamlessly with Arabic.
Palmyrene Aramaic is the dialect that was in use in the Syriac city state of Palmyra in the Syrian Desert from 44 BC to 274 AD. It was written in a rounded script, which later gave way to cursive Estrangela. Like Nabataean, Palmyrene was influenced by Arabic, but to a much lesser degree.
The use of written Aramaic in the Achaemenid bureaucracy also precipitated the adoption of Aramaic (- derived) scripts to render a number of Middle Iranian languages. Moreover, many common words, including even pronouns, particles, numerals, and auxiliaries, continued to written as Aramaic "words '' even when writing Middle Iranian languages. In time, in Iranian usage, these Aramaic "words '' became disassociated from the Aramaic language and came to be understood as signs (i.e. logograms), much like the symbol ' & ' is read as "and '' in English and the original Latin et is now no longer obvious. Under the early 3rd - century BCE Parthians Arsacids, whose government used Greek but whose native language was Parthian, the Parthian language and its Aramaic - derived writing system both gained prestige. This in turn also led to the adoption of the name ' pahlavi ' (< parthawi, "of the Parthians '') for that writing system. The Persian Sassanids, who succeeded the Parthian Arsacids in the mid-3rd century CE, subsequently inherited / adopted the Parthian - mediated Aramaic - derived writing system for their own Middle Iranian ethnolect as well. That particular Middle Iranian dialect, Middle Persian, i.e. the language of Persia proper, subsequently also became a prestige language. Following the conquest of the Sassanids by the Arabs in the 7th - century, the Aramaic - derived writing system was replaced by Arabic script in all but Zoroastrian usage, which continued to use the name ' pahlavi ' for the Aramaic - derived writing system and went on to create the bulk of all Middle Iranian literature in that writing system.
The dialects mentioned in the last section were all descended from Achaemenid Imperial Aramaic. However, the diverse regional dialects of Late Ancient Aramaic continued alongside these, often as simple, spoken languages. Early evidence for these spoken dialects is known only through their influence on words and names in a more standard dialect. However, these regional dialects became written languages in the 2nd century BC. These dialects reflect a stream of Aramaic that is not dependent on Imperial Aramaic, and shows a clear division between the regions of Mesopotamia, Babylon and the east, and Judah, Syria, and the west.
In the East, the dialects of Palmyrene and Arsacid Aramaic merged with the regional languages to create languages with a foot in Imperial and a foot in regional Aramaic. The written form of Mandaic, the language of the Mandaean religion, was descended from the Arsacid chancery script.
In the kingdom of Osroene, centred on Edessa and founded in 132 BC, the regional dialect became the official language: Old Syriac. On the upper reaches of the Tigris, East Mesopotamian Aramaic flourished, with evidence from Hatra, Assur and the Tur Abdin. Tatian, the author of the gospel harmony the Diatessaron came from Assyria, and perhaps wrote his work (172 AD) in East Mesopotamian rather than Syriac or Greek. In Babylonia, the regional dialect was used by the Jewish community, Jewish Old Babylonian (from c. 70 AD). This everyday language increasingly came under the influence of Biblical Aramaic and Babylonian Targumic.
The western regional dialects of Aramaic followed a similar course to those of the east. They are quite distinct from the eastern dialects and Imperial Aramaic. Aramaic came to coexist with Canaanite dialects, eventually completely displacing Phoenician in the first century BC and Hebrew around the turn of the fourth century AD.
The form of Late Old Western Aramaic used by the Jewish community is best attested, and is usually referred to as Jewish Old Palestinian. Its oldest form is Old East Jordanian, which probably comes from the region of Caesarea Philippi. This is the dialect of the oldest manuscript of the Book of Enoch (c. 170 BC). The next distinct phase of the language is called Old Judaean into the second century AD. Old Judean literature can be found in various inscriptions and personal letters, preserved quotations in the Talmud and receipts from Qumran. Josephus ' first, non-extant edition of his The Jewish War was written in Old Judean.
The Old East Jordanian dialect continued to be used into the first century AD by pagan communities living to the east of the Jordan. Their dialect is often then called Pagan Old Palestinian, and it was written in a cursive script somewhat similar to that used for Old Syriac. A Christian Old Palestinian dialect may have arisen from the pagan one, and this dialect may be behind some of the Western Aramaic tendencies found in the otherwise eastern Old Syriac gospels (see Peshitta).
It is generally believed by Christian scholars that in the first century, Jews in Judea primarily spoke Aramaic with a decreasing number using Hebrew as their first language, though many learned Hebrew as a liturgical language. Additionally, Koine Greek was the lingua franca of the Middle East in trade, among the Hellenized classes (much like French in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries in Europe), and in the Roman administration. Latin, the language of the Roman army and higher levels of administration, had almost no impact on the linguistic landscape.
In addition to the formal, literary dialects of Aramaic based on Hasmonean and Babylonian, there were a number of colloquial Aramaic dialects. Seven Western Aramaic varieties were spoken in the vicinity of Judea in Jesus ' time. They were probably distinctive yet mutually intelligible. Old Judean was the prominent dialect of Jerusalem and Judaea. The region of Ein Gedi was the Southeast Judaean dialect. Samaria had its distinctive Samaritan Aramaic, where the consonants "he '', "heth '' and "' ayin '' all became pronounced as "aleph ''. Galilean Aramaic, the dialect of Jesus ' home region, is only known from a few place names, the influences on Galilean Targumic, some rabbinic literature and a few private letters. It seems to have a number of distinctive features: diphthongs are never simplified into monophthongs. East of the Jordan, the various dialects of East Jordanian were spoken. In the region of Damascus and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, Damascene Aramaic was spoken (deduced mostly from Modern Western Aramaic). Finally, as far north as Aleppo, the western dialect of Orontes Aramaic was spoken.
The three languages influenced one another, especially Hebrew and Aramaic. Hebrew words entered Jewish Aramaic (mostly technical religious words but also everyday words like עץ ʿēṣ "wood ''). Conversely, Aramaic words entered Hebrew (not only Aramaic words like māmmôn "wealth '' but Aramaic ways of using words like making Hebrew ראוי rā'ûi, "seen '' mean "worthy '' in the sense of "seemly '', which is a calque of Aramaic ḥzî meaning "seen '' and "worthy '').
The Greek of the New Testament often preserves non-Greek semiticisms, including transliterations of Semitic words:
The 2004 film The Passion of the Christ used Aramaic for much of its dialogue, specially reconstructed by a scholar, William Fulco, S.J. Where the appropriate words (in first century Aramaic) were no longer known, he used the Aramaic of Daniel, fourth - century Syriac and Hebrew as the basis for his work.
The 3rd century AD is taken as the threshold between Old and Middle Aramaic. During that century, the nature of the various Aramaic languages and dialects begins to change. The descendants of Imperial Aramaic ceased to be living languages, and the eastern and western regional languages began to form vital, new literatures. Unlike many of the dialects of Old Aramaic, much is known about the vocabulary and grammar of Middle Aramaic.
Only two of the Old Eastern Aramaic languages continued into this period. In the north of the region, Old Syriac moved into Middle Syriac. In the south, Jewish Old Babylonian became Jewish Middle Babylonian. The post-Achaemenid, Arsacid dialect became the background of the new Mandaic language.
Syriac (also "Middle Syriac '') is the classical, literary, liturgical and often spoken language of Syriac Christianity to this day, particularly the Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic Church, Ancient Church of the East, Syriac Orthodox Church and Saint Thomas Christians. It originated in fifth century BC Achaemenid Assyria, but its golden age was the fourth to sixth centuries. This period began with the translation of the Bible into the language: the Peshitta and the masterful prose and poetry of Ephrem the Syrian. Middle Syriac became the language of those opposed to the Byzantine leadership of the Church of the East. Missionary activity by Assyrian and Nestorian Christians led to the spread of Syriac from Mesopotamia and Persia, into Central Asia, India and China.
Jewish Middle Babylonian is the language employed by Jewish writers in Babylonia between the fourth and the eleventh century. It is most commonly identified with the language of the Babylonian Talmud (which was completed in the seventh century) and of post-Talmudic Geonic literature, which are the most important cultural products of Babylonian Judaism. The most important epigraphic sources for the dialect are the hundreds of incantation bowls written in Jewish Babylonian Aramaic.
The Mandaic language, spoken by the Mandaeans of Iraq, is a sister dialect to Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, though it is both linguistically and culturally distinct. Classical Mandaic is the language in which the Mandaean 's gnostic religious literature was composed. It is characterized by a highly phonetic orthography.
The dialects of Old Western Aramaic continued with Jewish Middle Palestinian (in Hebrew "square script ''), Samaritan Aramaic (in the old Hebrew script) and Christian Palestinian (in cursive Syriac script). Of these three, only Jewish Middle Palestinian continued as a written language.
In 135, after the Bar Kokhba revolt, many Jewish leaders, expelled from Jerusalem, moved to Galilee. The Galilean dialect thus rose from obscurity to become the standard among Jews in the west. This dialect was spoken not only in Galilee, but also in the surrounding parts. It is the linguistic setting for the Jerusalem Talmud (completed in the 5th century), Palestinian targumim (Jewish Aramaic versions of scripture), and midrashim (biblical commentaries and teaching). The standard vowel pointing for the Hebrew Bible, the Tiberian system (7th century), was developed by speakers of the Galilean dialect of Jewish Middle Palestinian. Classical Hebrew vocalisation, therefore, in representing the Hebrew of this period, probably reflects the contemporary pronunciation of this Aramaic dialect.
Middle Judaean, the descendant of Old Judaean, was no longer the dominant dialect, and was used only in southern Judaea (the variant Engedi dialect continued throughout this period). Likewise, Middle East Jordanian continues as a minor dialect from Old East Jordanian. The inscriptions in the synagogue at Dura - Europos are either in Middle East Jordanian or Middle Judaean.
The Samaritan Aramaic is earliest attested by the documentary tradition of the Samaritans that can be dated back to the fourth century. Its modern pronunciation is based on the form used in the tenth century.
Sometimes referred to as "Melkite Aramaic '', it is the language of Western - Aramaic - speaking Christians. It is evidenced from the 5th -- 6th century, but probably existed two centuries earlier. The language itself comes from Old Christian Palestinian Aramaic, but its writing conventions were based on early Middle Syriac, and it was heavily influenced by Greek. For example, the name Jesus, although ישוע Yešua ' in Jewish Aramaic, and Išo in Syriac, is written Yesûs (a transliteration of the Greek form) in Christian Palestinian.
As the Western Aramaic languages of the Levant and Lebanon have become nearly extinct in non-liturgical usage, the most prolific speakers of Aramaic dialects today are predominantly ethnic Assyrian Eastern Neo-Aramaic speakers, the most numerous being the Northeast Neo-Aramaic speakers of Mesopotamia. This includes speakers of Assyrian Neo-Aramaic (235,000 speakers), Chaldean Neo-Aramaic (216,000 speakers), and Turoyo (Surayt) (112,000 to 450,000 speakers). Having largely lived in remote areas as insulated communities for over a millennium, the remaining modern speakers of Aramaic dialects, such as the Assyrians, and the Arameans, escaped the linguistic pressures experienced by others during the large - scale language shifts that saw the proliferation of other tongues among those who previously did not speak them, most recently the Arabization of the Middle East and North Africa by Arabs beginning with the early Muslim conquests of the seventh century.
Another Eastern Aramaic language, Neo-Mandaean, is spoken by the Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran. They number some 50,000 -- 75,000 people, but it is believed the Mandaic language may now be spoken fluently by as few as 6000 people, with other Mandaeans having varying degrees of knowledge.
Modern Eastern Aramaic exists in a wide variety of dialects and languages. There is significant difference between the Aramaic spoken by Jews, Christians, and Mandaeans.
The Christian varieties are often called Modern Syriac (or Neo-Syriac, particularly when referring to their literature), being deeply influenced by the literary and liturgical language of Middle Syriac. However, they also have roots in numerous, previously unwritten, local Aramaic varieties, and are not purely the direct descendants of the language of Ephrem the Syrian. The varieties are not all mutually intelligible. The principal Christian varieties are Assyrian Neo-Aramaic and Chaldean Neo-Aramaic, both used by the ethnic Assyrians of Iraq, southeast Turkey, Iran, and northeast Syria.
The Judeo - Aramaic languages are now mostly spoken in Israel, and most are facing extinction. The Jewish varieties that have come from communities that once lived between Lake Urmia and Mosul are not all mutually intelligible. In some places, for example Urmia, Assyrian Christians and Jews speak mutually unintelligible varieties of Modern Eastern Aramaic in the same place. In others, the Nineveh plains around Mosul for example, the varieties of these two ethnic communities are similar enough to allow conversation.
Modern Central Neo-Aramaic, being in between Western Neo-Aramaic and Eastern Neo-Aramaic) is generally represented by Turoyo, the language of the Assyrians of Tur Abdin. A related language, Mlahsô, has recently become extinct.
Mandaeans living in the Khuzestan Province of Iran and scattered throughout Iraq, speak Modern Mandaic. It is quite distinct from any other Aramaic variety.
Central Neo-Aramaic consists of Turoyo and the recently extinct Mlahsô.
Very little remains of Western Aramaic. It is still spoken in the villages of Maaloula, al - Sarkha (Bakhah), and Jubb'adin on Syria 's side of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, as well as by some people who migrated from these villages, to Damascus and other larger towns of Syria. All these speakers of Modern Western Aramaic are fluent in Arabic as well. Jewish Palestinian Aramaic and Samaritan Aramaic are preserved in liturgical and literary usage.
Each dialect of Aramaic has its own distinctive pronunciation, and it would not be feasible here to go into all these properties. Aramaic has a phonological palette of 25 to 40 distinct phonemes. Some modern Aramaic pronunciations lack the series of "emphatic '' consonants, and some have borrowed from the inventories of surrounding languages, particularly Arabic, Azerbaijani, Kurdish, Persian and Turkish.
As with most Semitic languages, Aramaic can be thought of as having three basic sets of vowels:
These vowel groups are relatively stable, but the exact articulation of any individual is most dependent on its consonantal setting.
The open vowel is an open near - front unrounded vowel ("short '' a, somewhat like the first vowel in the English "batter '', (a)). It usually has a back counterpart ("long '' a, like the a in "father '', (ɑ), or even tending to the vowel in "caught '', (ɔ)), and a front counterpart ("short '' e, like the vowel in "head '', (ɛ)). There is much correspondence between these vowels between dialects. There is some evidence that Middle Babylonian dialects did not distinguish between the short a and short e. In West Syriac dialects, and possibly Middle Galilean, the long a became the o sound. The open e and back a are often indicated in writing by the use of the letters א "alaph '' (a glottal stop) or ה "he '' (like the English h).
The close front vowel is the "long '' i (like the vowel in "need '', (i)). It has a slightly more open counterpart, the "long '' e, as in the final vowel of "café '' ((e)). Both of these have shorter counterparts, which tend to be pronounced slightly more open. Thus, the short close e corresponds with the open e in some dialects. The close front vowels usually use the consonant י y as a mater lectionis.
The close back vowel is the "long '' u (like the vowel in "school '', (u)). It has a more open counterpart, the "long '' o, like the vowel in "low '' ((o)). There are shorter, and thus more open, counterparts to each of these, with the short close o sometimes corresponding with the long open a. The close back vowels often use the consonant ו w to indicate their quality.
Two basic diphthongs exist: an open vowel followed by י y (ay), and an open vowel followed by ו w (aw). These were originally full diphthongs, but many dialects have converted them to e and o respectively.
The so - called "emphatic '' consonants (see the next section) cause all vowels to become mid-centralised.
The various alphabets used for writing Aramaic languages have twenty - two letters (all of which are consonants). Some of these letters, though, can stand for two or three different sounds (usually a stop and a fricative at the same point of articulation). Aramaic classically uses a series of lightly contrasted plosives and fricatives:
Each member of a certain pair is written with the same letter of the alphabet in most writing systems (that is, p and f are written with the same letter), and are near allophones.
A distinguishing feature of Aramaic phonology (and that of Semitic languages in general) is the presence of "emphatic '' consonants. These are consonants that are pronounced with the root of the tongue retracted, with varying degrees of pharyngealization and velarization. Using their alphabetic names, these emphatics are:
Ancient Aramaic may have had a larger series of emphatics, and some Neo-Aramaic languages definitely do. Not all dialects of Aramaic give these consonants their historic values.
Overlapping with the set of emphatics are the "guttural '' consonants. They include ח Ḥêṯ and ע ʽAyn from the emphatic set, and add א ʼĀlap̄ (a glottal stop) and ה Hê (as the English "h '').
Aramaic classically has a set of four sibilants (ancient Aramaic may have had six):
In addition to these sets, Aramaic has the nasal consonants מ m and נ n, and the approximants ר r (usually an alveolar trill), ל l, י y and ו w.
Six broad features of sound change can be seen as dialect differentials:
As with other Semitic languages, Aramaic morphology (the way words are formed) is based on the consonantal root. The root generally consists of two or three consonants and has a basic meaning, for example, כת ״ ב k-t-b has the meaning of ' writing '. This is then modified by the addition of vowels and other consonants to create different nuances of the basic meaning:
Aramaic nouns and adjectives are inflected to show gender, number and state.
Aramaic has two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. The feminine absolute singular is often marked by the ending ה - - â.
Nouns can be either singular or plural, but an additional "dual '' number exists for nouns that usually come in pairs. The dual number gradually disappeared from Aramaic over time and has little influence in Middle and Modern Aramaic.
Aramaic nouns and adjectives can exist in one of three states. To a certain extent, these states correspond to the role of articles and cases in the Indo - European languages:
Whereas other Northwest Semitic languages, like Hebrew, have the absolute and construct states, the emphatic / determined state is a unique feature to Aramaic. Case endings, as in Ugaritic, probably existed in a very early stage of the language, and glimpses of them can be seen in a few compound proper names. However, as most of those cases were expressed by short final vowels, they were never written, and the few characteristic long vowels of the masculine plural accusative and genitive are not clearly evidenced in inscriptions. Often, the direct object is marked by a prefixed - ל l - (the preposition "to '') if it is definite.
Adjectives agree with their nouns in number and gender but agree in state only if used attributively. Predicative adjectives are in the absolute state regardless of the state of their noun (a copula may or may not be written). Thus, an attributive adjective to an emphatic noun, as in the phrase "the good king '', is written also in the emphatic state מלכא טבא malkâ ṭāḇâ -- king (emph.) good (emph.). In comparison, the predicative adjective, as in the phrase "the king is good '', is written in the absolute state מלכא טב malkâ ṭāḇ -- king (emph.) good (abs.).
The final א - - â in a number of these suffixes is written with the letter aleph. However, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the letter he for the feminine absolute singular. Likewise, some Jewish Aramaic texts employ the Hebrew masculine absolute singular suffix ים - - îm instead of ין - - în. The masculine determined plural suffix, יא - - ayyâ, has an alternative version, - ê. The alternative is sometimes called the "gentilic plural '' for its prominent use in ethnonyms (יהודיא yəhûḏāyê, ' the Jews ', for example). This alternative plural is written with the letter aleph, and came to be the only plural for nouns and adjectives of this type in Syriac and some other varieties of Aramaic. The masculine construct plural, - ê, is written with yodh. In Syriac and some other variants this ending is diphthongized to - ai.
Possessive phrases in Aramaic can either be made with the construct state or by linking two nouns with the relative particle - (ד (י d (î) -. As the use of the construct state almost disappears from the Middle Aramaic period on, the latter method became the main way of making possessive phrases.
For example, the various forms of possessive phrases (for "the handwriting of the queen '') are:
In Modern Aramaic, the last form is by far the most common. In Biblical Aramaic, the last form is virtually absent.
The Aramaic verb has gradually evolved in time and place, varying between varieties of the language. Verb forms are marked for person (first, second or third), number (singular or plural), gender (masculine or feminine), tense (perfect or imperfect), mood (indicative, imperative, jussive or infinitive) and voice (active, reflexive or passive). Aramaic also employs a system of conjugations, or verbal stems, to mark intensive and extensive developments in the lexical meaning of verbs.
Aramaic has two proper tenses: perfect and imperfect. These were originally aspectual, but developed into something more like a preterite and future. The perfect is unmarked, while the imperfect uses various preformatives that vary according to person, number and gender. In both tenses the third - person singular masculine is the unmarked form from which others are derived by addition of afformatives (and preformatives in the imperfect). In the chart below (on the root כת ״ ב K-T-B, meaning "to write ''), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is Classical Syriac.
Like other Semitic languages, Aramaic employs a number of derived verb stems, to extend the lexical coverage of verbs. The basic form of the verb is called the ground stem, or G - stem. Following the tradition of mediaeval Arabic grammarians, it is more often called the Pə'al פעל (also written Pe'al), using the form of the Semitic root פע ״ ל P - ' - L, meaning "to do ''. This stem carries the basic lexical meaning of the verb.
By doubling of the second radical, or root letter, the D - stem or פעל Pa ' ' el is formed. This is often an intensive development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, qəṭal means "he killed '', whereas qaṭṭel means "he slew ''. The precise relationship in meaning between the two stems differs for every verb.
A preformative, which can be - ה ha -, - א a - or - ש ša -, creates the C - stem or variously the Hap̄'el, Ap̄'el or Šap̄'el (also spelt הפעל Haph'el, אפעל Aph'el and שפעל Shaph'el). This is often an extensive or causative development of the basic lexical meaning. For example, טעה ṭə'â means "he went astray '', whereas אטעי aṭ'î means "he deceived ''. The Šap̄'el שפעל is the least common variant of the C - stem. Because this variant is standard in Akkadian, it is possible that its use in Aramaic represents loanwords from that language. The difference between the variants הפעל Hap̄'el and אפעל Ap̄'el appears to be the gradual dropping of the initial ה h sound in later Old Aramaic. This is noted by the respelling of the older he preformative with א aleph.
These three conjugations are supplemented with three further derived stems, produced by the preformative - הת hiṯ - or - את eṯ -. The loss of the initial ה h sound occurs similarly to that in the form above. These three derived stems are the Gt - stem, התפעל Hiṯpə'el or אתפעל Eṯpə'el (also written Hithpe'el or Ethpe'el), the Dt - stem, התפעּל Hiṯpa ' ' al or אתפעּל Eṯpa ' ' al (also written Hithpa ' ' al or Ethpa ' ' al), and the Ct - stem, התהפעל Hiṯhap̄'al, אתּפעל Ettap̄'al, השתפעל Hištap̄'al or אשתפעל Eštap̄'al (also written Hithhaph'al, Ettaph'al, Hishtaph'al or Eshtaph'al). Their meaning is usually reflexive, but later became passive. However, as with other stems, actual meaning differs from verb to verb.
Not all verbs use all of these conjugations, and, in some, the G - stem is not used. In the chart below (on the root כת ״ ב K-T-B, meaning "to write ''), the first form given is the usual form in Imperial Aramaic, while the second is Classical Syriac.
Aramaic also has two proper tenses: the perfect and the imperfect. In Imperial Aramaic, the participle began to be used for a historical present. Perhaps under influence from other languages, Middle Aramaic developed a system of composite tenses (combinations of forms of the verb with pronouns or an auxiliary verb), allowing for narrative that is more vivid. The syntax of Aramaic (the way sentences are put together) usually follows the order verb -- subject -- object (VSO). Imperial (Persian) Aramaic, however, tended to follow a S-O-V pattern (similar to Akkadian), which was the result of Persian syntactic influence.
The World 's first Aramaic language word processing software was developed in 1986 -- 1987 in Kuwait by information technology professional Sunil Sivanand (1953 --), who is now Managing Director and Chief Technology Architect at Acette. Sunil Sivanand did most of the character generation and programming work on a first generation, twin disk drive IBM Personal Computer. The project was sponsored by Daniel Benjamin, who was a patron of a group of individuals working worldwide to preserve and revive the Aramaic language.
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what does it mean to be competitive in business | Competition (Economics) - wikipedia
In economics, "competition '' is the rivalry among sellers trying to achieve such goals as increasing profits, market share, and sales volume by varying the elements of the marketing mix: price, product, promotion and place. Merriam - Webster defines competition in business as "the effort of two or more parties acting independently to secure the business of a third party by offering the most favorable terms ''. In his 1776 The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith described it as the exercise of allocating productive resources to their most highly valued uses and encouraging efficiency, an explanation that quickly found support among liberal economists opposing the monopolistic practices of mercantilism, the dominant economic philosophy of the time. Smith and other classical economists before Cournot were referring to price and non-price rivalry among producers to sell their goods on best terms by bidding of buyers, not necessarily to a large number of sellers nor to a market in final equilibrium.
Later microeconomic theory distinguished between perfect competition and imperfect competition, concluding that perfect competition is Pareto efficient while imperfect competition is not. Competition, according to the theory, causes commercial firms to develop new products, services and technologies, which would give consumers greater selection and better products. The greater selection typically causes lower prices for the products, compared to what the price would be if there was no competition (monopoly) or little competition (oligopoly).
Competition is generally accepted as a necessary condition for the coordination of disparate individuals interests via the market process.
Competition is seen as a state which produces gains for the whole economy, through promoting consumer sovereignty.
Competition is widespread throughout the market process. It is a condition where "buyers tend to compete with other buyers, and sellers tend to compete with other sellers. '' In offering goods for exchange, buyers competitively bid to purchase specific quantities of specific goods which are available, or might be available if sellers were to choose to offer such goods. Similarly, sellers bid against other sellers in offering goods on the market, competing for the attention and exchange resources of buyers. Competition results from scarcity -- there is never enough to satisfy all conceivable human wants -- and occurs "when people strive to meet the criteria that are being used to determine who gets what. ''
The competitive process in a market economy exerts a sort of pressure that tends to move resources to where they are most needed, and to where they can be used most efficiently for the economy as a whole. For the competitive process to work however, it is "important that prices accurately signal costs and benefits. '' Where externalities occur, or monopolistic or oligopolistic conditions persist, or for the provision of certain goods such as public goods, the pressure of the competitive process is reduced.
Competition may also lead to wasted (duplicated) effort and to increased costs (and prices) in some circumstances. In a small number of goods and services, the cost structure means that competition may be inefficient. These situations are known as natural monopoly and are usually publicly provided or tightly regulated.
Competition does not necessarily have to be between companies. For example, business writers sometimes refer to "internal competition ''. This is competition within companies. The idea was first introduced by Alfred Sloan at General Motors in the 1920s. Sloan deliberately created areas of overlap between divisions of the company so that each division would be competing with the other divisions. For example, the Chevy division would compete with the Pontiac division for some market segments. Also, in 1931, Procter & Gamble initiated a deliberate system of internal brand versus brand rivalry. The company was organized around different brands, with each brand allocated resources, including a dedicated group of employees willing to champion the brand. Each brand manager was given responsibility for the success or failure of the brand and was compensated accordingly. This form of competition thus pitted a brand against another brand. Finally, most businesses also encourage competition between individual employees. An example of this is a contest between sales representatives. The sales representative with the highest sales (or the best improvement in sales) over a period of time would gain benefits from the employer.
It should also be noted that business and economic competition in most countries is often limited or restricted. Competition often is subject to legal restrictions. For example, competition may be legally prohibited as in the case with a government monopoly or a government - granted monopoly. Tariffs or other protectionist measures may also be instituted by government in order to prevent or reduce competition. Depending on the respective economic policy, the pure competition is to a greater or lesser extent regulated by competition policy and competition law. Competition between countries is quite subtle to detect, but is quite evident in the World economy, where countries the US, Japan, the constituents of the European Union, China and the Asian Tigers each try to outdo the other in the quest for economic supremacy in the global market, harkening to the concept of Kiasuism. Such competition is evident by the policies undertaken by these countries to educate the future workforce. For example, East Asian economies like Singapore, Japan, and South Korea tend to emphasize education by allocating a large portion of the budget to this sector, and by implementing programmes such as gifted, which some detractors criticize as indicative of elitism.
Within competitive markets, markets are often defined by their sub-sectors, such as the "short - term '' or "long - term '' market, the "seasonal '' or "summer '' market, or the "broad '' or "remainder '' market. For example, in otherwise competitive market economies, where a large majority of the commercial exchanges are competitively determined by long term contracts and therefore long term market clearing prices, a "remainder market '' is one where prices are determined by the small part of the market that deals with the availability of whatever is not cleared via long term transactions. For example, in the sugar industry, about 94 % to 95 % of the market clearing price is determined by long term supply and purchase contracts. The balance of the market, and world sugar prices, are determined by the ad hoc demand for the 5 % to 6 % that is not sold via long - term contracts; prices in the "remainder market '' fluctuate more widely and are determined by short term supply and demand conditions; quoted prices can be significantly higher or lower than the long - term market clearing price. Similarly, in the US real estate housing market, appraisal prices can be determined by both short term or long term characteristics depending on short - term supply and demand factors; this can result in large price variations for a property at one location.
A practice is anti-competitive if it is deemed to unfairly distort free and effective competition in the marketplace. Examples include cartelization (collusion among companies producing the same product or services to fix the price of goods or services intended to mutual higher profit), predatory, and abuse.
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canada was the first to enact a multicultural | Canadian Multiculturalism Act - wikipedia
The Canadian Multiculturalism Act (the Act) is a law of Canada, passed in 1988, that aims to preserve and enhance multiculturalism in Canada.
The Government of Canada, under Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau, declared in 1971 that Canada would adopt a multicultural policy. The Government of Canada would recognize and respect its society including its diversity in languages, customs, religions, and so on. In 1982, multiculturalism was recognized by section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Canadian Multiculturalism Act was then enacted by Prime Minister Brian Mulroney.
In a webpage published by the Ministry of Immigration, Refugees, and Citizenship (IRC) it is declared that: "In 1971, Canada was the first country in the world to adopt multiculturalism as an official policy. '' This statement likely refers to the 8 October 1971 announcement of Prime Minister Trudeau in the House of Commons of Canada that, after much deliberation, the policies of bilingualism and multiculturalism would be implemented in Canada. One result of this policy statement was the Canadian Multiculturalism Act ' of 1988.
The preamble of the Act declares that,
This restatement of the Constitution is mirrored in the IRC webpage. The multiculturalism policy allows citizens to practice their religions and keep their identities without the fear of official persecution. It is believed by some that without this fear, Canadians are more willing to accept different cultures. The policy, therefore, emphasizes a mutual respect between ethnicities and also acceptance of one 's personal beliefs.
This policy guaranteed equality before the law and for pursuing opportunities whether personal, career, or in any other field. This means anyone of any race or ethnic origin is capable of pursuing his or her interests without persecution. Canadian law, as a result, reflects many of these rights and belief as they guaranteed to all men and women. All of these rights are guaranteed in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms which is part of the Canadian Constitution.
The Parole Board of Canada writes that the Act has two fundamental principles:
The Act binds the federal government and its institutions to encourage, facilitate, assist and undertake several high - minded goals. The Minister may also enter into agreements with provincial and foreign governments to promote these goals. Other ministers may enter into agreements with the provinces. The "Canadian multiculturalism advisory committee '' is established in Section 7, and the Minister is charged with the annual composition of a report on the operation of the Act.
The Canadian Multiculturalism Act affirms the policy of the Government of Canada to ensure that every Canadian receives equal treatment by the government which respects and celebrates diversity. The Act also:
Section 3 (1) of the Act states:
It is hereby declared to be the policy of the Government of Canada to
(a) recognize and promote the understanding that multiculturalism reflects the cultural and racial diversity of Canadian society and acknowledges the freedom of all members of Canadian society to preserve, enhance and share their cultural heritage
(b) recognize and promote the understanding that multiculturalism is a fundamental characteristic of the Canadian heritage and identity and that it provides an invaluable resource in the shaping of Canada 's future
(c) promote the full and equitable participation of individuals and communities of all origins in the continuing evolution and shaping of all aspects of Canadian society and assist them in the elimination of any barrier to that participation
(d) recognize the existence of communities whose members share a common origin and their historic contribution to Canadian society, and enhance their development
(e) ensure that all individuals receive equal treatment and equal protection under the law, while respecting and valuing their diversity
(f) encourage and assist the social, cultural, economic and political institutions of Canada to be both respectful and inclusive of Canada 's multicultural character
(g) promote the understanding and creativity that arise from the interaction between individuals and communities of different origins
(h) foster the recognition and appreciation of the diverse cultures of Canadian society and promote the reflection and the evolving expressions of those cultures
(i) preserve and enhance the use of languages other than English and French, while strengthening the status and use of the official languages of Canada; and
(j) advance multiculturalism throughout Canada in harmony with the national commitment to the official languages of Canada.
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what is the most current version of html | HTML - Wikipedia
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is the standard markup language for creating web pages and web applications. With Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) and JavaScript, it forms a triad of cornerstone technologies for the World Wide Web. Web browsers receive HTML documents from a web server or from local storage and render them into multimedia web pages. HTML describes the structure of a web page semantically and originally included cues for the appearance of the document.
HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages. With HTML constructs, images and other objects, such as interactive forms, may be embedded into the rendered page. It provides a means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. HTML elements are delineated by tags, written using angle brackets. Tags such as < img / > and < input / > introduce content into the page directly. Others such as < p >... < / p > surround and provide information about document text and may include other tags as sub-elements. Browsers do not display the HTML tags, but use them to interpret the content of the page.
HTML can embed programs written in a scripting language such as JavaScript which affect the behavior and content of web pages. Inclusion of CSS defines the look and layout of content. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), maintainer of both the HTML and the CSS standards, has encouraged the use of CSS over explicit presentational HTML since 1997.
In 1980, physicist Tim Berners - Lee, a contractor at CERN, proposed and prototyped ENQUIRE, a system for CERN researchers to use and share documents. In 1989, Berners - Lee wrote a memo proposing an Internet - based hypertext system. Berners - Lee specified HTML and wrote the browser and server software in late 1990. That year, Berners - Lee and CERN data systems engineer Robert Cailliau collaborated on a joint request for funding, but the project was not formally adopted by CERN. In his personal notes from 1990 he listed "some of the many areas in which hypertext is used '' and put an encyclopedia first.
The first publicly available description of HTML was a document called "HTML Tags '', first mentioned on the Internet by Tim Berners - Lee in late 1991. It describes 18 elements comprising the initial, relatively simple design of HTML. Except for the hyperlink tag, these were strongly influenced by SGMLguid, an in - house Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML) - based documentation format at CERN. Eleven of these elements still exist in HTML 4.
HTML is a markup language that web browsers use to interpret and compose text, images, and other material into visual or audible web pages. Default characteristics for every item of HTML markup are defined in the browser, and these characteristics can be altered or enhanced by the web page designer 's additional use of CSS. Many of the text elements are found in the 1988 ISO technical report TR 9537 Techniques for using SGML, which in turn covers the features of early text formatting languages such as that used by the RUNOFF command developed in the early 1960s for the CTSS (Compatible Time - Sharing System) operating system: these formatting commands were derived from the commands used by typesetters to manually format documents. However, the SGML concept of generalized markup is based on elements (nested annotated ranges with attributes) rather than merely print effects, with also the separation of structure and markup; HTML has been progressively moved in this direction with CSS.
Berners - Lee considered HTML to be an application of SGML. It was formally defined as such by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) with the mid-1993 publication of the first proposal for an HTML specification, the "Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) '' Internet Draft by Berners - Lee and Dan Connolly, which included an SGML Document type definition to define the grammar. The draft expired after six months, but was notable for its acknowledgment of the NCSA Mosaic browser 's custom tag for embedding in - line images, reflecting the IETF 's philosophy of basing standards on successful prototypes. Similarly, Dave Raggett 's competing Internet - Draft, "HTML+ (Hypertext Markup Format) '', from late 1993, suggested standardizing already - implemented features like tables and fill - out forms.
After the HTML and HTML+ drafts expired in early 1994, the IETF created an HTML Working Group, which in 1995 completed "HTML 2.0 '', the first HTML specification intended to be treated as a standard against which future implementations should be based.
Further development under the auspices of the IETF was stalled by competing interests. Since 1996, the HTML specifications have been maintained, with input from commercial software vendors, by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). However, in 2000, HTML also became an international standard (ISO / IEC 15445: 2000). HTML 4.01 was published in late 1999, with further errata published through 2001. In 2004, development began on HTML5 in the Web Hypertext Application Technology Working Group (WHATWG), which became a joint deliverable with the W3C in 2008, and completed and standardized on 28 October 2014.
XHTML is a separate language that began as a reformulation of HTML 4.01 using XML 1.0. It is no longer being developed as a separate standard.
HTML markup consists of several key components, including those called tags (and their attributes), character - based data types, character references and entity references. HTML tags most commonly come in pairs like < h1 > and < / h1 >, although some represent empty elements and so are unpaired, for example < img >. The first tag in such a pair is the start tag, and the second is the end tag (they are also called opening tags and closing tags).
Another important component is the HTML document type declaration, which triggers standards mode rendering.
The following is an example of the classic "Hello, World! '' program, a common test employed for comparing programming languages, scripting languages and markup languages. This example is made using 9 source lines of code:
(The text between < html > and < / html > describes the web page, and the text between < body > and < / body > is the visible page content. The markup text "< title > This is a title < / title > '' defines the browser page title.)
The Document Type Declaration <! DOCTYPE html > is for HTML5. If a declaration is not included, various browsers will revert to "quirks mode '' for rendering.
HTML documents imply a structure of nested HTML elements. These are indicated in the document by HTML tags, enclosed in angle brackets thus: < p >
In the simple, general case, the extent of an element is indicated by a pair of tags: a "start tag '' < p > and "end tag '' < / p >. The text content of the element, if any, is placed between these tags.
Tags may also enclose further tag markup between the start and end, including a mixture of tags and text. This indicates further (nested) elements, as children of the parent element.
The start tag may also include attributes within the tag. These indicate other information, such as identifiers for sections within the document, identifiers used to bind style information to the presentation of the document, and for some tags such as the < img > used to embed images, the reference to the image resource.
Some elements, such as the line break < br >, do not permit any embedded content, either text or further tags. These require only a single empty tag (akin to a start tag) and do not use an end tag.
Many tags, particularly the closing end tag for the very commonly used paragraph element < p >, are optional. An HTML browser or other agent can infer the closure for the end of an element from the context and the structural rules defined by the HTML standard. These rules are complex and not widely understood by most HTML coders.
The general form of an HTML element is therefore: < tag attribute1 = "value1 '' attribute2 = "value2 '' > ' ' content ' ' < / tag >. Some HTML elements are defined as empty elements and take the form < tag attribute1 = "value1 '' attribute2 = "value2 '' >. Empty elements may enclose no content, for instance, the < br > tag or the inline < img > tag. The name of an HTML element is the name used in the tags. Note that the end tag 's name is preceded by a slash character, "/ '', and that in empty elements the end tag is neither required nor allowed. If attributes are not mentioned, default values are used in each case.
Header of the HTML document: < head >... < / head >. The title is included in the head, for example:
Headings: HTML headings are defined with the < h1 > to < h6 > tags:
Paragraphs:
Line breaks: < br >. The difference between < br > and < p > is that "br '' breaks a line without altering the semantic structure of the page, whereas "p '' sections the page into paragraphs. Note also that "br '' is an empty element in that, although it may have attributes, it can take no content and it may not have an end tag.
This is a link in HTML. To create a link the < a > tag is used. The href = attribute holds the URL address of the link.
Inputs:
There are many possible ways a user can give input / s like:
Comments:
Comments can help in the understanding of the markup and do not display in the webpage.
There are several types of markup elements used in HTML:
Most of the attributes of an element are name - value pairs, separated by "= '' and written within the start tag of an element after the element 's name. The value may be enclosed in single or double quotes, although values consisting of certain characters can be left unquoted in HTML (but not XHTML). Leaving attribute values unquoted is considered unsafe. In contrast with name - value pair attributes, there are some attributes that affect the element simply by their presence in the start tag of the element, like the ismap attribute for the img element.
There are several common attributes that may appear in many elements:
The abbreviation element, abbr, can be used to demonstrate some of these attributes:
This example displays as HTML; in most browsers, pointing the cursor at the abbreviation should display the title text "Hypertext Markup Language. ''
Most elements take the language - related attribute dir to specify text direction, such as with "rtl '' for right - to - left text in, for example, Arabic, Persian or Hebrew.
As of version 4.0, HTML defines a set of 252 character entity references and a set of 1,114,050 numeric character references, both of which allow individual characters to be written via simple markup, rather than literally. A literal character and its markup counterpart are considered equivalent and are rendered identically.
The ability to "escape '' characters in this way allows for the characters < and & (when written as < and &, respectively) to be interpreted as character data, rather than markup. For example, a literal < normally indicates the start of a tag, and & normally indicates the start of a character entity reference or numeric character reference; writing it as & or & # x26; or & # 38; allows & to be included in the content of an element or in the value of an attribute. The double - quote character ("), when not used to quote an attribute value, must also be escaped as " or & # x22; or & # 34; when it appears within the attribute value itself. Equivalently, the single - quote character ('), when not used to quote an attribute value, must also be escaped as & # x27; or & # 39; (or as ' in HTML5 or XHTML documents) when it appears within the attribute value itself. If document authors overlook the need to escape such characters, some browsers can be very forgiving and try to use context to guess their intent. The result is still invalid markup, which makes the document less accessible to other browsers and to other user agents that may try to parse the document for search and indexing purposes for example.
Escaping also allows for characters that are not easily typed, or that are not available in the document 's character encoding, to be represented within element and attribute content. For example, the acute - accented e (é), a character typically found only on Western European and South American keyboards, can be written in any HTML document as the entity reference é or as the numeric references & # xE9; or & # 233;, using characters that are available on all keyboards and are supported in all character encodings. Unicode character encodings such as UTF - 8 are compatible with all modern browsers and allow direct access to almost all the characters of the world 's writing systems.
HTML defines several data types for element content, such as script data and stylesheet data, and a plethora of types for attribute values, including IDs, names, URIs, numbers, units of length, languages, media descriptors, colors, character encodings, dates and times, and so on. All of these data types are specializations of character data.
HTML documents are required to start with a Document Type Declaration (informally, a "doctype ''). In browsers, the doctype helps to define the rendering mode -- particularly whether to use quirks mode.
The original purpose of the doctype was to enable parsing and validation of HTML documents by SGML tools based on the Document Type Definition (DTD). The DTD to which the DOCTYPE refers contains a machine - readable grammar specifying the permitted and prohibited content for a document conforming to such a DTD. Browsers, on the other hand, do not implement HTML as an application of SGML and by consequence do not read the DTD.
HTML5 does not define a DTD; therefore, in HTML5 the doctype declaration is simpler and shorter:
An example of an HTML 4 doctype
This declaration references the DTD for the "strict '' version of HTML 4.01. SGML - based validators read the DTD in order to properly parse the document and to perform validation. In modern browsers, a valid doctype activates standards mode as opposed to quirks mode.
In addition, HTML 4.01 provides Transitional and Frameset DTDs, as explained below. Transitional type is the most inclusive, incorporating current tags as well as older or "deprecated '' tags, with the Strict DTD excluding deprecated tags. Frameset has all tags necessary to make frames on a page along with the tags included in transitional type.
Semantic HTML is a way of writing HTML that emphasizes the meaning of the encoded information over its presentation (look). HTML has included semantic markup from its inception, but has also included presentational markup, such as < font >, < i > and < center > tags. There are also the semantically neutral span and div tags. Since the late 1990s when Cascading Style Sheets were beginning to work in most browsers, web authors have been encouraged to avoid the use of presentational HTML markup with a view to the separation of presentation and content.
In a 2001 discussion of the Semantic Web, Tim Berners - Lee and others gave examples of ways in which intelligent software "agents '' may one day automatically crawl the web and find, filter and correlate previously unrelated, published facts for the benefit of human users. Such agents are not commonplace even now, but some of the ideas of Web 2.0, mashups and price comparison websites may be coming close. The main difference between these web application hybrids and Berners - Lee 's semantic agents lies in the fact that the current aggregation and hybridization of information is usually designed in by web developers, who already know the web locations and the API semantics of the specific data they wish to mash, compare and combine.
An important type of web agent that does crawl and read web pages automatically, without prior knowledge of what it might find, is the web crawler or search - engine spider. These software agents are dependent on the semantic clarity of web pages they find as they use various techniques and algorithms to read and index millions of web pages a day and provide web users with search facilities without which the World Wide Web 's usefulness would be greatly reduced.
In order for search - engine spiders to be able to rate the significance of pieces of text they find in HTML documents, and also for those creating mashups and other hybrids as well as for more automated agents as they are developed, the semantic structures that exist in HTML need to be widely and uniformly applied to bring out the meaning of published text.
Presentational markup tags are deprecated in current HTML and XHTML recommendations and are illegal in HTML5.
Good semantic HTML also improves the accessibility of web documents (see also Web Content Accessibility Guidelines). For example, when a screen reader or audio browser can correctly ascertain the structure of a document, it will not waste the visually impaired user 's time by reading out repeated or irrelevant information when it has been marked up correctly.
HTML documents can be delivered by the same means as any other computer file. However, they are most often delivered either by HTTP from a web server or by email.
The World Wide Web is composed primarily of HTML documents transmitted from web servers to web browsers using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). However, HTTP is used to serve images, sound, and other content, in addition to HTML. To allow the web browser to know how to handle each document it receives, other information is transmitted along with the document. This meta data usually includes the MIME type (e.g. text / html or application / xhtml + xml) and the character encoding (see Character encoding in HTML).
In modern browsers, the MIME type that is sent with the HTML document may affect how the document is initially interpreted. A document sent with the XHTML MIME type is expected to be well - formed XML; syntax errors may cause the browser to fail to render it. The same document sent with the HTML MIME type might be displayed successfully, since some browsers are more lenient with HTML.
The W3C recommendations state that XHTML 1.0 documents that follow guidelines set forth in the recommendation 's Appendix C may be labeled with either MIME Type. XHTML 1.1 also states that XHTML 1.1 documents should be labeled with either MIME type.
Most graphical email clients allow the use of a subset of HTML (often ill - defined) to provide formatting and semantic markup not available with plain text. This may include typographic information like coloured headings, emphasized and quoted text, inline images and diagrams. Many such clients include both a GUI editor for composing HTML e-mail messages and a rendering engine for displaying them. Use of HTML in e-mail is criticized by some because of compatibility issues, because it can help disguise phishing attacks, because of accessibility issues for blind or visually impaired people, because it can confuse spam filters and because the message size is larger than plain text.
The most common filename extension for files containing HTML is. html. A common abbreviation of this is. htm, which originated because some early operating systems and file systems, such as DOS and the limitations imposed by FAT data structure, limited file extensions to three letters.
An HTML Application (HTA; file extension ``. hta '') is a Microsoft Windows application that uses HTML and Dynamic HTML in a browser to provide the application 's graphical interface. A regular HTML file is confined to the security model of the web browser 's security, communicating only to web servers and manipulating only webpage objects and site cookies. An HTA runs as a fully trusted application and therefore has more privileges, like creation / editing / removal of files and Windows Registry entries. Because they operate outside the browser 's security model, HTAs can not be executed via HTTP, but must be downloaded (just like an EXE file) and executed from local file system.
Since its inception, HTML and its associated protocols gained acceptance relatively quickly. However, no clear standards existed in the early years of the language. Though its creators originally conceived of HTML as a semantic language devoid of presentation details, practical uses pushed many presentational elements and attributes into the language, driven largely by the various browser vendors. The latest standards surrounding HTML reflect efforts to overcome the sometimes chaotic development of the language and to create a rational foundation for building both meaningful and well - presented documents. To return HTML to its role as a semantic language, the W3C has developed style languages such as CSS and XSL to shoulder the burden of presentation. In conjunction, the HTML specification has slowly reined in the presentational elements.
There are two axes differentiating various variations of HTML as currently specified: SGML - based HTML versus XML - based HTML (referred to as XHTML) on one axis, and strict versus transitional (loose) versus frameset on the other axis.
One difference in the latest HTML specifications lies in the distinction between the SGML - based specification and the XML - based specification. The XML - based specification is usually called XHTML to distinguish it clearly from the more traditional definition. However, the root element name continues to be "html '' even in the XHTML - specified HTML. The W3C intended XHTML 1.0 to be identical to HTML 4.01 except where limitations of XML over the more complex SGML require workarounds. Because XHTML and HTML are closely related, they are sometimes documented in parallel. In such circumstances, some authors conflate the two names as (X) HTML or X (HTML).
Like HTML 4.01, XHTML 1.0 has three sub-specifications: strict, transitional and frameset.
Aside from the different opening declarations for a document, the differences between an HTML 4.01 and XHTML 1.0 document -- in each of the corresponding DTDs -- are largely syntactic. The underlying syntax of HTML allows many shortcuts that XHTML does not, such as elements with optional opening or closing tags, and even empty elements which must not have an end tag. By contrast, XHTML requires all elements to have an opening tag and a closing tag. XHTML, however, also introduces a new shortcut: an XHTML tag may be opened and closed within the same tag, by including a slash before the end of the tag like this: < br / >. The introduction of this shorthand, which is not used in the SGML declaration for HTML 4.01, may confuse earlier software unfamiliar with this new convention. A fix for this is to include a space before closing the tag, as such: < br / >.
To understand the subtle differences between HTML and XHTML, consider the transformation of a valid and well - formed XHTML 1.0 document that adheres to Appendix C (see below) into a valid HTML 4.01 document. To make this translation requires the following steps:
Those are the main changes necessary to translate a document from XHTML 1.0 to HTML 4.01. To translate from HTML to XHTML would also require the addition of any omitted opening or closing tags. Whether coding in HTML or XHTML it may just be best to always include the optional tags within an HTML document rather than remembering which tags can be omitted.
A well - formed XHTML document adheres to all the syntax requirements of XML. A valid document adheres to the content specification for XHTML, which describes the document structure.
The W3C recommends several conventions to ensure an easy migration between HTML and XHTML (see HTML Compatibility Guidelines). The following steps can be applied to XHTML 1.0 documents only:
By carefully following the W3C 's compatibility guidelines, a user agent should be able to interpret the document equally as HTML or XHTML. For documents that are XHTML 1.0 and have been made compatible in this way, the W3C permits them to be served either as HTML (with a text / html MIME type), or as XHTML (with an application / xhtml + xml or application / xml MIME type). When delivered as XHTML, browsers should use an XML parser, which adheres strictly to the XML specifications for parsing the document 's contents.
HTML 4 defined three different versions of the language: Strict, Transitional (once called Loose) and Frameset. The Strict version is intended for new documents and is considered best practice, while the Transitional and Frameset versions were developed to make it easier to transition documents that conformed to older HTML specification or did n't conform to any specification to a version of HTML 4. The Transitional and Frameset versions allow for presentational markup, which is omitted in the Strict version. Instead, cascading style sheets are encouraged to improve the presentation of HTML documents. Because XHTML 1 only defines an XML syntax for the language defined by HTML 4, the same differences apply to XHTML 1 as well.
The Transitional version allows the following parts of the vocabulary, which are not included in the Strict version:
The Frameset version includes everything in the Transitional version, as well as the frameset element (used instead of body) and the frame element.
In addition to the above transitional differences, the frameset specifications (whether XHTML 1.0 or HTML 4.01) specify a different content model, with frameset replacing body, that contains either frame elements, or optionally noframes with a body.
As this list demonstrates, the loose versions of the specification are maintained for legacy support. However, contrary to popular misconceptions, the move to XHTML does not imply a removal of this legacy support. Rather the X in XML stands for extensible and the W3C is modularizing the entire specification and opening it up to independent extensions. The primary achievement in the move from XHTML 1.0 to XHTML 1.1 is the modularization of the entire specification. The strict version of HTML is deployed in XHTML 1.1 through a set of modular extensions to the base XHTML 1.1 specification. Likewise, someone looking for the loose (transitional) or frameset specifications will find similar extended XHTML 1.1 support (much of it is contained in the legacy or frame modules). The modularization also allows for separate features to develop on their own timetable. So for example, XHTML 1.1 will allow quicker migration to emerging XML standards such as MathML (a presentational and semantic math language based on XML) and XForms -- a new highly advanced web - form technology to replace the existing HTML forms.
In summary, the HTML 4 specification primarily reined in all the various HTML implementations into a single clearly written specification based on SGML. XHTML 1.0, ported this specification, as is, to the new XML defined specification. Next, XHTML 1.1 takes advantage of the extensible nature of XML and modularizes the whole specification. XHTML 2.0 was intended to be the first step in adding new features to the specification in a standards - body - based approach.
The WHATWG considers their work as living standard HTML for what constitutes the state of the art in major browser implementations by Apple (Safari), Microsoft (Edge), Google (Chrome), Mozilla (Firefox), Opera (Opera), and others. HTML5 is specified by the HTML Working Group of the W3C following the W3C process. As of 2013 both specifications are similar and mostly derived from each other, i.e., the work on HTML5 started with an older WHATWG draft, and later the WHATWG living standard was based on HTML5 drafts in 2011.
HTML lacks some of the features found in earlier hypertext systems, such as source tracking, fat links and others. Even some hypertext features that were in early versions of HTML have been ignored by most popular web browsers until recently, such as the link element and in - browser Web page editing.
Sometimes web developers or browser manufacturers remedy these shortcomings. For instance, wikis and content management systems allow surfers to edit the Web pages they visit.
There are some WYSIWYG editors (What You See Is What You Get), in which the user lays out everything as it is to appear in the HTML document using a graphical user interface (GUI), often similar to word processors. The editor renders the document rather than show the code, so authors do not require extensive knowledge of HTML.
The WYSIWYG editing model has been criticized, primarily because of the low quality of the generated code; there are voices advocating a change to the WYSIWYM model (What You See Is What You Mean).
WYSIWYG editors remain a controversial topic because of their perceived flaws such as:
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process for getting a star on the hollywood walk of fame | Hollywood Walk of Fame - wikipedia
The Hollywood Walk of Fame comprises more than 2,600 five - pointed terrazzo and brass stars embedded in the sidewalks along 15 blocks of Hollywood Boulevard and three blocks of Vine Street in Hollywood, California. The stars are permanent public monuments to achievement in the entertainment industry, bearing the names of a mix of actors, musicians, directors, producers, musical and theatrical groups, fictional characters, and others. The Walk of Fame is administered by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce and maintained by the self - financing Hollywood Historic Trust. It is a popular tourist destination, with a reported 10 million visitors in 2003.
The Walk of Fame runs 1.3 miles (2.1 km) east to west on Hollywood Boulevard from Gower Street to La Brea Avenue, plus a short segment of Marshfield Way that runs diagonally between Hollywood and La Brea; and 0.4 miles (0.64 km) north to south on Vine Street between Yucca Street and Sunset Boulevard. According to a 2003 report by the market research firm NPO Plog Research, the Walk attracts about 10 million visitors annually -- more than Sunset Strip, TCL Chinese Theatre (formerly Grauman 's), the Queen Mary, and the Los Angeles County Museum of Art -- and has played an important role in making tourism the largest industry in Los Angeles County.
As of 2017, the Walk of Fame comprises over 2,600 stars, spaced at 6 - foot (1.8 m) intervals. The monuments are coral - pink terrazzo five - point stars rimmed with brass (not bronze, an oft - repeated inaccuracy) inlaid into a charcoal - colored terrazzo background. In the upper portion of each star field the name of the honoree is inlaid in brass block letters. Below the inscription, in the lower half of the star field, a round inlaid brass emblem indicates the category of the honoree 's contributions. The emblems symbolize five categories within the entertainment industry:
Of all the stars on the Walk to date, 47 % have been awarded in the motion pictures category, 24 % in television, 17 % in audio recording, 10 % in radio, and less than 2 % in the live performance category. Approximately 20 new stars are added to the Walk each year.
Special category stars recognize various contributions by corporate entities, service organizations, and special honorees, and display emblems unique to those honorees. For example, former Los Angeles mayor Tom Bradley 's star displays the Seal of the City of Los Angeles; the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) star emblem is a replica of a Hollywood Division badge; and stars representing corporations, such as Victoria 's Secret and the Los Angeles Dodgers, display the honoree 's corporate logo. The "Friends of the Walk of Fame '' monuments are charcoal terrazzo squares rimmed by miniature pink terrazzo stars displaying the five standard category emblems, along with the sponsor 's corporate logo, with the sponsor 's name and contribution in inlaid brass block lettering. Special stars and Friends monuments are granted by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce or the Hollywood Historic Trust, but are not part of the Walk of Fame proper and are located nearby on private property.
The monuments for the Apollo 11 mission to the Moon are uniquely shaped: Four identical circular moons, bearing the names of the three astronauts (Neil A. Armstrong, Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., Michael Collins) the date of the first Moon landing ("7 / 20 / 69 ''), and the words "Apollo XI '', are set on each of the four corners of the intersection of Hollywood and Vine. The moons are silver and grey terrazzo circles rimmed in brass on a square pink terrazzo background, with the television emblem inlaid at the top of each circle.
The Hollywood Chamber of Commerce credits E.M. Stuart, its volunteer president in 1953, with the original idea for creating a Walk of Fame. Stuart reportedly proposed the Walk as a means to "maintain the glory of a community whose name means glamor and excitement in the four corners of the world. '' Harry Sugarman, another Chamber member and president of the Hollywood Improvement Association, receives credit in an independent account. A committee was formed to flesh out the idea, and an architectural firm was retained to develop specific proposals. By 1955 the basic concept and general design had been agreed upon, and plans were submitted to the Los Angeles City Council.
Multiple accounts exist for the origin of the star concept. According to one, the historic Hollywood Hotel -- which stood for more than 50 years on Hollywood Boulevard at the site now occupied by the Hollywood and Highland complex and the Dolby (formerly Kodak) Theatre -- displayed stars on its dining room ceiling above the tables favored by its most famous celebrity patrons, and that may have served as an early inspiration. By another account, the stars were "inspired... by Sugarman 's (Tropics Restaurant) drinks menu, which featured celebrity photos framed in gold stars. ''
In February 1956 a prototype was unveiled featuring a caricature of an example honoree (John Wayne, by some accounts) inside a blue star on a brown background. However, caricatures proved too expensive and difficult to execute in brass with the technology available at the time; and the brown and blue motif was vetoed by Charles E. Toberman, the legendary real estate developer known as "Mr. Hollywood '', because the colors clashed with a new building he was erecting on Hollywood Boulevard.
By March 1956 the final design and coral - and - charcoal color scheme had been approved, and between the spring of 1956 and the fall of 1957, 1,558 honorees were selected by committees representing the four major branches of the entertainment industry at that time: motion pictures, television, audio recording, and radio. The committees met at the Brown Derby restaurant, and included such prominent names as Cecil B. DeMille, Samuel Goldwyn, Jesse L. Lasky, Walt Disney, Hal Roach, Mack Sennett, and Walter Lantz.
A requirement stipulated by the original audio recording committee (and later rescinded) specified minimum sales of one million records or 250,000 albums for all music category nominees. The committee soon realized that many important recording artists would be excluded from the Walk by that requirement. As a result, the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences was formed for the purpose of creating a separate award system for the music business. The first Grammy Awards were presented in Beverly Hills in 1959.
Construction of the Walk began in 1958 but two lawsuits delayed completion. The first was filed by local property owners challenging the legality of the $ 1.25 million tax assessment levied upon them to pay for the Walk, along with new street lighting and trees. In October 1959 the assessment was ruled legal. The second lawsuit, filed by Charles Chaplin, Jr., sought damages for the exclusion of his father, whose nomination had been withdrawn due to pressure from multiple quarters (see Controversial additions). Chaplin 's suit was dismissed in 1960, paving the way for completion of the project.
While Joanne Woodward is often singled out as the first to receive a star on the Walk of Fame, in fact there was no "first '' recipient; the original stars were installed as a continuous project, with no individual ceremonies. Woodward 's name was one of eight drawn at random from the original 1,558 and inscribed on eight prototype stars that were built while litigation was still holding up permanent construction. The eight prototypes were installed temporarily on the northwest corner of Hollywood Boulevard and Highland Avenue in August 1958 to generate publicity and to demonstrate how the Walk would eventually look. The other seven names were Olive Borden, Ronald Colman, Louise Fazenda, Preston Foster, Burt Lancaster, Edward Sedgwick, and Ernest Torrence. Official groundbreaking took place on February 8, 1960. On March 28, 1960, the first permanent star, director Stanley Kramer 's, was completed on the easternmost end of the new Walk near the intersection of Hollywood and Gower. The Joanne Woodward legend may have originated, according to one source, because she was the first to pose with her star for photographers.
Though the Walk was originally conceived in part to encourage redevelopment of Hollywood Boulevard, the 1960s and 1970s were periods of protracted urban decay in the Hollywood area as residents moved to suburbs. After the initial installation of approximately 1,500 stars in 1960 and 1961, eight years passed without the addition of a new star. In 1962 the Los Angeles City Council passed an ordinance naming the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce "the agent to advise the City '' about adding names to the Walk, and the Chamber, over the following six years, devised rules, procedures, and financing methods to do so. In December 1968, Richard D. Zanuck was awarded the first star in eight years in a presentation ceremony hosted by Danny Thomas. In July 1978 the City of Los Angeles designated the Hollywood Walk of Fame a Los Angeles Historic - Cultural Monument.
Radio personality, television producer and Chamber member Johnny Grant is generally credited with implementing the changes that resuscitated the Walk and established it as a significant tourist attraction. Beginning in 1968, he stimulated publicity and encouraged international press coverage by requiring that each recipient personally attend his or her star 's unveiling ceremony. Grant later recalled that "it was tough to get people to come accept a star '' until the neighborhood finally began its recovery in the 1980s. In 1980 he instituted a fee of $2,500, payable by the person or entity nominating the recipient, to fund the Walk of Fame 's upkeep and minimize further taxpayer burden. The fee has increased incrementally over time; by 2002 it had reached $15,000, and stood at $30,000 in 2012. The current (2017) fee is $40,000.
Grant was awarded a star in 1980 for his television work. In 2002, he received a second star in the "special '' category to acknowledge his pivotal role in improving and popularizing the Walk. He was also named chairman of the Selection Committee and Honorary Mayor of Hollywood (a ceremonial position previously held by Art Linkletter and Monty Hall, among others). He remained in both offices from 1980 until his death in 2008 and hosted the great majority of unveiling ceremonies during that period. His unique special - category star, with its emblem depicting a stylized "Great Seal of the City of Hollywood '', is located at the entrance to the Dolby Theatre adjacent to Johnny Grant Way.
In 1984 a fifth category, Live Theatre, was added to permit acknowledgment of contributions from the live performance branch of the entertainment industry, and a second row of stars was created on each sidewalk to alternate with the existing stars.
In 1994 the Walk of Fame was extended one block to the west on Hollywood Boulevard, from Sycamore Avenue to North LaBrea Avenue (plus the short segment of Marshfield Way that connects Hollywood and La Brea), where it now ends at the silver "Four Ladies of Hollywood '' gazebo and the special "Walk of Fame '' star. At the same time, Sophia Loren was honored with the 2,000 th star on the Walk.
During construction of tunnels for the Los Angeles subway system in 1996 the Metropolitan Transportation Authority removed and stored more than 300 stars. Controversy arose when the MTA proposed a money - saving measure of jackhammering the 3 - by - 3 - foot terrazzo pads, preserving only the brass lettering, surrounds, and medallions, then pouring new terrazzo after the tunnels were completed; but the Cultural Heritage Commission ruled that the star pads were to be removed intact.
In 2008 a long - term restoration project began with an evaluation of all 2,365 stars on the Walk at the time, each receiving a letter grade of A, B, C, D, or F. Honorees whose stars received F grades, indicating the most severe damage, were Joan Collins, Peter Frampton, Dick Van Patten, Paul Douglas, Andrew L. Stone, Willard Waterman, Richard Boleslavsky, Ellen Drew, Frank Crumit, and Bobby Sherwood. Fifty celebrities ' stars received "D '' grades. The damage ranged from minor cosmetic flaws caused by normal weathering to holes and fissures severe enough to constitute a walking hazard. At least 778 stars will eventually be repaired or replaced during the ongoing project at an estimated cost of $4 million to $4.2 million.
The restoration is a collaboration among the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce and various Los Angeles city and county governmental offices, along with the MTA, which operates the Metro Red Line that runs beneath the Walk, since earth movement due to the presence of the subway line is thought to be partly responsible for the damage.
To encourage supplemental funding for the project by corporate sponsors, the "Friends of Walk of Fame '' program was inaugurated. Absolut Vodka became the first Friend with a donation of $1 million, followed by L'Oréal. Friends are recognized with honorary plaques adjacent to the Walk of Fame in front of the Dolby Theatre. The program received some criticism. Alana Semuels of the Los Angeles Times described it as "just the latest corporate attempt to buy some good buzz, '' and, quoting an area brand strategist, "I think Johnny Grant would roll over in his grave. '' Karen Fondu, President of L'Oréal Paris, countered that the association was "a natural affinity. ''
The original selection committees chose to recognize some entertainers ' contributions in multiple categories with multiple stars. Gene Autry is the only honoree with stars in all five categories. Bob Hope, Mickey Rooney, Roy Rogers, and Tony Martin each have stars in four categories -- Rooney has three of his own and a fourth with his eighth and final wife, Jan, while Rogers also has three of his own, and a fourth with his band, Sons of the Pioneers. Thirty - three people, including Bing Crosby, Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin, Dinah Shore, Gale Storm, Danny Kaye, Douglas Fairbanks Jr., and Jack Benny, have stars in three categories.
Seven recording artists have two stars in the same category for distinct achievements: Michael Jackson, as a soloist and as a member of The Jackson 5; Diana Ross, as a member of The Supremes and for her solo work; Smokey Robinson, as a solo artist and as a member of The Miracles; and John Lennon, Ringo Starr, George Harrison, and Paul McCartney as individuals and as members of The Beatles. Cher forfeited her opportunity by declining to schedule the mandatory personal appearance when she was selected in 1983. She did attend the unveiling of the Sonny & Cher star in 1998 as a tribute to her recently deceased ex-husband, Sonny Bono.
George Eastman is the only honoree with two stars in the same category for the same achievement, the invention of roll film.
In 1977, Country Singer Loretta Lynn was the first of her genre to receive a star on the Walk of Fame.
Charlie Chaplin is the only honoree to be selected twice for the same star on the Walk. He was unanimously voted into the initial group of 500 in 1956 but the Selection Committee ultimately excluded him, ostensibly due to questions regarding his morals (he had been charged with violating the Mann Act -- and exonerated -- during the White Slavery hysteria of the 1940s), but more likely due to his left - leaning political views. The rebuke prompted an unsuccessful lawsuit by his son, Charles Chaplin Jr. His star was finally added to the Walk in 1972, the same year he received his Academy Award; but even then, 16 years later, the Chamber of Commerce received angry letters from across the country protesting its decision to include him.
The committee 's Chaplin difficulties reportedly contributed to its decision in 1978 against awarding a star to Paul Robeson, the brilliant but controversial opera singer, actor, athlete, writer, lawyer, and social activist. The resulting outcry from the entertainment industry, civic circles, local and national politicians, and many other quarters was so intense that the decision was reversed and Robeson was awarded a star in 1979.
Two pairs of stars share identical names representing different people. There are two Harrison Ford stars, honoring the silent film actor (at 6665 Hollywood Boulevard), and the present - day actor (in front of the Dolby Theatre at 6801 Hollywood Boulevard). Two Michael Jackson stars represent the singer / dancer / songwriter (at 6927 Hollywood Boulevard), and the radio personality (at 1597 Vine Street). When the recording artist Jackson died in 2009, fans mistakenly began leaving flowers, candles, and other tributes at the Vine Street star. Upon learning of this, the radio host wrote on his website, "I am willingly loan (ing) it to him and, if it would bring him back, he can have it. ''
The most common surname, with sixteen stars, is Williams: Andy Williams, Bill Williams, Billy Dee Williams, Cindy Williams, Earle Williams, Esther Williams, Guy Williams, Hank Williams, Joe Williams, Kathlyn Williams, Paul Williams, Pharrell Williams, Robin Williams, Roger Williams, Tex Williams and Vanessa Williams. There are fourteen stars with the surname Moore, twelve with Jones, and seven with Smith.
The largest collection of stars honoring one group of blood relatives is the widely scattered set of seven representing the Barrymore family: John Barrymore, his brother Lionel (who has two), and sister Ethel, their uncle Sidney Drew, John 's son John Drew Barrymore, and John Drew 's daughter Drew Barrymore.
Walk of Fame rules prohibit consideration of nominees whose contributions fall outside the five major entertainment categories, but the selection committee has been known to conjure some interesting rule interpretations to justify a selection. The Walk 's four round Moon landing monuments at the corners of Hollywood and Vine, for example, officially recognize the Apollo 11 astronauts for "contributions to the television industry ''. Johnny Grant acknowledged, in 2005, that classifying the first Moon landing as a television entertainment event was "a bit of a stretch ''. Magic Johnson 's considerable basketball skills had no direct connection to movies, music, TV, radio, or theater, but the committee added him to the motion picture category, based on his ownership of the Magic Johnson Theatre chain, citing as precedent Sid Grauman, builder of Grauman 's (now TCL) Chinese Theatre. "(Now) people want Orville Redenbacher, '' Grant quipped in the 2005 interview, "because his popcorn is in all the theaters. ''
Muhammad Ali 's star was granted after the committee decided that boxing could be considered a form of "live performance ''. Its placement, on a wall of the Dolby Theatre, makes it the only star mounted on a vertical surface, acceding to Ali 's request that his name not be walked upon.
All living honorees have been required since 1968 to personally attend their star 's unveiling, and approximately 40 have declined the honor due to this condition. The only recipient to date who failed to appear after agreeing to do so was Barbra Streisand, in 1976. Her star was unveiled anyway, near the intersection of Hollywood and Highland. Streisand did attend when her husband, James Brolin, unveiled his star in 1998 two blocks to the east.
Fourteen stars are identified with a one - word stage name, including Parkyakarkus, the principal pseudonym of Harry Einstein, the comedian and radio personality (and father of Albert Brooks and Bob Einstein). The other 13 are Cantinflas, Houdini, Liberace, Mako, Meiklejohn, Paderewski, Roseanne, Sabu, Shakira, Slash, Sting, Thalía, and Usher.
The largest group of individuals represented by a single star is the estimated 122 adults and 12 children collectively known as the Munchkins, from the landmark 1939 film The Wizard of Oz.
Clayton Moore is so inextricably linked with his Lone Ranger character, even though he played other roles during his career, that he is one of only two actors to have his character 's name alongside his own on his star. The other is Tommy Riggs, whose star reads, "Tommy Riggs & Betty Lou. ''
For more than 40 years, singer Jimmy Boyd was the youngest star recipient at age 20, but he lost that distinction in 2004 to 18 - year - old twins Mary - Kate and Ashley Olsen. Their joint star (the only one shared by twins) is outside the Dolby Theatre, near the Hollywood and Highland Center.
The Westmores received the first star honoring contributions in theatrical make - up. Other make - up artists on the walk are Max Factor, John Chambers and Rick Baker. Three stars recognize experts in special effects: Ray Harryhausen, Dennis Muren, and Stan Winston. Only one costume designer has received a star, eight - time Academy Award winner Edith Head.
Sidney Sheldon is one of two novelists with a star, which he earned for writing screenplays such as The Bachelor and the Bobby - Soxer before turning to novels. The other is Ray Bradbury, whose books and stories have formed the basis of dozens of movies and television programs over a nearly 60 - year period.
Ten inventors have stars on the Walk: George Eastman (as mentioned); Thomas Edison, inventor of the first true film projector and holder of numerous patents related to motion - picture technology; Lee de Forest, inventor of the vacuum tube, which made radio and TV possible, and Phonofilm, which made sound movies possible; Merian C. Cooper, co-inventor of the Cinerama process; Herbert Kalmus, inventor of Technicolor; Auguste and Louis Lumière, inventors of important components of the motion picture camera; Mark Serrurier, inventor of the technology used for film editing; Hedy Lamarr, co-inventor of a frequency - hopping radio guidance system that was a precursor to Wi - Fi networks and cellular telephone systems; and Ray Dolby, co-developer of the video tape recorder and inventor of the Dolby noise reduction system.
A few star recipients moved on after their entertainment careers to political notability. Two US presidents, Ronald Reagan and Donald Trump, have stars on the Walk. Reagan is also one of two Governors of California with a star; the other is Arnold Schwarzenegger. One U.S. senator (George Murphy) and two members of the U.S. House of Representatives (Helen Gahagan and Sonny Bono) have stars. Ignacy Paderewski, who served as Prime Minister of Poland between the World Wars, is the only European head of government represented. Film and stage actor Albert Dekker served one term in the California State Assembly during the 1940s, which was notable for his outspoken public criticism of Senator Joseph McCarthy 's anti-communism demagoguery, leading to his blacklisting.
In 1978, in honor of his 50th anniversary, Mickey Mouse became the first animated character to receive a star. Other animated recipients are Bugs Bunny, Donald Duck, Woody Woodpecker, Snow White, Tinker Bell, Winnie - the - Pooh, Shrek, The Simpsons, the Rugrats, and Snoopy. The star inscribed Charlie Tuna honors not the animated advertising mascot, but Art Ferguson, the long - time radio personality and game show announcer.
Other fictional characters on the Walk include the Munchkins (as mentioned), two individual Muppets (Kermit the Frog and Big Bird) and the Muppets as a group, one monster (Godzilla), and three non-animated canine characters (Strongheart, Lassie, and Rin Tin Tin).
Ten stars recognize cartoonists and animators: Walt Disney, Chuck Jones, Friz Freleng, Walter Lantz, Hanna -- Barbera, Charles M. Schulz, Jay Ward, Dr. Seuss, Matt Groening and John Lasseter. Two puppeteers have stars: Jim Henson and Shari Lewis, as does Fran Allison, who appeared with Burr Tillstrom 's puppets on the TV show Kukla, Fran and Ollie.
Locations of individual stars are not necessarily random or arbitrary. Stars of most legendary and world - famous celebrities -- the so - called "show business royalty '' -- are found in front of TCL (formerly Grauman 's) Chinese Theatre. Oscar winners ' stars are usually placed near the Dolby Theatre, site of the annual Academy Awards presentations. Decisions are occasionally made with a dollop of whimsy: Mike Myers 's star, for example, lies in front of an adult store called the International Love Boutique, an association with his Austin Powers roles; Roger Moore 's star is located at 7007 Hollywood Boulevard in recognition of his seven James Bond films; Ed O'Neill 's star is located outside a shoe store in reference to his character 's occupation on the TV show Married... with Children; and the last star, at the very end of the westernmost portion of the Walk, belongs to The Dead End Kids.
Honorees may request a specific location for their star, although final decisions remain with the Chamber. Jay Leno, for example, requested a spot near the corner of Hollywood Blvd. and Highland Ave. because he was twice picked up at that location by police for vagrancy (though never actually charged) shortly after his arrival in Hollywood. George Carlin chose to have his star placed in front of the KDAY radio station near the corner of Sunset Blvd. and Vine St., where he first gained national recognition. Carol Burnett explained her choice in her 1986 memoir: While working as an usherette at the historic Warner Brothers Theatre (now the Hollywood Pacific Theatre) during the 1951 run of Alfred Hitchcock 's film Strangers on a Train, she took it upon herself to advise a couple arriving during the final few minutes of a showing to wait for the next showing, to avoid seeing (and spoiling) the ending. The theater manager fired her on the spot for "insubordination '' and humiliated her by stripping the epaulets from her uniform in the theater lobby. Twenty - six years later, at her request, Burnett 's star was placed at the corner of Hollywood and Wilcox -- in front of the theater.
In 2010 Julia Louis - Dreyfus 's star was constructed with the name "Julia Luis Dreyfus ''. The actress was reportedly amused, and the error was corrected. A similar mistake was made on Dick Van Dyke 's star in 1993 ("Vandyke ''), and rectified.
Film and television actor Don Haggerty 's star originally displayed the first name "Dan ''. The mistake was fixed, but years later the television actor Dan Haggerty (of Grizzly Adams fame, no relation to Don) also received a star. The confusion eventually sprouted an urban legend that Dan Haggerty was the only honoree to have a star removed from the Walk of Fame.
For 28 years, the star intended to honor Mauritz Stiller, the Helsinki - born pioneer of Swedish film who brought Greta Garbo to the United States, read "Maurice Diller '', possibly due to mis - transcription of verbal dictation. The star was finally remade with the correct name in 1988.
Three stars remain misspelled: opera diva Lotte Lehmann 's first name is spelled "Lottie ''; Cinerama co-inventor and King Kong creator, director, and producer Merian C. Cooper 's first name is spelled "Meriam ''; and cinematography pioneer Auguste Lumière 's first name is listed as "August ''.
Monty Woolley, the veteran film and stage actor best known for The Man Who Came to Dinner (1942) and the classic line "Time flies when you 're having fun '', is officially listed in the motion picture category, but his star on the Walk of Fame bears the television emblem. Woolley did appear on the small screen late in his career, but his TV contributions were eclipsed by his extensive stage, film, and radio work. Similarly, the star of film actress Carmen Miranda bears the TV emblem, although her official category is motion pictures. Radio and television talk show host Larry King is officially a television honoree, but his star displays a film camera.
The Los Angeles Times, which documented and photographed the Walk as part of its Hollywood Star Walk project, reported that it could not find two stars, honoring Richard Crooks and the film career of Geraldine Farrar. (Farrar 's music star is located on the 1700 block of Vine Street.)
Acts of vandalism occur on the Walk on a regular basis, ranging from profanity and political statements written on stars with markers to attempted removal of brass emblems with chisels. Closed circuit surveillance cameras have been installed on the stretch of Hollywood Boulevard between La Brea Avenue and Vine Street in an effort to discourage mischievous activities.
Four of the stars, which weigh about 300 pounds (140 kg) each, have been stolen from the Walk of Fame. In 2000, James Stewart 's and Kirk Douglas 's stars disappeared from their locations near the intersection of Hollywood and Vine, where they had been temporarily removed for a construction project. Police recovered them in the suburban community of South Gate when they arrested a man involved in an incident there and searched his house. The suspect was a construction worker employed on the Hollywood and Vine project. The stars had been badly damaged, and had to be remade. One of Gene Autry 's five stars (it is not clear which one) was also stolen from a construction area. Johnny Grant later received an anonymous phone tip that the missing star was in Iowa, but it was never found. "Someday, it will end up on eBay, '' Grant once joked. The most brazen and ambitious theft occurred in 2005 when thieves used a concrete saw to remove Gregory Peck 's star from its Hollywood Boulevard site at the intersection of North El Centro Avenue, near North Gower. The star was replaced almost immediately, but the original was never recovered and the perpetrators never caught.
In late 2009, rumors circulated widely on media outlets and the Internet that John Lennon 's star had been stolen, but it was merely being relocated farther south on Vine Street to an area near the circular Capitol Records Building, adjacent to the stars of bandmates George Harrison and Ringo Starr. Paul McCartney 's star was installed in the same location in 2012.
Donald Trump 's star -- received as host of The Apprentice television series -- was repeatedly defaced during the 2016 presidential campaign. In late October, near the end of the race, a man named Jamie Otis (who claimed to be an heir to the Otis Elevator fortune) used a sledge hammer and a pickaxe to destroy all of the star 's brass inlays. He readily admitted to the vandalism, which he described as "civil disobedience '' and "freedom of expression '', and told reporters that he originally planned to remove the entire star and auction it to raise money for the women who accused Trump of sexually assaulting them. Otis was arrested three weeks after the incident, charged with one count of felony vandalism, and sentenced to three years ' probation plus $3400 in restitution payments. The star itself was repaired, and has since been the site of pro-Trump demonstrations.
The Four Ladies of Hollywood gazebo -- known officially as the Hollywood and La Brea Gateway -- stands upon a small triangular island formed by the confluence of Hollywood Boulevard, Marshfield Way, and North La Brea Avenue at the westernmost extension of the Walk of Fame. It was commissioned in 1993 by the Los Angeles Community Redevelopment Agency Art Program and created by the architect, production designer, and film director Catherine Hardwicke as a tribute to the multi-ethnic women of Hollywood. The gazebo is a stainless steel stylized Art Deco lattice structure. The roof is an arched square supporting a circular dome, which is topped by a central obelisk with descending neon block letters spelling "Hollywood '' on each of its four sides. Atop the obelisk is a small gilded weathervane - style sculpture of Marilyn Monroe in her iconic billowing skirt pose from The Seven Year Itch. The domed structure is held aloft by four caryatids sculpted by Harl West to represent the African - American actress Dorothy Dandridge, Asian - American actress Anna May Wong, Mexican actress Dolores del Río, and the multi-ethnic, Brooklyn - born actress Mae West.
The gazebo was dedicated on February 1, 1994, to a mixed reception. Los Angeles Times art critic Christopher Knight called it "the most depressingly awful work of public art in recent years '', representing the opposite of Hardwicke 's intended tribute to women. "Sex, as a woman 's historic gateway to Hollywood '', he wrote, "could n't be more explicitly described ''. Independent writer and film producer Gail Choice called it a fitting tribute to a group of pioneering and courageous women who "carried a tremendous burden on their feminine shoulders. Never in my wildest dreams did I believe I 'd ever see women of color immortalized in such a creative and wonderful fashion. '' Hardwicke contended that critics had missed the "humor and symbolism '' of the structure, which "embraces and pokes fun at the glamour, the polished metallic male form of the Oscar, and the pastiche of styles and dreams that pervades Tinseltown. ''
Each year an average of 200 nominations are submitted to the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce Walk of Fame Selection Committee. Anyone, including fans, can nominate anyone active in the field of entertainment as long as the nominee or his or her management approves the nomination (a letter of agreement from the nominated celebrity or representative must accompany the application). Nominees must have a minimum of five years ' experience in the category for which they are nominated and a history of "charitable contributions ''. Posthumous nominees must have been deceased at least five years. At a meeting each June, the committee selects approximately 20 celebrities to receive stars on the Walk of Fame during the following year. One posthumous award is given each year as well. The nominations of those not selected are rolled over to the following year for reconsideration; those not selected two years in a row are dropped, and must be renominated to receive further consideration. Living recipients must agree to personally attend a presentation ceremony within five years of selection. A relative of deceased recipients must attend posthumous presentations. Presentation ceremonies are open to the public.
A fee (currently $40,000), payable at time of selection, is collected to pay for the creation and installation of the star, as well as general maintenance of the Walk of Fame. The fee is usually paid by the nominating organization, which may be a fan club, or a film studio, record company, broadcaster, or other sponsor involved with the prospective honoree. The Starz cable network, for example, paid for Dennis Hopper 's star as part of the promotion for its series Crash. It was unveiled in March 2010 shortly before Hopper 's death.
Numerous major entertainment figures and legendary show business acts are not included on the Walk of Fame for a variety of reasons. Some, such as Julia Roberts and Clint Eastwood, have declined to participate; nominations can not proceed without the nominee 's consent. Others, such as George Clooney and John Denver, were nominated but would not agree to the mandatory personal appearance at the unveiling ceremony. (Denver received a posthumous star in 2014.) Others have simply never been nominated, or do not have a nominator willing or able to pay the selection fee, or have less than the required five years ' minimum involvement in their designated field. Others are merely victims of selection constraints and probability; only about 10 % of nominees are selected each year.
Traditionally, the identities of selection committee members, other than its chairman, have not been made public in order to minimize conflicts of interest and to discourage lobbying by celebrities and their representatives (a significant problem during the original selections in the late 1950s). However, in 1999, in response to intensifying charges of secrecy in the selection process, the Chamber disclosed the members ' names: Johnny Grant, the longtime chair and representative of the television category; Earl Lestz, president of Paramount Studio Group (motion pictures); Stan Spero, retired manager with broadcast stations KMPC and KABC (radio); Kate Nelson, owner of the Palace Theatre (live performance); and Mary Lou Dudas, vice president of A&M Records (recording industry). Since that 1999 announcement the Chamber has revealed only that Lestz (who received his own star in 2004) became chairman after Grant died in 2008. Their current official position is that "each of the five categories is represented by someone with expertise in that field ''.
In 2010, Lestz was replaced as chairman by John Pavlik, former Director of Communications for the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. While no public announcement was made to that effect, he was identified as chairman in the Chamber 's press release announcing the 2011 star recipients. The current chair, according to the Chamber 's 2016 selection announcement, is film producer Maureen Schultz.
Some fans show respect for star recipients both living and dead by laying flowers or other symbolic tributes at their stars. Others show their support in other ways; the star awarded to Julio Iglesias, for example, is kept in "pristine condition (by) a devoted band of elderly women (who) scrub and polish it once a month ''.
The Hollywood Chamber of Commerce has adopted the tradition of placing flower wreaths at the stars of newly deceased awardees; for example Bette Davis in 1989, Katharine Hepburn in 2003, and Jackie Cooper in 2011. The stars of other deceased celebrities, such as Elizabeth Taylor, Richard Pryor, Ricardo Montalbán, James Doohan, Frank Sinatra, Robin Williams, Joan Rivers and George Harrison have become impromptu memorial and vigil sites as well, and some continue to receive anniversary remembrances.
Route map: Google
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nba players with 60 points in a game | List of National Basketball Association single - game scoring leaders - wikipedia
This is a complete listing of National Basketball Association players who have scored 60 or more points in a game.
This feat has been accomplished 68 times in NBA history. Twenty - five different players have scored 60 or more points in a game. Only four players have scored 60 or more points on more than one occasion: Wilt Chamberlain (32 times), Kobe Bryant (6 times), Michael Jordan (5 times), and Elgin Baylor (4 times). Chamberlain holds the single - game scoring record, having scored 100 points in a game in 1962.
Jordan (63) and Baylor (61) are the only players to score at least 60 points in a game during the playoffs, each accomplishing this once.
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how many years did moses malone lead the league in rebounds | Moses Malone - wikipedia
Moses Eugene Malone (March 23, 1955 -- September 13, 2015) was an American basketball player who played in both the American Basketball Association (ABA) and the National Basketball Association (NBA) from 1974 through 1995. The center was named the NBA Most Valuable Player (MVP) three times and was a 12 - time NBA All - Star and an eight - time All - NBA selection. Malone won his only NBA championship in 1983, when he was both the league and Finals MVP with the Philadelphia 76ers. He was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility in 2001.
Malone began his pro career out of high school after he was selected in the third round of the 1974 ABA Draft by the Utah Stars. He was named an ABA All - Star as a rookie and played two seasons in the league until it merged with the NBA in 1976. He landed in the NBA with the Buffalo Braves, who traded him after two games to the Houston Rockets. Malone became a five - time All - Star in six seasons with the Rockets. After leading the NBA in rebounding in 1979, he was named league MVP for the first time. He led the Rockets to the NBA Finals in 1981, and won his second MVP award in 1982. Malone was traded to Philadelphia the following season, when he repeated as MVP and led the 76ers to a championship in his first year. In his first of two stints with Philadelphia, he was an All - Star in each of his four seasons. Following another trade, Malone was an All - Star in his only two seasons with the Washington Bullets (known later as the Wizards). He signed as a free agent with the Atlanta Hawks, earning his 12th straight and final All - Star selection in his first season. In his later years, he played with the Milwaukee Bucks before returning to the 76ers and completing his career with the San Antonio Spurs.
Malone led the NBA in rebounding six times, including a then - record five straight seasons (1981 -- 1985). He finished his career as the all - time leader in offensive rebounds after leading both the ABA and NBA in the category a combined nine times. Malone was nicknamed "Chairman of the Boards '' for his rebounding prowess. Combining his ABA and NBA statistics, he ranks seventh all - time in career points (29,580) and third in total rebounds (17,834). He was named to both the ABA All - Time Team and the NBA 's 50th Anniversary All - Time Team.
Malone was born in Petersburg, Virginia. He was an only child, raised alone by his mother, Mary, who had dropped out of school after finishing the fifth grade. When Malone was two years old, Mary kicked her husband out due to his alcohol use. Malone 's father then moved to Texas.
Malone attended Petersburg High School, where he played basketball. Petersburg went undefeated in his final two years, winning 50 games and the Virginia state championship in both years. Malone signed a letter of intent to play college basketball for the Terrapins at the University of Maryland. However, when the Utah Stars of the ABA selected him in the third round of the 1974 ABA Draft, Malone decided to become a professional.
Malone began his professional career with Utah in the 1974 -- 75 season after signing a five - year contract worth $1 million. The New York Times called him "the first high schooler in modern basketball to go directly to the pros '', joining the few players who had made the transition in an era before him. He was 6 feet 10 inches (2.08 m) and a somewhat skinny 215 pounds (98 kg) at the time and began his career playing at forward until he bulked up enough to handle the rigors at center. As a rookie, he was named an ABA All - Star and earned ABA All - Rookie honors.
The Stars folded 16 games into the 1975 -- 76 season, and Malone was sold to the ABA 's Spirits of St. Louis to help pay down the Stars ' debts. Malone played for the Spirits in the 1975 -- 76 season. In two seasons in the ABA, Malone averaged 17.2 points and 12.9 rebounds per game.
The ABA -- NBA merger occurred after the 1975 -- 76 season, but the Spirits of St. Louis were not among the ABA teams chosen to join the NBA. Malone had already been selected by the NBA 's New Orleans Jazz in a December 1975 pre-merger draft for ABA players of undergraduate age. However, the NBA let them place Malone into the 1976 ABA Dispersal Draft pool in exchange for the return of their first - round draft pick in 1977, which they used to trade for Gail Goodrich. In the 1976 dispersal draft, held for the remaining ABA players, Malone was selected by the Portland Trail Blazers with the fifth overall pick in the draft. However, he never appeared in a regular - season game for the Blazers. The Blazers had also acquired power forward Maurice Lucas in the draft and believed they had acquired two players with similar skill sets. Concerns over the team 's salary costs compelled them to choose one and release the other.
Portland chose to keep Lucas and traded Malone to the Buffalo Braves prior to the first game of the 1976 -- 77 season for a first - round draft choice in the 1978 NBA draft and $232,000. Malone played in two games with Buffalo. Because they could not meet Malone 's demands for playing time, they then traded him to the Houston Rockets in exchange for two first - round draft picks, one in each of the 1977 and 1978 drafts.
With the Rockets, Malone played forward opposite Rudy Tomjanovich. He appeared in 82 games overall for both Buffalo and Houston and finished the season averaging 13.2 points per game (ppg) with 13.1 rebounds per game (rpg), ranking third in rpg. Malone set a then - NBA record with 437 offensive rebounds in a season, though he surpassed that mark two years later. Malone also blocked 2.21 shots per game, the seventh-most in the league. In the second game of the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the Washington Bullets, Malone recorded 15 offensive rebounds in the overtime win, setting an NBA playoff record. The Rockets reached the Eastern Conference Finals, where they lost 4 -- 2 to the Philadelphia 76ers.
During his second season in the NBA, Malone was diagnosed with a stress fracture in his right foot, which caused him to miss the final 23 games of the season. Despite the time missed to injury, Malone led the NBA with 380 total offensive rebounds and finished second with 15.0 rpg. Malone made his first appearance in an NBA All - Star Game in 1978. His scoring improved to 19.4 ppg.
During the 1978 -- 79 season, Malone emerged as one of the top centers in the league after gaining 15 pounds (6.8 kg) in the offseason. He averaged 24.8 points with a career - best. 540 shooting percentage and established another career - high with a league - leading 17.6 rpg while winning the NBA Most Valuable Player Award. He again led the league in offensive rebounds, setting an all - time single - season record with 587 offensive rebounds. He was voted to the All - NBA First Team and the All - Defensive Second Team. He was also voted by fans to start for the East at center in the 1979 NBA All - Star Game. On February 9, he grabbed a career - high 37 rebounds versus the New Orleans Jazz. Although the Rockets qualified for the playoffs, they were eliminated by the Atlanta Hawks in a first - round sweep. Malone averaged 24.5 points and 20.5 rebounds in the two games.
In 1979 -- 80, Malone averaged 25.8 points, fifth - best in the NBA, and 14.5 rebounds, second - best in the league. He was named an All - Star for a third straight season and was also named to the All - NBA Second Team. In the opening round of the playoffs, Houston defeated the San Antonio Spurs in a best - of - three series. Malone registered 37 points and 20 rebounds in the deciding third game, leading the Rockets to a 141 -- 120 victory. In the conference semifinals, the Rockets lost in a sweep to the Boston Celtics. The following season in 1980 -- 81 season, Malone led the league with 14.8 rpg in 80 games and was again an All - Star as well as a member of the All - NBA Second Team. He finished second in scoring (28.8) to Adrian Dantley (30.7). On March 11, Malone scored 51 points against the Golden State Warriors.
In their first season in the Midwest Division, Houston and the Kansas City Kings tied for second place with identical 40 -- 42 records. The Rockets, with Malone 's 26.8 ppg and 14.5 rpg during the playoffs, reached the 1981 NBA Finals, but lost 4 -- 2 to the Celtics. During the season, Malone averaged 31.1 points with 14.7 rebounds the following year and won his second MVP award. He repeated as the NBA leader in rebounds and was the runner - up for the league 's scoring title to George Gervin (32.3). He was also the league leader in offensive rebounds (558) and minutes played (3,398, 42.0 per game). At the end of the season, Malone earned his second placement on the All - NBA First Team. He set a career high in scoring average and also set a single - game career high with 53 points on February 2 against the San Diego Clippers. Days later on February 11 against the Seattle SuperSonics, Malone eclipsed his own league record with 21 offensive rebounds. In Malone 's last season in Houston, the Rockets followed their NBA Finals appearance in 1981 with a first - round exit in the 1982 playoffs. Though he averaged 24.0 points with 17.0 rebounds, Seattle swept Houston 3 -- 0.
Malone became a restricted free agent after the 1981 -- 82 season. He signed an offer sheet of six - years for $13.2 million with Philadelphia on September 2, 1982. The 76ers were coming off a 4 -- 2 loss in the Finals to the Los Angeles Lakers, whose center, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, dominated their big - man duo of Darryl Dawkins and Caldwell Jones. The Rockets were changing ownership and decided that Malone 's $2 million annual salary did not fit their plans. Houston matched the offer and agreed to trade Malone to the 76ers for Jones and their first - round pick in the 1983 NBA draft on September 15. With Julius Erving, Maurice Cheeks, Andrew Toney, and Bobby Jones, the Sixers won the NBA championship. Malone was named the league MVP for the second straight year, becoming the only NBA player ever to win the award in consecutive seasons with two different teams, a feat matched only by Barry Bonds (1992 -- 1993) in the four major American sports leagues.
That year, Malone averaged 15.3 rebounds per game, which led the league for the third consecutive year, and also averaged 24.5 points, which was fifth - best in the NBA. He was an All - Star for the sixth consecutive season and earned first - team honors on both the All - NBA and All - Defensive teams. The 76ers lost only one game in the postseason as they won the league championship, defeating the Lakers in a 4 -- 0 sweep in the 1983 NBA Finals. In 13 playoff games, Malone averaged 26.0 points with 15.8 rebounds. He was named the Finals MVP, having outrebounded Abdul - Jabbar 72 -- 30 in the series. It was also around this time that Malone began to tutor Hakeem Olajuwon, passing on the torch to the future Rockets superstar.
His head coach Billy Cunningham said, "Let 's not make believe. The difference from last year was Moses. '' Before the playoffs began, Malone predicted in Southern vernacular that Philadelphia would go fo fo fo that meant the team needed to win four games in each of the three rounds. His prediction (and its formulation) became famous: the New York Times called it "an enduring quotation '' and "an unforgettable line, '' and Comcast SportsNet called it "one of the greatest rallying cries ever uttered. '' As it turned out, the Sixers only lost one playoff game (Game 4 of the Eastern Conference Finals to the Bucks) en route to making Malone a world champion for the first time, sweeping the Knicks in the first round and the Lakers in the finals. This led some to rephrase Malone 's prediction as "fo, fi, fo '' (four, five, four). The inside of that year 's championship ring was inscribed with "fo ' fi ' fo. '' The 76ers ' 12 -- 1 cruise through the 1983 playoffs was at the time, the most dominant playoff run in NBA history.
In the 1983 -- 84 season, Malone led the league in rebounding with 13.4 rpg. He was limited to 71 games that season due to ankle injuries, his lowest since the 1977 -- 78 season. Malone scored 22.7 ppg in his second season with Philadelphia and was named to the All - NBA Second Team. Malone was selected again for the All - Star Game, but he was unable to play because of an ankle injury. During the season, he averaged 21.4 points with 13.8 rebounds in five games in the playoffs, but Philadelphia lost in a first - round upset against the New Jersey Nets.
The Sixers selected Charles Barkley in the 1984 NBA draft. When he reported to training camp at 300 pounds (140 kg), Malone began to mentor him, encouraging him to get in better shape. Barkley got down to 255 pounds (116 kg) and made the NBA All - Rookie Team. In the 1984 -- 85 season, Malone recorded 13.1 rpg, leading the NBA in rebounding for a record - setting fifth straight season (since surpassed by Dennis Rodman with seven consecutive seasons). He was voted by a fan ballot to the All - Star team for the eighth time and finished the season with 24.6 ppg, which ranked ninth - best in the league. He received his fourth All - NBA First Team honor and finished third in the NBA Most Valuable Player Award balloting; the award was won by Larry Bird. Malone scored his 15,000 th NBA point on November 28 and grabbed his 10,000 th NBA rebound on March 29. He scored 51 points against the Detroit Pistons on November 14. The 76ers reached the Eastern Conference Finals in 1985 but were defeated 4 -- 1 by the Celtics.
Malone 's 1985 -- 86 season ended when he suffered an orbital fracture in his right eye in a March 28 game against the Milwaukee Bucks. Despite hopes that he might return during the playoffs, he was ruled out for the postseason. In the Eastern Conference Semifinals, Philadelphia lost 4 -- 3 to the Bucks. Malone averaged 23.8 points with 11.8 rebounds in 74 appearances that season. He ranked seventh in the league in scoring and fourth in rebounding, ending his five season streak as the NBA rebounding champion. Malone was named an All - Star, but he was not named to the All - NBA Team, the first time he was not selected since 1978.
Shortly after the 1985 -- 86 season, Philadelphia traded Malone, Terry Catledge, and two first - round draft picks to the Washington Bullets in exchange for Jeff Ruland and Clifford T. Robinson. Malone bounced back from an injury - shortened 1985 -- 86 campaign, averaging 24.1 points with 11.3 rebounds. He was named to his 10th consecutive All - Star Game and again was named to the All - NBA Second Team. Malone was the only player to finish in the top 10 in both ppg and rpg; he placed ninth in both categories.
Malone scored his 20,000 th NBA point on April 12 against the Detroit Pistons. He scored 50 points versus the New Jersey Nets on April 8, joining Earl Monroe (56) and Phil Chenier (52) as the only Bullets players ever to score 50 points in a game. Washington appeared in the postseason but was swept by the Pistons in the first round. During the season, Malone averaged 20.7 points with 12.7 rebounds in the series.
In his 12th NBA season, Malone ranked eighth in the NBA in rebounding (11.2) and 19th in scoring (20.3). Malone was named to his 11th consecutive All - Star Game in 1988. Malone scored in double figures in 76 of 79 games and recorded 55 double - doubles for the year. The Bullets reached the 1988 NBA Playoffs, but Detroit defeated the Bullets 3 - 2 in their first - round series. Malone averaged 18.6 points with 11.2 rebounds in the series.
Before the 1988 -- 89 season, Malone agreed to a three - year deal to play with Atlanta. The Hawks, featuring Dominique Wilkins, had won at least 50 games the prior three season and believed the free agent center was a missing piece to a championship. During the season, Malone averaged 20.2 points with 11.8 rebounds, becoming the first and only player in professional history to average 20 points and 10 rebounds for four different teams. He was voted by a fan ballot to the 1989 NBA All - Star Game, which was his 12th straight and final appearance. Malone reached double figures in points in 75 of his 81 games and recorded double figures in rebounds 55 times. On February 4, 1989, he scored a season - high 37 points against the Phoenix Suns. The Hawks were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs by Milwaukee. In the series, Malone scored 21.0 ppg and had 12.0 rpg.
The following season, Malone finished with 18.9 ppg and 10.0 rpg, ending a string of 11 consecutive 20 -- 10 campaigns. Malone led the NBA with 364 offensive rebounds and tied for eighth in rpg. In Mike Fratello 's final year as head coach, Atlanta finished with a 41 -- 41 record, failing to qualify for the playoffs. Malone began the 1990 -- 91 season as the Hawks ' starting center, but after 15 games, Atlanta 's new coach, Bob Weiss, made Jon Koncak the starter and Malone his backup for the final 67 contests.
During the season, Malone averaged 10.6 points with 8.1 rebounds while playing 23.3 minutes per game -- all career lows at that point. On November 3, against the Indiana Pacers, Malone became the NBA career leader in free throws made with 7,695, besting the previous record set by Oscar Robertson. On November 21, against the Bucks, Malone scored his 25,000 th career point. On March 15, he recorded his 15,000 th career rebound against the Dallas Mavericks. Malone surpassed Wilt Chamberlain 's mark of consecutive games without fouling out with his 1,046 th straight game against the Detroit Pistons on April 19. The Hawks returned to the playoffs but were eliminated in the first round by Detroit, 4 -- 1. In the series, Malone averaged just 4.2 points with 6.2 rebounds.
A free agent after the 1990 -- 91 season, Malone signed with the Bucks, who named him their starting center for the 1991 -- 92 season. Malone played in all 82 games that season and averaged 15.6 points with 9.1 rebounds. He led the Bucks in rebounding and finished second on the team in scoring. He scored a season - high 30 points twice and grabbed 19 rebounds against the Seattle SuperSonics on March 27. Milwaukee finished with a 31 -- 51 record, tied for last place of the Central Division with the Charlotte Hornets.
After one practice in training camp in October 1992, Malone was sidelined due to a herniated disc in his back. After trying to play through the pain, he decided to have surgery in November. Recovery from the surgery caused Malone to miss the majority of the 1992 -- 93 season. He returned to the Bucks on March 27, appearing in 11 games during the remainder of the season. Struggling with the younger players on their roster, the Bucks finished 28 -- 54 and last in the Central Division.
The Sixers signed Malone as a free agent in August, so that he could back up 7 - foot - 6 - inch (2.29 m) rookie Shawn Bradley and aid in Bradley 's development. Malone appeared in 55 games as a reserve for the 76ers, averaging 5.3 points with 4.1 rebounds. 76ers will retire his No. 2 posthumously in the 2016 -- 17 season.
In 1994, Malone signed with the Spurs, where he was used as a back - up center to superstar David Robinson. The 1994 -- 95 NBA season was his last in the NBA, and at that time, he was the only remaining active former ABA player. During the final game of his NBA career, against the Charlotte Hornets, he hit a buzzer - beating three - point shot from the opposing free throw line, eighty feet away from the goal. It was only the eighth three - pointer of his career. He played 17 games for the Spurs.
Malone stood 6 feet 10 inches (2.08 m) and weighed 260 pounds (120 kg). He finished his career with the most combined ABA and NBA offensive rebounds (7,382), 35 percent over runner - up Artis Gilmore. Nine times he led his respective league in offensive rebounds, and five other times he finished in the top - 3. He also holds NBA records for the most offensive rebounds in a career (6,731), season (587), and game (21). He was a 13 - time All - Star, and earned eight All - NBA selections, ranking seventh all - time with 29,580 points, and third with 17,834 rebounds. He also ranks second all - time in free throws made (9,018) and attempted (11,864). Malone is one of just eight players who have been named NBA MVP three or more times. He led the league in rebounds six times, including five straight from 1980 through 1985. He was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in his first year of eligibility in 2001.
Malone would often rebound his own misses. He would rush shots close to the basket knowing that he had the strength and quickness to recover the ball before his opponents. Some of his peers contended that he intentionally missed shots to pad his rebounding statistics. Malone wore down his opponents with his relentless effort and physical play. He was not a very good passer. When Carroll Dawson, an assistant coach with the Rockets, suggested that Malone needed to improve his passing, he replied that "they ai n't paying me to pass. ''
Malone and his wife, Alfreda Gill, had two sons, Moses Eugene, Jr. (b. 1979) and Michael Malone. Alfreda sued for divorce in September 1991, on the grounds of irreconcilable differences, cruelty and adultery. She got a restraining order in June 1992, ordering Malone to refrain from contact with her during the course of the lawsuit. At that time, Malone denied the abuse and threats to kill his wife (claims that had been made by the lawyer for Malone 's wife).
The divorce was granted in October 1992. In January 1993, Malone was arrested driving in Galveston, Texas, across Galveston Bay from his wife 's home, for having violated a peace bond Alfreda had obtained. Her affidavit for its issuance alleged that Malone had stalked her, illegally entered her home in League City, Texas, damaged her property and threatened to kill her. Malone posted bail and was released.
At the time of his death, Malone was "together '' with his girlfriend, Leah Nash, whom he had met in 2006, though they did not marry nor live together. They had a six - year - old son, Micah Francois Malone.
Malone died in his sleep at the age of 60, on the morning of September 13, 2015, at a hotel in Norfolk, Virginia. He had been scheduled to play in a charity golf tournament that day and was found unresponsive in his room when he did not appear for breakfast or answer his phone. The Office of the Chief Medical Examiner for Virginia listed the cause of death as hypertensive and atherosclerotic heart disease. Malone had previously complained of an irregular heartbeat and was reported to have been wearing a heart monitor when he died.
Malone is buried at Memorial Oaks Cemetery in Houston, Texas.
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what is the meaning of dsr in banking | Debt service coverage ratio - wikipedia
The debt service coverage ratio (DSCR), also known as "debt coverage ratio '' (DCR), is the ratio of cash available for debt servicing to interest, principal and lease payments. It is a popular benchmark used in the measurement of an entity 's (person or corporation) ability to produce enough cash to cover its debt (including lease) payments. The higher this ratio is, the easier it is to obtain a loan. The phrase is also used in commercial banking and may be expressed as a minimum ratio that is acceptable to a lender; it may be a loan condition. Breaching a DSCR covenant can, in some circumstances, be an act of default.
In corporate finance, DSCR refers to the amount of cash flow available to meet annual interest and principal payments on debt, including sinking fund payments.
In personal finance, DSCR refers to a ratio used by bank loan officers in determining debt servicing ability.
In commercial real estate finance, DSCR is the primary measure to determine if a property will be able to sustain its debt based on cash flow. In the late 1990s and early 2000s banks typically required a DSCR of at least 1.2, but more aggressive banks would accept lower ratios, a risky practice that contributed to the Financial crisis of 2007 -- 2010. A DSCR over 1 means that (in theory, as calculated to bank standards and assumptions) the entity generates sufficient cash flow to pay its debt obligations. A DSCR below 1.0 indicates that there is not enough cash flow to cover loan payments. In certain industries where non-recourse project finance is used, a Debt Service Reserve Account is commonly used to ensure that loan repayment can be met even in periods with DSCR < 1.0
In general, it is calculated by:
where:
To calculate an entity 's debt coverage ratio, you first need to determine the entity 's net operating income. To do this you must take the entity 's total income and deduct any vacancy amounts and all operating expenses. Then take the net operating income and divide it by the property 's annual debt service, which is the total amount of all interest and principal paid on all of the property 's loans throughout the year.
If a property has a debt coverage ratio of less than one, the income that property generates is not enough to cover the mortgage payments and the property 's operating expenses. A property with a debt coverage ratio of. 8 only generates enough income to pay for 80 percent of the yearly debt payments. However, if a property has a debt coverage ratio of more than 1, the property does generate enough revenue to cover annual debt payments. For example, a property with a debt coverage ratio of 1.5 generates enough income to pay all of the annual debt expenses, all of the operating expenses and actually generates fifty percent more income than is required to pay these bills.
A DSCR of less than 1 would mean a negative cash flow. A DSCR of less than 1, say. 95, would mean that there is only enough net operating income to cover 95 % of annual debt payments. For example, in the context of personal finance, this would mean that the borrower would have to delve into his or her personal funds every month to keep the project afloat. Generally, lenders frown on a negative cash flow, but some allow it if the borrower has strong outside income.
Typically, most commercial banks require the ratio of 1.15 -- 1.35 times (net operating income or NOI / annual debt service) to ensure cash flow sufficient to cover loan payments is available on an ongoing basis.
Let 's say Mr. Jones is looking at an investment property with a net operating income of $36,000 and an annual debt service of $30,000. The debt coverage ratio for this property would be 1.2 and Mr. Jones would know the property generates 20 percent more than is required to pay the annual mortgage payment.
The Debt Service Ratio is also typically used to evaluate the quality of a portfolio of mortgages. For example, on June 19, 2008, a popular US rating agency, Standard & Poors, reported that it lowered its credit rating on several classes of pooled commercial mortgage pass - through certificates originally issued by Bank of America. The rating agency stated in a press release that it had lowered the credit ratings of four certificates in the Bank of America Commercial Mortgage Inc. 2005 - 1 series, stating that the downgrades "reflect the credit deterioration of the pool ''. They further go on to state that this downgrade resulted from the fact that eight specific loans in the pool have a debt service coverage (DSC) below 1.0 x, or below one times.
The Debt Service Ratio, or debt service coverage, provides a useful indicator of financial strength. Standard & Poors reported that the total pool consisted, as of June 10, 2008, of 135 loans, with an aggregate trust balance of $2.052 billion. They indicate that there were, as of that date, eight loans with a DSC of lower than 1.0 x. This means that the net funds coming in from rental of the commercial properties are not covering the mortgage costs. Now, since no one would make a loan like this initially, a financial analyst or informed investor will seek information on what the rate of deterioration of the DSC has been. You want to know not just what the DSC is at a particular point in time, but also how much it has changed from when the loan was last evaluated. The S&P press release tells us this. It indicates that of the eight loans which are "underwater '', they have an average balance of $10.1 million, and an average decline in DSC of 38 % since the loans were issued.
And there is still more. Since there are a total of 135 loans in the pool, and only eight of them are underwater, with a DSC of less than 1, the obvious question is: what is the total DSC of the entire pool of 135 loans? The Standard and Poors press release provides this number, indicating that the weighted average DSC for the entire pool is 1.76 x, or 1.76 times. Again, this is just a snapshot now. The key question that DSC can help you answer, is this better or worse, from when all the loans in the pool were first made? The S&P press release provides this also, explaining that the original weighted average DSC for the entire pool of 135 loans was 1.66 x, or 1.66 times.
In this way, the DSC (debt service coverage) ratio provides a way to assess the financial quality, and the associated risk level, of this pool of loans, and shows the surprising result that despite some loans experiencing DSC below 1, the overall DSC of the entire pool has improved, from 1.66 times to 1.76 times. This is pretty much what a good loan portfolio should look like, with DSC improving over time, as the loans are paid down, and a small percentage, in this case 6 %, experiencing DSC ratios below one times, suggesting that for these loans, there may be trouble ahead.
And of course, just because the DSCR is less than 1 for some loans, this does not necessarily mean they will default.
Income taxes present a special problem to DSCR calculation and interpretation. While, in concept, DSCR is the ratio of cash flow available for debt service to required debt service, in practice -- because interest is a tax - deductible expense and principal is not -- there is no one figure that represents an amount of cash generated from operations that is both fully available for debt service and the only cash available for debt service.
While Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation and Amortization (EBITDA) is an appropriate measure of a company 's ability to make interest - only payments (assuming that expected change in working capital is zero), EBIDA (without the "T '') is a more appropriate indicator of a company 's ability to make required principal payments. Ignoring these distinctions can lead to DSCR values that overstate or understate a company 's debt service capacity. The Pre-Tax Provision Method provides a single ratio that expresses overall debt service capacity reliably given these challenges.
Debt Service Coverage Ratio as calculated using the Pre-Tax Provision Method answers the following question: How many times greater was the company 's EBITDA than its critical EBITDA value, where critical EBITDA is that which just covers its Interest obligations + Principal obligations + Tax Expense assuming minimum sufficient income + Other necessary expenditures not treated as accounting expenses, like dividends and CAPEX.
The DSCR calculation under the Pre-Tax Provision Method is EBITDA / (Interest + Pre-tax Provision for Post-Tax Outlays), where Pre-tax Provision for Post-tax Outlays is the amount of pretax cash that must be set aside to meet required post-tax outlays, i.e., CPLTD + Unfinanced CAPEX + Dividends. The provision can be calculated as follows:
If noncash expenses (depreciation + depletion + amortization) > post-tax outlays, then Pretax provision for post-tax outlays = Post-tax outlays
For example, if a company 's post-tax outlays consist of CPLTD of $90 M and $10 M in unfinanced CAPEX, and its noncash expenses are $100 M, then the company can apply $100 M of cash inflow from operations to post-tax outlays without paying taxes on that $100 M cash inflow. In this case, the pretax cash that the borrower must set aside for post-tax outlays would simply be $100 M.
If post-tax outlays > noncash expenses, then Pretax provision for post-tax outlays = Noncash expenses + (post-tax outlays - noncash expenses) / (1 - income tax rate)
For example, if post-tax outlays consist of CPLTD of $100 M and noncash expenses are $50 M, then the borrower can apply $50 M of cash inflow from operations directly against $50 M of post-tax outlays without paying taxes on that $50 M inflow, but the company must set aside $77 M (assuming a 35 % income tax rate) to meet the remaining $50 M of post-tax outlays. This company 's pretax provision for post-tax outlays = $50 M + $77 M = $127 M.
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100th anniversary of the miracle of the sun | Miracle of the sun - wikipedia
The Miracle of the Sun (Portuguese: O Milagre do Sol) was an event that occurred on 13 October 1917, attended by a large crowd who had gathered near Fátima, Portugal in response to a prophecy made by three shepherd children that the Virgin Mary, referred to as Our Lady of Fatima, would appear and perform miracles on that date. Newspapers published testimony from reporters and other people who claimed to have witnessed extraordinary solar activity, such as the sun appearing to "dance '' or zig - zag in the sky, careen towards the earth, or emit multicolored light and radiant colors. According to these reports, the event lasted approximately ten minutes.
The local bishop opened a canonical investigation of the event in November of 1917, to review witness accounts and assess whether the alleged private revelation from Mary were compatible with Catholic theology. The local priest conducting the investigation was particularly convinced by the concurring testimony of extraordinary solar phenomenon from secular reporters, government officials, and other skeptics in attendance. Bishop José da Silva declared the miracle "worthy of belief '' on 13 October 1930, permitting "officially the cult of Our Lady of Fatima '' within the Catholic Church. At a gathering on 13 October 1951 at Fátima, the papal legate, Cardinal Tedeschini, told the million people attending that on 30 October, 31 October, 1 November, and 8 November 1950, Pope Pius XII himself witnessed the miracle of the sun from the Vatican gardens. The early and enduring interest in the miracle and related prophesies has had a significant impact on the devotional practices of Catholics.
There has been much analysis of the event from critical sociological and scientific perspectives. According to critics, the eyewitness testimony was actually a collection of inconsistent and contradictory accounts. Proposed alternate explanations include witnesses being deceived by their senses due to prolonged staring at the sun and then seeing something unusual as they had expected.
Beginning in the spring of 1917, three Catholic shepherd children living near Fatima reported apparitions of an Angel, and starting in May of 1917, apparitions of the Virgin Mary, whom the children described as the Lady of Fátima. The children reported a prophecy that prayer would lead to an end to the Great War, and that on October 13th of that year the Lady would reveal her identity and perform a miracle "so that all may believe. '' Newspapers reported the prophesies, and many pilgrims began visiting the area. The children 's accounts were deeply controversial, drawing intense criticism from both local secular and religious authorities. A provisional administrator briefly took the children into custody, believing the prophecies were politically motivated in opposition to the officially secular First Portuguese Republic established in 1910.
Estimates of the number of people present range from 30,000 and 40,000, by Avelino de Almeida writing for the Portuguese newspaper O Século, to 100,000, estimated by lawyer Dr. José Almeida Garrett, the son of a professor of natural sciences at the University of Coimbra.
Various claims have been made as to what actually happened during the event. According to many witnesses, after a period of rain, the dark clouds broke and the sun appeared as an opaque, spinning disc in the sky. It was said to be significantly duller than normal, and to cast multicolored lights across the landscape, the people, and the surrounding clouds. The sun was then reported to have careened towards the earth before zig - zagging back to its normal position. Witnesses reported that their previously wet clothes became "suddenly and completely dry, as well as the wet and muddy ground that had been previously soaked because of the rain that had been falling ''. Not all witnesses reported seeing the sun "dance ''. Some people only saw the radiant colors, and others, including some believers, saw nothing at all. The only known picture of the sun taken during the event does n't show anything unusual.
The three children (Lúcia dos Santos and her cousins Jacinta and Francisco Marto) who originally claimed to have seen Our Lady of Fátima also reported seeing a panorama of visions, including those of Jesus, Our Lady of Sorrows, Our Lady of Mt. Carmel, and of Saint Joseph blessing the people. In the fourth edition of her memoirs, written in 1941, Lúcia said that on the occasion of their third visit to the Cova da Iria, on July 13, 1917, she asked the lady to tell them who she was, and to perform a miracle so that everyone would believe. The lady told to her that they should continue to come to the Cova each month until October, when the requested miracle would occur.
Descriptions of the events reported at Fátima were collected by Father John De Marchi, an Italian Catholic priest and researcher. De Marchi spent seven years in Fátima, from 1943 to 1950, conducting research and interviewing the principals at length. In The Immaculate Heart, published in 1952, De Marchi reports that, "(t) heir ranks (those present on 13 October) included believers and non-believers, pious old ladies and scoffing young men. Hundreds, from these mixed categories, have given formal testimony. Reports do vary; impressions are in minor details confused, but none to our knowledge has directly denied the visible prodigy of the sun. ''
De Marchi authored several books on the subject, such as The True Story of Fátima. They include a number of witness descriptions.
De Marchi also drew on the newspaper account written by Avelino de Almeida, a journalist sent by the newspaper O Século ("The Century ''), who described in detail the reactions of the crowd.
The event was declared of "supernatural character '' by the Catholic Church in 1930. A shrine was erected near the site in Fatima, which has been attended by thousands of faithful. Pope Pius XII approved the "Fatima apparitions '' in 1940. In 2008, a note was discovered which Pius XII wrote in 1950 that says that he saw the miracle while he walked in the Vatican Gardens at various times.
In 2017, Pope Francis approved the recognition of a miracle involving two of the children, Francisco and Jacinta Marto, who were involved in the Fatima event of 1917, which paved the way for their canonization.
Within Catholicism, the event is seen as the fulfillment of a promise by Mary, mother of Jesus to the shepherd children she appeared to several times before October 13, 1917. According to the children 's accounts, Mary, referred to as the Lady of Fátima, promised them she would perform a miracle to show people they were telling the truth, and so caused the crowds to see the sun make "incredible '' movements in the sky. Catholics have regarded Mary as a "miracle worker '' for centuries, and this view has continued into the 21st century. Various theologians and apologetic scientists have discussed the limits of scientific explanations for the event and proposed possible mechanisms through which divine intervention caused the solar phenomenon.
Fr Andrew Pinsent, research director of the Ian Ramsey Centre for Science and Religion at Oxford University, states that "a scientific perspective does not rule out miracles, and the event at Fatima is, in the view of many, particularly credible. '' He states that a usual prejudice involves a lack of understanding of the scope of scientific laws, which merely describe how natural systems behave isolated from free agents. Concluding that the event is "a public miracle of the most extraordinary kind and credibility '', he sees the year of the event, as connected to significant historical milestones that call for Fatima 's message of repentance: Protestantism in 1517, Freemasonry in 1717 and Atheistic Communism in 1917.
Theologian, professor, and priest Stanley L. Jaki, concurs, concluding that by divine intervention, a coordinated interplay of natural meteorological events, an enhancement of air lens with ice crystals, was made to occur at the exact time predicted, and this is the essence of the miracle. He assumed as fact that the sun did n't move since observatories did not perceive any solar movement and the vast majority of the earth 's populace did n't notice it either.
Jaki described the phenomenon thus:
According to Jaki, the faithful should believe that a miracle occurred at Fatima, and "those who stake their purpose in life on Christ as the greatest and incomparably miraculous fact of history '', need to pay attention to facts that support miracles.
Father De Marchi believed that related miraculous phenomena, such as the Sun 's effect on standing water from heavy rains, that immediately preceded the event to be genuine. According to De Marchi, "... engineers that have studied the case reckoned that an incredible amount of energy would have been necessary to dry up those pools of water that had formed on the field na few minutes as it was reported by witnesses. '' De Marchi wrote that the prediction of an unspecified "miracle '', the abrupt beginning and end of the event, the varied religious backgrounds of the observers, the sheer numbers of people present, reports of sightings by people up to 18 kilometres (11 mi) away, and the lack of any known scientific causative factor make a mass hallucination or mass hysteria unlikely. De Marchi concludes that "given the indubitable reference to God, and the general context of the story, it seems that we must attribute to Him alone the most obvious and colossal miracle of history. ''
Leo Madigan, a former psychiatric nurse and local journalist at Fátima in the late 20th century, also dismisses suggestions from critics of mass hypnosis, and believes that astonishment, fear, exaltation and the spiritual nature of the phenomenon explain any inconsistency of witnesses descriptions. Madigan wrote that what people saw was "the reflection of the Lady 's own light projected on the Sun itself ''.
Theologians, scientists, and skeptics have responded to claims that conflict with established scientific knowledge regarding the behavior of the Sun. Science writer Benjamin Radford maintains that "the sun did not really dance in the sky. We know this because, of course, everyone on Earth is under the same sun, and if the closest dying star to us suddenly began doing celestial gymnastics a few billion other people would surely have reported it ''. Radford wrote that psychological factors such as the power of suggestion and pareidolia can better explain the reported events. According to Radford, "No one suggests that those who reported seeing the Miracle of the Sun -- or any other miracles at Fátima or elsewhere -- are lying or hoaxing. Instead they very likely experienced what they claimed to, though that experience took place mostly in their minds. ''
In The Evidence for Visions of the Virgin Mary Kevin McClure wrote that the crowd at Cova da Iria may have been expecting to see signs in the sun, since similar phenomena had been reported in the weeks leading up to the miracle. On this basis, he believes that the crowd saw what it wanted to see. McClure also stated that he had never seen such a collection of contradictory accounts of a case in any of the research that he had done in the previous ten years.
According to theologian Lisa J. Schwebel, claims of the miracle present a number of difficulties. Schwebel states, "not only did not all those present not see the phenomenon, but also there are considerable inconsistencies among witnesses as to what they did see ''. Schwebel also observes that there is no authentic photo of the solar phenomena claimed, "despite the presence of hundreds of reporters and photographers at the field '' and one photo often presented as authentic is actually "a solar eclipse in another part of the world taken sometime before 1917 ''.
Supernatural explanations, such as those by Father Pio Scatizzi who argues that observers in Fátima could not be collectively deceived, or that the effect was not seen by observatories in distant places because of divine intervention have been dismissed by critics who say those taking part in the event could certainly be deceived by their senses, or they could have experienced a localized, natural phenomenon.
Others, such as professor of physics Auguste Meessen, suggest that optical effects created by the human eye can account for the reported phenomenon. Meessen presented his analysis of apparitions and "miracles of the sun '' at the International Symposium "Science, Religion and Conscience '' in 2003. While Meessen felt those who claim to have experienced miracles were "honestly experiencing what they report '', he stated sun miracles can not be taken at face value and that the reported observations were optical effects caused by prolonged staring at the sun. Meessen contends that retinal after - images produced after brief periods of sun gazing are a likely cause of the observed dancing effects. Similarly Meessen concluded that the color changes witnessed were most likely caused by the bleaching of photosensitive retinal cells. Meessen observes that Sun Miracles have been witnessed in many places where religiously charged pilgrims have been encouraged to stare at the sun. He cites the apparitions at Heroldsbach, Germany (1949) as an example, where many people within a crowd of over 10,000 testified to witnessing similar observations as at Fátima. Meessen also cites a British Journal of Ophthalmology article that discusses some modern examples of Sun Miracles. Prof. Dr. Stöckl, a meteorologist from Regensburg, also proposed a similar theory and made similar observations.
Critics also suggest that a combination of clouds, atmospheric effects and natural sunlight could have created the reported visual phenomena. Steuart Campbell, writing for the edition of Journal of Meteorology in 1989, postulated that a cloud of stratospheric dust changed the appearance of the sun on 13 October, making it easy to look at, and causing it to appear to be yellow, blue, and violet, and to spin. In support of his hypothesis, Mr. Campbell reported that a blue and reddened sun was reported in China as documented in 1983. Paul Simons, in an article entitled "Weather Secrets of Miracle at Fátima '', stated that it is possible that some of the optical effects at Fátima may have been caused by a cloud of dust from the Sahara.
Skeptical investigator Joe Nickell wrote that the "dancing sun '' effects reported at Fátima were "a combination of factors, including optical effects and meteorological phenomena, such as the sun being seen through thin clouds, causing it to appear as a silver disc. Other possibilities include an alteration in the density of the passing clouds, causing the sun 's image to alternately brighten and dim and so seem to advance and recede, and dust or moisture droplets in the atmosphere refracting the sunlight and thus imparting a variety of colors ''. Nickell also suggests that unusual visual effects could have resulted from temporary retinal distortion caused by staring at the intense light of the Sun, or have been caused by a sundog, a relatively common atmospheric optical phenomenon. Nickell also highlights the psychological suggestibility of the witnesses, noting that devout spectators often come to locations where Marian apparitions have been reported "fully expecting some miraculous event '', such as Lubbock, Texas, in 1989, the Mother Cabrini Shrine near Denver, Colorado in 1992, and Conyers, Georgia in the early to mid-1990s.
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which fruit gets is english name from an arabic word | List of English words of Arabic origin - Wikipedia
The following English words have been acquired either directly from Arabic or else indirectly by passing from Arabic into other languages and then into English. Most entered one or more of the Romance languages before entering English.
To qualify for this list, a word must be reported in etymology dictionaries as having descended from Arabic. A handful of dictionaries have been used as the source for the list. Words associated with the Islamic religion are omitted; for Islamic words, see Glossary of Islam. Archaic and rare words are also omitted. A bigger listing including words very rarely seen in English is at Wiktionary dictionary.
Given the number of words which have entered English from Arabic, this list is split alphabetically into sublists, as listed below:
The following plant names entered medieval Latin texts from Arabic. Today, in descent from the medieval Latin, they are international systematic classification names (commonly known as "Latin '' names): Azadirachta, Berberis, Cakile, Carthamus, Cuscuta, Doronicum, Galanga, Musa, Nuphar, Ribes, Senna, Taraxacum, Usnea, Physalis alkekengi, Melia azedarach, Centaurea behen, Terminalia bellerica, Terminalia chebula, Cheiranthus cheiri, Piper cubeba, Phyllanthus emblica, Peganum harmala, Salsola kali, Prunus mahaleb, Datura metel, Daphne mezereum, Rheum ribes, Jasminum sambac, Cordia sebestena, Operculina turpethum, Curcuma zedoaria, Alpinia zerumbet + Zingiber zerumbet. (List incomplete.)
Over ninety percent of those botanical names were introduced to medieval Latin in a herbal medicine context. They include names of medicinal plants from Tropical Asia for which there had been no prior Latin or Greek name, such as azedarach, bellerica, cubeba, emblica, galanga, metel, turpethum, zedoaria and zerumbet. Another sizeable portion are ultimately Iranian names of medicinal plants of Iran. The Arabic - to - Latin translation of Ibn Sina 's The Canon of Medicine helped establish many Arabic plant names in later medieval Latin. A book about medicating agents by Serapion the Younger containing hundreds of Arabic botanical names circulated in Latin among apothecaries in the 14th and 15th centuries. Medieval Arabic botany was primarily concerned with the use of plants for medicines. In a modern etymology analysis of one medieval Arabic list of medicines, the names of the medicines -- primarily plant names -- were assessed to be 31 % ancient Mesopotamian names, 23 % Greek names, 18 % Persian, 13 % Indian (often via Persian), 5 % uniquely Arabic, and 3 % Egyptian, with the remaining 7 % of unassessable origin.
The Italian botanist Prospero Alpini stayed in Egypt for several years in the 1580s. He introduced to Latin botany from Arabic from Egypt the names Abrus, Abelmoschus, Lablab, Melochia, each of which designated plants that were unknown to Western European botanists before Alpini, plants native to tropical Asia that were grown with artificial irrigation in Egypt at the time.
In the early 1760s Peter Forsskål systematically cataloged plants and fishes in the Red Sea area. For genera and species that did not already have Latin names, Forsskål used the common Arabic names as the scientific names. This became the international standard for most of what he cataloged. Forsskål 's Latinized Arabic plant genus names include Aerva, Arnebia, Cadaba, Ceruana, Maerua, Maesa, Themeda, and others.
Some additional miscellaneous botanical names with Arabic ancestry include Abutilon, Alchemilla, Alhagi, Argania, argel, Averrhoa, Avicennia, azarolus + acerola, bonduc, lebbeck, Retama, seyal. (List incomplete).
The list above included the six textile fabric names cotton, damask, gauze, macramé, mohair, & muslin, and the three textile dye names anil, crimson / kermes, and safflower, and the garment names jumper and sash. The following are three lesser - used textile words that were not listed: camlet, morocco leather, and tabby. Those have established Arabic ancestry. The following are six textile fabric words whose ancestry is not established and not adequately in evidence, but Arabic ancestry is entertained by many reporters. Five of the six have Late Medieval start dates in the Western languages and the sixth started in the 16th century. Buckram, Chiffon, Fustian, Gabardine, Satin, and Wadding (padding). The fabric Taffeta has provenance in 14th - century French, Italian, Catalan, Spanish, and English, and today it is often guessed to come ultimately from a Persian word for woven (tāftah), and it might have Arabic intermediation. Fustic is a textile dye. The name is traceable to late medieval Spanish fustet dye, which is often guessed to be from an Arabic source. Carthamin is another old textile dye. Its name was borrowed in the late medieval West from Arabic قرطم qartam qirtim qurtum = "the carthamin dye plant or its seeds ''. The textile industry was the largest manufacturing industry in the Arabic - speaking lands in the medieval and early modern eras.
Part of the vocabulary of Middle Eastern cuisine is from Turkish, not Arabic. The following words are from Arabic, although some of them have entered Western European languages via Turkish. Baba ghanoush, Couscous, Falafel, Fattoush, Halva, Hummus, Kibbeh, Kebab, Lahmacun, Shawarma, Tabouleh, Tahini, Za'atar... and some cuisine words of lesser circulation are Ful medames, Kabsa, Kushari, Labneh, Mahleb, Mulukhiyah, Ma'amoul, Mansaf, Shanklish, Tepsi Baytinijan... For more see Arab cuisine. Middle Eastern cuisine words were rare before 1970 in English, being mostly confined to travellers ' reports. Usage increased rapidly in the 1970s for certain words.
Some words used in English in talking about Arabic music: Ataba, Baladi, Dabke, Darbouka, Khaleeji, Maqam, Mawal, Mizmar, Oud, Qanun, Raï, Raqs sharqi, Takht, Taqsim.
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state the relationship between the surface tension and the temperature of water | Surface tension - Wikipedia
At liquid -- air interfaces, surface tension results from the greater attraction of liquid molecules to each other (due to cohesion) than to the molecules in the air (due to adhesion). The net effect is an inward force at its surface that causes the liquid to behave as if its surface were covered with a stretched elastic membrane. Thus, the surface becomes under tension from the imbalanced forces, which is probably where the term "surface tension '' came from. Because of the relatively high attraction of water molecules for each other through a web of hydrogen bonds, water has a higher surface tension (72.8 millinewtons per meter at 20 ° C) compared to that of most other liquids. Surface tension is an important factor in the phenomenon of capillarity.
Surface tension has the dimension of force per unit length, or of energy per unit area. The two are equivalent, but when referring to energy per unit of area, it is common to use the term surface energy, which is a more general term in the sense that it applies also to solids.
In materials science, surface tension is used for either surface stress or surface free energy.
The cohesive forces a molecule is pulled equally in every direction by neighboring liquid molecules, resulting in a net force of zero. The molecules at the surface do not have the same molecules on all sides of them and therefore are pulled inward. This creates some internal pressure and forces liquid surfaces to contract to the minimal area. The forces of attraction acting between the molecules of same type are called cohesive forces while those acting between the molecules of different types are called adhesive forces. When cohesive forces are stronger than adhesives forces, the liquid acquires a convex meniscus (as mercury in a glass container). On the other hand, when adhesive forces are stronger, the surface of the liquid curves up (as water in a glass)
Surface tension is responsible for the shape of liquid droplets. Although easily deformed, droplets of water tend to be pulled into a spherical shape by the imbalance in cohesive forces of the surface layer. In the absence of other forces, including gravity, drops of virtually all liquids would be approximately spherical. The spherical shape minimizes the necessary "wall tension '' of the surface layer according to Laplace 's law.
Another way to view surface tension is in terms of energy. A molecule in contact with a neighbor is in a lower state of energy than if it were alone (not in contact with a neighbor). The interior molecules have as many neighbors as they can possibly have, but the boundary molecules are missing neighbors (compared to interior molecules) and therefore have a higher energy. For the liquid to minimize its energy state, the number of higher energy boundary molecules must be minimized. The minimized number of boundary molecules results in a minimal surface area. As a result of surface area minimization, a surface will assume the smoothest shape it can (mathematical proof that "smooth '' shapes minimize surface area relies on use of the Euler -- Lagrange equation). Since any curvature in the surface shape results in greater area, a higher energy will also result. Consequently, the surface will push back against any curvature in much the same way as a ball pushed uphill will push back to minimize its gravitational potential energy.
Several effects of surface tension can be seen with ordinary water:
A. Water beading on a leaf
B. Water dripping from a tap
C. Water striders stay atop the liquid because of surface tension
D. Lava lamp with interaction between dissimilar liquids: water and liquid wax
E. Photo showing the "tears of wine '' phenomenon.
Surface tension is visible in other common phenomena, especially when surfactants are used to decrease it:
Surface tension, usually represented by the symbol σ, is measured in force per unit length. Its SI unit is newton per meter but the cgs unit of dyne per centimeter is also used.
Surface tension can be defined in terms of force or energy.
In terms of force: surface tension γ of a liquid is the force per unit length. In the illustration on the right, the rectangular frame, composed of three unmovable sides (black) that form a "U '' shape, and a fourth movable side (blue) that can slide to the right. Surface tension will pull the blue bar to the left; the force F required to hold the immobile side is proportional to the length L of the movable side. Thus the ratio F / L depends only on the intrinsic properties of the liquid (composition, temperature, etc.), not on its geometry. For example, if the frame had a more complicated shape, the ratio F / L, with L the length of the movable side and F the force required to stop it from sliding, is found to be the same for all shapes. We therefore define the surface tension as
The reason for the 1 / 2 is that the film has two sides, each of which contributes equally to the force; so the force contributed by a single side is γL = F / 2.
In terms of energy: surface tension γ of a liquid is the ratio of the change in the energy of the liquid, and the change in the surface area of the liquid (that led to the change in energy). This can be easily related to the previous definition in terms of force: if F is the force required to stop the side from starting to slide, then this is also the force that would keep the side in the state of sliding at a constant speed (by Newton 's Second Law). But if the side is moving to the right (in the direction the force is applied), then the surface area of the stretched liquid is increasing while the applied force is doing work on the liquid. This means that increasing the surface area increases the energy of the film. The work done by the force F in moving the side by distance Δx is W = FΔx; at the same time the total area of the film increases by ΔA = 2LΔx (the factor of 2 is here because the liquid has two sides, two surfaces). Thus, multiplying both the numerator and the denominator of γ = 1 / 2F / L by Δx, we get
This work W is, by the usual arguments, interpreted as being stored as potential energy. Consequently, surface tension can be also measured in SI system as joules per square meter and in the cgs system as ergs per cm. Since mechanical systems try to find a state of minimum potential energy, a free droplet of liquid naturally assumes a spherical shape, which has the minimum surface area for a given volume. The equivalence of measurement of energy per unit area to force per unit length can be proven by dimensional analysis.
If no force acts normal to a tensioned surface, the surface must remain flat. But if the pressure on one side of the surface differs from pressure on the other side, the pressure difference times surface area results in a normal force. In order for the surface tension forces to cancel the force due to pressure, the surface must be curved. The diagram shows how surface curvature of a tiny patch of surface leads to a net component of surface tension forces acting normal to the center of the patch. When all the forces are balanced, the resulting equation is known as the Young -- Laplace equation:
where:
The quantity in parentheses on the right hand side is in fact (twice) the mean curvature of the surface (depending on normalisation). Solutions to this equation determine the shape of water drops, puddles, menisci, soap bubbles, and all other shapes determined by surface tension (such as the shape of the impressions that a water strider 's feet make on the surface of a pond). The table below shows how the internal pressure of a water droplet increases with decreasing radius. For not very small drops the effect is subtle, but the pressure difference becomes enormous when the drop sizes approach the molecular size. (In the limit of a single molecule the concept becomes meaningless.)
When an object is placed on a liquid, its weight F depresses the surface, and if surface tension and downward force becomes equal than is balanced by the surface tension forces on either side F, which are each parallel to the water 's surface at the points where it contacts the object. Notice that small movement in the body may cause the object to sink. As the angle of contact decreases surface tension decreases the horizontal components of the two F arrows point in opposite directions, so they cancel each other, but the vertical components point in the same direction and therefore add up to balance F. The object 's surface must not be wettable for this to happen, and its weight must be low enough for the surface tension to support it.
To find the shape of the minimal surface bounded by some arbitrary shaped frame using strictly mathematical means can be a daunting task. Yet by fashioning the frame out of wire and dipping it in soap - solution, a locally minimal surface will appear in the resulting soap - film within seconds.
The reason for this is that the pressure difference across a fluid interface is proportional to the mean curvature, as seen in the Young -- Laplace equation. For an open soap film, the pressure difference is zero, hence the mean curvature is zero, and minimal surfaces have the property of zero mean curvature.
The surface of any liquid is an interface between that liquid and some other medium. The top surface of a pond, for example, is an interface between the pond water and the air. Surface tension, then, is not a property of the liquid alone, but a property of the liquid 's interface with another medium. If a liquid is in a container, then besides the liquid / air interface at its top surface, there is also an interface between the liquid and the walls of the container. The surface tension between the liquid and air is usually different (greater than) its surface tension with the walls of a container. And where the two surfaces meet, their geometry must be such that all forces balance.
Where the two surfaces meet, they form a contact angle, θ, which is the angle the tangent to the surface makes with the solid surface. Note that the angle is measured through the liquid, as shown in the diagrams above. The diagram to the right shows two examples. Tension forces are shown for the liquid -- air interface, the liquid -- solid interface, and the solid -- air interface. The example on the left is where the difference between the liquid -- solid and solid -- air surface tension, γ − γ, is less than the liquid -- air surface tension, γ, but is nevertheless positive, that is
In the diagram, both the vertical and horizontal forces must cancel exactly at the contact point, known as equilibrium. The horizontal component of f is canceled by the adhesive force, f.
The more telling balance of forces, though, is in the vertical direction. The vertical component of f must exactly cancel the force, f.
Since the forces are in direct proportion to their respective surface tensions, we also have:
where
This means that although the difference between the liquid -- solid and solid -- air surface tension, γ − γ, is difficult to measure directly, it can be inferred from the liquid -- air surface tension, γ, and the equilibrium contact angle, θ, which is a function of the easily measurable advancing and receding contact angles (see main article contact angle).
This same relationship exists in the diagram on the right. But in this case we see that because the contact angle is less than 90 °, the liquid -- solid / solid -- air surface tension difference must be negative:
Observe that in the special case of a water -- silver interface where the contact angle is equal to 90 °, the liquid -- solid / solid -- air surface tension difference is exactly zero.
Another special case is where the contact angle is exactly 180 °. Water with specially prepared Teflon approaches this. Contact angle of 180 ° occurs when the liquid -- solid surface tension is exactly equal to the liquid -- air surface tension.
Because surface tension manifests itself in various effects, it offers a number of paths to its measurement. Which method is optimal depends upon the nature of the liquid being measured, the conditions under which its tension is to be measured, and the stability of its surface when it is deformed.
An old style mercury barometer consists of a vertical glass tube about 1 cm in diameter partially filled with mercury, and with a vacuum (called Torricelli 's vacuum) in the unfilled volume (see diagram to the right). Notice that the mercury level at the center of the tube is higher than at the edges, making the upper surface of the mercury dome - shaped. The center of mass of the entire column of mercury would be slightly lower if the top surface of the mercury were flat over the entire cross-section of the tube. But the dome - shaped top gives slightly less surface area to the entire mass of mercury. Again the two effects combine to minimize the total potential energy. Such a surface shape is known as a convex meniscus.
We consider the surface area of the entire mass of mercury, including the part of the surface that is in contact with the glass, because mercury does not adhere to glass at all. So the surface tension of the mercury acts over its entire surface area, including where it is in contact with the glass. If instead of glass, the tube was made out of copper, the situation would be very different. Mercury aggressively adheres to copper. So in a copper tube, the level of mercury at the center of the tube will be lower than at the edges (that is, it would be a concave meniscus). In a situation where the liquid adheres to the walls of its container, we consider the part of the fluid 's surface area that is in contact with the container to have negative surface tension. The fluid then works to maximize the contact surface area. So in this case increasing the area in contact with the container decreases rather than increases the potential energy. That decrease is enough to compensate for the increased potential energy associated with lifting the fluid near the walls of the container.
If a tube is sufficiently narrow and the liquid adhesion to its walls is sufficiently strong, surface tension can draw liquid up the tube in a phenomenon known as capillary action. The height to which the column is lifted is given by Jurin 's law:
where
Pouring mercury onto a horizontal flat sheet of glass results in a puddle that has a perceptible thickness. The puddle will spread out only to the point where it is a little under half a centimetre thick, and no thinner. Again this is due to the action of mercury 's strong surface tension. The liquid mass flattens out because that brings as much of the mercury to as low a level as possible, but the surface tension, at the same time, is acting to reduce the total surface area. The result of the compromise is a puddle of a nearly fixed thickness.
The same surface tension demonstration can be done with water, lime water or even saline, but only on a surface made of a substance to which water does not adhere. Wax is such a substance. Water poured onto a smooth, flat, horizontal wax surface, say a waxed sheet of glass, will behave similarly to the mercury poured onto glass.
The thickness of a puddle of liquid on a surface whose contact angle is 180 ° is given by:
where
In reality, the thicknesses of the puddles will be slightly less than what is predicted by the above formula because very few surfaces have a contact angle of 180 ° with any liquid. When the contact angle is less than 180 °, the thickness is given by:
For mercury on glass, γ = 487 dyn / cm, ρ = 13.5 g / cm and θ = 140 °, which gives h = 0.36 cm. For water on paraffin at 25 ° C, γ = 72 dyn / cm, ρ = 1.0 g / cm, and θ = 107 ° which gives h = 0.44 cm.
The formula also predicts that when the contact angle is 0 °, the liquid will spread out into a micro-thin layer over the surface. Such a surface is said to be fully wettable by the liquid.
In day - to - day life all of us observe that a stream of water emerging from a faucet will break up into droplets, no matter how smoothly the stream is emitted from the faucet. This is due to a phenomenon called the Plateau -- Rayleigh instability, which is entirely a consequence of the effects of surface tension.
The explanation of this instability begins with the existence of tiny perturbations in the stream. These are always present, no matter how smooth the stream is. If the perturbations are resolved into sinusoidal components, we find that some components grow with time while others decay with time. Among those that grow with time, some grow at faster rates than others. Whether a component decays or grows, and how fast it grows is entirely a function of its wave number (a measure of how many peaks and troughs per centimeter) and the radii of the original cylindrical stream.
J.W. Gibbs developed the thermodynamic theory of capillarity based on the idea of surfaces of discontinuity. He introduced and studied thermodynamics of two - dimensional objects -- surfaces. These surfaces have area, mass, entropy, energy and free energy. As stated above, the mechanical work needed to increase a surface area A is dW = γ dA. Hence at constant temperature and pressure, surface tension equals Gibbs free energy per surface area:
where G is Gibbs free energy and A is the area.
Thermodynamics requires that all spontaneous changes of state are accompanied by a decrease in Gibbs free energy.
From this it is easy to understand why decreasing the surface area of a mass of liquid is always spontaneous (G < 0), provided it is not coupled to any other energy changes. It follows that in order to increase surface area, a certain amount of energy must be added.
Gibbs free energy is defined by the equation G = H − TS, where H is enthalpy and S is entropy. Based upon this and the fact that surface tension is Gibbs free energy per unit area, it is possible to obtain the following expression for entropy per unit area:
Kelvin 's equation for surfaces arises by rearranging the previous equations. It states that surface enthalpy or surface energy (different from surface free energy) depends both on surface tension and its derivative with temperature at constant pressure by the relationship.
Fifteen years after Gibbs, J.D. van der Waals developed the theory of capillarity effects based on the hypothesis of a continuous variation of density. He added to the energy density the term c (∇ ρ) 2, (\ displaystyle c (\ nabla \ rho) ^ (2),) where c is the capillarity coefficient and ρ is the density. For the multiphase equilibria, the results of the van der Waals approach practically coincide with the Gibbs formulae, but for modelling of the dynamics of phase transitions the van der Waals approach is much more convenient. The van der Waals capillarity energy is now widely used in the phase field models of multiphase flows. Such terms are also discovered in the dynamics of non-equilibrium gases.
The pressure inside an ideal (one surface) soap bubble can be derived from thermodynamic free energy considerations. At constant temperature and particle number, dT = dN = 0, the differential Helmholtz energy is given by
where P is the difference in pressure inside and outside of the bubble, and γ is the surface tension. In equilibrium, dF = 0, and so,
For a spherical bubble, the volume and surface area are given simply by
and
Substituting these relations into the previous expression, we find
which is equivalent to the Young -- Laplace equation when R = R. For real soap bubbles, the pressure is doubled due to the presence of two interfaces, one inside and one outside.
Surface tension is dependent on temperature. For that reason, when a value is given for the surface tension of an interface, temperature must be explicitly stated. The general trend is that surface tension decreases with the increase of temperature, reaching a value of 0 at the critical temperature. For further details see Eötvös rule. There are only empirical equations to relate surface tension and temperature:
Here V is the molar volume of a substance, T is the critical temperature and k is a constant valid for almost all substances. A typical value is k = 6993210000000000000 ♠ 2.1 × 10 JK mol. For water one can further use V = 18 ml / mol and T = 647 K (374 ° C).
A variant on Eötvös is described by Ramay and Shields:
where the temperature offset of 6 kelvins provides the formula with a better fit to reality at lower temperatures.
γ ° is a constant for each liquid and n is an empirical factor, whose value is 11 / 9 for organic liquids. This equation was also proposed by van der Waals, who further proposed that γ ° could be given by the expression
where K is a universal constant for all liquids, and P is the critical pressure of the liquid (although later experiments found K to vary to some degree from one liquid to another).
Both Guggenheim -- Katayama and Eötvös take into account the fact that surface tension reaches 0 at the critical temperature, whereas Ramay and Shields fails to match reality at this endpoint.
Solutes can have different effects on surface tension depending on the nature of the surface and the solute:
What complicates the effect is that a solute can exist in a different concentration at the surface of a solvent than in its bulk. This difference varies from one solute -- solvent combination to another.
Gibbs isotherm states that:
Certain assumptions are taken in its deduction, therefore Gibbs isotherm can only be applied to ideal (very dilute) solutions with two components.
The Clausius -- Clapeyron relation leads to another equation also attributed to Kelvin, as the Kelvin equation. It explains why, because of surface tension, the vapor pressure for small droplets of liquid in suspension is greater than standard vapor pressure of that same liquid when the interface is flat. That is to say that when a liquid is forming small droplets, the equilibrium concentration of its vapor in its surroundings is greater. This arises because the pressure inside the droplet is greater than outside.
The effect explains supersaturation of vapors. In the absence of nucleation sites, tiny droplets must form before they can evolve into larger droplets. This requires a vapor pressure many times the vapor pressure at the phase transition point.
This equation is also used in catalyst chemistry to assess mesoporosity for solids.
The effect can be viewed in terms of the average number of molecular neighbors of surface molecules (see diagram).
The table shows some calculated values of this effect for water at different drop sizes:
The effect becomes clear for very small drop sizes, as a drop of 1 nm radius has about 100 molecules inside, which is a quantity small enough to require a quantum mechanics analysis.
The two most abundant liquids on Earth are fresh water and seawater. This section gives correlations of reference data for the surface tension of both.
The surface tension of pure liquid water in contact with its vapor has been given by IAPWS as
where both T and the critical temperature T = 647.096 K are expressed in kelvins. The region of validity the entire vapor -- liquid saturation curve, from the triple point (0.01 ° C) to the critical point. It also provides reasonable results when extrapolated to metastable (supercooled) conditions, down to at least − 25 ° C. This formulation was originally adopted by IAPWS in 1976 and was adjusted in 1994 to conform to the International Temperature Scale of 1990.
The uncertainty of this formulation is given over the full range of temperature by IAPWS. For temperatures below 100 ° C, the uncertainty is ± 0.5 %.
Nayar et al. published reference data for the surface tension of seawater over the salinity range of 20 ≤ S ≤ 131 g / kg and a temperature range of 1 ≤ t ≤ 92 ° C at atmospheric pressure. The uncertainty of the measurements varied from 0.18 to 0.37 mN / m with the average uncertainty being 0.22 mN / m. This data is correlated by the following equation
where γ is the surface tension of seawater in mN / m, γ is the surface tension of water in mN / m, S is the reference salinity in g / kg, and t is temperature in degrees Celsius. The average absolute percentage deviation between measurements and the correlation was 0.19 % while the maximum deviation is 0.60 %.
The range of temperature and salinity encompasses both the oceanographic range and the range of conditions encountered in thermal desalination technologies.
Breakup of a moving sheet of water bouncing off of a spoon.
Photo of flowing water adhering to a hand. Surface tension creates the sheet of water between the flow and the hand.
A soap bubble balances surface tension forces against internal pneumatic pressure.
Surface tension prevents a coin from sinking: the coin is indisputably denser than water, so it must be displacing a volume greater than its own for buoyancy to balance mass.
A daisy. The entirety of the flower lies below the level of the (undisturbed) free surface. The water rises smoothly around its edge. Surface tension prevents water filling the air between the petals and possibly submerging the flower.
A metal paper clip floats on water. Several can usually be carefully added without overflow of water.
An aluminium coin floats on the surface of the water at 10 ° C. Any extra weight would drop the coin to the bottom.
A metal paperclip floating on water. A grille in front of the light has created the ' contour lines ' which show the deformation in the water surface caused by the metal paper clip.
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when did the field of obstetrics first emerge in the field of medicine | Obstetrics - wikipedia
Obstetrics is the field of study concentrated on pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period. As a medical specialty, obstetrics is combined with gynecology under the discipline known as obstetrics and gynaecology (OB / GYN) which is a surgical field.
Prenatal care is important in screening for various complications of pregnancy. This includes routine office visits with physical exams and routine lab tests:
3D ultrasound of 3 - inch (76 mm) fetus (about 14 weeks gestational age)
Fetus at 17 weeks
Fetus at 20 weeks
Genetic screening for Down syndrome (trisomy 21) and trisomy 18, the national standard in the United States, is rapidly evolving away from the AFP - Quad screen for Down syndrome, done typically in the second trimester at 16 -- 18 weeks. The newer integrated screen (formerly called F.A.S.T.E.R for First And Second Trimester Early Results) can be done at 10 plus weeks to 13 plus weeks with an ultrasound of the fetal neck (thicker nuchal skin correlates with higher risk of Down syndrome being present) and two chemicals (analytes) PAPP - A and βHCG (pregnancy hormone level itself). It gives an accurate risk profile very early. A second blood screen at 15 to 20 weeks refines the risk more accurately. The cost is higher than an "AFP - quad '' screen due to the ultrasound and second blood test, but it is quoted to have a 93 % pick up rate as opposed to 88 % for the standard AFP / QS. This is an evolving standard of care in the United States.
Most doctors do a sugar load in a drink form of 50 grams of glucose in cola, lime or orange and draw blood an hour later (plus or minus 5 minutes); the standard modified criteria have been lowered to 135 since the late 1980s
Obstetric ultrasonography is routinely used for dating the gestational age of a pregnancy from the size of the fetus, determine the number of fetuses and placentae, evaluate for an ectopic pregnancy and first trimester bleeding, the most accurate dating being in first trimester before the growth of the foetus has been significantly influenced by other factors. Ultrasound is also used for detecting congenital anomalies (or other foetal anomalies) and determining the biophysical profiles (BPP), which are generally easier to detect in the second trimester when the foetal structures are larger and more developed. Specialised ultrasound equipment can also evaluate the blood flow velocity in the umbilical cord, looking to detect a decrease / absence / reversal or diastolic blood flow in the umbilical artery.
X-rays and computerized tomography (CT) are not used, especially in the first trimester, due to the ionizing radiation, which has teratogenic effects on the foetus. No effects of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) on the foetus have been demonstrated, but this technique is too expensive for routine observation. Instead, obstetric ultrasonography is the imaging method of choice in the first trimester and throughout the pregnancy, because it emits no radiation, is portable, and allows for realtime imaging.
The safety of frequent ultrasound scanning has not be confirmed. Despite this, increasing numbers of women are choosing to have additional scans for no medical purpose, such as gender scans, 3D and 4D scans. A normal gestation would reveal a gestational sac, yolk sac, and fetal pole. The gestational age can be assessed by evaluating the mean gestational sac diameter (MGD) before week 6, and the crown - rump length after week 6. Multiple gestation is evaluated by the number of placentae and amniotic sacs present.
Other tools used for assessment include:
A pregnant woman may have intercurrent diseases, that is, other diseases or conditions (not directly caused by the pregnancy) that may become worse or be a potential risk to the pregnancy.
Induction is a method of artificially or prematurely stimulating labour in a woman. Reasons to induce can include pre-eclampsia, foetal distress, placental malfunction, intrauterine growth retardation and failure to progress through labour increasing the risk of infection and foetal distresses.
Induction may be achieved via several methods:
During labour, the obstetrician carries out the following tasks:
The main emergencies include:
Postnatal care is care provided to the mother following parturition.
A woman in the Western world who is delivering in a hospital may leave the hospital as soon as she is medically stable and chooses to leave, which can be as early as a few hours postpartum, though the average for spontaneous vaginal delivery (SVD) is 1 -- 2 days, and the average caesarean section postnatal stay is 3 -- 4 days.
During this time the mother is monitored for bleeding, bowel and bladder function, and baby care. The infant 's health is also monitored.
Certain things must be kept in mind as the physician proceeds with the post-natal care.
Prior to the 18th century, caring for pregnant women in Europe was confined exclusively to women, and rigorously excluded men. The expectant mother would invite close female friends and family members to her home to keep her company during childbirth. Skilled midwives managed all aspects of the labour and delivery. The presence of physicians and surgeons was very rare and only occurred if a serious complication had taken place and the midwife had exhausted all measures at her disposal. Calling a surgeon was very much a last resort and having men deliver women in this era was seen as offending female modesty.
Prior to the 18th and 19th centuries, midwifery was well established but obstetrics was not recognized as a specific medical specialty. However, the subject matter and interest in the female reproductive system and sexual practice can be traced back to Ancient Egypt and Ancient Greece. Soranus of Ephesus sometimes is called the most important figure in ancient gynecology. Living in the late first century A.D. and early second century, he studied anatomy and had opinions and techniques on abortion, contraception -- most notably coitus interruptus -- and birth complications. After his death, techniques and works of gynecology declined; very little of his works were recorded and survived to the late 18th century when gynaecology and obstetrics reemerged as a medical specialism.
The 18th century marked the beginning of many advances in European midwifery, based on better knowledge of the physiology of pregnancy and labour. By the end of the century, medical professionals began to understand the anatomy of the uterus and the physiological changes that take place during labour. The introduction of forceps in childbirth also took place at this time. All these medical advances in obstetrics were a lever for the introduction of men into an arena previously managed and run by women -- midwifery.
The addition of the male - midwife (or man - midwife) is historically a significant change to the profession of obstetrics. In the 18th century medical men began to train in area of childbirth and believed with their advanced knowledge in anatomy that childbirth could be improved. In France these male - midwives were referred to as accoucheurs, a title later used all over Europe. The founding of lying - in hospitals also contributed to the medicalization and male - dominance of obstetrics. These early maternity hospitals were establishments where women would come to have their babies delivered, as opposed to the practice since time immemorial of the midwife attending the home of the woman in labour. This institution provided male - midwives with endless patients to practice their techniques on and was a way for these men to demonstrate their knowledge.
Many midwives of the time bitterly opposed the involvement of men in childbirth. Some male practitioners also opposed the involvement of medical men like themselves in midwifery and even went as far as to say that male - midwives only undertook midwifery solely for perverse erotic satisfaction. The accoucheurs argued that their involvement in midwifery was to improve the process of childbirth. These men also believed that obstetrics would forge ahead and continue to strengthen.
18th century physicians expected that obstetrics would continue to grow, but the opposite happened. Obstetrics entered a stage of stagnation in the 19th century, which lasted until about the 1880s. The central explanation for the lack of advancement during this time was the rejection of obstetrics by the medical community. The 19th century marked an era of medical reform in Europe and increased regulation over the profession. Major European institutions such as The College of Physicians and Surgeons considered delivering babies ungentlemanly work and refused to have anything to do with childbirth as a whole. Even when Medical Act 1858 was introduced, which stated that medical students could qualify as doctors, midwifery was entirely ignored. This made it nearly impossible to pursue an education in midwifery and also have the recognition of being a doctor or surgeon. Obstetrics was pushed to the side.
By the late 19th century, the foundation of modern - day obstetrics and midwifery began developing. Delivery of babies by doctors became popular and readily accepted, but midwives continued to play a role in childbirth. Midwifery also changed during this era due to increased regulation and the eventual need for midwives to become certified. Many European countries by the late 19th century were monitoring the training of midwives and issued certification based on competency. Midwives were no longer uneducated in the formal sense.
As midwifery began to develop, so did the profession of obstetrics near the end of the century. Childbirth was no longer unjustifiably despised by the medical community as it once had been at the beginning of the century. But obstetrics was underdeveloped compared to other medical specialites. Many male physicians would deliver children but very few would have referred to themselves as obstetricians. The end of the 19th century did mark a significant accomplishment in the profession with the advancements in asepsis and anaesthesia, which paved the way for the mainstream introduction and later success of the Caesarean Section.
Before the 1880s mortality rates in lying - hospitals would reach unacceptably high levels and became an area of public concern. Much of these maternal deaths were due to puerperal fever, then known as childbed fever. In the 1800s Dr. Ignaz Semmelweis noticed that women giving birth at home had a much lower incidence of childbed fever than those giving birth by physicians in lying - hospitals. His investigation discovered that washing hands with an antiseptic solution before a delivery reduced childbed fever fatalities by 90 %. So it was concluded that it was physicians who had been spreading disease from one labouring mother to the next. Despite the publication of this information, doctors still would not wash. It was not until the 20th century when advancements in aseptic technique and the understanding of disease would play a significant role in the decrease of maternal mortality rates among many populations.
The development of obstetrics as a practice for accredited doctors happened at the turn of the 18th century and thus was very differently developed in Europe and in the Americas due to the independence of many countries in the Americas from European powers. "Unlike in Europe and the British Isles, where midwifery laws were national, in America, midwifery laws were local and varied widely ''.
Gynaecology and Obstetrics gained attention in the American medical field at the end of the nineteenth century through the development of such procedures as the ovariotomy. These procedures then were shared with European surgeons who replicated the surgeries. This was a period when antiseptic, aseptic or anaesthetic measures were just being introduced to surgical and observational procedures and without these procedures surgeries were dangerous and often fatal. Following are two surgeons noted for their contributions to these fields include Ephraim McDowell and James Marion Sims.
Ephraim McDowell developed a surgical practice in 1795 and performed the first ovariotomy in 1809 on a 47 - year - old widow who then lived on for thirty - one more years. He had attempted to share this with John Bell whom he had practiced under who had retired to Italy. Bell was said to have died without seeing the document but it was published by an associate in Extractions of Diseased Ovaria in 1825. By the mid-century the surgery was both successfully and unsuccessfully being performed. Pennsylvanian surgeons the Attlee brothers made this procedure very routine for a total of 465 surgeries -- John Attlee performed 64 successfully of 78 while his brother William reported 387 -- between the years of 1843 and 1883. By the middle of the nineteenth century this procedure was successfully performed in Europe by English surgeons Sir Spencer Wells and Charles Clay as well as French surgeons Eugène Koeberlé, Auguste Nélaton and Jules Péan.
J. Marion Sims was the surgeon responsible for being the first treating a vesicovaginal fistula -- a condition linked to many caused mainly by prolonged pressing of the feotus against the pelvis or other causes such as rape, hysterectomy, or other operations -- and also having been doctor to many European royals and the 20th President of the United States James A. Garfield after he had been shot. Sims does have a controversial medical past. Under the beliefs at the time about pain and the prejudice towards African people, he had practiced his surgical skills and developed skills on slaves. These women were the first patients of modern gynecology. One of the women he operated on was named Anarcha Westcott, the woman he first treated for a fistula.
Women and men inhabited very different roles in natal care up to the 18th century. The role of a physician was exclusively held by men who went to university, an overly male institution, who would theorize anatomy and the process of reproduction based on theological teaching and philosophy. Many beliefs about the female body and menstruation in the 17th and 18th centuries were inaccurate; clearly resulting from the lack of literature about the practice. Many of the theories of what caused menstruation prevailed from Hippocratic philosophy. Midwives of this time were those assisted in the birth and care of both born and unborn children, and as the name suggests, this position was held mainly by women.
During the birth of a child, men were rarely present. Women from the neighbourhood or family would join in on the process of birth and assist in many different ways. The one position where men would help with the birth of a child would be in the sitting position, usually when performed on the side of a bed to support the mother.
Men were introduced into the field of obstetrics in the nineteenth century and resulted in a change of the focus of this profession. Gynaecology directly resulted as a new and separate field of study from obstetrics and focused on the curing of illness and indispositions of female sexual organs. This had some relevance to some conditions as menopause, uterine and cervical problems, and childbirth could leave the mother in need of extensive surgery to repair tissue. But, there was also a large blame of the uterus for completely unrelated conditions. This led to many social consequences of the nineteenth century.
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who is the winningest quarterback in ncaa history | Kellen Moore - wikipedia
Kellen Moore (born July 5, 1988) is a former American football quarterback who is the quarterbacks coach of the Dallas Cowboys of the National Football League (NFL). He played six seasons in the NFL for the Cowboys and Detroit Lions. He played college football at Boise State. Moore holds the unofficial all - time record for wins by a starting quarterback in NCAA Division I FBS with a 50 -- 3 (. 943) record. As a junior, he finished fourth in the balloting for the 2010 Heisman Trophy.
Moore was born and raised in Prosser, Washington. His father, Tom, was head coach at Prosser High School from 1986 to 2008, winning 21 league titles and four state championships. During football season, he and younger brother Kirby, who also played at Boise State as a wide receiver, practiced plays in the backyard after football practice. As his father remembered in a 2011 interview, "He 'd always have a little notepad with him. He was always drawing plays. '' In his final two years of high school, his father let him call his own plays.
According to his mother, Moore "grew fast, and then he did n't grow again '' -- he was 5 ft 11 in (1.80 m) as a high school sophomore, nearly his adult height. His lack of height proved no obstacle to success at Prosser High. Moore was named the Gatorade Player of the Year for the state of Washington. He lettered in football and basketball three times each and was named Velocity / Prep Star All - American and First - team All - state, and Division 2A MVP by the Seattle Times. He earned league player of the year honors as well as First - team All - league recognition as a sophomore, junior and senior. He was also Third - team All - state selection as a junior.
He set Washington state career records for completions (787) and touchdown passes (173). He also set state single - season records for completions (317 as a junior), yards (4,600 as a junior) and touchdown passes (67 as a senior).
He finished his career completing 787 of 1,195 passes (. 659) for 11,367 yards and 173 touchdowns with 34 interceptions. He led Prosser to a 12 -- 1 record in 2006 as a senior and a spot in the state semifinals, in a loss to the Centralia Tigers that included two interceptions. As a junior, he completed 317 - of - 479 passes (66.2 percent) for 4,600 yards and 66 touchdowns with 15 interceptions. The year before, as a sophomore, he completed 179 - of - 308 passes (58.1 - percent) for 2,442 yards and 39 touchdowns with 11 interceptions.
Moore 's teammates at Boise State included his younger brother Kirby and childhood friend Cory Yriarte, a center for the Broncos. Kirby currently holds the national high school record for career touchdown receptions, with 95.
During the 2007 season, Moore was redshirted.
As a redshirt freshman in 2008, Moore led the Broncos to an undefeated regular season and the WAC championship while throwing 25 touchdowns and 9 interceptions in 12 games. In the final game of 2008, Boise State lost to Texas Christian University (TCU) in the 2008 Poinsettia Bowl, the first of two consecutive bowl meetings for the non-Automatic Qualifying rivals. He was named WAC Freshman of the Year and Second - team All - conference after a spectacular first season, guiding Boise State to 12 -- 1 record and was named Boise State 's Most Valuable Offensive Player by vote of teammates. He was named to Phil Steele Publications ' Second team All - WAC and also voted to the Football Writers Association of America 's freshman All - America team.
He ranked 12th in nation in passing efficiency and 24th in total offense, averaging 265.85 yards per game and was first in WAC in passing efficiency (157.1) and second in total offense (265.8) and average passing yards per game (268.2). He completed 281 of 405 passes for 3,486 yards with 25 touchdowns and 10 interceptions.
In January 2009, Moore was ranked as the 37th best returning player in college football by College Football News.
Moore threw for a school record 39 touchdowns with only 3 interceptions to lead the Broncos to a 14 -- 0 record, another WAC title, and an at large bid to the Fiesta Bowl vs. undefeated # 4 ranked TCU. The 2009 Fiesta Bowl was highly controversial due to the decision to pit the two non-Automatic Qualifying schools against each other instead of having them face Automatic Qualifying teams. The BCS was criticized for the perception that the risk of both, or either, team defeating a "power conference '' team was too great, and that the BCS had TCU and BSU face each other so that the damage of their participation would be minimized. He finished the 2009 regular season with the highest passer efficiency rating in Division I-A with a rating of 167.3. In his first two years as a starting quarterback, Moore did not lose a regular season game.
Moore started against widely favored TCU and played the entire game. He had no interceptions, fumbles, or muffed snaps. He led the team on a 4th quarter 78 - yard touchdown scoring drive to take the lead for good and win the game 17 -- 10.
He was named First - team All - American by CBSSportsline.com, a subsidiary of CBS Sports. He was named one of ten finalists for the Manning Award. He was also First - team All - WAC and the WAC Offensive Player of the Year in 2009 and finished 7th in Heisman voting for 2009.
Moore led the Broncos to a 33 -- 30 victory over Virginia Tech on September 6, 2010. The game was highly anticipated and received a 6.8 TV rating, nearly twice that of the next most watched game. Moore contributed 3 passing touchdowns in the game with a final game - winning strike to Austin Pettis with 1: 14 remaining in the game. As a result of the victory, Boise State received 8 first place votes in the week 2 AP Poll, and it moved up to third in the Coaches ' Poll. Moore was also mentioned by major sports media as a top candidate for the 2010 Heisman Trophy. After finishing the season with 3,506 yards, 33 TDs and only 5 INTs, Moore was named a finalist for the Heisman Trophy and was invited to the ceremony in New York City to become the first ever Boise State player to be a Heisman finalist. Moore finished fourth in Heisman voting. Moore was also a finalist for the Davey O'Brien Award, the Maxwell Award, and the Manning Award (all won by Cam Newton). Moore was named the Touchdown Club of Columbus Quarterback of the Year. Boise State was invited to the 2010 Maaco Bowl Las Vegas, where they defeated Utah 26 -- 3.
On March 28, 2011, the Sporting News named Moore as the # 1 player in their annual list of the top 25 players in the nation. He was ranked ahead of Stanford quarterback Andrew Luck and Oregon running back LaMichael James who both finished ahead of Moore in the 2010 Heisman voting. He only needed 8 wins during the 2011 season to pass Colt McCoy for most wins by a quarterback in NCAA history. He threw his 100th touchdown pass against Georgia during week one. Following an opening season win against Georgia in the Chick - fil - A Kickoff Game, Moore was featured on the cover of Sports Illustrated, distributed only in the west.
With the Broncos defeat of Air Force on October 22, he tied former Texas quarterback Colt McCoy for the career wins record with 45 wins. On November 5, the Broncos defeated UNLV and Moore broke the record to become the FBS leader in career wins for a starting quarterback at 46. A perfect season, however, was spoiled again by a 36 -- 35 loss to TCU.
He was one of three finalists for the Maxwell Award along with Andrew Luck and Trent Richardson (won by Luck). For the second year in a row, he was named the Touchdown Club of Columbus Quarterback of the Year and it was announced that beginning in 2012 the award will be known as the Kellen Moore Award. He currently is first in the FBS in completion percentage. With the Broncos ' 56 -- 24 win over Arizona State in the 2011 Maaco Bowl Las Vegas, Moore became the first quarterback in FBS history to win 50 games in his career.
Despite his success in college, many analysts have doubted Moore 's professional potential, especially his relatively small stature at slightly shorter than 6 ft 0 in (1.83 m), as well as doubts about arm strength and mobility. He was projected as a late draft pick or priority free agent.
He was not selected in the 2012 NFL Draft, but was signed immediately post-draft by the Detroit Lions. Upon being signed by Detroit, Moore stated, "I do n't think there will probably be a more motivated quarterback. '' While some within the media voiced an opinion that Moore should unseat the newly signed Dan Orlovsky as the Lions primary backup during the 2014 season, Lions head coach Jim Caldwell decided Orlovsky would remain the incumbent. On February 21, 2014, it was announced the Lions would not place a restricted free agent tender offer on Moore, allowing him to explore other NFL options. Despite not tendering an offer, Lions General Manager Martin Mayhew expressed an interest in bringing Moore back for the 2015 season. On March 6, 2015, the Lions signed Moore to a two - year contract worth $1.825 million. On September 5, 2015, following the team 's preseason, Moore failed to make the initial 53 - player roster and was released during the team 's final cuts of training camp.
On September 6, 2015, Moore was signed by the Dallas Cowboys to the team 's practice squad, reuniting with former Lions offensive coordinator Scott Linehan. After Tony Romo first fractured his left collarbone, he was promoted to the active roster to serve as Brandon Weeden 's backup on September 23. He was the team 's backup for two games, until the Cowboys acquired quarterback Matt Cassel. On November 10, he was waived and re-signed 2 days later to the practice squad.
After Romo suffered a second fracture of the collarbone on a Thanksgiving loss against the Carolina Panthers, Moore was promoted to the active roster on December 2, to serve as Cassel 's backup. During Romo 's absence, the Cowboys tried relying on backup quarterbacks Weeden (0 -- 3) and Cassel (1 -- 6), but were n't successful.
On December 19, Moore played in his first career regular season game against the New York Jets, replacing an ineffective Cassel. Moore 's second career NFL pass was intercepted by Marcus Gilchrist. On the next drive, Moore threw his first career touchdown, connecting with Dez Bryant. He was intercepted two more times in the second half, including once in the end zone, when the Cowboys had a chance to go ahead 17 -- 9 in the third quarter.
The loss against the Jets officially eliminated the Cowboys from playoff contention, so the organization decided to use the last two games to audition Moore. His first career start came the following week against the Buffalo Bills, completing 13 of 31 passes and throwing a third quarter interception to AJ Tarpley as the Cowboys lost 16 -- 6.
In his first home start, playing against the Washington Redskins, he threw for 435 yards, 3 touchdowns, and 2 interceptions in a 34 -- 23 loss. He became the fifth quarterback in team history to throw for 400 or more yards in a single - game and also passed for the sixth-most yards in team history for a single - game.
In 2016, he suffered a fractured fibula on his right leg during a training camp practice on August 2 and was placed on injured reserve on August 30.
On March 20, 2017, Moore re-signed with the Cowboys. He was released by the Cowboys on September 2, 2017, but was re-signed on September 5, 2017. He was released on October 26, 2017 and re-signed to the practice squad. As of the 2017 season, he was the only left - handed quarterback in the NFL.
Source:
On January 23, 2018, it was reported that Moore had completed an agreement with the Cowboys to become the team 's quarterbacks coach.
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what is the other name by which the tevram is popularly known | Tevaram - Wikipedia
Shiva - Shakti
Saiddhantika
Non - Saiddhantika
The Thevaram (Tamil: தேவாரம் Thēvāram) denotes the first seven volumes of the Tirumurai, the twelve - volume collection of Śaiva devotional poetry. All seven volumes are dedicated to the works of the three most prominent Tamil poets of the 7th century, the Nayanars - Sambandar, Tirunavukkarasar and Sundarar. The singing of Tevaram is continued as a hereditary practise in many Shiva temples in Tamil Nadu.
In the tenth century, during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I, a collection of these songs was found abandoned in the Chidambaram temple, along with other religious literary works, and collated by Nambiyandar Nambi. It is during the Chola dynasty that Saivism came of age and Tevaram, with its body of texts on rituals, philosophy and theology, was canonized. The 276 temples revered by these verses are called paadal petra thalam and another 276 places having Shiva temples that are casually mentioned in the verses are classified as vaipu sthalam. It was Tevaram for Saivism and Nalayira Divya Prabandam for Vaishanvism. There are 796 of these songs with a total of more than 8200 stanzas. The three poets were not only involved in portraying their personal devotion to Shiva, but also involved a community of believers through their songs. It is one of the important sources of Tamil Bhakti, a movement that inspired the agricultural community.
The word Dēvāram means garland of poems to the lord
Three stages have been identified in the evolution of Thevaram - first is the mark of Shiva as the supreme deity during the 7th - 9th century, the second involved Chola kings initiating the compilation of all the hymns and installing the images of the 3 saint poets during the 10th to 11th century and the last being the restructuring done by the pontiffs of the mathas who incorporated the hymns into Saiva Siddantha canon in the 13th century. Both the Saiva and Vaishnava textual tradition negated the Vedic orthodoxy and Smartha tradition practised during the era. The authority of the hymns were established with the Saivities calling the Tevaram as Tamil Marai (meaning Tamil Veda), while Vaishnavities called the Nalayira Divya Prabandham as Dravida Veda. The usage of Sanskrit liturgies for religion was overcome with the usage of Tamil in both Tevaram and Prabandham. Sangam literature established the convention of akam (internally orineted) and puram (externally orientated) poetry. Though influence of Sangam literature is often seen in Thevaram, the strict conventions were not followed. The verses were more oriented towards folk tradition, which was easily accessible to people.
The first three Tirumurais (meaning parts) of Tevaram are composed by Thiru GnaanaSambanthar, the next three by Appar and the seventh one is composed by Sundarar. Appar and Thiru GnaanaSambanthar lived around the 7th century, while Sundarar lived in the 8th century. During the Pallava period these three travelled extensively around Tamil Nadu offering discourses and songs characterised by an emotional devotion to Shiva and objections to Vaishnavism, Jainism and Buddhism.
Thiru GnaanaSambanthar is a 7th - century Holy Guru Paramaachariyaar (The great Teacher) born in SeeKaazhi, now wrongly called as Sirkali in Brahmin community and was believed to be breastfed by the goddess umadevi also called as Parvati
, whereupon he sang the first hymn. On the request of queen of Pandya Nadu, Thiru GnaanaSambanthar went on pilgrimage to south, defeated Jains in debate, the Jains ' provocation of Sambandar by burning his house and challenging him to debate, and Thiru GnaanaSambanthar ' s eventual victory over them He was a contemporary of Appar, another Saiva saint. Information about Sambandhar comes mainly from the Periya Puranam, the eleventh - century Tamil book on the Nayanars that forms the last volume of the Tirumurai, along with the earlier Tiruttondartokai, poetry by Cuntarar and Nambiyandar Nambi 's Tiru Tondar Tiruvandadi. A Sanskrit hagiography called Brahmapureesa Charitam is now lost. The first volumes of the Tirumurai contain three hundred and eighty - four poems of Sambanthar (in 4181 stanzas), all that survive out of a reputed more than 10,000 hymns. ThiruGnaanaSambanthar merged with Lord around the age of 16 in 655 CE on the day of his marriage. His verses were set to tune by ThiruNeelaKanda Yaazhpaanar, who is set to have accompanied the musician on his yal or lute.
Appar 's (aka Tirunavukkarasar) was born during the 7th century in Tiruvamur, Tamil Nadu, his childhood name for Marulneekiar. His sister, Thilagavathiar was betrothed to a military commander who died in action. When his sister was about to end her life, he pleaded with her not to leave him alone in the world. She decided to lead an ascetic life and bring up her only brother. During boyhood, Appar was very much interested in Jainism and started studying its scriptures. He went away from home and stayed in their monastery and was renamed Darmasena. Details of Appar 's life are found in his own hymns and in Sekkizhar 's Periya Puranam (the last book of the Tirumurai). Appar had travelled to nearby Patalipura to join a Jain monastery where he was given the name Dharmasena. "Seeing the transient, ephemeral world he decided to probe into truth through renunciation. '' After a while, afflicted by a painful illness, Dharmasena returned home. He prayed for relief at the Siva temple where his sister served and was cured by Lord. Lord gave the name ' ThiruNaavukkuArasar '. He was also involved in converting the Pallava king, Mahendravarman to Saivism. This was also the period of resurrection of the smaller Shiva temples. Appar sanctified all these temples by his verses and was also involved in cleaning of the dilapidated temples called uzhavaarappani. He was called Tirunavukkarasu, meaning the "King of divine speech ''. He extolled Siva in 49,000 stanzas out of which 3130 are now available and compiled in Tirumurais (4, 5, 6). When he met Campantar, he called him Appar (meaning father). He merged with lord around the age of 81 in Tirupugalur. He famously known for his ThiruThandagam (6th Thirumurai). ThiruThandagam is difficult to compose, He is called as ' Thandagach Chadhurar ' (Expert in ThiruThaandagam)
Sundarar (aka Sundaramurthi) was born in Tirunavalur in a Brahmin family during the end of the 7th century. Sadayanar and IsaiGnanyiaar are his parents. His own name was Nambi Arurar and was prevented from marrying by the divine grace of Siva. He later married a temple girl namely Paravi Naachiyaar and a vellala community girl by name Changili naachiyaar. He is the author of 1026 poems compiled as 7th Tirumurai. He is close friend of KazharitruArivaar Nayanar aka Cheramaan perumaal Nayanar (one among the holy 63 nayanar) and EyarKon KalikKaama Nayanar (also one among the holy 63 nayanar. From ThiruAnjaiKalam (now ThiruVanjikulam), He went to Kaiylaayam in Holy Elephant which have 1000 horns.
All the songs in the Tevaram (called pathikam, Tamil: பதிகம்) are believed to be in sets of ten. The hymns were set to music denoted by Panns and are part of the canon of the Tamil music. They continue to be part of temple liturgy today. Several of these poems refer to historic references pointing to the saint - poets ' own life, voice of devotee persona, using interior language of the mystic. Multi-vocal rhetoric is commonly used taking on personal emotions and genres and some voices of classical Sangam literature. Of the three, Campantar 's life is better interpreted by his verses. According to Zvelebil, Campantar 's lyrics are characterized by egocentricism, by militancy and great ardour, by a warm feeling for the greatness and beauty of Tamil language with scholarly experimentation in meters showing familiarity with Sanskrit forms. Campantar 's poetry shows structural and thematic distinctiveness of the bhakti speech of poetry... is... sorry poetry.
Appar 's poems dealt with inner, emotional and psychological state of the poet saint. The metaphors used in the poems have deep agrarian influence that is considered one of the striking chords for common people to get accustomed to the verse. The quote below is a popular song of Appar glorifying Shiva in simple diction.
translating to
Cuntarar 's hymns had a touch of humour, a rare thing in religious literature. In one of the verses, he playfully draws an analogy with Siva with himself, both having two wives and the needs of nagging wives.
The tendency to incorporate place names known to the folks in the idiom of the poems is another characteristic feature of Tevaram. The poems also involved glorifying the feat of Shiva in the particular location -- the usage of locale continuously occurring in the verses is a testament. According to Prentiss, the poems do not represent social space as a contested space, the hymns represent the hymnists were free to wander and to offer their praise of Shiva. The emotional intensity of the hymns represent spontaneous expression of thought as an emotional responses to God.
Paadal Petra Sthalams are 275 temples that are revered in the verses of Tevaram and are amongst the greatest Shiva temples of the continent. The Divya Desams by comparison are the 108 Vishnu temples glorified in the poems of the contemporary Vaishnava Alvars of Tamil Nadu, India. Vaippu Sthalangal are places that were mentioned casually in the songs in Tevaram. The focus of the moovars hymns suggests darshan (seeing and being seen by God) within the puja (worship) offering. The hymnists made classificatory lists of places like katu (for forest), turai (port or refuge), kulam (water tank) and kalam (field) being used - thus both structured and unstructured places in the religious context find a mention in Tevaram.
Raja Raja Chola I (985 - 1013 CE) embarked on a mission to recover the hymns after hearing short excerpts of Tevaram in his court. He sought the help of Nambi Andar Nambi, who was a priest in a temple. It is believed that by divine intervention Nambi found the presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half eaten by white ants in a chamber inside the second precinct in Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram. The brahmanas (Dikshitars) in the temple opposed the mission, but Rajaraja intervened by consecrating the images of the saint - poets through the streets of Chidambaram. Rajaraja thus became to be known as Tirumurai Kanda Cholan meaning one who saved the Tirumurai. Thus far Shiva temples only had images of god forms, but after the advent of Rajaraja, the images of the Nayanar saints were also placed inside the temple. Nambi arranged the hymns of three saint poets Campantar, Appar and Sundarar as the first seven books, Manickavasagar 's Tirukovayar and Tiruvacakam as the 8th book, the 28 hymns of nine other saints as the 9th book, the Tirumandiram of Tirumular as the 10th book, 40 hymns by 12 other poets as the 10th book, Tirutotanar Tiruvanthathi - the sacred anthathi of the labours of the 63 nayanar saints and added his own hymns as the 11th book. The first seven books were later called as Tevaram, and the whole Saiva canon, to which was added, as the 12th book, Sekkizhar 's Periya Puranam (1135 CE) is wholly known as Tirumurai, the holy book. Thus Saiva literature which covers about 600 years of religious, philosophical and literary development.
Nambi was also involved in setting musical modes for Tevaram. He accomplished this by visiting his native village of Tirunilakanta Yalpanar, where he met a woman of the Tamil Panar caste who learned the mode of divine revelation. She returned to Chidambaram with Nambi, where she sang and danced for Shiva.
In 1918, 11 more songs were found engraved in stone temple in Tiruvidavayil in a village close to Nannillam and it was the first instance found where Tevaram verses were found in inscriptions.
Tevaram was one of the sole reasons for converting Vedic ritual to Agamic puja followed in Shiva temples. Though these two systems are overlapping, Agamic tradition ensures the perpetuation of the Vedic religion 's emphasis on the efficacy of ritual as per Davis. Odhuvars, Sthanikars, or Kattalaiyars offer musical programmes in Shiva temples of Tamil Nadu by singing Tevaram after the daily rituals. These are usually carried out as chorus programme soon after the divine offering. The singing of Tevaram was followed by musicals from the music pillars in such temples like Madurai Meenakshi Amman Temple, Nellaiappar Temple and Suchindram. The singers of these hymns were referred as Tirupadiyam Vinnapam seyvar or Pidarar from the inscriptions of Nandivarman III in the Tiruvallam Bilavaneswara temple records. Rajaraja deputed 48 pidarars and made liberal provisions for their maintenance and successors. A few earlier records give details about the gifts rendered to the singers of Tevaram from Parantaka I of the 8th century. A record belonging to Rajendra I mentions Tevaranayakan, the supervisor of Tevaram and shows the institutionalisation of Tevaram with the establishiment of a department. There are records from Kulothunga Chola III from Nallanyanar temple in South Arcot indicating singing of Tiruvempavai and Tiruvalam of Manickavasagar during special occasion in the temple. From the 13th century, the texts were passed on to the Odhuvars by the Adheenams or mathas and there was no more control by the kings or the brahmanas. The Odhuvars were from vellala community and were trained in ritual singing in Tevaram schools.
Periya Puranam, the eleventh - century Tamil book on the Nayanars that forms the last volume of the Tirumurai primarily had references only to Tevaram and subsequently expanded to 12 parts. One of the first anthologies of moovars hymns called the Tevara Arulmuraitirattu is linked to Tamil Saiva siddhantha philosophy by grouping ninety - nine verses into 10 categories. The category headings are God, soul, bond, grace, guru, methodology, enlightenment, bliss, mantra and liberation - correspond to Umapthi 's work, Tiruvarutpayan. Tirumurai kanda puranam is another anthology for Tirumurai as a whole, but primarily focuses on Tevaram. It is the first of the works to refer the collection of volumes as Tirumurai.
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tomb raider rise of the tomb raider cast | Rise of the Tomb Raider - Wikipedia
Rise of the Tomb Raider is an action - adventure video game developed by Crystal Dynamics. It is the sequel to the 2013 video game Tomb Raider and the eleventh entry in the main Tomb Raider series. The game was released by Microsoft Studios for Xbox One and Xbox 360 in 2015. Square Enix released the game for Windows and PlayStation 4 in 2016.
The game 's story follows Lara Croft as she ventures into Siberia in search of the legendary city of Kitezh, whilst battling the paramilitary organization "Trinity '' which intends on beating her to the city 's promise of immortality. Lara must traverse the environment and combat enemies using firearms and stealth as she explores several semi-open hubs. In these hubs, she can raid challenge tombs to unlock new rewards, complete side - missions, and scavenge for resources which can be used for crafting useful materials.
Development of Rise of the Tomb Raider closely followed the conclusion of the development of the 2013 reboot, Tomb Raider. Player feedback was taken into consideration during the new development cycle, and the team reduced the number of quick time events and introduced more puzzles and challenge tombs. The team also organized trips to several locations in Turkey including Cappadocia, Istanbul, and Ephesus when creating the team 's vision for their designs of Kitezh. Camilla Luddington returned to provide voice and motion capture work for Lara. Powered by the Foundation game engine, the game was also worked on by other developers, including Eidos Montreal and Nixxes Software.
The game was announced at E3 2014 by Microsoft Studios. It was revealed as a timed exclusive for Microsoft at Gamescom 2014, which sparked players outrage and widespread criticism from gaming press and community. Upon release, Rise of the Tomb Raider was critically acclaimed, with critics praising its graphics, gameplay, and characterization, though some felt that it did not take enough risks. As of November 2017, the game has sold nearly 7 million copies. Several downloadable story and content additions have been released for digital purchase. A sequel, Shadow of the Tomb Raider, will be released in September 2018.
Rise of the Tomb Raider is a third - person action - adventure game in which players control Lara Croft, who is on a quest to discover the legendary city of Kitezh. Combat is a major gameplay mechanic in Rise of the Tomb Raider, with Lara having a large arsenal of weapons at her disposal, including assault rifles, shotguns, and pistols, some of which have an alternate mode of firing. Players can also utilize stealth in order to progress through portions of the game. For instance, they can use bows and arrows to silently take out enemies or create distractions which would draw enemies ' attention away from Lara. Players can also hide in bushes to evade enemies without drawing their notice. Lara has the capability to use the environment to fight enemies, such as shooting explosive barrels, using rope arrows to destroy certain structures, or kill an enemy by ambushing them from high ground. In addition, Lara can use her pickaxe and combat knife to engage in melee combat with enemies. Completing objectives and side content and eliminating enemies grant players with experience points (XP). When players attain a sufficient amount of XP, they will level up, in which a Skill Point will be given for players to spend at the base camp. These skill points can be spent on the game 's three skill trees: Combat, Brawler and Survivor. Combat enhances Lara 's efficiency with weapons, granting her abilities such as retrieving arrow from corpses and steady aiming. Brawler boosts her resilience against enemies ' attacks and unlocks new combat skills such as dodge kill. Survivor covers a wide range of skills ranging from creating incendiary bombs to making booby traps. Throughout the game, Lara will learn new languages, which enables her to discover relics like coins that can be traded to purchase new equipment.
Rise of the Tomb Raider features semi-open hubs which are free for players to explore. In these hubs, there are numerous items for Lara to collect, including crafting materials and survival caches. These useful items, along with collectibles like relics and documents, can be revealed to players using "Survival Instinct, '' a vision mode which highlights items of interest. By collecting these materials, players can craft items using the in - game crafting menu. For instance, Lara can craft ammo, poison arrows using death cap mushrooms, and molotovs and hand grenades from cans and bottles. These open areas are filled with natural wildlife, which can be hunted to collect more resources. There are also challenge tombs for players to discover and explore. Exploring these tombs grant players new items like new skills and outfits. Lara 's outfit, which affects her combat performance, can be changed at base camps found in the world. These base camps also allow Lara to change her weapon loadouts, and serve as fast travel points that allow players to explore previously searched area. The game also features numerous side missions and challenges, which sometimes grant players new equipment. The game often involves intricate environments that players must navigate in order to progress. She can use her pickaxe to climb certain cliff surfaces such as glaciers, and her rope arrows to create ziplines in order to assess areas that are difficult to reach. Lara also has an extended suite of movement options, being able to climb trees and swim. Players also need to solve various puzzles in the game in both the main campaign and the optional content. These puzzles are often based on in - game physics, and multiple puzzles are oftentimes connected with each other, meaning players need to solve all of them before they can solve the overall puzzle.
Unlike the 2013 Tomb Raider reboot, Rise of the Tomb Raider does not feature any multiplayer. However, it introduces "Expeditions '', which allow players to replay the game but with new constraints and requirements. There are four modes, namely Chapter Replay, Chapter Replay Elite, Score Attack, and Remnant Resistance. Chapter Replay and Chapter Replay Elite allow players to replay any level, though Elite allows players to carry the skills and weapons they have already unlocked in - game into the level. Score Attack introduces score combo chains to the game. Remnant Resistance allows players to create custom scenarios, which can then be shared with other players. By completing Expeditions, players earn credits which can then be used to purchase collectible cards. These cards act as modifiers to gameplay. Common cards are only for one - off use while foil cards can be used repeatedly. These cards can also be purchased with real - life currency via microtransactions.
One year after the events of Tomb Raider, archaeologist Lara Croft is struggling to explain her experience of the supernatural on Yamatai and suffers from posttraumatic stress disorder. Looking for answers, she turns to her late father 's research into the lost city of Kitezh and the promise of immortality. Her father 's partner Ana attempts to warn her off as his obsession with Kitezh drove him to ruin and suicide. Lara ignores her and organises an expedition to Syria, hoping to uncover the tomb of the Prophet of Constantinople, a key figure in the legend of Kitezh. Although successful, the tomb is empty, and Lara is interrupted by Trinity -- an ancient order of knights that now exists as a paramilitary organization investigating the supernatural -- and their leader Konstantin. As she flees, Lara discovers a symbol etched into the tomb that she links to a book on Russian religious history in her father 's study back at the Croft manor. A Trinity assassin infiltrates the manor and steals the book, prompting Lara and her friend Jonah to go to Siberia, which they believe has connection with the symbol. The two are separated after an avalanche while climbing a mountain and Lara is forced to continue alone.
Lara discovers that Trinity has taken over a Soviet - era mining installation as a base of operations in the search for Kitezh. She is caught attempting to retrieve the book and placed in a prison cell with Ana. Konstantin forces Lara to reveal what she knows by slowly strangling Ana in front of her, but Lara is unable to tell anything of use. Ana then reveals herself to be Trinity 's spy who had been manipulating her father. The two interrogate her as to the whereabouts of the "Divine Source '', an artifact believed to grant immortality. Lara escapes, and in the process aids Jacob, a stranger who leads her through the mines after Lara agrees to aid Jacob and his people in fighting Trinity. Jacob is revealed to be the leader of the Remnant, the descendants of the Prophet 's followers. He also warns Lara that the Divine Source is not what she expects it to be.
Konstantin 's forces repeatedly attack the Remnant, justifying the slaughter as God 's will. However, Lara discovers that Ana is dying and seeks the Divine Source to save herself. Jacob and Lara decide that the only way to protect the Divine Source is to retrieve it before Trinity can. In order to do this, Lara recovers the Atlas, an artifact that serves as a map of Kitezh. She is reunited with Jonah, who has been spying on Trinity forces, and they locate the path into the city. However, Konstantin had been aware of Jonah 's presence and followed him hoping that Jonah would lead him to Lara. Trinity ambushes them and takes the Atlas, stabbing Jonah in the process. Lara takes Jonah to Jacob, who miraculously heals Jonah, revealing that he is the Prophet and the Divine Source granted him immortality.
With Trinity advancing on the glacier that rests over Kitezh, Lara is forced to enter the city through a dangerous path where she encounters the Deathless Ones, the immortal guardians of the city. Following the journals of a Trinity agent, Lara realizes the truth of Jacob 's warning: that the Divine Source grants immortality to the person who beholds it at the cost of their sense of self. The Remnant attack the Deathless Ones, giving Lara time to reach the heart of the city. She encounters Konstantin who is blocking the path and critically wounds him. Before his death, he claims that Lara 's father did not commit suicide, but was in fact murdered by Trinity. Lara is too late to stop Ana from retrieving the Divine Source. Ana is overwhelmed by its power, giving Lara a chance to destroy it. The Deathless Ones perish and Jacob 's immortality is lost. However, he is happy that his death has finally come and thanks Lara for bringing his end as he peacefully disintegrates.
In the aftermath, Jacob 's daughter Sofia takes over the Remnant. Jonah recovers from his wounds and joins Lara in planning their next expedition, with Lara vowing to investigate more of the world 's mysteries as well as thwart Trinity 's plans. In a post credit scene, two weeks before Lara and Jonah left Siberia, Lara confronts Ana about whether she killed her father. Ana denies it, despite admitting that Trinity gave her the order. Before she can reveal anything else, a sniper shot hits Ana, killing her instantly. The sniper then asks his unseen superior about killing Lara, but is told to stand down for the time being.
The Baba Yaga downloadable content sees Lara investigating a disturbance within the Soviet mining facility. After fighting off a Trinity patrol, she discovers a young girl named Nadia hiding in a sawmill. Nadia confides in Lara, recounting her search for her grandfather, Ivan. Ivan has disappeared while trying to enter the Wicked Vale, a valley rumoured to be haunted by Baba Yaga, a witch from Slavic folklore. Ivan blames the witch for the death of his wife and seeks to kill her. Lara is skeptical of Baba Yaga 's existence, but as Nadia is injured, she agrees to enter the Wicked Vale and locate Ivan.
Once in the Vale, Lara is exposed to a rare pollen with potent hallucinogenic properties. After stumbling through a forest, tormented by visions of her father 's suicide, she encounters Baba Yaga and a pack of demonic wolves. Lara narrowly escapes with her life and finds herself in a small Soviet - era outpost. There she unearths evidence of a secret Soviet biological weapons project that attempted to harness the pollen as a weapon; however, the project came to an abrupt end after the researchers -- including Serafima, a biochemist imprisoned in a nearby gulag -- succumbed to the hallucinations.
Realising that Serafima resented her captors, Lara correctly deduces that she had successfully weaponised the pollen and developed an antidote and kept her research secret from the military. With Nadia 's help, Lara synthesises a rudimentary antidote from Serafima 's recipe and returns to the Wicked Vale. Resisting the effects of the pollen, Lara finds Ivan injured at the entrance to Baba Yaga 's lair.
Unable to leave the Wicked Vale so long as Baba Yaga continues to control it, Lara ventures on to confront the witch and is forced to battle Baba Yaga under the effects of the pollen. Lara prevails, destroying the source of the weaponised pollen. Baba Yaga is revealed to be Serafima, who was led to believe that her husband, Ivan, along with their daughter was dead, and so used the pollen to become Baba Yaga and torment her captors in revenge. With Ivan, Serafima and Nadia reunited, Lara leaves the Wicked Vale.
The Cold Darkness Awakened content sees Lara enter a decommissioned Soviet weapons bunker that has been breached by a Trinity patrol. Trinity have inadvertently released an unstable pathogen into the air, which causes the people it infects to regress to a zombie - like state. Men are particularly vulnerable as the virus stimulates testosterone and adrenaline production. The pathogen was created by a Soviet researcher with the intention of creating an army of unstoppable super-soldiers, but all of his experiments ended in failure. Following an accident that released the pathogen, he died in the facility, proud that he had at least created a weapon to protect his homeland. With Sofia and Nadia providing support from a helicopter, Lara attempts to find the source of the pathogen before an enormous cloud is released into the atmosphere and contaminates the Remnant valley.
The three women hatch a plan to channel the pathogen from three towers into the central tower, and cause it to explode, which will hopefully burn off the toxin. Lara shuts down each tower while collecting equipment, rescuing female prisoners and eliminating waves of the infected Trinity soldiers, and finally enters the core tower. While fighting off the infected soldiers, she triggers a catastrophic explosion and jumps from the tower to Nadia and Sofia 's helicopter. Nadia and Lara watch the explosion as they fly to safety. Although the resulting fire burns the remaining reserves of the pathogen, documents found throughout the facility reveal that the release was no accident; Trinity reactivated the facility to acquire a sample of the pathogen, and an agent of Trinity escaped with it before the bunker was destroyed.
Blood Ties begins with Lara reading a note from her uncle, who claims that since her mother went missing, leaving the manor in his care, he is the rightful owner of the Croft Estate. With trees working their way into the side of the manor and the roof caving in, Lara 's childhood home is in desperate need of repair. She finds her father 's safe and searches the manor for the clues for the safe combination, hoping to find his will proving her ownership inside. She roams around the manor, coming across various artifacts from her past, some of which she has never seen before, and finally figures out the safe combination. However, she finds no proof of her ownership inside the safe. She continues to search through the Manor among the hallways, bedrooms, studies, and the basement, eventually finding her mother 's tomb underneath the grand staircase, a proof of her mother 's death. With both of Lara 's parents proven dead, all her parents ' properties are passed on to her by law, successfully proving that Lara is the rightful owner of the Manor and moves back in.
In Lara 's Nightmare the sequence begins similarly to Blood Ties, but instead Lara 's uncle is unwilling to give her the Manor. She fights off hordes of zombies and skulls before finding the Master Key. Finally, she kills the large skull in the main hallway, successfully ending her nightmare.
The game was developed by Crystal Dynamics with Eidos Montreal providing additional development support. Development of the game began two weeks after the team finished polishing the 2013 reboot. The game 's development was led by Noah Hughes and Brian Horton, who served as the franchise creative director and game director respectively. Rhianna Pratchett returned as the game 's writer, and Camilla Luddington reprised her role as protagonist Lara Croft. Bobby Tahouri, most known for his work on Game of Thrones, composed the game 's original soundtracks. Development of the game was completed on 9 October 2015, with Crystal Dynamics confirming that the game had been declared gold, indicating it was being prepared for duplication and release.
-- Brian Horton, game director of the game on the state of Lara after the 2013 reboot
One of the intentions for developing the game was to craft a more "personal '' experience for players. The team wanted to explore the journey in which Croft finds her way to become the tomb raider. At the end of the 2013 reboot, Lara becomes more determined to uncover more myths and convinces the world that they are real. This would become her major driving force in the sequel. Lara still has to struggle for survival, but she was more confident and competent. The team attempted to find a balance to make Lara more experienced and competent, but still vulnerable when facing high stakes so as to make her relatable to players. The team hoped that through the story, players can witness discernible character progression for Lara. To show that Lara is hungry for knowledge and answers, the team introduced gameplay adjustments to the collectibles, in which players would learn a new language during the game which would then unlock new content and upgrades. The new crafting system also reflected that Lara was a resourceful person, while Lara 's being able to use the environment against her enemies highlights her intelligence.
Pratchett found the story of Rise of the Tomb Raider more difficult to write than the 2013 reboot, and that she spent a lot of time figuring out Lara 's initial mental state and character introduction. The cast of characters featured in the game was significantly smaller than the reboot so that more screen time and progression could be given to each individual character. To help establish the tone and visuals of the entire game, Crystal Dynamics developed a "rippomatic '', which was a collection of movie scenes. These films included Rambo: First Blood Part II, which brinstormed the team regarding the game 's stealth mechanic; Terminator 2: Judgment Day, whose protagonist Sarah Connor and Lara Croft are both "burdened with a truth that no one believes ''; The Edge and The Grey inspired scenes in the game in which Lara fought against Siberian wildlife like bears and wolves; Hanna and The Descent inspired some of the game 's weapons like bows and arrows and pickaxe; Aliens vs. Predator and The Day After Tomorrow helped the team conceive the tundra settings of the game.
The team worked on improving the story 's pacing, which Horton thought was as important as the story itself. Several features that have gameplay potential but do not fit the game 's context were cut. For instance, vehicles and an early scene in which Lara battled enemies in a jeep were forced to be removed. The team also listened to players feedback regarding the original game and made several gameplay adjustments such as reducing the number of quick time events, expanding the hunting system, and increasing the significance of transversal and stealth. Cinematic moments and high octane action sequences, designed by an internal team named "OMS '' which stands for "oh my shit '', were retained in the sequel. The theme of "survival '' remained as the core pillar of the story, and the team introduced gameplay modifications to reflect this. For instance, the expanded crafting system meant that players need to leverage the environments more. However, Crystal Dynamics avoided making the game a survival game as the team felt that it would discourage players from exploring. Like its predecessor, the game adopted a structure similar to a metroidvania because the team wanted players to feel that Siberia is a living and dynamic world and that the game was not just merely a long sequence of events. According to Michael Brinker, the game 's design director, the team intentionally decided to make the game not as "grindy '' as other titles, thus players would not be forced to complete any of the optional content. To give players more choices on how they want to play, the skill upgrades system have been overhauled to include more options for players to choose.
The game also put more emphasis on tomb raiding than its predecessors after listening to players ' feedback. According to Hughes, the team analyzed some of the older Tomb Raider titles and distilled their best features, while incorporating the physics - based puzzles from the reboot. The team also intended to add more ancient tombs which have deep stories so that players would feel like they are actual discoverers and be awe - inspired by it. The tombs were made larger than the reboot and that puzzles were expanded with the inclusion of water puzzles, which were featured in older Tomb Raider games. These puzzles were often interconnected, as the team adopted a method named "Nested Puzzle Approach ''. Optional tombs were made more meaningful to players, as it now gave players unique skills and items rather than simply awarding players with experience points. The difficulty of each tomb will slowly increase as players progress.
The game 's world was designed to be a reflection of Lara 's distorted mental condition, and the team introduced the concept of "ominous beauty '' in order to accommodate this. The color scheme featured in the game was more vibrant and colorful in order to reflect the game 's large scale. To create the world of Rise of the Tomb Raider, the team was inspired by other video games and fine arts, as well as Russian realists. The team also organized trips to several locations in Turkey including Cappadocia, Istanbul, and Ephesus as well as the Yosemite National Park, and researched Byzantine culture and Greek architecture so as to find inspirations when creating the team 's vision for their designs of Syria and Kitezh. The team took six months to create the game 's snow technologies, such as snow tracks and avalanches, which helped to increase players ' immersion into the game. To add variety to the game 's landscapes, the team introduced the Oasis, which has a drastically different look than Siberia.
Tahouri acted as the game 's composer. His main goal when composing the game 's music was to support the game 's narrative. In 2012, Tahouri spoke to members from Crystal Dynamics, which later entrusted him to write the score in late 2013. He was delighted that he was given more time to compose the music when compared with his past projects. Tahouri listened to the soundtracks of previous games so that he could "immerse (himself) in the Tomb Raider world ''. The game 's music was performed by a 52 - piece string and brass orchestra in Nashville, and Tahouri recorded music using cello, woodwinds, dulcimer, and percussion such as a handpan created by Saraz Musical Instruments. When creating the soundtracks for Siberia, he used a plucked instrument similar to that of Gusli and low male vocals. The game also used a middleware named Dynamic Percussion System, which would create music procedurally during the game 's stealth section. Crystal Dynamics also partnered with Karen O and guitarist David Pajo to produce the game 's theme song named "I Shall Rise ''.
Luddington voiced Lara and she performed motion capture at a studio in Los Angeles over the couse of two years. Luddington stated that one of her greatest challenges when voicing Lara was that she had to "yell over wind and snow ''. Luddington trained for the role, and had experts teaching her how to hold weapons. The team spent a lot of time to ensure that Lara 's first game for the eighth generation of video game consoles looked great. Using a fluorescent paint named "Mova '' to spray on Luddington 's face, the team captured 7,000 points of reference on the actress ' face. The team found it very difficult to create Lara Croft from motion capture since the footage filmed by Luddington were often too real and not representative of Lara, thus the team often had to edit the footage repeatedly and produce new arts for the animations. Since Lara is a young female protagonist, the team paid additional attention when creating her facial expressions, which were described as "subtle ''. The team also focused on creating Lara 's physical details in cutscenes, in which her muscles would contract on the screen when she was climbing and that her skin would be filled with red patches when the weather was extremely cold. The studio used a technique called "pose - based deformers '' so that they could sculpt the "exact shape '' of Lara when she was moving. The team also used "wrinkle maps '', which allowed for more realistic and natural movement for Lara.
Rise of the Tomb Raider was powered by an in - house engine named Foundation. The team utilized a global illumination methodology and physics based rendering to create lighting and shadows. The team used an editor dubbed as "Horizon '', which is a WYSIWYG editor in which text and graphics can be edited in a form closely resembling its appearance when displayed as a finished product. The team adopted an approach known as "kit - bashing technique '', in which they would quickly assemble a level using different modules. These levels would then be rebuilt and iterated until it met the team 's demands and expectations. To improve the game 's graphical fieldality, the team partnered with Nixxes Software, which also ported the game 's Xbox 360 version.
On 1 August 2013, Square Enix Europe executive Phil Rogers announced that a new Tomb Raider game was in development for the eighth generation of video game consoles. At E3 2014, Microsoft announced the game during their press conference, while confirming that the game would be released in late 2015. At Gamescom 2014, Microsoft revealed that Rise of the Tomb Raider would be an exclusive for its Xbox series of video game platforms, including Xbox 360 and Xbox One, though Phil Spencer, an executive from Microsoft Studios, confirmed that it was a timed exclusive, similar to Microsoft 's deal with Capcom and Crytek on Dead Rising 3 and Ryse: Son of Rome in which both would be released for Microsoft Windows. This had led to outrage from players, since Tomb Raider had a longer history with PlayStation, and that they blamed franchise owner Square Enix over the decision. The fact that Microsoft called the game an "exclusive on Xbox for holiday 2015 '' sparked confusion among both the gaming press and players. Rogers later explained in 2015 that the timed exclusivity with Microsoft was mainly due to Microsoft 's strong support for the 2013 reboot whereas many others did not. Darrell Gallagher, head of Crystal Dynamics, also believed that the partnership can help the team to "deliver the best game that (they) can ''. Rogers described the arrangement as a "natural '' evolution and a "tough '' decision.
Rise of the Tomb Raider was released on 10 November 2015, while the Windows version was released on 28 January 2016. Microsoft Studios acted as the game 's publisher on Xbox 360 and Xbox One. A 18 - issue comics series simply titled Tomb Raider was released starting from early 2014. Produced by Dark Horse Comics and written by Pratchett and Gail Simone, the comics bridged the gaps between the 2013 reboot and Rise of the Tomb Raider, explaining the absence of certain side characters in the sequel. Microsoft released a Rise of the Tomb Raider Xbox One bundle, which includes a Xbox One console, a code for Tomb Raider: Definitive Edition and the game. A Collector 's Edition, which was sold at a slightly higher price than the standard edition, was also released alongside the game. It includes a 12 - inch statue of Lara, a steelbook, a jade necklace and a replica of Lara 's journal. There is also a season pass, which includes the base game, additional outfits, weapons and Expedition cards as well as access to downloadable content. Players who preordered the game using GameStop will also have exclusive access to the Holy Fire Card Pack, which can be used in the game 's Expeditions mode. To market the game, Microsoft launched an event named "Survival Billboard '', which was livestreamed via Twitch. Viewers can vote on which types of weather effects they wanted the 8 contestants standing in front of a billboard on Southwark Street to suffer through. After suffering 20 hours of extreme weather effects ranging from snow, wind, rain and heat, Adam Carr was declared the champion of the competition and was awarded a "Tomb Raider - themed trip ''. Players can also earn in - game rewards by participating and interacting with streamers ' livestream on Twitch when the streamers are playing the Expedition modes.
The game was supported by a series of downloadable content. The first post-launch update was released on 4 December 2015. It introduces the Endurance Mode, which features elements of a survival game as Lara needs to hunt and craft items in order to survive while facing numerous hidden dangers and environmental hazards. The first story add - on, titled Baba Yaga: The Temple of the Witch, was released on 26 January 2016 for Xbox One, which sees Lara combating supernatural enemies and Baba Yaga. Cold Darkness Awakened, the third DLC, introduces a horde mode in which Lara needs to combat against waves of infected enemies. Rise of the Tomb Raider: 20th Year Celebration edition was released for the PlayStation 4 on 11 October 2016. The edition, developed by Nixxes Software in conjunction with Crystal Dynamics, also adds several new features, including a classic outfit inspired by Tomb Raider III, cooperative gameplay for the Endurance mode, Blood Ties, a combat - free mode in which Lara explores the Croft Manor, and Lara 's Nightmare in which players fight against infected enemies inside the Croft Manor. All of these content were made free to all season pass owners. To promote the launch of the 20th Year Celebration edition, the marketing team hanged a jeep on the side of a building in Times Square. Blood Ties supported PlayStation VR when 20th Year Celebration launched, while Oculus Rift and HTC Vive were supported starting from 6 December 2017.
The game 's graphics received critical acclaim. Kimberly Wallace from Game Informer praised it for being "stunning '', and applauded Crystal Dynamics for creating detailed environments for players to explore, though she noted that she encountered several frame rate issues. Spencer Campbell from Electronic Gaming Monthly shared similar opinions, describing the areas as "gorgeous '' and that every location featured in the game looked unique. Justin Towell from GamesRadar praised the game 's presentation and largely applauded the game 's animation, adding that it was one of the top - tier AAA productions. He added that the game graphically was so pretty that he had to take screenshots of it. Steven Hansen from Destructoid called this one of the best - looking games out in the market, though he found some of the lighting unrealistic.
Wallace praised the story for offering several memorable moments, though she thought it was mostly predictable, except the ending scene. She approved the writers ' decision to explore the relationship between Lara and her father, as well as with Trinity, which she described as "interesting ''. Campbell criticized the story for being simple and often formulaic, saying that the story "took too many cues '' from Raiders of the Lost Ark while not being able to develop the characters properly, thus making them forgettable. Mike Mahardy from GameSpot, however, believed that the story was emotional and that the characters are grounded and believable, adding that the story 's mystical elements "makes sense within the world they occupy ''. He described the story as a tragic yet uplifting one. Towell praised the story for offering several surprising moments and was largely impressed by the cast 's voice acting, though he was disappointed that the story felt too similar to the 2013 reboot. Peter Paras from Game Revolution singled out Luddington 's performance as Lara, saying that she "imbues the character with a sense of wonderment and determination ''. Lucy O'Brien from IGN described Lara as an "endearing '' character in the game, who was driven by "complex ambitions ''. She also described the game 's villains as "strong ''.
The game 's combat was applauded by Wallace. She enjoyed the stealth sections and found the combat to be entertaining. In addition, she appreciated the upgrade trees which caters to different playstyles. However, she noted that certain combat sections in the later stage of the game become repetitive. Campbell praised the stealth section for being satisfying and challenging and was pleased to know that the game offered players many choices regarding how they would like to progress in the game. He noted the combat 's more strategic nature due to the larger arsenal of weapons. Mahardy described the combat as "superb '', also praising the game for providing freedom for players to experiment with gameplay mechanics. He felt that resources gathering was tedious, though the crafting system was well - executed. Towell liked the combat and stealth, comparing it with Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain, though he noted that Lara often felt like a "cold - blooded killer '' due to the abundance of combat encounters in the game. Towell also felt that there were way too many items to collect. O'Brien was disappointed that certain combat sections were uninspired, but she thought that they were made more fun due to the new crafting abilities. She felt that the stealth component was enjoyable although redundant. Hansen welcomed the addition of stealth. Despite this, he added that Rise did not address the problems introduced in the 2013 reboot, in which Lara was too violent which caused narrative dissonance.
Wallace praised the abundance of the game 's side content, adding that they were intriguing enough to lure her away from the main story. She also liked the Metroidvania world design, adding that these large hubs encouraged her to explore. She also praised the game 's expanded tombs and the puzzles for being deeper and more intricate than the previous game. Campbell praised the hunting mechanic, which he felt had successfully made the world of the game more realized. He commented that the shortcomings of the narrative were compensated by gameplay complexity, in particular, the optional tombs puzzles. Mahardy praised the large open hubs for adopting a "waterfall structure '' in which every action performed by the players may unlock new possibilities. Towell however felt that these hubs are filled with aimless content that were not engaging. O'Brien described the challenge tombs as the game 's real highlight and that they pay homage to the older Tomb Raider games, though she felt that the game did not have enough puzzles for players to solve. Hansen was disappointed that that many of the content was "open world busywork '', which he compared to the Assassin 's Creed series of games. Paras felt that the Expedition mode was a worthy inclusion and described it as a "real treat '', though Oli Welsh from Eurogamer critizied the mode strongly, saying that there was no reason for the mode to exist other than to please YouTubers and gain extra revenue from microtransactions.
Wallace called Rise of the Tomb Raider "better in every way '' than the 2013 reboot, and that the game had high replayability. Campbell was disappointed by the story, but commented that the game was still largely an improvement over its predecessor. Towell described the game as a "safe sequel '' that does not take much risks, but added that the formula it had adopted was a successful one. O'Brien believed that it had refined the formula of its predecessor successfully. Hansen noted that many of the game 's content felt bloated. While recognizing it as an improvement, he condemned it for not fixing many of the original 's shortcomings. Paras believed that after 20 years, the Tomb Raider franchise finally surpassed some of gaming 's all - time classics like Resident Evil 4 and Uncharted 2: Among Thieves with Rise of the Tomb Raider. The game received "generally positive reviews '' upon release according to review aggregator Metacritic, with the PlayStation 4 version attaining the highest score of 88 out of 100.
Some gaming journalists were concerned about the game 's sales since it was released on the same day as Fallout 4, a highly anticipated game from Bethesda Game Studios which also had Microsoft as its marketing partner. However, Microsoft was confident to release the game as it felt that they were not completely competing with each other. The retail version of Rise of the Tomb Raider was the fourth best selling game in its week of release in the UK and Ireland, debuting at No. 4 in the UK retail software sales chart, behind Fallout 4, Call of Duty: Black Ops III and FIFA 16. However, in its month of release, it did not sell enough to be featured in NPD Group 's chart. According to Square Enix, the game 's initial commercial performance was "solid ''. Brian Horton, the game 's director, and Aaron Greenberg, a Microsoft 's executive, claimed that both Microsoft Studios and Square Enix were satisfied with the game 's sales. Digitally, the Windows version sold three times the amount of the Xbox One version in the first month of release. By the end of 2015, the game had sold over 1 million copies. As of November 2017, the game has sold nearly 7 million units.
On 15 March 2018, Shadow of the Tomb Raider was officially confirmed by Square Enix. It will serve as the third and final game in the rebooted origin story. Eidos Montreal replaced Crystal Dynamics as the game 's lead developer. It is currently set to be released worldwide on PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Microsoft Windows on 14 September 2018.
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which type of writing did the phoenician alphabet develop from | Phoenician alphabet - wikipedia
Egyptian hieroglyphs 32 c. BCE
Hangul 1443 (probably influenced by Tibetan)
The Phoenician alphabet, called by convention the Proto - Canaanite alphabet for inscriptions older than around 1050 BC, is the oldest verified alphabet. The Phoenician alphabet is an abjad consisting of 22 letters, all consonants, with matres lectionis used for some vowels in certain late varieties. It was used for the writing of Phoenician, a Northern Semitic language, used by the civilization of Phoenicia.
The Phoenician alphabet is derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs. It became one of the most widely used writing systems, spread by Phoenician merchants across the Mediterranean world, where it evolved and was assimilated by many other cultures. The Paleo - Hebrew alphabet is a local variant of the Phoenician alphabetical script. Another derivative script is the Aramaic alphabet, which was the ancestor of the modern Arabic script. The Modern Hebrew script is a stylistic variant of the Aramaic script. The Greek alphabet (and by extension its descendants, such as Latin, Cyrillic, Runic, and Coptic) was also derived from Phoenician.
As the letters were originally incised with a stylus, most of the shapes are angular and straight, although more cursive versions are increasingly attested in later times, culminating in the Neo-Punic alphabet of Roman - era North Africa. Phoenician was usually written from right to left, although there are some texts written in boustrophedon.
The earliest known alphabetic (or "proto - alphabetic '') inscriptions are the so - called Proto - Sinaitic (or Proto - Canaanite) script sporadically attested in the Sinai and in Canaan in the late Middle and Late Bronze Age. The script was not widely used until the rise of new Semitic kingdoms in the 13th and 12th centuries BC.
The Phoenician alphabet is a direct continuation of the "Proto - Canaanite '' script of the Bronze Age collapse period. The so - called Ahiram epitaph, from about 1200 BC, engraved on the sarcophagus of king Ahiram in Byblos, Lebanon, one of five known Byblian royal inscriptions, shows essentially the fully developed Phoenician script, although the name "Phoenician '' is by convention given to inscriptions beginning in the mid 11th century BC.
Beginning in the 9th century BC, adaptations of the Phoenician alphabet -- such as Greek, Old Italic, Anatolian, and the Paleohispanic scripts -- were very successful. The alphabet 's success was due in part to its phonetic nature; Phoenician was the first widely used script in which one sound was represented by one symbol, which meant that there were only a few dozen symbols to learn. This simple system contrasted with the other scripts in use at the time, such as cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs, which employed many complex characters and were difficult to learn.
Another reason for its success was the maritime trading culture of Phoenician merchants, which spread the use of the alphabet into parts of North Africa and Europe. Phoenician inscriptions have been found in archaeological sites at a number of former Phoenician cities and colonies around the Mediterranean, such as Byblos (in present - day Lebanon) and Carthage in North Africa. Later finds indicate earlier use in Egypt.
Phoenician had long - term effects on the social structures of the civilizations that came in contact with it. Its simplicity not only allowed it to be used in multiple languages, but it also allowed the common people to learn how to write. This upset the long - standing status of writing systems only being learned and employed by members of the royal and religious hierarchies of society, who used writing as an instrument of power to control access to information by the larger population. The appearance of Phoenician disintegrated many of these class divisions, although many Middle Eastern kingdoms, such as Assyria, Babylonia and Adiabene, would continue to use cuneiform for legal and liturgical matters well into the Common Era.
The Phoenician alphabet was first uncovered in the 17th century, but up to the 19th century its origin was unknown. It was at first believed that the script was a direct variation of Egyptian hieroglyphs. This idea was especially popular due to the recent decipherment of hieroglyphs. However, scholars could not find any link between the two writing systems, nor to hieratic or cuneiform. The theories of independent creation ranged from the idea of a single man conceiving it, to the Hyksos people forming it from corrupt Egyptian. This latter notion is reminiscent of the eventual discovery that the proto - Sinaitic alphabet was inspired by the model of hieroglyphs.
The Phoenician letter forms shown here are idealized: actual Phoenician writing was cruder and more variable in appearance. There were also significant variations in Phoenician letter forms by era and region.
When alphabetic writing began in Greece, the letter forms used were similar but not identical to the Phoenician ones and vowels were added because the Phoenician alphabet did not contain any vowels. There were also distinct variants of the writing system in different parts of Greece, primarily in how those Phoenician characters that did not have an exact match to Greek sounds were used. The Ionic variant evolved into the standard Greek alphabet, and the Cumae variant into the Latin alphabet, which accounts for many of the differences between the two. Occasionally, Phoenician used a short stroke or dot symbol as a word separator.
The chart shows the graphical evolution of Phoenician letter forms into other alphabets. The sound values often changed significantly, both during the initial creation of new alphabets and from pronunciation changes of languages using the alphabets over time.
Phoenician used a system of acrophony to name letters. The names of the letters are essentially the same as in its parental scripts, which are in turn derived from the word values of the original hieroglyph for each letter. The original word was translated from Egyptian into its equivalent form in the Semitic language, and then the initial sound of the translated word became the letter 's value.
According to a 1904 theory by Theodor Nöldeke, some of the letter names were changed in Phoenician from the Proto - Canaanite script. This includes:
Yigael Yadin (1963) went to great lengths to prove that they actually were tools of war, similar to the original drawings.
The Phoenician numeral system consisted of separate symbols for 1, 10, 20, and 100. The sign for 1 was a simple vertical stroke (𐤖). Other numbers up to 9 were formed by adding the appropriate number of such strokes, arranged in groups of three. The symbol for 10 was a horizontal line or tack (𐤗 ). The sign for 20 (𐤘) could come in different glyph variants, one of them being a combination of two 10 - tacks, approximately Z - shaped. Larger multiples of ten were formed by grouping the appropriate number of 20s and 10s. There existed several glyph variants for 100 (𐤙). The 100 symbol could be combined with a preceding numeral in a multiplicatory way, e.g. the combination of "4 '' and "100 '' yielded 400. Their system did not contain a numeral zero.
The Phoenician alphabet was added to the Unicode Standard in July 2006 with the release of version 5.0. An alternative proposal to handle it as a font variation of Hebrew was turned down. (See PDF summary.)
The Unicode block for Phoenician is U + 10900 -- U + 1091F. It is intended for the representation of text in Palaeo - Hebrew, Archaic Phoenician, Phoenician, Early Aramaic, Late Phoenician cursive, Phoenician papyri, Siloam Hebrew, Hebrew seals, Ammonite, Moabite, and Punic.
The letters are encoded U + 10900 𐤀 aleph through to U + 10915 𐤕 taw, U + 10916 𐤖 , U + 10917 𐤗 , U + 10918 𐤘 and U + 10919 𐤙 encode the numerals 1, 10, 20 and 100 respectively and U + 1091F 𐤟 is the word separator.
The following Unicode - related documents record the purpose and process of defining specific characters in the Phoenician block:
The Paleo - Hebrew alphabet, used to write early Hebrew, was a regional offshoot of Phoenician; it is nearly identical to the Phoenician one (in many early writings it is impossible to distinguish between the two). The Samaritan alphabet, used by the Samaritans, is a direct descendant of the Paleo - Hebrew alphabet. The current Hebrew alphabet is a stylized form of the Aramaic alphabet, itself a descendant of the Phoenician script.
The Aramaic alphabet, used to write Aramaic, is another descendant of Phoenician. Aramaic, being the lingua franca of the Middle East, was widely adopted. It later split off (due to power / political borders) into a number of related alphabets, including Hebrew, Syriac, and Nabataean, the latter of which in, its cursive form, became an ancestor of the Arabic alphabet that is currently used in Arabic - speaking countries from North Africa through the Levant to Iraq and the Persian Gulf region, as well as in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and other countries.
The Sogdian alphabet, a descendant of Phoenician via Syriac, is an ancestor of the Old Uyghur, which in turn is an ancestor of the Mongolian and Manchu alphabets, the former of which is still in use and the latter of which survives as the Xibe script.
The Arabic script is a descendant of Phoenician via Aramaic.
The Coptic alphabet, still used in Egypt for writing the Christian liturgical language Coptic (descended from Ancient Egyptian), is mostly based on the Greek alphabet, but with a few additional letters for sounds not in Greek at the time. Those additional letters are based on Demotic script.
According to Herodotus, the Phoenician prince Cadmus was accredited with the introduction of the Phoenician alphabet -- phoinikeia grammata, "Phoenician letters '' -- to the Greeks, who adapted it to form their Greek alphabet, which was later introduced to the rest of Europe. Herodotus estimates that Cadmus lived sixteen hundred years before his time, or around 2000 BC, and claims that the Greeks did not know of the Phoenician alphabet before Cadmus. However, Herodotus ' writings are not used as a standard source by contemporary historians. The Greek alphabet is derived from the Phoenician alphabet. The phonology of Greek being different from that of Phoenician, the Greeks modified the Phoenician script to better suit their language. It was possibly more important in Greek to write out vowel sounds: Phoenician being a Semitic language, words were based on consonantal roots that permitted extensive removal of vowels without loss of meaning, a feature absent in the Indo - European Greek. (Or perhaps, the Phoenicians were simply following the lead of the Egyptians, who never wrote vowels. After all, Akkadian cuneiform, which wrote a related Semitic language, always indicated vowels.) In any case, the Greeks adapted the signs of the Phoenician consonants not present in Greek; each such name was shorn of its leading sound, and the sign took the value of the now leading vowel. For example, ʾāleph, which designated a glottal stop in Phoenician, was re-purposed to represent the vowel / a /; he became / e /, ḥet became / eː / (a long vowel), ʿayin became / o / (because the pharyngeality altered the following vowel), while the two semi-consonants wau and yod became the corresponding high vowels, / u / and / i /. (Some dialects of Greek, which did possess / h / and / w /, continued to use the Phoenician letters for those consonants as well.)
The Cyrillic script was derived from the Greek alphabet. Some Cyrillic letters (generally for sounds not in Mediaeval Greek) are based on Glagolitic forms, which in turn were influenced by the Hebrew or even Coptic alphabets.
The Latin alphabet was derived from Old Italic (originally a form of the Greek alphabet), used for Etruscan and other languages. The origin of the Runic alphabet is disputed, and the main theories are that it evolved either from the Latin alphabet itself, some early Old Italic alphabet via the Alpine scripts or the Greek alphabet. Despite this debate, the Runic alphabet is clearly derived from one or more scripts that ultimately trace their roots back to the Phoenician alphabet.
Many Western scholars believe that the Brahmi script of India and the subsequent Indic alphabets are also derived from the Aramaic script, which would make Phoenician the ancestor of virtually every alphabetic writing system in use today.
However, due to an indigenous - origin hypothesis of Brahmic scripts, no definitive scholarly consensus exists.
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g
d
h
w
z
ḥ
ṭ
y
k
l
m
n
s
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p
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q
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who plays hermione in a very potter musical | A Very Potter musical - wikipedia
A Very Potter Musical (originally titled Harry Potter: The Musical and often shortened to AVPM) is a musical with music and lyrics by Darren Criss and A.J. Holmes and a book by Matt Lang, Nick Lang and Brian Holden. The story is a parody, based on several of the Harry Potter novels (particularly Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows) by J.K. Rowling, as well as their film counterparts.
A Very Potter Musical tells the story of Harry Potter 's return to Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, his participation in the House Cup Championship, the trials and tribulations of adolescence, and the return of the dark wizard Lord Voldemort and the Golden Trio 's attempts to destroy the Horcruxes.
The musical was performed in April 9 -- 11, 2009 on the University of Michigan campus and is currently available to watch online. It was produced by StarKid Productions and directed by Matt Lang. The musical starred Darren Criss as Harry Potter, Joey Richter as Ron Weasley, Bonnie Gruesen as Hermione Granger, Jaime Lyn Beatty as Ginny Weasley, Lauren Lopez as Draco Malfoy, Brian Rosenthal as Quirinus Quirrell and Joe Walker as Lord Voldemort. In late June 2009, the group put the entire musical up on YouTube and it became a viral video, obtaining millions of views.
The musical allowed StarKid to create subsequent musicals, such as Me and My Dick (2009), A Very Potter Sequel (2010), Starship (2011), Holy Musical B@man! (2012), and Twisted: The Untold Story of a Royal Visier (2013). A third installment called A Very Potter Senior Year premiered at LeakyCon on August 11, 2012.
Harry Potter, the legendary "Boy Who Lived '', rejoices that he is entering his second year at Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry with his best friend Ron Weasley and frumpy nerd Hermione Granger ("Gotta Get Back to Hogwarts ''). Headmaster of Hogwarts Albus Dumbledore welcomes everyone back, skips the Sorting Ceremony and introduces the House Cup Tournament, in which a champion will be chosen on behalf of each House (Gryffindor, Ravenclaw, Hufflepuff, and Slytherin) to fight for the House Cup.
The names are chosen out of a magical trophy by Potions Master, Severus Snape, with Harry being chosen for Gryffindor. The other champions are his crush Cho Chang (Ravenclaw), her current boyfriend Cedric Diggory (Hufflepuff) and Harry 's obnoxious rival, Draco Malfoy (Slytherin). Hermione then voices her concern about the bloodstained history of the House Cup Tournament but no one can drop out due to the enchantment on the trophy from which the names were drawn. Draco attempts to intimidate Harry by claiming that he will transfer to a prestigious wizarding academy on Mars called Pigfarts, but Hermione threatens him and forces him to back off.
Meanwhile, Defense Against The Dark Arts teacher Quirinus Quirrell is secretly conspiring to revive the evil wizard Lord Voldemort, who is parasitically attached to the back of his head after Voldemort 's previous defeat by an infant Harry Potter. They bicker about this arrangement, which causes inconvenience to both of them due to their conflicting personalities ("Different As Can Be '').
Harry convinces Hermione to do all of his school work for him while he writes a love song intended to win the heart of Cho Chang. He tests out the song on Ron 's younger sister Ginny ("Ginny 's Song ''), while being oblivious to Ginny 's own crush on him. Harry, Ron and Hermione use his Cloak of Invisibility to sneak off and investigate what the first round of the House Cup Tournament could entail, leaving Ginny alone to lament her unrequited love ("Harry '').
Voldemort convinces Quirrell to go out and celebrate the progress of their evil plan instead of grading papers. Harry, Ron, and Hermione discover that the first round will involve dragons, while also eavesdropping on a conversation by Malfoy that hints at an unrealised crush on Hermione. Voldemort and Quirrel return from a night of drunken escapades, reminiscing on past events and how they have become friends from their time spent (literally) together ("Different As Can Be (Reprise) '').
Harry continues to neglect his preparation for the tournament, and is caught completely off - guard when he is forced to face a deadly Hungarian Horntail in battle. With no other choice, Harry summons his guitar and serenades the dragon into submission, allowing him to move on to the next round of the competition ("The Dragon Song '').
The annual Yule Ball is announced, and Ginny attempts to ask Harry to be her partner. Unfortunately, Harry is dead set on asking Cho and unknowingly rejects Ginny, causing her to run off in tears. Harry plays his song for Cho ("Ginny 's Song Reprise (Cho 's Song) '') but is rejected because Cho has already agreed to go with Cedric, leaving him and Ron as the only two male students without partners. Quirrell relieves Voldemort of his worries surrounding their master plan as the two weigh the pros and cons of their upcoming physical separation. Voldemort realises he has become close with Quirrell, and that he wishes to remain his friend.
At the Yule Ball, the normally - unattractive Hermione suddenly shows up with a gorgeous makeover, causing Ron and Malfoy to suddenly realise their feelings for her ("Granger Danger ''). Harry develops an attraction to Ginny and asks her to dance, leaving Ron to get "drunk '' on Butterbeer and fight over Hermione with Malfoy, causing her to lash out at both of them. Harry pulls back from a kiss with Ginny, stating that they can not be together because of his friendship with Ron. Ginny leaves in tears and a flustered Harry attempts to regain his dignity by cutting in with Cho, causing him to get into a fight with Cedric. As Harry grabs for a weapon, he touches the enchanted ladle that Quirrel had planted earlier, teleporting both Cedric and himself to a mysterious graveyard.
Quirrel appears, killing Cedric with the Killing Curse and using the full Body - Bind curse on Harry. Snape then appears; while Quirrel and Voldemort submerge themselves in a large cauldron, Snape uses his own hand and Harry 's blood to complete a ritual that successfully revives Voldemort, who joyfully celebrates with his Death Eaters ("To Dance Again! ''). Death Eater Bellatrix Lestrange arrives to welcome back her master and former lover, and reveals their plan was to use Quirrell as a scapegoat for the murder of Harry. Heartbroken at the betrayal of their friendship, Quirrell falls out with Voldemort and is taken to Azkaban. Before Voldemort can kill Harry, Harry manages to use the ladle to escape back to Hogwarts, where he exclaims in horror that Voldemort has returned.
The Ministry of Magic is in disbelief of Voldemort 's return, despite evidence such as Voldemort 's new video blog and his review of 17 Again, starring an idol of the show, Zac Efron. Meanwhile, Harry is consumed with stress over the situation and ostracizes his friends with his self - centered behaviour. Malfoy attempts to mock Harry, but is humiliated once again in front of the student body and vows revenge. Ginny attempts to clarify her relationship with Harry, but he explains (using the Spider - Man film trilogy as reference) that as long as Voldemort is at large, they can not be together. As Ginny runs off in tears once more, a disguised Dumbledore summons Harry to his office to discuss Voldemort.
Snape reveals himself as an undercover Death Eater and meets with Voldemort, who is in a deep depression following his fight with Quirrell. He brings in Malfoy, who tells Voldemort of a secret entrance into Hogwarts in exchange for a rocket ship to Mars ("Pigfarts ''). Voldemort also makes Malfoy enter into a binding magical contract to kill Dumbledore for him.
Harry, Ron and Hermione arrive at Dumbledore 's office for the meeting. There, Dumbledore explains the horcruxes that sustain Voldemort 's existence, revealing that he has already destroyed five of the six and giving Harry magical equipment to locate and destroy the last one, which is hidden somewhere in Hogwarts. Just then, Death Eaters burst into the office and apprehend Dumbledore. Malfoy prepares to uphold his end of the bargain, but following a pep talk from Dumbledore finds himself unable to strike the killing blow. Snape takes the initiative and kills Dumbledore himself, which so traumatises Harry that he declares he must fight Voldemort alone.
Voldemort successfully takes over the Ministry of Magic, but finds that he still pines for the companionship of Quirrell. Voldemort, Quirrell and Harry all lament those they have lost ("Missing You ''). Afterwards, a Death Eater informs Voldemort that Hogwarts has fallen, and Voldemort prepares to depart to Hogwarts itself.
Ginny finds Harry within Hogwarts and attempts to convince him that he has the power to save everyone; however, Harry is in denial and bemoans the unrealistic expectations and pressure placed on him as "The Boy Who Lived ''. Ginny, Ron, and Hermione reassure him that he is not alone in his fight against evil ("Not Alone ''). With the help of Malfoy, who has changed his ways, Harry and Ron head to Dumbledore 's office to destroy the last horcrux while Ginny and Hermione attempt to contact the Order of the Phoenix. Before parting, Ron apologizes to Hermione for his behaviour at the Yule Ball and the two share a sloppy, but passionate kiss.
Harry, Ron and Malfoy discover that the last horcrux is Dumbledore 's Zac Efron poster, which attempts to turn Ron against Harry by taking the forms of Voldemort and Hermione and preying on his insecurities. Ron fights off the deception and destroys the horcrux, reaffirming his friendship with Harry.
A group of Death Eaters led by Bellatrix storm the office, having captured Ginny and Hermione. Snape reveals himself to be a double agent and attempts to save the students, but is struck down by a snake conjured by Bellatrix. However, Ron and Ginny 's mother Molly comes to the rescue and kills Bellatrix. With his dying breath, Snape reveals that Harry became a seventh horcrux on the night of his parents ' death.
Voldemort arrives at Hogwarts and demands the student body turn over Harry in exchange for their lives. Harry realises that he must die to save everyone and surrenders himself to Voldemort, who kills him. Finding himself in what he believes to be a realm between life and death, Harry meets Dumbledore, who explains that Voldemort has inadvertently destroyed his seventh horcrux by killing Harry. Dumbledore sends Harry back to the realm of the living before departing to Pigfarts on the back of Rumbleroar, its lion headmaster.
Ron and Hermione rally the remaining students of Hogwarts ("Voldemort is Goin ' Down ''), their efforts greatly bolstered with the return of Harry. Voldemort breaks through the students ' barricade and is shocked to find that Harry is still alive. Harry explains that his act of self - sacrifice has rendered the student populace of Hogwarts immune to Voldemort 's magic, and that Voldemort 's lack of concern for others will ultimately be his downfall. Voldemort attempts the Killing Curse, but Harry reflects the spell and kills him.
The student body celebrate the death of Voldemort, with Dumbledore 's will tying up the last loose ends by posthumously awarding the House Cup to Gryffindor and appointing Harry as the new Headmaster. Harry passionately kisses Ginny, and all the students leave to throw a party.
In Azkaban, Quirrell learns of Voldemort 's death and is devastated. However, the last remnant of Voldemort 's spirit comes back to Quirrell, because he lives on in Quirrell 's happy memories of him and the love they had for each other. Voldemort shares the lessons he learnt and how he grew as a person, and the two joyfully reunite. The rest of the cast come onstage and they all link arms, showing the unity their adventure has brought. ("Not Alone / Goin ' Back to Hogwarts (Reprise) '').
A.J. Holmes, the piano player for the show, is involved in the actual musical twice, first leaving his duties as the piano player to give Ron some Twizzlers (not Red Vines, which would be saved for the next musical), and second being threatened by Voldemort when he starts playing sad music to accompany Voldemort thinking about Quirrell.
While reading Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Nick Lang and a few others attending the University of Michigan discussed the possibility of Draco Malfoy having a crush on Hermione Granger because of him constantly bullying her, and created the concept of a song "Granger Danger, '' which led to the idea of making a Harry Potter musical. When the script was being written, they asked Darren Criss if they could use his songs "Sami, '' which was originally written for the web series Little White Lie, and "Not Alone, '' which they ended up using as a model for the show.
Harry Potter: The Musical was performed April 9 -- 11, 2009, on the University of Michigan campus. Soon after, the group posted the entire musical on YouTube. However, it was later taken down and edited to make it less inappropriate for the younger audiences, but was posted again, slightly edited and under the new name A Very Potter Musical in late June 2009. As of March 2018, the production in its entirety has around 100 million views.
Due to the nature of the musical, Team Starkid is allowed by Warner Brothers to host the musical on their channel and owns the rights to the songs and script, but as they do not own the rights to the Harry Potter characters they can not make money off the production, nor can they give the rights for the show to any other production company: the University of Michigan version is the only "official '' production. This has not stopped unauthorized productions from being performed elsewhere, a source of ire for the company and its fans.
A cast recording of the production was released in 2009 through the StarKid Productions website. All of the songs featured on stage are present on the recording. The group also released the album through Bandcamp on July 29, 2010.
Entertainment Weekly named the musical one of the 10 Best Viral Videos of 2009.
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gene wilder puttin on the ritz young frankenstein | Young Frankenstein - wikipedia
Young Frankenstein is a 1974 American comedy horror film directed by Mel Brooks and starring Gene Wilder as the title character, a descendant of the infamous Dr. Victor Frankenstein, and Peter Boyle as the monster. The supporting cast includes Teri Garr, Cloris Leachman, Marty Feldman, Madeline Kahn, Kenneth Mars, Richard Haydn, and Gene Hackman. The screenplay was written by Wilder and Brooks.
The film is an affectionate parody of the classic horror film genre, in particular the various film adaptations of Mary Shelley 's novel Frankenstein produced by Universal in the 1930s. Most of the lab equipment used as props was created by Kenneth Strickfaden for the 1931 film Frankenstein. To help evoke the atmosphere of the earlier films, Brooks shot the picture entirely in black and white, a rarity in the 1970s, and employed 1930s ' style opening credits and scene transitions such as iris outs, wipes, and fades to black. The film also features a period score by Brooks ' longtime composer John Morris.
A critical favorite and box office smash, Young Frankenstein ranks No. 28 on Total Film magazine 's readers ' "List of the 50 Greatest Comedy Films of All Time '', No. 56 on Bravo TV 's list of the "100 Funniest Movies '', and No. 13 on the American Film Institute 's list of the 100 funniest American movies. In 2003, it was deemed "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant '' by the United States National Film Preservation Board, and selected for preservation in the Library of Congress National Film Registry. On its 40th anniversary, Brooks considered it by far his finest (though not his funniest) film as a writer - director.
Dr. Frederick Frankenstein is a lecturing physician at an American medical school and engaged to the tightly wound socialite Elizabeth. He becomes exasperated when anyone brings up the subject of his grandfather Victor Frankenstein, the infamous mad scientist; to dissociate himself from his forebear, Frederick insists that his surname is pronounced ' Fronkensteen '. When a solicitor informs him that he has inherited his family 's estate in Transylvania after the death of his great - grandfather, the Baron Beaufort von Frankenstein, Frederick travels to Europe to inspect the property. At the Transylvania train station, he is met by a hunchbacked, bug - eyed servant named Igor, and a lovely young personal assistant named Inga.
Upon arrival at the estate, Frederick meets the forbidding housekeeper Frau Blücher. Upon discovering the secret entrance to his grandfather 's laboratory and reading his private journals, Frederick is so captivated that he decides to resume his grandfather 's experiments in re-animating the dead. He and Igor steal the corpse of a recently executed criminal, and Frederick sets to work experimenting on the large corpse. Matters go awry when Igor is sent to steal the brain of a deceased revered historian, Hans Delbrück; startled by lightning, he drops and ruins Delbrück 's brain. Taking a second brain, Igor returns with a brain labeled "Abnormal '' which Igor mistakenly thinks is a name ("Abbie Normal ''), and Frederick unknowingly transplants it into the corpse.
Soon, Frederick is ready to re-animate his creature, who is eventually brought to life by electrical charges during a lightning storm. The creature takes its first halting steps, but, frightened by Igor lighting a match, he attacks Frederick and must be sedated. Meanwhile, the townspeople are uneasy at the possibility of Frederick continuing his grandfather 's work, unaware of the creature 's existence; most concerned is Inspector Kemp, a one - eyed police official with a prosthetic arm, whose German accent is so thick that even his own countrymen can not understand him. Kemp visits the doctor and subsequently demands assurance that he will not create another monster. Upon returning to the lab, Frederick discovers Blücher setting the creature free. After she reveals the monster 's love of violin music and her own romantic relationship with Frederick 's grandfather, the creature is enraged by sparks from a thrown switch and escapes from the Frankenstein castle.
While roaming the countryside, the monster has frustrating encounters with a young girl and a blind hermit. Frederick recaptures the monster and locks the two of them in a room, where he calms the monster 's homicidal tendencies with flattery and fully acknowledges his own heritage, shouting out emphatically, "My name is Frankenstein! ''. Frederick offers the sight of "The Creature '' following simple commands to a theater full of illustrious guests. The demonstration continues with Frederick and the monster launching into the musical number "Puttin ' On the Ritz ''. However, the routine ends disastrously when a stage light explodes and frightens the monster, who becomes enraged and charges into the audience, where he is captured and chained by police. Back in the laboratory, Inga attempts to comfort Frederick and the two wind - up sleeping together on the suspended reanimation table.
The monster escapes when Frederick 's fiancee Elizabeth arrives unexpectedly for a visit, taking Elizabeth captive as he flees. Elizabeth falls in love with the creature due to his inhuman stamina and his enormous penis (referred to as Schwanstücker or Schwanzstück). The townspeople hunt for the monster. Desperate to get the creature back, Frederick plays the violin to lure his creation back to the castle and recaptures him. Just as the Kemp - led mob storms the laboratory, Frankenstein transfers some of his stabilizing intellect to the creature who, as a result, is able to reason with and placate the mob. Elizabeth marries the now erudite and sophisticated monster -- with her hair styled identically to that of the female creature from the Bride of Frankenstein, while Inga joyfully learns what her new husband Frederick got in return during the transfer procedure -- the monster 's Schwanzstücker.
After several box office failures (which included now - cult classics The Producers and Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory), Gene Wilder finally hit box office success with a pivotal role in the 1972 Woody Allen film Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex * (* But Were Afraid to Ask). It was around that time that Wilder began toying around with an idea for an original story involving the grandson of Victor Frankenstein inheriting his grandfather 's mansion and his research.
Wilder had played around with screenwriting earlier in his career, writing a few unmade screenplays that were, by his own admission, not very good (the story idea of one of those early screenplays would form the basis of his 2007 novel My French Whore). While writing his story, he was approached by his agent (and future film mogul) Mike Medavoy who suggested he make a film with Medavoy 's two new clients, actor Peter Boyle and comedian Marty Feldman. Wilder mentioned his Frankenstein idea, and within a few days, sent Medavoy four pages of his idea (the entire Transylvania train station scene, which he had started writing after seeing Feldman on Dean Martin 's Comedy World).
It was Medavoy who suggested that Wilder talk to Mel Brooks about directing. Wilder had already talked to Brooks about the idea early on. After he wrote the two - page scenario, he called Brooks, who told him that it seemed like a "cute '' idea but showed little interest. Though Wilder believed that Brooks would not direct a film that he did not conceive, he again approached Brooks a few months later, when the two of them were shooting Blazing Saddles.
In a 2010 interview with Los Angeles Times, Mel Brooks discussed how the film came about:
I was in the middle of shooting the last few weeks of Blazing Saddles somewhere in the Antelope Valley, and Gene Wilder and I were having a cup of coffee and he said, I have this idea that there could be another Frankenstein. I said, "Not another! We 've had the son of, the cousin of, the brother - in - law. We do n't need another Frankenstein. '' His idea was very simple: What if the grandson of Dr. Frankenstein wanted nothing to do with the family whatsoever. He was ashamed of those wackos. I said, "That 's funny. ''
In a 2016 interview with Creative Screenwriting, Brooks elaborated on the writing process. He recalled,
Little by little, every night, Gene and I met at his bungalow at the Bel Air Hotel. We ordered a pot of Earl Grey tea coupled with a container of cream and a small kettle of brown sugar cubes. To go with it we had a pack of British digestive biscuits. And step - by - step, ever so cautiously, we proceeded on a dark narrow twisting path to the eventual screenplay in which good sense and caution are thrown out the window and madness ensues.
Unlike his previous and subsequent films, Brooks did not appear onscreen as himself in Young Frankenstein, though he recorded several voice parts and portrayed a German villager in one short scene. In 2012, Brooks explained why:
I was n't allowed to be in it. That was the deal Gene Wilder had. He (said), "If you 're not in it, I 'll do it. '' (Laughs.) He (said), "You have a way of breaking the fourth wall, whether you want to or not. I just want to keep it. I do n't want too much to be, you know, a wink at the audience. I love the script. '' He wrote the script with me. That was the deal. So I was n't in it, and he did it.
Mel Brooks wanted at least $2.3 million dedicated to the budget, whereas Columbia Pictures decided that $1.7 million had to be enough. Brooks instead went to 20th Century Fox for distribution, after they agreed to a higher budget. Fox would later sign both Wilder and Brooks to five year contracts at the studio.
While shooting, the cast ad - libbed several jokes used in the film. Cloris Leachman improvised a scene in which Frau Blücher offers "varm milk '' and Ovaltine to Dr. Frankenstein, while Marty Feldman surreptitiously moved his character 's hump from shoulder to shoulder until someone noticed it, and the gag was added to the film, as "Did n't you used to have that on the other side? '', an elaboration / follow - up to an earlier joke where Dr. Frankenstein offers his cosmetic services and is met with the response "What hump? ''
In one of the scenes of a village assembly, one of the authority figures says that they already know what Frankenstein is up to based on five previous experiences. On the DVD commentary track, Mel Brooks says this is a reference to the first five Universal films. In the Gene Wilder DVD interview, he says the film is based on Frankenstein (1931), Bride of Frankenstein (1935), Son of Frankenstein (1939) and The Ghost of Frankenstein (1942).
Young Frankenstein was a box office success upon release. The film grossed $86.2 million dollars on a $2.78 million dollar budget.
Young Frankenstein received mostly positive reviews from critics and currently holds a 93 % fresh rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 56 reviews with the consensus; "Made with obvious affection for the original, Young Frankenstein is a riotously silly spoof featuring a fantastic performance by Gene Wilder. ''
Young Frankenstein was first released onto DVD November 3, 1998. The film was released onto DVD the second time on September 5, 2006. The film then released on DVD the third time on September 9, 2014 as a 40th anniversary edition along with the Blu - ray.
ABC Records released the soundtrack on LP on December 15, 1974. On April 29, 1997, One Way Records reissued it on CD. There are pieces of dialogue by the actors as well as background and incidental music on the disc. The LP and disc are now out of print and command a very high price on Internet auction sites when available.
Track listing
Brooks adapted the film into a musical of the same name which premiered in Seattle at the Paramount Theatre and ran from August 7 to September 1, 2007. The musical opened on Broadway at the Foxwoods Theatre (then the Hilton Theatre) on November 8, 2007 and closed on January 4, 2009. It was nominated for three Tony Awards, and starred Tony winner Roger Bart, two - time Tony winner Sutton Foster, Tony & Olivier winner Shuler Hensley, two - time Emmy winner Megan Mullally, three - time Tony nominee Christopher Fitzgerald, and two - time Tony & Emmy winner Andrea Martin.
Nominations
Cloris Leachman was nominated as a lead despite Madeline Kahn having far more screen time.
Wins
In 2011, ABC aired a primetime special, Best in Film: The Greatest Movies of Our Time, that counted down the best movies chosen by fans based on results of a poll conducted by ABC and People. Young Frankenstein was selected as the No. 4 Best Comedy.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
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history of the capitol theatre port chester ny | Capitol Theatre (Port Chester, New York) - wikipedia
www.thecapitoltheatre.com
The Capitol Theatre is a historic theatre located in the village of Port Chester, Westchester County, New York. It was designed by noted theater architect Thomas W. Lamb (1871 - 1942) and built in 1926. The 1,800 - seat facility operates as a concert venue, hosting musicians and occasionally comedians, as owned and operated by NYC - based concert promoter Peter Shapiro. The Capitol Theatre has had a long history, with tenures as a movie theater and catering hall, in addition to hosting concerts.
It consists of two parts: a three - story section containing three storefronts, the theater entrance, two stories of office space; and the theater auditorium. The front section is nine bays wide and four bays deep with a truncated hipped roof. It features a decorative terra cotta cornice. The theater structure is irregular in shape and ranges from four to seven stories in height.
The Capitol Theatre was built for Vaudeville and Cinema and continued as a movie theater until 1970. Its opening night in 1926 sold out all 2,000 seats and had to turn hundreds away.
In the 1970s, the theatre was renovated for use as a performance space. The Capitol was utilized as a concert space throughout the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s, and featured performances by such acts as Pink Floyd, Johnnie Winter Rick Derringer The Grateful Dead, Janis Joplin, Parliament - Funkadelic and Traffic. The Grateful Dead played 13 dates at the Capitol Theatre in a one - year span from 1970 - 1971. American Songwriter notes that "Many fans think those shows were some of the best the band ever played. '' Janis Joplin debuted her song Mercedes Benz at the theater, to the surprise of her band, after writing it at a bar nearby. In 1984, the Capitol Theatre was added to the National Register of Historic Places. In the 1980s, the frequency of live events at the theatre diminished, partially due to a village curfew for live music after 1: 00 am. The Capitol would host off - Broadway plays and musicals, and events run by the Port Chester Council of the Arts. The 1990s would see some live music again, with the likes of Phish, Blues Traveler, Spin Doctors and Strangefolk. Both David Bowie and the Rolling Stones performed at the Capitol in 1997, as part of episodes of the MTV television program Live From The 10 Spot.
The theatre later became a catering and special - events facility, run by owner Marvin Ravikoff. The lower level seats were removed to create a flat space for tables and a dance floor for weddings, Bar Mitzvot and other events.
In December 2011, The New York Times announced that the theatre was to be reopened by music entrepreneur Peter Shapiro, owner of the Brooklyn Bowl and former owner of the NYC club Wetlands Preserve, to present major concerts at the venue, in partnership with concert promoter The Bowery Presents. A multimillion - dollar renovation took place; "state - of - the - art '' sound and lighting equipment was installed. Part of the renovations included acquiring the adjacent Capitol Jewelers store and converting it into a bar, which is open to the public most nights when the theatre does not have an event. The bar, with the approval of the estate of the Garcia family, was named "Garcia 's '' in honor of Grateful Dead guitarist Jerry Garcia. The Capitol Theatre reopened on September 4, 2012, with Bob Dylan as its first act. Initially, Shapiro had a long - term lease on the Capitol Theatre, which, at the time, was owned by Marvin Ravikoff. In December 2012, Shapiro purchased the theatre. The theatre has hosted many famous performers and top acts such as, BB King, Furthur, Willie Nelson, the Black Crowes, George Lopez, Elvis Costello & The Roots, Steely Dan, Al Green, the B - 52s, and Yo Gabba Gabba.
In 2013 alone the venue hosted Dawes, Blondie, Pat Benatar, Billy Idol, the Rascals, and Chicago, and scheduled Neil Young, Willie Nelson, Chris Isaak, Yes, Foreigner, Patti Smith, Courtney Love, Bonnie Raitt, Jonny Lang, Cyndi Lauper, Herbie Hancock and many other top performers.
On November 3, 2013, The New York Times reported that Phil Lesh, longtime bass player of the Grateful Dead, would play 45 shows with Shapiro of which 30 would take place at the Capitol Theatre and the first at Brooklyn Bowl on November 14, 2013. Since Lesh 's retirement from touring in 2014 he has performed multiple residencies each year at the Capitol Theatre in addition to performing other shows at his own venue, Terrapin Crossroads in San Rafael, California, and occasionally other venues, often ones owned by Shapiro.
The Capitol Theatre was the filming location for comedian Bo Burnham 's stand - up special Make Happy.
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where did better late than never come from | Better Late Than Never (TV series) - wikipedia
Better Late Than Never was an American reality - travel show that airs on NBC and is produced by Universal Television (under its Universal Television Alternative name), in association with Storyline Entertainment. The series is an adaptation of the South Korean Grandpas Over Flowers series. The cast includes four "seasoned '' North American celebrities William Shatner, Henry Winkler, George Foreman and Terry Bradshaw, accompanied by younger comedian Jeff Dye, as they travel overseas without luxuries, experiencing new cultures and checking off their bucket lists. The series started productions in August 2015 and premiered August 23, 2016.
On September 22, 2016, NBC renewed the series for a second season, set in various European and African countries, which premiered on January 1, 2018. A special preview aired on December 11, 2017. On July 16, 2018, the series was cancelled after two seasons.
In late 2014, NBC bought the remake rights for the South Korean series Grandpas Over Flowers from CJ E&M. The original show was one of the first successful programs for cable tvN and had two spin - off shows. It premiered in 2013, reached a high local rating of 12.5 percent, and became popular in other Asian countries, with the combination of veteran actors in their seventies and a popular young actor attracting a wide demographic range of viewers for a reality show.
The show is being produced by cast member Winkler, along with Jason Ehrlich, producer of The Bachelor and The Bachelorette, Tim Crescenti, of I Survived a Japanese Game Show and Storyline Entertainment 's two producers Craig Zadan and Neil Meron, of The Bucket List.
Plans for the series were announced in June 2015. Productions started in Japan in August, and on August 12, 2015, the cast was interviewed by comedian Bibiru Ōki on Japan 's Nippon TV talk show PON!, and filmed for the NBC show with the Japanese cast. Also in August, the cast visited South Korea, arriving in Seoul on August 20 for a three - day trip, including a visit to COEX for filming with cameo guests, K - pop girl group Girls ' Generation, and trips to Hwaseong Fortress, Caribbean Bay, Itaewon, and the Korean Demilitarized Zone
Japan, including Tokyo and Kyoto, was the first stop for the show, with more trips to include Seoul, Hong Kong, Phuket and Chiang Mai.
According to NBC, the five cast members will rely on each other for support and encouragement and demonstrate that friendship is the ultimate gift. While filming the show in Southeast Asia, Shatner, the oldest cast member at age 84, became interested in Buddhism and meditation after spending time with a Buddhist monk. He said, "The disaster of death is encroaching so I 'm more and more aware of how beautiful it is to be alive. ''
The cast includes actor, producer, writer and director Henry Winkler, best known for his character The Fonz from the series Happy Days; actor, director and writer William Shatner who starred as, among other roles, Capt. James T. Kirk in Star Trek; four - time Super Bowl - winning quarterback and current football broadcaster Terry Bradshaw; and former heavyweight boxing champion George Foreman. Like the original show, the older cast will be accompanied by a younger cast member, comedian Jeff Dye, from NBC 's Last Comic Standing, who will take on the equivalent role as Lee Seo - jin 's, as "bag carrier and human navigator. ''
This is the first time a South Korean local variety program was adapted by a North American national broadcast network. During production time, the show 's sponsors, Korea Tourism Organization, anticipated the advertising effect of the airing of the Korea episode on NBC prime time to amount to as much as 11 billion won ($9.2 million dollars).
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what happened to nebula in guardians of the galaxy 2 | Nebula (Comics) - wikipedia
Nebula is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by Roger Stern and John Buscema, the character first appeared in The Avengers # 257 (July 1985). A pirate and mercenary operating in outer space, the character has frequently appeared as an enemy of the Avengers and the Silver Surfer.
Nebula has appeared in various adaptations of the Marvel comics, including animated television series and video games. Karen Gillan portrays the character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, beginning with the 2014 film Guardians of the Galaxy and its 2017 sequel Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. She reprised the role in the 2018 film Avengers: Infinity War and will do so for the 2019 untitled Avengers film.
Nebula was created by writer Roger Stern and artist John Buscema, and first appeared in The Avengers # 257 (July 1985).
A brutal space pirate and mercenary, Nebula seized control of Sanctuary II, a massive spaceship previously under the command of Thanos. Thanos was believed to be dead at this point, and Nebula claimed that he had been her grandfather. Nebula 's band of mercenaries and pirates consisted of Skunge, Kehl, Gunthar and Levan.
Nebula asked the second Captain Marvel to join her mercenary band and aid them in conquering the Skrull Empire. However, Firelord learned that Nebula had massacred the Xandarians. Nebula used her space fleet to attack the Skrull space armada and the Avengers.
Nebula then schemed to gain absolute power using Earth scientist Dr. Harker 's atomic compressor to release vast amounts of energy that were absorbed by the Infinity Union (Although this attempt nearly triggered the end of the universe when the experiment caused a second Big Bang that came close to annihilating everything before a small group of Avengers -- Captain America, Iron Man, Thor, Spider - Man and Sersi -- were able to escape the destruction and shut down the equipment in time to negate the unmaking of existence). She fought the Avengers, and absorbed energies from the Infinity Union through the implant in her brain. As she fought the Avengers, she lost her powers when Sersi removed the brain implant. Nebula then escaped.
The newly resurrected Thanos was offended by Nebula 's claims of kinship. He reclaimed his ship and almost kills her, using the Infinity Gems. He transformed her into a grotesque virtual corpse still barely alive, leaving her as a maimed and seemingly mindless zombie, burned and disfigured by his energy beams.
When he later claimed the Infinity Gauntlet, Thanos boasted that Nebula was his greatest creation -- unable to die, but not truly alive either. However, when Thanos defeated Eternity and took his place, Thanos expanded his consciousness into the universe, leaving his body comatose. Nebula managed to take the Gauntlet from Thanos, using its power to restore herself to health and banish Thanos, seeking to conquer the universe herself. Thanos agreed to help a loose band of heroes defeat Nebula. The group in question consisted of Adam Warlock, Doctor Strange, the Silver Surfer, Thor, the Hulk, Firelord, Doctor Doom and Drax the Destroyer -- the only heroes that Strange had been able to locate in the time available to him. The group confronted her, and, with Thanos exploiting Nebula 's inexperience with wielding the Gauntlet, she was tricked into undoing the events of Thanos 's godhood and all the death and destruction Thanos wreaked with his power.
The Cosmic Pantheon (which Thanos had earlier defeated) immediately appeared, and battled her. With Nebula thus distracted -- lacking the knowledge to realize that they were keeping her occupied by attacking her all at once, thus preventing her from thinking of a less direct method of assault -- the Surfer and Warlock were able to steal the Gauntlet from her by exploiting Warlock 's connection to the Soul Gem, disrupting the unity between the Infinity Gems and forcing Nebula to drop the Gauntlet. Nebula was captured by Starfox and returned to Titan for trial, while Adam Warlock claimed the Gauntlet.
Nebula was later confronted by Firelord in the Titanian prison. In flashback, the murder of her abusive father was depicted. Nebula was later freed from prison by Geatar, and converted into a cyborg by Doctor Mandibus. She attempted to free her pirate crew from the "Anvil '' space prison, but was thwarted by the Silver Surfer and Jack of Hearts. She killed her crew in escaping.
Nebula has appeared as one of Gamora 's followers, ' The Graces '. In this role, she battled Ronan the Accuser alongside Stellaris. Ronan triumphed, severely wounding her.
Nebula is an athletic woman, and an excellent armed and unarmed combatant. She possesses a gifted intellect and is a brilliant battle strategist.
Nebula uses blasters worn on her wrists that fire concussive blasts of unknown energy or heat blasts that can incinerate a human being almost instantly. She also apparently wears a device that enables her to disguise her appearance, either through illusion - casting or through actual molecular rearrangement of her body and clothing.
Nebula was converted by Doctor Mandibus into a cyborg. She was given an artificial left eye, left arm, and left shoulder. The left upper quarter of her head and part of her right hip are sheathed in metal.
Nebula briefly possessed the Infinity Union, a combination of three devices that together could channel all forms of ambient energy into her which infused her with vast energies. She also briefly possessed the Infinity Gauntlet, which held six "Infinity Gems '' of virtually - unlimited power, which gave her seemingly - absolute control of reality while she possessed them. However, her short sightedness meant that she often made crucial errors in judgment when wielding the power, like undoing the events of Thanos 's godhood without realizing that this would revert her to her near - death state and free the imprisoned Cosmic Pantheon whom Thanos had recently defeated.
Karen Gillan portrays Nebula in the Marvel Cinematic Universe as one of the children raised by Thanos alongside her adopted sister Gamora. Over time, Nebula developed an obsessive need to best Gamora in combat. Every time she lost a sparring match, Thanos subjecting Nebula to torturous mutilation, replacing parts of her body with cybernetic enhancements for further improvement. This imbued Nebula with a deep hatred toward Thanos.
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supreme court cases dealing with the 9th amendment | Griswold v. Connecticut - wikipedia
Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479 (1965), is a landmark case in the United States about access to contraception. The case involved a Connecticut "Comstock law '' that prohibited any person from using "any drug, medicinal article or instrument for the purpose of preventing conception. '' The court held that the statute was unconstitutional, and that "the clear effect of (the Connecticut law...) is to deny disadvantaged citizens (...) access to medical assistance and up - to - date information in respect to proper methods of birth control. '' By a vote of 7 -- 2, the Supreme Court invalidated the law on the grounds that it violated the "right to marital privacy '', establishing the basis for the right to privacy with respect to intimate practices. This and other cases view the right to privacy as a right to "protect (ion) from governmental intrusion. ''
Although the Bill of Rights does not explicitly mention "privacy '', Justice William O. Douglas wrote for the majority that the right was to be found in the "penumbras '' and "emanations '' of other constitutional protections, such as the self - incrimination clause of the Fifth Amendment. Douglas wrote, "Would we allow the police to search the sacred precincts of marital bedrooms for telltale signs of the use of contraceptives? The very idea is repulsive to the notions of privacy surrounding the marriage relationship. '' Justice Arthur Goldberg wrote a concurring opinion in which he used the Ninth Amendment in support of the Supreme Court 's ruling. Justice Byron White and Justice John Marshall Harlan II wrote concurring opinions in which they argued that privacy is protected by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Griswold v. Connecticut originated as a prosecution under the Connecticut Comstock Act of 1873. The law made it illegal to use "any drug, medicinal article, or instrument for the purpose of preventing conception (...) ''. Violators could be "(...) fined not less than fifty dollars or imprisoned not less than sixty days nor more than one year or be both fined and imprisoned. '' By the 1950s, Massachusetts and Connecticut were the only two states that still had such statutes, although they were almost never enforced.
In the late 19th and early 20th century, physicians in the United States largely avoided the publication of any material related to birth control, even when they often recommended or at least gave advice regarding it to their married patients. Then in 1914, Margaret Sanger openly challenged the public consensus against contraception. She influenced the Connecticut Birth Control League (CBCL) and helped to develop the eventual concept of the Planned Parenthood clinics.
The first Planned Parenthood clinic in Connecticut opened in 1935 in Hartford. It provided services to women who had no access to a gynecologist, including information about artificial contraception and other methods to plan the growth of their families. Several clinics were opened in Connecticut over the following years, including the Waterbury clinic that led to the legal dispute. In 1939, this clinic was compelled to enforce the 1879 anti-contraception law on poor women patients. This caught the attention of the CBCL leaders, who remarked on the importance of birth control for cases in which the lives of the patients depended upon it.
During the 1940s, several cases arose from the provision of contraception by the Waterbury clinic, leading to legal challenges to the constitutionality of the Comstock law, but these failed on technical grounds. In Tileston v. Ullman (1943), a doctor and mother challenged the law on the grounds that a ban on contraception could, in certain sexual situations, threaten the lives and well - being of patients. The U.S. Supreme Court dismissed the appeal on the grounds that the plaintiff lacked standing to sue on behalf of his patients. Yale School of Medicine gynecologist C. Lee Buxton and his patients brought a second challenge to the law in Poe v. Ullman (1961). The Supreme Court again dismissed the appeal, on the grounds that the case was not ripe: the plaintiffs had not been charged or threatened with prosecution, so there was no actual controversy for the Court to resolve.
The polemic around Poe led to the appeal in Griswold v. Connecticut, primarily based on the dissent of Justice John Marshall Harlan II in Poe, one of the most cited dissents in Supreme Court history.
(T) he full scope of the liberty guaranteed by the Due Process Clause can not be found in or limited by the precise terms of the specific guarantees elsewhere provided in the Constitution. This ' liberty ' is not a series of isolated points pricked out in terms of the taking of property; the freedom of speech, press, and religion; the right to keep and bear arms; the freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures; and so on. It is a rational continuum which, broadly speaking, includes a freedom from all substantial arbitrary impositions and purposeless restraints. -- Justice John Marshall Harlan II, dissent in Poe v. Ullman.
He argued, foremost, that the Supreme Court should have heard the case rather than dismissing it. Thereafter, he indicated his support for a broad interpretation of the due process clause. On the basis of this interpretation, Harlan concluded that the Connecticut statute violated the Constitution.
After Poe was handed down on June 1961, the Planned Parenthood League of Connecticut (PPLC) decided to challenge the law again. Estelle T. Griswold served on the PPLC as Executive Director from 1954 to 1965. Struggling through legal battles against birth control restrictions in Connecticut, Griswold and PPLC made an initial effort to financially support women who wanted contraceptives to bus to cities in New York and Rhode Island. PPLC Executive Director Estelle Griswold and Dr. Buxton (PPLC medical volunteer), opened a birth control clinic in New Haven, Connecticut, "thus directly challeng (ing) the state law. '' The clinic opened on November 1, 1961, and that same day received its first ten patients and dozens of appointment requests from married women who wanted birth control advice and prescriptions. Griswold and Buxton were arrested, tried, found guilty, and fined $100 each. The conviction was upheld by the Appellate Division of the Circuit Court, and by the Connecticut Supreme Court.
Griswold appealed her conviction to the United States Supreme Court, arguing that the Connecticut statute was a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution, which reads that "no state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law... nor deny any person the equal protection of the laws, '' (Amendment 14 Section 1). By a 7 -- 2 majority, on June 7, 1965 the Supreme Court concluded that the Connecticut statute was unconstitutional.
Justice William O. Douglas, writing for the majority of the court, recognized the right to privacy, even though not enumerated in the Bill of Rights, is found in the "penumbras '' and "emanations '' of other constitutional protections, such as the self - incrimination clause of the Fifth Amendment, or the freedom of association clause of the First Amendment. The right to privacy is seen as a right to "protect (ion) from governmental intrusion. '' Justice Arthur Goldberg wrote a concurring opinion in which he used the Ninth Amendment in support of the Supreme Court 's ruling, reasoning that the right of privacy was retained by the people. Justice Byron White and Justice John Marshall Harlan II also wrote concurring opinions in which they argued that privacy is protected by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Justices Hugo Black and Potter Stewart wrote dissenting opinions. Justice Black argued that the right to privacy is nowhere to be found in the Constitution. Furthermore, he criticized the interpretations of the Ninth and Fourteenth Amendments by his fellow justices. Justice Stewart called the Connecticut statute "an uncommonly silly law '' but argued that it was nevertheless constitutional.
The final decision of the court was later used in other cases related to sexual practices and other personal, often considered private, decisions for the American citizens.
Later decisions by the U.S. Supreme Court extended the principles of Griswold beyond its particular facts.
Eisenstadt v. Baird (1972) extended its holding to unmarried couples, whereas the "right of privacy '' in Griswold was said to only apply to marital relationships. The argument in Eisenstadt was that it was a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to deny unmarried couples the right to use contraception when married couples did have that right (under Griswold). Writing for the majority, Justice Brennan wrote that Massachusetts could not enforce the law against married couples because of Griswold v. Connecticut, so the law worked "irrational discrimination '' if not extended to unmarried couples as well.
The reasoning and language of both Griswold and Eisenstadt were cited in the concurring opinion by Associate Justice Potter Stewart in support of Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973). The decision in Roe struck down a Texas law that criminalized aiding a woman in getting an abortion. The Court ruled that this law was a violation of the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Abortion became legalized for any woman for any reason, up through the first trimester, with possible restrictions for maternal health in the second trimester (the midpoint of which is the approximate time of fetal viability). In the third trimester of pregnancy, abortion is potentially illegal with exception for the mother 's health, which the court defined broadly in Doe v. Bolton.
Carey v. Population Services International (1977)
Lawrence v. Texas (2003) struck down a Texas sodomy law that prohibited certain forms of intimate sexual contact between members of the same sex. Without stating a standard of review in the majority opinion, the court overruled Bowers v. Hardwick (1986), declaring that the "Texas statute furthers no legitimate state interest which can justify its intrusion into the personal and private life of the individual. '' Justice O'Connor, who wrote a concurring opinion, framed it as an issue of rational basis review. Justice Kennedy 's majority opinion, based on the liberty interest protected by the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, stated that the Texas anti-sodomy statute touched "upon the most private human conduct, sexual behavior, and in the most private of places, the home, '' and attempted to "control a personal relationship that... is within the liberty of persons to choose without being punished. '' Thus, the Court held that adults are entitled to participate in private, consensual sexual conduct. While the opinion in Lawrence was framed in terms of the right to liberty, Kennedy described the "right to privacy '' found in Griswold as the "most pertinent beginning point '' in the evolution of the concepts embodied in Lawrence.
Griswold was also cited in a chain of cases that led the Supreme Court to legalize same - sex marriage in another landmark case, Obergefell v. Hodges.
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who returns on el dia de los muertos in the book of life | The Book of Life (2014 film) - wikipedia
The Book of Life is a 2014 American 3D computer - animated musical fantasy adventure comedy film produced by Reel FX Creative Studios and distributed by 20th Century Fox. Co-written and directed by Jorge R. Gutierrez, it was produced by Aaron Berger, Brad Booker, Guillermo del Toro, and Carina Schulze. The film stars the voices of Diego Luna, Zoe Saldana, Channing Tatum, Christina Applegate, Ice Cube, Ron Perlman, and Kate del Castillo. Based on an original idea by Gutierrez, the story follows a bullfighter who, on the Day of the Dead, embarks on an afterlife adventure to fulfill the expectations of his family and friends.
The film premiered in Los Angeles on October 12, 2014, and was released theatrically in the United States on October 17, 2014. It received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Animated Feature Film. The film grossed $99 million on a $50 million budget.
Mary Beth, a museum tour guide, takes a group of school detention students on a secret museum tour, telling them, with wooden figures, the story of a Mexican town called San Angel from the Book of Life, holding every story in the world.
On the Day of the Dead, La Muerte, ruler of the Land of the Remembered, and Xibalba, ruler of the Land of the Forgotten, set a wager for their own worlds after seeing Manolo Sánchez and Joaquín Mondragon competing over María Posada. La Muerte bets on Manolo while Xibalba bets on Joaquín. However, Xibalba cheats by giving Joaquín his Medal of Everlasting Life, granting the wearer invincibility. María frees a herd of captive pigs, resulting her being sent to a boarding school in Spain. Parting ways, Manolo gives her one of the rescued baby pigs, which he named Chuy, and she gives him a guitar engraved with the phrase "Always play from the heart ''.
Years later, Manolo 's dreams are suppressed by his father Carlos, who trains him to be a bullfighter to honor their family, while Joaquín becomes a hero with the Medal 's aid. On Manolo 's first bullfight, María returns. Manolo defeats the bull but refuses to kill it, dismaying Carlos and the crowd but impressing María. That night, María is pressured by her father and mayor, General Ramiro Posada, to marry Joaquín for his protection from the Bandit King Chakal. María and Manolo both profess their love before dawn but are interrupted when Xibalba sends his dual - headed snake staff who bites her once and sends her into a coma. Devastated by María 's apparent death, Manolo allows Xibalba to kill him, believing he will be reunited with María in death.
At the Land of the Remembered, Manolo reunites with his mother Carmen and his ancestral family. They travel to La Muerte 's castle, discovering Xibalba, now the new ruler of the Land of the Remembered, who explains the bet and that the snake only killed him. María awakens (thanks to Joaquín 's Medal), learns of Manolo 's death, and accepts Joaquín 's proposal, despite Joaquín 's protestation. Manolo, Carmen, and his grandfather Luis, travel to the Cave of Souls to reach La Muerte. Inside, they meet the Candle Maker, the overseer of mortal lives and the Book of Life 's keeper. After seeing that Manolo 's story in the Book of Life is blank and can be rewritten by himself, he takes them to the Land of the Forgotten. They find La Muerte at Xibalba 's previous castle and expose his cheating. Furious, La Muerte lectures Xibalba before offering a new wager at Manolo 's request: Manolo 's life will be returned if he completes a challenge of Xibalba 's choosing, but if he fails, he will be forgotten and Xibalba will keep both realms. Xibalba sets Manolo against a giant bull skeleton made from the skeletons of every bull slain by the Sanchez family, believing that to be his greatest fear.
In the Land of the Living, Chakal leads his army to San Angel (in middle of María and Joaquín 's wedding) to find the Medal, which was previously his. Chakal kills Carlos, who arrives in the Land of the Remembered in time to see Manolo 's fight. Manolo, realizing his fear is actually that of being himself, refuses to fight and instead sings an apology to the bull, appeasing it and touching his family, even the deities (especially Xibalba). Impressed, the deities restore Manolo to life and send him and his family to San Angel to protect it from Chakal and his army. Manolo is knocked unconscious when Chakal destructs himself, but he is protected by the Medal, which Joaquín had slipped him earlier. Joaquín returns it to Xibalba and resolves to be a true hero, while Manolo and María are happily married as Xibalba and La Muerte reconcile.
In the present, Mary Beth finishes the story, and the now - amazed children leave the museum. Mary Beth and an elderly security guard named Guicho reveal themselves to be La Muerte and Xibalba in disguise (and still very much in love). The Candle Maker appears and encourages the audience by showing them the Book of Life and telling them to write their own story.
The Book of Life was originally optioned by DreamWorks Animation in 2007, but never went beyond development because of "creative differences ''. From there the film went to Reel FX, with 20th Century Fox handling distribution rights. The film was initially given a release date of October 10, 2014; however, this was eventually moved back by a week. On October 16, 2013, it was announced that Channing Tatum, Zoe Saldana, Diego Luna and Christina Applegate would star as voice actors in the film.
Jorge Gutierrez, co-creator of Nickelodeon 's El Tigre: The Adventures of Manny Rivera, wanted to make the final animation look like the concept artwork saying: "I saw every single one that comes out and my biggest heartbreak is that I see all this glorious art, and then the movie does n't look like that! The mandate of this movie was: Our ' Art of ' book is going to look exactly like the movie. And every artist poured their heart and soul into that idea. '' Gutierrez did not permit his animation team to go on any research trips to Mexico, feeling that such trips often only covered very touristy aspects of the culture. Instead he had the team address any questions they had about the region to him.
The Book of Life made its world premiere in Los Angeles on October 12, 2014. It was released on October 17, 2014 in North America.
The Book of Life was released on DVD, Blu - ray and Blu - ray 3D on January 27, 2015 by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment. The special features included a 3 - minute short animated film, titled The Adventures of Chuy.
In April 2013, it was announced Gustavo Santaolalla and Paul Williams would be adapting pop songs for the film. The soundtrack was released on September 29, 2014, on iTunes, and was released on CD on October 27, 2014, by Sony Masterworks.
The Book of Life grossed $50.2 million in North America and $49.6 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $99.8 million, against a production budget of $50 million.
The Book of Life was released in the United States and Canada on October 17, 2014. The film earned $300,000 from Thursday late night showings from 2,150 theatres and $4.9 million on its opening day. The film debuted at number three in its opening weekend earning $17 million at an average of $5,537 per theatre behind Fury ($23.5 million) and Gone Girl ($17.8 million). The film played 57 % female and 54 % under the age of 25 years. It played 59 % under 10 - years old while 31 % of tickets sold were in 3D.
In other territories, The Book of Life earned $8.58 million from 3,654 screens in 19 markets. The highest debuts came from Mexico ($3.84 million) and Brazil ($1.98 million). In Mexico, the film was number two behind the local film Perfect Dictatorship.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 82 % based on 107 reviews, with an average rating of 7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads "The Book of Life 's gorgeous animation is a treat, but it 's a pity that its story lacks the same level of craft and detail that its thrilling visuals provide. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 67 out of 100, based on 27 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Geoff Berkshire of Variety gave the film a positive review, saying "Repping a major step forward for Dallas - based Reel FX Animation Studios (after their anemic feature bow on last year 's Free Birds), the beautifully rendered CG animation brings an unusually warm and heartfelt quality to the high - tech medium and emerges as the film 's true calling card. '' Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a positive review, saying "The Book of Life is a visually stunning effort that makes up for its formulaic storyline with an enchanting atmosphere that sweeps you into its fantastical world, or in this case, three worlds. '' Simon Abrams of The Village Voice gave the film a negative review, saying "The Book of Life 's hackneyed stock plot preaches tolerance while lamely reinforcing the status quo. '' Marc Snetiker of Entertainment Weekly gave the film an A -, saying "Overflowing with hyperactive charm and a spectacular sea of colors, it showcases some of the most breathtaking animation we 've seen this decade. '' Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "The dizzying, intricate imagery is so beautiful, and the Latin - inspired songs catchy enough that the overall effect is often enchanting. '' Sara Stewart of The New York Post gave the film two out of four stars, saying "Just in time for Mexico 's Day of the Dead holiday comes this gloriously colorful animated musical, which almost (but not quite) makes up in visuals what it lacks in snappy dialogue. '' Katie Rife of The A.V. Club gave the film a B -, saying "Ultimately, what drags The Book Of Life down is its insistence on trying to update an (original) folkloric story for a contemporary audience. In practice, this means adding some pop - cultural touches that only serve to take the viewer out of the fantastic setting. ''
Michael Ordoña of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film three out of five stars, saying "The vibrant animated feature The Book of Life is a cheeky celebration of Mexican folklore with a solid cast, an irreverent sensibility and gorgeous visuals. '' Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post gave the film three out of five stars, saying "The Book of Life may use state - of - the - art animation, but it derives its strength from the wisdom of antiquity. It only looks new, but it 's as old as life (and death) itself. Bill Goodykoontz of The Arizona Republic gave the film four out of five stars, saying "A visually stunning, funny movie that trusts children to deal with subject matter that many films do n't: specifically, death. '' Frank Lovece of Newsday gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Funny without being frantic, seamlessly switching from dry humor to slapstick, it shows death as a part of life -- and, judging from a preview audience of very young tykes, does so in a gentle, delightful way. '' Manohla Dargis of The New York Times gave the film a negative review, saying "This often beautiful and too - often moribund, if exhaustingly frenetic, feature tends to be less energetic than the dead people waltzing through it. '' Conversely, Charles Solomon of the Los Angeles Times gave the film a negative review, saying "The Book of Life juxtaposes overwrought visual imagery with an undernourished, familiar story - regrettable flaws in one of the few animated films to focus on Latino characters and the rich heritage of Mexican folk culture. '' Marjorie Baumgarten of The Austin Chronicle gave the film two and a half stars out of five, saying "Visually arresting but dramatically rote, The Book of Life at least introduces American kids to the Mexican holiday of Día de los Muertos and should score points with families looking for kid - friendly movies that reflect aspects of their Mexican cultural heritage. ''
Calvin Wilson of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch gave the film two and a half stars out of five, saying "The Book of Life is a flawed but intriguing new chapter in animation. '' James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film three out of four stars, saying "The Book of Life moves breezily from one scene to the next, keeping the pace brisk and rarely skipping a beat. '' Laura Emerick of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Whether en ingles o en espanol, The Book of Life is a delight. In an animated universe cluttered with kung - fu pandas, ice princesses and video - game heroes, Gutierrez and del Toro have conjured up an original vision. '' Tasha Robinson of The Dissolve gave the film three and a half stars out of five, saying "It 's all flawed, and distracted, and conceptually messy, prioritizing color over common sense and energy over consistency. But as an afternoon 's diversion for a handful of misbehaving kids -- both within the movie, and within the movie theater -- it 's authentically winning. '' Michael Ordona of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film a positive review, saying "There are no great surprises, no shocking reveals (except to the characters themselves). But there 's so much to appreciate along the way that it 's a real page - turner. '' Kenji Fujishima of Slant Magazine gave the film two out of four stars, saying "Jorge R. Gutierrez subsumes the film 's darker themes in a relentlessly busy farrago of predictable kids ' - movie tropes and annoying attempts at hipness. '' Ben Sachs of the Chicago Reader gave the film a negative review, saying "This Pixar knockoff from 20th Century Fox is more imaginative than most, though like far too many of them, it 's undone by a surfeit of glib one - liners and pop culture references. ''
Director Jorge Gutierrez revealed in an interview that one of the ideas for the next chapter in the story involves Joaquin and his relationship with his father. "I had always imagined the first movie to be about Manolo, the second to be about Joaquín and the third one to be about Maria... I 've always conceived it as a trilogy. '' In June 2017, Gutierrez and Reel FX Animation announced that the development on the sequel had begun.
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who sang mack the knife with frank sinatra | Mack the Knife - wikipedia
"Die Moritat von Mackie Messer '' (later known as "Mack the Knife '' or "The Ballad of Mack the Knife '') is a song composed by Kurt Weill with lyrics by Bertolt Brecht for their music drama Die Dreigroschenoper, or, as it is known in English, The Threepenny Opera. It premiered in Berlin in 1928 at the Theater am Schiffbauerdamm. The song has become a popular standard recorded by many artists, including a US and UK number one hit for Bobby Darin in 1959.
A Moritat is a medieval version of the murder ballad performed by strolling minstrels. In The Threepenny Opera, the Moritat singer with his street organ introduces and closes the drama with the tale of the deadly Mackie Messer, or Mack the Knife, a character based on the dashing highwayman Macheath in John Gay 's The Beggar 's Opera (who was in turn based on the historical thief Jack Sheppard). The Brecht - Weill version of the character was far more cruel and sinister, and has been transformed into a modern anti-hero.
The play opens with the Moritat singer comparing Macheath (unfavorably) with a shark, and then telling tales of his robberies, murders, rapes, and arson.
The song was a last - minute addition, inserted just before its premiere in 1928, because Harald Paulsen, the actor who played Macheath, demanded that Brecht and Weill add another number that would more effectively introduce his character. However, Weill and Brecht decided the song should not be sung by Macheath himself, opting instead to write the song for a street singer in keeping with the Moritat tradition. At the premiere, the song was sung by Kurt Gerron, who played Police Chief Brown. Weill also intended the Moritat to be accompanied by a barrel organ, which was to be played by the singer. At the premiere, though, the barrel organ failed, and the pit orchestra (a jazz band) had to quickly provide the accompaniment for the street singer.
Und der Haifisch, der hat Zähne, Und die trägt er im Gesicht. Und Macheath, der hat ein Messer, Doch das Messer sieht man nicht.
And the shark, it has teeth, And it wears them in the face. And Macheath, he has a knife, But the knife ca n't be seen.
The song was translated into French as "La complainte de Mackie '' by André Mauprey and Ninon Steinhoff and popularized by Catherine Sauvage.
The song was first introduced to American audiences in 1933 in the first English - language production of The Threepenny Opera. The English lyrics were by Gifford Cochran and Jerrold Krimsky. That production, however, was not successful, closing after a run of only ten days. In the best known English translation, from the Marc Blitzstein 1954 version of The Threepenny Opera, which played Off - Broadway for over six years, the words are:
Oh, the shark has pretty teeth, dear, And he shows them pearly white Just a jack - knife has Macheath, dear And he keeps it out of sight.
Blitzstein 's translation provides the basis for most of the popular versions heard today, including those by Louis Armstrong (1956) and Bobby Darin (1959; Darin 's lyrics differ slightly), and most subsequent swing versions. Weill 's widow, Lotte Lenya, the star of both the original 1928 German production and the 1954 Blitzstein Broadway version, was present in the studio during Armstrong 's recording. He spontaneously added her name to the lyrics ("Look out, Miss Lotte Lenya ''), which already named several of Macheath 's female victims. The Armstrong version was later used by Bobby Darin.
The rarely heard final verse -- not included in the original play, but added by Brecht for the 1931 movie -- expresses the theme and compares the glittering world of the rich and powerful with the dark world of the poor:
Denn die einen sind im Dunkeln Und die andern sind im Licht Und man siehet die im Lichte Die im Dunkeln sieht man nicht.
There are some who are in darkness And the others are in light And you see the ones in brightness Those in darkness drop from sight.
In 1976, a brand - new interpretation of "Mack the Knife '' by Ralph Manheim and John Willett opened on Broadway, later made into a movie version starring Raúl Juliá as Mackie. This version, simply known as "Moritat '', is an extension of the story with completely new lyrics that expound upon the tales of Macheath 's trail of activity. Here is an excerpt:
See the shark with teeth like razors All can read his open face And Macheath has got a knife, but Not in such an obvious place.
This version was performed by Lyle Lovett on the soundtrack of the 1994 film Quiz Show. Darin 's and Lovett 's versions play over the opening and closing credits, respectively. This interpretation was later also recorded by Sting and Nick Cave in the later part of the 1990s.
A much darker translation by Robert David MacDonald and Jeremy Sams into English was used for the 1994 Donmar Warehouse theatrical production in London. The new translation attempted to recapture the original tone of the song:
Though the shark 's teeth may be lethal Still you see them white and red But you wo n't see Mackie 's flick knife Cause he slashed you and you 're dead.
"Mack the Knife '' was introduced to the United States hit parade by Louis Armstrong in 1956, but the song is most closely associated with Bobby Darin, who recorded his version at Fulton Studios on West 40th Street, New York City, on December 19, 1958 (with Tom Dowd engineering the recording). Even though Darin was reluctant to release the song as a single, in 1959 it reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and number six on the Black Singles chart, and earned him a Grammy Award for Record of the Year. Dick Clark had advised Darin not to record the song because of the perception that, having come from an opera, it would not appeal to the rock and roll audience. In subsequent years, Clark recounted the story with good humor. Frank Sinatra, who recorded the song with Quincy Jones on his L.A. Is My Lady album, called Darin 's the "definitive '' version. Billboard ranked this version as the No. 2 song for 1959. Darin 's version was No. 3 on Billboard 's All Time Top 100. In 2003, the Darin version was ranked # 251 on Rolling Stone 's "500 Greatest Songs of All Time '' list. On BBC Radio 4 's Desert Island Discs, pop mogul Simon Cowell named "Mack the Knife '' the best song ever written. Darin 's version of the song was featured in the movies Quiz Show and What Women Want. Both Armstrong and Darin 's versions were inducted by the Library of Congress in the National Recording Registry in 2016.
Brecht 's original German language version was appropriated for a series of humorous and surreal blackout skits by television pioneer Ernie Kovacs, showing, between skits, the soundtrack displayed on an oscilloscope.
Ella Fitzgerald made a famous live recording in 1960 (released on Ella in Berlin: Mack the Knife) in which, after forgetting the lyrics after the first verse, she improvised new lyrics in a performance that earned her a Grammy Award. Robbie Williams also recorded the song on his 2001 album Swing When You 're Winning, and performed it as the first song after the arrival of the Queen during the Diamond Jubilee Concert in 2012, referencing Princesses Beatrice and Eugenie.
Other notable versions include performances by Dave Van Ronk, Jimmie Dale Gilmore, Tony Bennett, Marianne Faithfull, Nick Cave, Brian Setzer, Kevin Spacey, Westlife, and Michael Bublé. Swiss band The Young Gods radically reworked the song in industrial style, while jazz legend Sonny Rollins recorded an instrumental version entitled simply "Moritat '' in 1956. A 1959 instrumental performance by Bill Haley & His Comets was the final song the group recorded for Decca Records. Deana Martin recorded "Mack the Knife '' on her second studio album, Volare, released in 2009 by Big Fish Records.
Tito Puente also recorded an instrumental version. Salsa musician Rubén Blades recorded an homage entitled "Pedro Navaja ''. Brazilian composer Chico Buarque, in his loose adaptation of Threepenny Opera (Ópera do Malandro), made two versions called "O Malandro '' and "O Malandro No 2 '', with lyrics in Portuguese. Liberace regularly performed a variant in which he played the song successively in five styles: as originally written, in the style of a Johann Strauss waltz, as a music box, in a bossa nova rhythm, and in what Liberace considered a popular American style.
The chorus to the song "Haifisch '' ("Shark '') by Rammstein is inspired by "Mack the Knife ''.
The song has been parodied numerous times. Steve Martin parodied "Mack the Knife '' in his opening monologue to the premiere of Saturday Night Live 's third season in 1977. In the mid-1980s, McDonald 's introduced Mac Tonight, a character whose signature song was based on "Mack the Knife ''. There was a skit on The Muppet Show, where the characters play upon the sinister nature of the lyrics. American political parodists the Capitol Steps used the tune for their song "Pack the Knife '' on their 2002 album When Bush Comes to Shove.
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what was court ruling in new york times co v sullivan | New York Times Co. v. Sullivan - wikipedia
New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254 (1964), was a landmark United States Supreme Court case that established the actual malice standard, which has to be met before press reports about public officials can be considered to be libel; and hence allowed free reporting of the civil rights campaigns in the southern United States. It is one of the key decisions supporting the freedom of the press. The actual malice standard requires that the plaintiff in a defamation case, if that person is a public official or public figure, prove that the publisher of the statement in question knew that the statement was false or acted in reckless disregard of its truth or falsity. Because of the extremely high burden of proof on the plaintiff, and the difficulty of proving the defendant 's knowledge and intentions, such claims by public figures rarely prevail.
Before this decision, there were nearly US $300,000,000 in libel actions from the Southern states outstanding against news organizations, as part of a focused effort by Southern officials to use defamation lawsuits as a means of preventing critical coverage of civil rights issues in out - of - state publications. The Supreme Court 's decision, and its adoption of the actual malice standard, reduced the financial hazard from potential defamation claims, and thus countered the efforts by public officials to use these claims to suppress political criticism.
On March 29, 1960, The New York Times carried a full - page advertisement titled "Heed Their Rising Voices '', paid for by the "Committee to Defend Martin Luther King and the Struggle for Freedom in the South. '' In the advertisement, the Committee solicited funds to defend Martin Luther King, Jr., against an Alabama perjury indictment. The advertisement described actions against civil rights protesters, some of them inaccurately, some of which involved the police force of Montgomery, Alabama. Referring to the Alabama State Police, the advertisement stated: "They have arrested (King) seven times... '' However, at that point, he had been arrested four times. Although African - American students staged a demonstration on the State Capitol steps, they sang The Star - Spangled Banner, not My Country, ' Tis of Thee. Although the Montgomery Public Safety commissioner, L.B. Sullivan, was not named in the advertisement, Sullivan argued that the inaccurate criticism of actions by the police was defamatory to him as well because it was his duty to supervise the police department.
Because Alabama law denied public officers recovery of punitive damages in a libel action on their official conduct unless they first made a written demand for a public retraction and the defendant failed or refused to comply, Sullivan sent such a request. The Times did not publish a retraction in response to the demand. Instead, its lawyers wrote a letter stating, among other things, that "we... are somewhat puzzled as to how you think the statements in any way reflect on you, '' and "you might, if you desire, let us know in what respect you claim that the statements in the advertisement reflect on you. ''
Sullivan did not respond but instead filed a libel suit a few days later. He also sued four African - American ministers mentioned in the ad: Ralph Abernathy, S.S. Seay, Sr., Fred Shuttlesworth, and Joseph Lowery.
Sullivan won $500,000 in an Alabama court judgment.
The Times subsequently published a retraction of the advertisement upon the demand of Governor John Patterson of Alabama, who alleged the publication charged him with "grave misconduct and... improper actions and omissions as Governor of Alabama and ex officio chairman of the State Board of Education of Alabama. '' When asked to explain why there had been a retraction for the Governor but not for Sullivan, the Secretary of the Times testified:
We did that because we did n't want anything that was published by the Times to be a reflection on the State of Alabama and the Governor was, as far as we could see, the embodiment of the State of Alabama and the proper representative of the state and, furthermore, we had by that time learned more of the actual facts which the ad purported to recite and, finally, the ad did refer to the action of the state authorities and the Board of Education presumably of which the Governor is the ex officio chairman...
However, the Secretary also testified he did not think that "any of the language in there referred to Mr. Sullivan. ''
Constitutional law scholar Herbert Wechsler successfully argued the case before the United States Supreme Court. Louis M. Loeb, a partner at the firm of Lord Day & Lord who served as chief counsel to the Times from 1948 to 1967, was among the authors of the brief of the Times.
Loeb later called the libel cases he argued for The New York Times "the heaviest responsibility I 've ever had since I began practicing law. ''
The Supreme Court held that news publications could not be sued for libel by public officials unless the plaintiffs were able to establish actual malice in the false reporting of a news story. The Court ruled for The Times, 9 -- 0. The rule of law applied by the Alabama courts was found constitutionally deficient for its failure to provide safeguards for freedom of speech and of the press, as required by the First and Fourteenth Amendment. The decision further held that even with the proper safeguards, the evidence presented in the case was insufficient to support a judgment for Sullivan. In sum the court ruled that "the First Amendment protects the publication of all statements, even false ones, about the conduct of public officials except when statements are made with actual malice (with knowledge that they are false or in reckless disregard of their truth or falsity). ''
The decision allowed newspapers more freedom to report on the widespread chaos and police abuse during the Civil Rights Movement.
The Court held that a public official suing for defamation must prove that the statement in question was made with actual malice. That phrase refers to knowledge or reckless lack of investigation, rather than its ordinary meaning of malicious intent. In his concurring opinion, Justice Black explained, "' Malice, ' even as defined by the Court, is an elusive, abstract concept, hard to prove and hard to disprove. The requirement that malice be proved provides at best an evanescent protection for the right critically to discuss public affairs and certainly does not measure up to the sturdy safeguard embodied in the First Amendment. ''
The term "malice '' came from existing libel law, rather than being invented in the case. In many jurisdictions, including Alabama, where the case arose, proof of "actual malice '' (actual knowledge of falsity, or reckless disregard for the truth) was require for punitive damages other increased penalties. Since a writer 's malicious intent is hard to prove, proof that the writer knowingly published a falsehood was generally accepted as proof of malice, under the assumption that only a person with ill intent would knowingly publish something false. In Hoeppner v. Dunkirk Printing Co., 254 N.Y. 95 (1930), similarly, the court said:
The plaintiff alleges that this criticism of him and of his work was not fair and was not honest; it was published with actual malice, ill will and spite. If he establishes this allegation, he has made out a cause of action. No comment or criticism, otherwise libelous, is fair or just comment on a matter of public interest if it be made through actual ill will and malice. (p. 106)
In New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, the Supreme Court adopted the term "actual malice '' and gave it constitutional significance.
The rule that somebody alleging defamation should have to prove untruth, rather than that the defendant should have to prove the truth of a statement, stood as a departure from the previous common law. In England, the development was specifically rejected in Derbyshire County Council v. Times Newspapers Ltd and it was also rejected in Canada in Hill v. Church of Scientology of Toronto and more recently in Grant v. Torstar Corp. In Australia, the outcome of the case was followed in Theophanous v. The Herald & Weekly Times Ltd, but Theophanous was itself overruled by the High Court of Australia in Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 189 CLR 520.
In 2014, on the 50th anniversary of the ruling, The New York Times released an editorial in which it stated the background of the case, laid out the rationale for the Supreme Court decision, critically reflected on the state of freedom of the press 50 years after the ruling and compared the state of freedom of the press in the United States with other nations. The editorial board of The New York Times heralded the Sullivan decision as "the clearest and most forceful defense of press freedom in American history '' and added:
The ruling was revolutionary, because the court for the first time rejected virtually any attempt to squelch criticism of public officials -- even if false -- as antithetical to "the central meaning of the First Amendment. '' Today, our understanding of freedom of the press comes in large part from the Sullivan case. Its core observations and principles remain unchallenged, even as the Internet has turned everyone into a worldwide publisher -- capable of calling public officials instantly to account for their actions, and also of ruining reputations with the click of a mouse.
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when was the power and control wheel created | Duluth Model - wikipedia
The Duluth Model or Domestic Abuse Intervention Project is a program developed to reduce domestic violence against women. It is named after Duluth, Minnesota, the city where it was developed. The program was largely founded by Ellen Pence and Michael Paymar.
As of 2006, the Duluth Model is the most common batterer intervention program used in the United States. Critics argue that the method can be ineffective as it was developed without minority communities in mind and can fail to address root psychological or emotional causes of abuse, in addition to completely neglecting male victims of abuse.
The Domestic Abuse Intervention Project was the first multi-disciplinary program designed to address the issue of domestic violence. This experimental program, conducted in Duluth in 1981, coordinated the actions of a variety of agencies dealing with domestic conflict. The Duluth model curriculum was developed by a "small group of activists in the battered women 's movement '' with 5 battered women and 4 men as subjects. The program has become a model for programs in other jurisdictions seeking to deal more effectively with domestic violence.
The feminist theory underlying the Duluth Model is that men use violence within relationships to exercise power and control. This is illustrated by the "Power and Control Wheel, '' a graphic typically displayed as a poster in participating locations. According to the Duluth Model, "women and children are vulnerable to violence because of their unequal social, economic, and political status in society. '' Treatment of abusive men is focused on re-education, as "we do not see men 's violence against women as stemming from individual pathology, but rather from a socially reinforced sense of entitlement. '' The program 's philosophy is intended to help batterers work to change their attitudes and personal behavior so they would learn to be nonviolent in any relationship.
A U.S. study published in 2002 sponsored by the federal government found that batterers who complete programs based on the Duluth model are less likely to repeat acts of domestic violence than those who do not complete any batterers ' intervention program.
A 2003 study conducted by the U.S. National Institute of Justice found the Duluth Model to have "little or no effect. '' However, this study had considerable shortfalls. The National Institute of Justice said in its introduction, "... response rates were low, many people dropped out of the program, and victims could not be found for subsequent interviews. The tests used to measure batterers ' attitudes toward domestic violence and their likelihood to engage in future abuse were of questionable validity. ''
A 2003 longitudinal, four - year evaluation by EW Gondolf, covering four cities, shows clear deescalation of reassault and other abuse, with 80 % of men reaching sustained non-violence.
A 2005 study led by Larry Bennett, a professor of social work at the University of Illinois at Chicago and an expert on batterer intervention programs, found that of the 30 batterer intervention programs in Cook County, Illinois, 15 percent of batterers who completed the programs were rearrested for domestic violence, compared with 37 percent of those who dropped out of the programs. However, Bennett said the studies are largely meaningless because they lacked a proper control group. He added that participants who complete domestic violence programs are likely to be more motivated than others to improve behavior and would be less inclined to offend again.
A 2011 review of the effectiveness of batterers intervention programs (BIP) (primarily Duluth Model) found that "there is no solid empirical evidence for either the effectiveness or relative superiority of any of the current group interventions, '' and that "the more rigorous the methodology of evaluation studies, the less encouraging their findings. '' That is, as BIPs in general, and Duluth Model programs in particular are subject to increasingly rigorous review, their success rate approaches zero.
A 2014 news report reported zero percent recidivism within 5 years for a batterers intervention program based on Nonviolent Communication, and contrasted this with a recidivism rate of 40 percent within 5 years for a batterers intervention program based on the Duluth Model as reported by the Domestic Abuse Intervention Project.
Criticism of the Duluth Model has centered on the program 's insistence that men are perpetrators who are violent because they have been socialized in a patriarchy that condones male violence, and that women are victims who are violent only in self - defense. Some critics argue that "programs based on the Duluth Model may ignore research linking domestic violence to substance abuse and psychological problems, such as attachment disorders, traced to childhood abuse or neglect, or the absence of a history of adequate socialization and training. '' Others criticize the Duluth model as being overly confrontational rather than therapeutic, focusing solely on changing the abuser 's actions and attitudes rather than dealing with underlying emotional and psychological issues. Donald Dutton, a psychology professor at the University of British Columbia who has studied abusive personalities, states: "The Duluth Model was developed by people who did n't understand anything about therapy, '' and also points out that "lesbian battering is more frequent than heterosexual battering. '' Philip W. Cook points out that in the case of homosexual domestic violence, the patriarchy is absent: there is no male dominance of women in same - sex relationships, and in fact, female on female abuse is reported more than twice as frequently as male on male abuse. Furthermore, some critics point out that the model ignores the reality that women are often times the perpetrators of domestic violence in heterosexual relationships, as well.
Its proponents counter that the Duluth model is effective and makes best use of scarce resources. However, Ellen Pence herself has written,
"By determining that the need or desire for power was the motivating force behind battering, we created a conceptual framework that, in fact, did not fit the lived experience of many of the men and women we were working with. The DAIP staff (...) remained undaunted by the difference in our theory and the actual experiences of those we were working with (...) It was the cases themselves that created the chink in each of our theoretical suits of armor. Speaking for myself, I found that many of the men I interviewed did not seem to articulate a desire for power over their partner. Although I relentlessly took every opportunity to point out to men in the groups that they were so motivated and merely in denial, the fact that few men ever articulated such a desire went unnoticed by me and many of my coworkers. Eventually, we realized that we were finding what we had already predetermined to find. ''
The Duluth Model is featured in the documentary Power and Control: Domestic Violence in America with commentary from its authors as well as its main critics, such as Dutton.
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where was the child and the fox filmed | The fox and the Child - wikipedia
The Fox and the Child (French: Le renard et l'enfant) is a 2007 French family drama film directed by Luc Jacquet. Starring Bertille Noël - Bruneau, Isabelle Carré and Thomas Laliberté. The English version of the film is narrated by Kate Winslet.
A young girl of about 10 years lives in a farm house in the Jura mountains in eastern France. One day in autumn, when she rides her bicycle to school through the forest, she observes the hunting of a fox. Of course, the fox escapes, but the girl yearns to meet the animal again.
She spends most of her free time in the forests trying to find the fox during the following months, but she does n't meet the fox again until winter comes. During the winter, she follows the fox 's tracks far across the fields. Suddenly she compares her hand to the size of the tracks near to those she is following and discovers they are relatively fresh wolf tracks; she is alarmed as a wolf pack begins howling near her. She runs away panicked, falls and hurts her ankle.
The ankle heals very slowly, so that she has to stay at home during the winter reading a book about foxes and other animals of the forest.
When spring arrives, the girl is looking for foxholes and waits for the fox. The fox has young babies and moves holes because of her observations; therefore the girl decides to observe the fox from a greater distance.
She finds the fox again and tries to get the animal accustomed to her. She feeds it with meat. Later she can even touch the fox and is led to the new den. Finally, the fox arrives at her house and she lets it inside, wanting to show it her bedroom. But the fox becomes distressed at not being able to find a way out and escapes by smashing through her brittle plate glass window, causing the glass to shatter. The fox is hurt badly but survives. The girl learns that she can not keep wild animals as pets at home as they are unpredictable and may break more things such as fragile glass windows.
Years later she tells the whole story to her son, as seen at the end of the film. Some versions (DVD English) replace this scene with a text graphic.
The film was shot on the Plateau de Retord in Ain, which the film director knows well because he spent his youth there, in the summer, as well as in the Abruzzo in Italy. The foxes in the film were played by six animals: Titus, Sally, Ziza, Scott, Tango and Pitchou. Titus was the fox who had been tamed by Marie - Noëlle Baroni. It died on March 17, 2008 at the advanced age of 12 years.
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top of the lake season 2 release date | Top of the Lake - Wikipedia
Top of the Lake is a mystery drama television series created and written by Jane Campion and Gerard Lee, and directed by Campion and Garth Davis. It aired in 2013, and the sequel, entitled Top of the Lake: China Girl, in 2017. It marks Campion 's first work for television since An Angel at My Table in 1990.
Season 1 follows Detective Robin Griffin (Elisabeth Moss) and deals with her investigation of the disappearance of a pregnant 12 - year - old girl in New Zealand. Season 2, China Girl, is set in Sydney four years later, as Detective Griffin investigates the death of an unidentified Asian girl found at Bondi Beach.
Top of the Lake was co-produced for BBC Two in the UK, BBC UKTV in Australia and New Zealand, and Sundance Channel in the United States. It has been generally very well received.
Actress Jennifer Ehle auditioned for the role of GJ, which went to Holly Hunter. Jane Campion originally offered the role of Robin to Anna Paquin, who had worked with her on The Piano (1993). Paquin declined due to her pregnancy, and the role went to American Elisabeth Moss.
The series was originally intended as a co-production with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. But after Moss was cast as Robin, the network pulled their funding before production began, citing a prior agreement to put an Australian actress in the lead. Australian - based channel UKTV, owned by BBC Worldwide, filled the funding gap left by the ABC. Philippa Campbell was the New Zealand - based producer.
Filming took 18 weeks and was shot entirely on location in Queenstown and Glenorchy, in Otago, on the South Island of New Zealand. While Queenstown is referred to during the series, Glenorchy doubles as the fictitious town of Laketop. The scenes in the women 's commune were filmed at Moke Lake.
In early 2013, co-creator Jane Campion said that Top of the Lake comes to a distinct ending, and there would be no additional series. Despite this, it was announced in October 2014 that the series had been renewed for a second season. China Girl began shooting on location in Sydney, Australia in December 2015.
Campion returned as co-writer and co-director. Gerard Lee returned as co-writer. The original co-director, Garth Davis, was replaced by Ariel Kleiman due to scheduling conflicts. Philippa Campbell returned as producer. Actress Nicole Kidman joined the cast for China Girl, which is the second time she has worked with Campion. Kidman "plays an Australian mother, Julia, whose story dovetails with that of Detective Robin Griffin '', played by Elisabeth Moss. Christie, a fan of Campion 's The Piano, joined the cast after sending a letter through a mutual friend.
Top of the Lake screened in its entirety at the January 2013 Sundance Film Festival, in a single seven - hour session with one intermission and a break for lunch. This was the first such screening in the history of the festival. Top of the Lake was additionally shown at the 63rd Berlin International Film Festival.
The US premiere was on the Sundance Channel on 18 March 2013, in Australia on BBC UKTV on 24 March 2013, and in New Zealand on 25 March, also on BBC UKTV.
China Girl was screened in its entirety at the May 2017 Cannes Film Festival. In the UK, it premiered on BBC Two on 27 July 2017, and the entire series was released on the BBC iPlayer immediately afterwards. In the US, it premiered in September 2017, on Sundance TV, and each episode will be available on Hulu the day after its screening on SundanceTV. In Canada, China Girl premiered on October 25, 2017, on CBC Television.
Reviews of Top of the Lake have been positive, referring to the series as "masterfully made '', "beautiful '', "mysterious '', "riveting '', and "a masterpiece ''. It received a score of 86 out of 100 from Metacritic and a score of 93 per cent from Rotten Tomatoes.
There were also some less positive reviews. Mike Hale of The New York Times criticized the "elaborately introduced plotlines '' and described Tui 's disappearance as "less a story element than a metaphor for the kind of armed resistance to male hegemony that constitutes the central idea of Ms Campion 's body of work. ''
Top of the Lake was lauded by feminist critics for its explicit effort to analyse rape culture as well as its radical construction of narratives entirely foregrounding the experiences of single women.
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what is the most popular city in colombia | Colombia - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 4 ° N 72 ° W / 4 ° N 72 ° W / 4; - 72
in South America (grey)
Colombia (/ kəˈlʌmbiə / kə - LUM - biə or / kəˈlɒmbiə / kə - LOM - biə; Spanish: (ko̞ˈlõ̞mbjä) (listen)), officially the Republic of Colombia (Spanish: República de Colombia (help info)), is a sovereign state largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America. Colombia shares a border to the northwest with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with Ecuador and Peru. It shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is a unitary, constitutional republic comprising thirty - two departments. The territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous peoples, including the Muisca, Quimbaya and the Tairona.
The Spanish set foot on Colombian soil for the first time in 1499 and in the first half of the 16th century initiated a period of conquest and colonization, ultimately creating the New Kingdom of Granada, with as capital Santafé de Bogotá. Independence from Spain was acquired in 1819, but by 1830 the "Gran Colombia '' Federation was dissolved. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of New Granada. The new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation (1858), and then the United States of Colombia (1863), before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886. Panama seceded in 1903. Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low - intensity armed conflict, which escalated in the 1990s but then decreased from 2005 onward. Colombia is one of the most ethnically and linguistically diverse countries in the world, and thereby possesses a rich cultural heritage. The urban centres are mostly located in the highlands of the Andes mountains.
Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines. Ecologically, it is one of the world 's 17 megadiverse countries, and the most densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer. Colombia is a middle power and a regional actor with the fourth - largest economy in Latin America, is part of the CIVETS group of six leading emerging markets and is a member of the UN, the WTO, the OAS, the Pacific Alliance, and other international organizations. Colombia has a diversified economy with macroeconomic stability and favorable growth prospects in the long run.
The name "Colombia '' is derived from the last name of Christopher Columbus (Italian: Cristoforo Colombo, Spanish: Cristóbal Colón). It was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, but especially to those portions under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was later adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819, formed from the territories of the old Viceroyalty of New Granada (modern - day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, and northwest Brazil).
When Venezuela, Ecuador and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, the former Department of Cundinamarca adopted the name "Republic of New Granada ''. New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was again changed, this time to United States of Colombia, before finally adopting its present name -- the Republic of Colombia -- in 1886.
To refer to this country, the Colombian government uses the terms Colombia and República de Colombia.
Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human migration from Mesoamerica and the Caribbean to the Andes and Amazon basin. The oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley 100 kilometres (62 mi) southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period (18,000 -- 8000 BCE). At Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period (~ 8000 -- 2000 BCE) have been found. Vestiges indicate that there was also early occupation in the regions of El Abra and Tequendama in Cundinamarca. The oldest pottery discovered in the Americas, found at San Jacinto, dates to 5000 -- 4000 BCE.
Indigenous people inhabited the territory that is now Colombia by 12,500 BCE. Nomadic hunter - gatherer tribes at the El Abra, Tibitó and Tequendama sites near present - day Bogotá traded with one another and with other cultures from the Magdalena River Valley. Between 5000 and 1000 BCE, hunter - gatherer tribes transitioned to agrarian societies; fixed settlements were established, and pottery appeared. Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, groups of Amerindians including the Muisca, Quimbaya, and Tairona developed the political system of cacicazgos with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques. The Muisca inhabited mainly the area of what is now the Departments of Boyacá and Cundinamarca high plateau (Altiplano Cundiboyacense) where they formed the Muisca Confederation. They farmed maize, potato, quinoa and cotton, and traded gold, emeralds, blankets, ceramic handicrafts, coca and especially rock salt with neighboring nations. The Tairona inhabited northern Colombia in the isolated mountain range of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. The Quimbaya inhabited regions of the Cauca River Valley between the Western and Central Ranges of the Colombian Andes. Most of the Amerindians practiced agriculture and the social structure of each indigenous community was different. Some groups of indigenous people such as the Caribs lived in a state of permanent war, but others had less bellicose attitudes. The Incas expanded their empire onto the southwest part of the country.
Alonso de Ojeda (who had sailed with Columbus) reached the Guajira Peninsula in 1499. Spanish explorers, led by Rodrigo de Bastidas, made the first exploration of the Caribbean coast in 1500. Christopher Columbus navigated near the Caribbean in 1502. In 1508, Vasco Núñez de Balboa accompanied an expedition to the territory through the region of Gulf of Urabá and they founded the town of Santa María la Antigua del Darién in 1510, the first stable settlement on the continent.
Santa Marta was founded in 1525, and Cartagena in 1533. Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada led an expedition to the interior in April 1536, and christened the districts through which he passed "New Kingdom of Granada ''. In August 1538, he founded provisionally its capital near the Muisca cacicazgo of Bacatá, and named it "Santa Fe ''. The name soon acquired a suffix and was called Santa Fe de Bogotá. Two other notable journeys by early conquistadors to the interior took place in the same period. Sebastián de Belalcázar, conqueror of Quito, traveled north and founded Cali, in 1536, and Popayán, in 1537; from 1536 to 1539, German conquistador Nikolaus Federmann crossed the Llanos Orientales and went over the Cordillera Oriental in a search for El Dorado, the "city of gold ''. The legend and the gold would play a pivotal role in luring the Spanish and other Europeans to New Granada during the 16th and 17th centuries.
The conquistadors made frequent alliances with the enemies of different indigenous communities. Indigenous allies were crucial to conquest, as well as to creating and maintaining empire. Indigenous peoples in New Granada experienced a decline in population due to conquest as well as Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox, to which they had no immunity. With the risk that the land was deserted, the Spanish Crown sold properties to all persons interested in colonise territories creating large farms and possession of mines.
In the 16th century, the nautical science in Spain reached a great development thanks to numerous scientific figures of the Casa de Contratación and nautical science was an essential pillar of the Iberian expansion.
In 1542, the region of New Granada, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America, became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, with its capital at Lima. In 1547, New Granada became the Captaincy - General of New Granada within the viceroyalty.
In 1549, the Royal Audiencia was created by a royal decree, and New Granada was ruled by the Royal Audience of Santa Fe de Bogotá, which at that time comprised the provinces of Santa Marta, Rio de San Juan, Popayán, Guayana and Cartagena. But important decisions were taken from the colony to Spain by the Council of the Indies.
In the 16th century, Europeans began to bring slaves from Africa. Spain was the only European power that could not establish factories in Africa to purchase slaves and therefore the Spanish empire relied on the asiento system, awarding merchants (mostly from Portugal, France, England and the Dutch Empire) the license to trade enslaved people to their overseas territories. Also there were people who defended the human rights and freedoms of oppressed peoples. The indigenous peoples could not be enslaved because they were legally subjects of the Spanish Crown and to protect the indigenous peoples, several forms of land ownership and regulation were established: resguardos, encomiendas and haciendas.
In 1717 the Viceroyalty of New Granada was originally created, and then it was temporarily removed, to finally be reestablished in 1739. The Viceroyalty had Santa Fé de Bogotá as its capital. This Viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America which had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalties of New Spain or Peru and correspond mainly to today 's Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama. So, Bogotá became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with Lima and Mexico City, though it remained somewhat backward compared to those two cities in several economic and logistical ways.
After Great Britain declared war on Spain in 1739, Cartagena quickly became the British forces ' top target but an upset Spanish victory during the War of Jenkins ' Ear, a war with Great Britain for economic control of the Caribbean, cemented Spanish dominance in the Caribbean until the Seven Years ' War.
The 18th - century priest, botanist and mathematician José Celestino Mutis was delegated by Viceroy Antonio Caballero y Góngora to conduct an inventory of the nature of the New Granada. Started in 1783, this became known as the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada which classified plants, wildlife and founded the first astronomical observatory in the city of Santa Fe de Bogotá. In July 1801 the Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt reached Santa Fe de Bogotá where he met with Mutis. In addition, historical figures in the process of independence in New Granada emerged from the expedition as the astronomer Francisco José de Caldas, the scientist Francisco Antonio Zea, the zoologist Jorge Tadeo Lozano and the painter Salvador Rizo.
Since the beginning of the periods of conquest and colonization, there were several rebel movements against Spanish rule, but most were either crushed or remained too weak to change the overall situation. The last one that sought outright independence from Spain sprang up around 1810, following the independence of St. Domingue (present - day Haiti) in 1804, which provided some support to an eventual leader of this rebellion: Simón Bolívar. Francisco de Paula Santander also would play a decisive role.
A movement was initiated by Antonio Nariño, who opposed Spanish centralism and led the opposition against the Viceroyalty. Cartagena became independent in November 1811. In 1811 the United Provinces of New Granada were proclaimed, headed by Camilo Torres Tenorio. The emergence of two distinct ideological currents among the patriots (federalism and centralism) gave rise to a period of instability. Shortly after the Napoleonic Wars ended, Ferdinand VII, recently restored to the throne in Spain, unexpectedly decided to send military forces to retake most of northern South America. The viceroyalty was restored under the command of Juan Sámano, whose regime punished those who participated in the patriotic movements, ignoring the political nuances of the juntas. The retribution stoked renewed rebellion, which, combined with a weakened Spain, made possible a successful rebellion led by the Venezuelan - born Simón Bolívar, who finally proclaimed independence in 1819. The pro-Spanish resistance was defeated in 1822 in the present territory of Colombia and in 1823 in Venezuela.
The territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada became the Republic of Colombia, organized as a union of the current territories of Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Venezuela, parts of Guyana and Brazil and north of Marañón River. The Congress of Cúcuta in 1821 adopted a constitution for the new Republic. Simón Bolívar became the first President of Colombia, and Francisco de Paula Santander was made Vice President. However, the new republic was unstable and three countries emerged from the collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (New Granada, Ecuador and Venezuela).
Colombia was the first constitutional government in South America, and the Liberal and Conservative parties, founded in 1848 and 1849 respectively, are two of the oldest surviving political parties in the Americas. Slavery was abolished in the country in 1851.
Internal political and territorial divisions led to the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830. The so - called "Department of Cundinamarca '' adopted the name "New Granada '', which it kept until 1858 when it became the "Confederación Granadina '' (Granadine Confederation). After a two - year civil war in 1863, the "United States of Colombia '' was created, lasting until 1886, when the country finally became known as the Republic of Colombia. Internal divisions remained between the bipartisan political forces, occasionally igniting very bloody civil wars, the most significant being the Thousand Days ' War (1899 -- 1902).
The United States of America 's intentions to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to the separation of the Department of Panama in 1903 and the establishment of it as a nation. The United States paid Colombia $25,000,000 in 1921, seven years after completion of the canal, for redress of President Roosevelt 's role in the creation of Panama, and Colombia recognized Panama under the terms of the Thomson -- Urrutia Treaty. Colombia and Peru went to war because of territory disputes far in the Amazon basin. The war ended with a peace deal brokered by the League of Nations. The League finally awarded the disputed area to Colombia in June 1934.
Soon after, Colombia achieved some degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict that took place between the late 1940s and the early 1950s, a period known as La Violencia ("The Violence ''). Its cause was mainly mounting tensions between the two leading political parties, which subsequently ignited after the assassination of the Liberal presidential candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán on 9 April 1948. The ensuing riots in Bogotá, known as El Bogotazo, spread throughout the country and claimed the lives of at least 180,000 Colombians.
Colombia entered the Korean War when Laureano Gómez was elected president. It was the only Latin American country to join the war in a direct military role as an ally of the United States. Particularly important was the resistance of the Colombian troops at Old Baldy.
The violence between the two political parties decreased first when Gustavo Rojas deposed the President of Colombia in a coup d'état and negotiated with the guerrillas, and then under the military junta of General Gabriel París.
After Rojas ' deposition, the Colombian Conservative Party and Colombian Liberal Party agreed to create the National Front, a coalition which would jointly govern the country. Under the deal, the presidency would alternate between conservatives and liberals every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices. The National Front ended "La Violencia '', and National Front administrations attempted to institute far - reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress. Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political problems continued, and guerrilla groups were formally created such as the FARC, the ELN and the M - 19 to fight the government and political apparatus.
Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low - intensity armed conflict between government forces, leftist guerrilla groups and right wing paramilitaries. The conflict escalated in the 1990s, mainly in remote rural areas. Since the beginning of the armed conflict, human rights defenders have fought for the respect for human rights, despite staggering opposition. Several guerrillas ' organizations decided to demobilize after peace negotiations in 1989 -- 1994.
The United States has been heavily involved in the conflict since its beginnings, when in the early 1960s the U.S. government encouraged the Colombian military to attack leftist militias in rural Colombia. This was part of the U.S. fight against communism. Mercenaries and multinational corporations such as Chiquita Brands International are some of the international actors that have contributed to the violence of the conflict.
On 4 July 1991, a new Constitution was promulgated. The changes generated by the new constitution are viewed as positive by Colombian society.
The administration of President Álvaro Uribe (2002 -- 10), adopted the democratic security policy which included an integrated counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency campaign. The Government economic plan also promoted confidence in investors. As part of a controversial peace process the AUC (right - wing paramilitaries) as a formal organization had ceased to function. In February 2008, millions of Colombians demonstrated against FARC and other outlawed groups.
After peace negotiations in Cuba, the Colombian government of President Juan Manuel Santos and guerrilla of FARC - EP announced a final agreement to end the conflict. However, a referendum to ratify the deal was unsuccessful. Afterward, the Colombian government and the FARC signed a revised peace deal in November 2016, which the Colombian congress approved. In 2016, President Santos was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The Government began a process of attention and comprehensive reparation for victims of conflict. Colombia shows modest progress in the struggle to defend human rights, as expressed by HRW. A Special Jurisdiction for Peace has been created to investigate, clarify, prosecute and punish serious human rights violations and grave breaches of international humanitarian law which occurred during the armed conflict and to satisfy victims ' right to justice. During his visit to Colombia, Pope Francis paid tribute to the victims of the conflict.
In terms of international relations, Colombia and Venezuela have agreed to restore diplomatic relations. Colombian authorities due to the situation in Venezuela are preparing an emergency contingency plan. Latin America, with a long memory of U.S. interventions such as the infamous Operation Condor, rejects US military threat against Venezuela. Colombia 's Foreign Ministry said that all efforts to resolve Venezuela 's crisis should be peaceful and respect its sovereignty. Colombia proposed the idea of the Sustainable Development Goals and a final document was adopted by the United Nations. Colombia with a very clean electricity generation matrix reaffirms its support for the Paris Climate Agreement.
The geography of Colombia is characterized by its six main natural regions that present their own unique characteristics, from the Andes mountain range region shared with Ecuador and Venezuela; the Pacific coastal region shared with Panama and Ecuador; the Caribbean coastal region shared with Venezuela and Panama; the Llanos (plains) shared with Venezuela; the Amazon Rainforest region shared with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador; to the insular area, comprising islands in both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
Colombia is bordered to the northwest by Panama; to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; it established its maritime boundaries with neighboring countries through seven agreements on the Caribbean Sea and three on the Pacific Ocean. It lies between latitudes 12 ° N and 4 ° S, and longitudes 67 ° and 79 ° W.
Part of the Ring of Fire, a region of the world subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, in the interior of Colombia the Andes are the prevailing geographical feature. Most of Colombia 's population centers are located in these interior highlands. Beyond the Colombian Massif (in the south - western departments of Cauca and Nariño) these are divided into three branches known as cordilleras (mountain ranges): the Cordillera Occidental, running adjacent to the Pacific coast and including the city of Cali; the Cordillera Central, running between the Cauca and Magdalena River valleys (to the west and east respectively) and including the cities of Medellín, Manizales, Pereira and Armenia; and the Cordillera Oriental, extending north east to the Guajira Peninsula and including Bogotá, Bucaramanga and Cúcuta.
Peaks in the Cordillera Occidental exceed 4,700 m (15,420 ft), and in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental they reach 5,000 m (16,404 ft). At 2,600 m (8,530 ft), Bogotá is the highest city of its size in the world.
East of the Andes lies the savanna of the Llanos, part of the Orinoco River basin, and, in the far south east, the jungle of the Amazon rainforest. Together these lowlands comprise over half Colombia 's territory, but they contain less than 6 % of the population. To the north the Caribbean coast, home to 21.9 % of the population and the location of the major port cities of Barranquilla and Cartagena, generally consists of low - lying plains, but it also contains the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range, which includes the country 's tallest peaks (Pico Cristóbal Colón and Pico Simón Bolívar), and the La Guajira Desert. By contrast the narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, backed by the Serranía de Baudó mountains, are sparsely populated and covered in dense vegetation. The principal Pacific port is Buenaventura.
The main rivers of Colombia are Magdalena, Cauca, Guaviare, Atrato, Meta, Putumayo and Caquetá. Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin. The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively.
Protected areas and the "National Park System '' cover an area of about 14,268,224 hectares (142,682.24 km) and account for 12.77 % of the Colombian territory. Compared to neighboring countries, rates of deforestation in Colombia are still relatively low. Colombia is the sixth country in the world by magnitude of total renewable freshwater supply, and still has large reserves of freshwater.
The climate of Colombia is characterized for being tropical presenting variations within six natural regions and depending on the altitude, temperature, humidity, winds and rainfall. The diversity of climate zones in Colombia is characterized for having tropical rainforests, savannas, steppes, deserts and mountain climate.
Mountain climate is one of the unique features of the Andes and other high altitude reliefs where climate is determined by elevation. Below 1,000 meters (3,281 ft) in elevation is the warm altitudinal zone, where temperatures are above 24 ° C (75.2 ° F). About 82.5 % of the country 's total area lies in the warm altitudinal zone. The temperate climate altitudinal zone located between 1,001 and 2,000 meters (3,284 and 6,562 ft) is characterized for presenting an average temperature ranging between 17 and 24 ° C (62.6 and 75.2 ° F). The cold climate is present between 2,001 and 3,000 meters (6,565 and 9,843 ft) and the temperatures vary between 12 and 17 ° C (53.6 and 62.6 ° F). Beyond the cold land lie the alpine conditions of the forested zone and then the treeless grasslands of the páramos. Above 4,000 meters (13,123 ft), where temperatures are below freezing, the climate is glacial, a zone of permanent snow and ice.
Ice cap climate in the Nevado del Ruiz
Alpine tundra climate in the Sumapaz Paramo
Oceanic climate in Tota Lake
Cold desert climate near Villa de Leyva
Tropical wet climate in the tepuis of the Serranía de Chiribiquete
Mediterranean climate in Boyacá Department
Tropical rainforest climate in the Amazon Rainforest
Tropical savanna climate in Los Llanos
Hot desert climate in the Guajira Peninsula
Tropical wet and dry climate in San Andrés y Providencia
Warm and wet climate in Caño Cristales
Mountain climate in the Cordillera Occidental
Colombia is one of the megadiverse countries in biodiversity, ranking first in bird species. As for plants, the country has between 40,000 and 45,000 plant species, equivalent to 10 or 20 % of total global species, which is even more remarkable given that Colombia is considered a country of intermediate size. Colombia is the second most biodiverse country in the world, lagging only after Brazil which is approximately 7 times bigger.
Colombia is the country in the planet more characterized by a high biodiversity, with the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide and it has the largest number of endemisms (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country. About 10 % of the species of the Earth live in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined, Colombia has 10 % of the world 's mammals species, 14 % of the amphibian species and 18 % of the bird species of the world.
Colombia has about 2,000 species of marine fish and is the second most diverse country in freshwater fish. Colombia is the country with more endemic species of butterflies, number 1 in terms of orchid species and approximately 7,000 species of beetles. Colombia is second in the number of amphibian species and is the third most diverse country in reptiles and palms. There are about 1,900 species of mollusks and according to estimates there are about 300,000 species of invertebrates in the country. In Colombia there are 32 terrestrial biomes and 314 types of ecosystems.
The government of Colombia takes place within the framework of a presidential participatory democratic republic as established in the Constitution of 1991. In accordance with the principle of separation of powers, government is divided into three branches: the executive branch, the legislative branch and the judicial branch.
As the head of the executive branch, the President of Colombia serves as both head of state and head of government, followed by the Vice President and the Council of Ministers. The president is elected by popular vote to serve four - year term (In 2015, Colombia 's Congress approved the repeal of a 2004 constitutional amendment that eliminated the one - term limit for presidents). At the provincial level executive power is vested in department governors, municipal mayors and local administrators for smaller administrative subdivisions, such as corregimientos or comunas. All regional elections are held one year and five months after the presidential election.
The legislative branch of government is represented nationally by the Congress, a bicameral institution comprising a 166 - seat Chamber of Representatives and a 102 - seat Senate. The Senate is elected nationally and the Chamber of Representatives is elected in electoral districts. Members of both houses are elected to serve four - year terms two months before the president, also by popular vote.
The judicial branch is headed by four high courts, consisting of the Supreme Court which deals with penal and civil matters, the Council of State, which has special responsibility for administrative law and also provides legal advice to the executive, the Constitutional Court, responsible for assuring the integrity of the Colombian constitution, and the Superior Council of Judicature, responsible for auditing the judicial branch. Colombia operates a system of civil law, which since 2005 has been applied through an adversarial system.
Despite a number of controversies, the democratic security policy has ensured that former President Uribe remained popular among Colombian people, with his approval rating peaking at 76 %, according to a poll in 2009. However, having served two terms, he was constitutionally barred from seeking re-election in 2010. In the run - off elections on 20 June 2010 the former Minister of defense Juan Manuel Santos won with 69 % of the vote against the second most popular candidate, Antanas Mockus. A second round was required since no candidate received over the 50 % winning threshold of votes. Santos won nearly 51 % of the vote in second - round elections on 15 June 2014, beating right - wing rival Óscar Iván Zuluaga, who won 45 %. His term as Colombia 's president runs for four years beginning 7 August 2014.
The foreign affairs of Colombia are headed by the President, as head of state, and managed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Colombia has diplomatic missions in all continents.
Colombia was one of the 4 founding members of the Pacific Alliance, which is a political, economic and co-operative integration mechanism that promotes the free circulation of goods, services, capital and persons between the members, as well as a common stock exchange and joint embassies in several countries. Colombia is also a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organization of American States, the Organization of Ibero - American States, the Union of South American Nations and the Andean Community of Nations. Colombia is a global partner of NATO. Colombia is currently in the accession process with the OECD.
The executive branch of government is responsible for managing the defense of Colombia, with the President commander - in - chief of the armed forces. The Ministry of Defence exercises day - to - day control of the military and the Colombian National Police. Colombia has 455,461 active military personnel. And in 2016 3.4 % of the country 's GDP went towards military expenditure, placing it 24th in the world. Colombia 's armed forces are the largest in Latin America, and it is the second largest spender on its military after Brazil.
The Colombian military is divided into three branches: the National Army of Colombia; the Colombian Air Force; and the Colombian Navy. The National Police functions as a gendarmerie, operating independently from the military as the law enforcement agency for the entire country. Each of these operates with their own intelligence apparatus separate from the National Intelligence Directorate (DNI, in Spanish).
The National Army is formed by divisions, brigades, special brigades and special units; the Colombian Navy by the Naval Infantry, the Naval Force of the Caribbean, the Naval Force of the Pacific, the Naval Force of the South, the Naval Force of the East, Colombia Coast Guards, Naval Aviation and the Specific Command of San Andres y Providencia; and the Air Force by 15 air units. The National Police has a presence in all municipalities.
Colombia is divided into 32 departments and one capital district, which is treated as a department (Bogotá also serves as the capital of the department of Cundinamarca). Departments are subdivided into municipalities, each of which is assigned a municipal seat, and municipalities are in turn subdivided into corregimientos in rural areas and into comunas in urban areas. Each department has a local government with a governor and assembly directly elected to four - year terms, and each municipality is headed by a mayor and council. There is a popularly elected local administrative board in each of the corregimientos or comunas.
In addition to the capital four other cities have been designated districts (in effect special municipalities), on the basis of special distinguishing features. These are Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta and Buenaventura. Some departments have local administrative subdivisions, where towns have a large concentration of population and municipalities are near each other (for example in Antioquia and Cundinamarca). Where departments have a low population (for example Amazonas, Vaupés and Vichada), special administrative divisions are employed, such as "department corregimientos '', which are a hybrid of a municipality and a corregimiento.
Click on a department on the map below to go to its article.
Historically an agrarian economy, Colombia urbanised rapidly in the 20th century, by the end of which just 15.8 % of the workforce were employed in agriculture, generating just 6.8 % of GDP; 19.6 % of the workforce were employed in industry and 64.6 % in services, responsible for 34.0 % and 59.2 % of GDP respectively. The country 's economic production is dominated by its strong domestic demand. Consumption expenditure by households is the largest component of GDP.
Colombia 's market economy grew steadily in the latter part of the 20th century, with gross domestic product (GDP) increasing at an average rate of over 4 % per year between 1970 and 1998. The country suffered a recession in 1999 (the first full year of negative growth since the Great Depression), and the recovery from that recession was long and painful. However, in recent years growth has been impressive, reaching 6.9 % in 2007, one of the highest rates of growth in Latin America. According to International Monetary Fund estimates, in 2012 Colombia 's GDP (PPP) was US $500 billion (28th in the world and third in South America).
Total government expenditures account for 28.7 percent of the domestic economy. Public debt equals 41 percent of gross domestic product. A strong fiscal climate was reaffirmed by a boost in bond ratings. Annual inflation closed 2016 at 5.75 % YoY (vs. 6.77 % YoY in 2015). The average national unemployment rate in 2016 was 9.2 %, although the informality is the biggest problem facing the labour market (the income of formal workers climbed 24.8 % in 5 years while labor incomes of informal workers rose only 9 %). Colombia has Free trade Zone (FTZ), such as Zona Franca del Pacifico, located in the Valle del Cauca, one of the most striking areas for foreign investment.
The financial sector has grown favorably due to good liquidity in the economy, the growth of credit and the positive performance of the Colombian economy. The Colombian Stock Exchange through the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA) offers a regional market to trade equities. Colombia is now one of only three economies with a perfect score on the strength of legal rights index, according to the World Bank.
The electricity production in Colombia comes mainly from renewable energy sources. 69.97 % is obtained from the hydroelectric generation. Colombia 's commitment to renewable energy was recognized in the 2014 Global Green Economy Index (GGEI), ranking among the top 10 nations in the world in terms of greening efficiency sectors.
Colombia is rich in natural resources, and its main exports include mineral fuels, oils, distillation products, fruit and other agricultural products, sugars and sugar confectionery, food products, plastics, precious stones, metals, forest products, chemical goods, pharmaceuticals, vehicles, electronic products, electrical equipments, perfumery and cosmetics, machinery, manufactured articles, textile and fabrics, clothing and footwear, glass and glassware, furniture, prefabricated buildings, military products, home and office material, construction equipment, software, among others. Principal trading partners are the United States, China, the European Union and some Latin American countries.
Non-traditional exports have boosted the growth of Colombian foreign sales as well as the diversification of destinations of export thanks to new free trade agreements.
In 2016, the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) reported that 28.0 % of the population were living below the poverty line, of which 8.5 % in "extreme poverty ''. The multidimensional poverty rate stands at 17.8 percent of the population. The Government has also been developing a process of financial inclusion within the country 's most vulnerable population.
Recent economic growth has led to a considerable increase of new millionaires, including the new entrepreneurs, Colombians with a net worth exceeding US $1 billion.
The contribution of Travel & Tourism to GDP was USD5, 880.3 bn (2.0 % of total GDP) in 2016. Tourism generated 556,135 jobs (2.5 % of total employment) in 2016. Foreign tourist visits were predicted to have risen from 0.6 million in 2007 to 3.3 million in 2016.
Colombia has more than 3,950 research groups in science and technology. iNNpulsa, a government body that promotes entrepreneurship and innovation in the country, provides grants to startups, in addition to other services it and institutions like Apps.co provide. Co-working spaces have arisen to serve as communities for startups large and small. Organizations such as the Corporation for Biological Research (CIB) for the support of young people interested in scientific work has been successfully developed in Colombia. The International Center for Tropical Agriculture based in Colombia investigates the increasing challenge of global warming and food security.
Important inventions related to the medicine have been made in Colombia, such as the first external artificial pacemaker with internal electrodes, invented by the electronics engineer Jorge Reynolds Pombo, invention of great importance for those who suffer from heart failure. Also invented in Colombia were the microkeratome and keratomileusis technique, which form the fundamental basis of what now is known as LASIK (one of the most important techniques for the correction of refractive errors of vision) and the Hakim valve for the treatment of Hydrocephalus, among others. Colombia has begun to innovate in military technology for its army and other armies of the world; especially in the design and creation of personal ballistic protection products, military hardware, military robots, bombs, simulators and radar.
Some leading Colombian scientists are Joseph M. Tohme, researcher recognized for his work on the genetic diversity of food, Manuel Elkin Patarroyo who is known for his groundbreaking work on synthetic vaccines for malaria, Francisco Lopera who discovered the "Paisa Mutation '' or a type of early - onset Alzheimer 's, Rodolfo Llinás known for his study of the intrinsic neurons properties and the theory of a syndrome that had changed the way of understanding the functioning of the brain, Jairo Quiroga Puello recognized for his studies on the characterization of synthetic substances which can be used to fight fungus, tumors, tuberculosis and even some viruses and Ángela Restrepo who established accurate diagnoses and treatments to combat the effects of a disease caused by the Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, among other scientists.
Transportation in Colombia is regulated within the functions of the Ministry of Transport and entities such as the National Roads Institute (INVÍAS) responsible for the Highways in Colombia, the Aerocivil, responsible for civil aviation and airports, the National Infrastructure Agency, in charge of concessions through public -- private partnerships, for the design, construction, maintenance, operation, and administration of the transport infrastructure, the General Maritime Directorate (Dimar) has the responsibility of coordinating maritime traffic control along with the Colombian Navy, among others and under the supervision of the Superintendency of Ports and Transport. The road network in Colombia has a length of about 215,000 km of which 23,000 are paved. Rail transportation in Colombia is dedicated almost entirely to freight shipments and the railway network has a length of 1,700 km of potentially active rails. Colombia has 3,960 kilometers of gas pipelines, 4,900 kilometers of oil pipelines, and 2,990 kilometers of refined - products pipelines.
The target of Colombia 's government is to build 7,000 km of roads for the 2016 -- 2020 period and reduce travel times by 30 per cent and transport costs by 20 per cent. A toll road concession programme will comprise 40 projects, and is part of a larger strategic goal to invest nearly $50 bn in transport infrastructure, including: railway systems; making the Magdalena river navigable again; improving port facilities; as well as an expansion of Bogotá 's airport.
With an estimated 49 million people in 2017, Colombia is the third-most populous country in Latin America, after Brazil and Mexico. It is also home to the third - largest number of Spanish speakers in the world after Mexico and the United States. At the beginning of the 20th century, Colombia 's population was approximately 4 million. Since the early 1970s Colombia has experienced steady declines in its fertility, mortality, and population growth rates. The population growth rate for 2015 is estimated to be 0.9 %. The total fertility rate was 1.9 births per woman in 2015. About 26.8 % of the population were 15 years old or younger, 65.7 % were between 15 and 64 years old, and 7.4 % were over 65 years old. The proportion of older persons in the total population has begun to increase substantially. Colombia is projected to have a population of 50.2 million by 2020 and 55.3 million by 2050.
The population is concentrated in the Andean highlands and along the Caribbean coast, also the population densities are generally higher in the Andean region. The nine eastern lowland departments, comprising about 54 % of Colombia 's area, have less than 6 % of the population. Traditionally a rural society, movement to urban areas was very heavy in the mid-20th century, and Colombia is now one of the most urbanized countries in Latin America. The urban population increased from 31 % of the total in 1938 to nearly 60 % in 1973, and by 2014 the figure stood at 76 %. The population of Bogotá alone has increased from just over 300,000 in 1938 to approximately 8 million today. In total seventy - two cities now have populations of 100,000 or more (2015). As of 2012 Colombia has the world 's largest populations of internally displaced persons (IDPs), estimated to be up to 4.9 million people.
The life expectancy is 74.8 years in 2015 and infant mortality is 13.6 per thousand in 2015. In 2015, 94.58 % of adults and 98.66 % of youth are literate and the government spends about 4.49 % of its GDP in education.
Colombia is ranked third in the world in the Happy Planet Index.
More than 99.2 % of Colombians speak Spanish, also called Castilian; 65 Amerindian languages, two Creole languages, the Romani language and Colombian Sign Language are also spoken in the country. English has official status in the archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina.
Including Spanish, a total of 101 languages are listed for Colombia in the Ethnologue database. The specific number of spoken languages varies slightly since some authors consider as different languages what others consider to be varieties or dialects of the same language. Best estimates recorded 71 languages that are spoken in - country today -- most of which belong to the Chibchan, Tucanoan, Bora -- Witoto, Guajiboan, Arawakan, Cariban, Barbacoan, and Saliban language families. There are currently about 850,000 speakers of native languages.
Colombia is ethnically diverse, its people descending from the original native inhabitants, Spanish colonists, Africans originally brought to the country as slaves, and 20th - century immigrants from Europe and the Middle East, all contributing to a diverse cultural heritage. The demographic distribution reflects a pattern that is influenced by colonial history. Whites tend to live mainly in urban centers, like Bogotá, Medellín or Cali, and the burgeoning highland cities. The populations of the major cities also include mestizos. Mestizo campesinos (people living in rural areas) also live in the Andean highlands where some Spanish conquerors mixed with the women of Amerindian chiefdoms. Mestizos include artisans and small tradesmen that have played a major part in the urban expansion of recent decades.
The 2005 census reported that the "non-ethnic population '', consisting of whites and mestizos (those of mixed white European and Amerindian ancestry), constituted 86 % of the national population. 10.6 % is of African ancestry. Indigenous Amerindians comprise 3.4 % of the population. 0.01 % of the population are Roma. An extraofficial estimate considers that the 49 % of the Colombian population is Mestizo or of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry, and that approximately 37 % is White, mainly of Spanish lineage, but there is also a large population of Middle East descent; in some sectors of society there is a considerable input of Italian and German ancestry.
Many of the Indigenous peoples experienced a reduction in population during the Spanish rule and many others were absorbed into the mestizo population, but the remainder currently represents over eighty distinct cultures. Reserves (resguardos) established for indigenous peoples occupy 30,571,640 hectares (305,716.4 km) (27 % of the country 's total) and are inhabited by more than 800,000 people. Some of the largest indigenous groups are the Wayuu, the Paez, the Pastos, the Emberá and the Zenú. The departments of La Guajira, Cauca, Nariño, Córdoba and Sucre have the largest indigenous populations.
The Organización Nacional Indígena de Colombia (ONIC), founded at the first National Indigenous Congress in 1982, is an organization representing the indigenous peoples of Colombia. In 1991, Colombia signed and ratified the current international law concerning indigenous peoples, Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989.
Black Africans were brought as slaves, mostly to the coastal lowlands, beginning early in the 16th century and continuing into the 19th century. Large Afro - Colombian communities are found today on the Caribbean and Pacific coasts. The population of the department of Chocó, running along the northern portion of Colombia 's Pacific coast, is over 80 % black. British and Jamaicans migrated mainly to the islands of San Andres and Providencia. A number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including people from the former USSR during and after the Second World War.
Many immigrant communities have settled on the Caribbean coast, in particular recent immigrants from the Middle East. Barranquilla (the largest city of the Colombian Caribbean) and other Caribbean cities have the largest populations of Lebanese, Palestinian, and other Arabs. There are also important communities of Chinese, Japanese, Romanis and Jews. There is a major migration trend of Venezuelans, due to the political and economic situation in Venezuela.
The National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) does not collect religious statistics, and accurate reports are difficult to obtain. However, based on various studies and a survey, about 90 % of the population adheres to Christianity, the majority of which (70.9 %) are Roman Catholic, while a significant minority (16.7 %) adhere to Protestantism (primarily Evangelicalism). Some 4.7 % of the population is atheist or agnostic, while 3.5 % claim to believe in God but do not follow a specific religion. 1.8 % of Colombians adhere to Jehovah 's Witnesses and Adventism and less than 1 % adhere to other religions, such as Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Mormonism, Hinduism, Indigenous religions, Hare Krishna movement, Rastafari movement, Orthodox Catholic Church, and spiritual studies. The remaining people either did not respond or replied that they did not know. In addition to the above statistics, 35.9 % of Colombians reported that they did not practice their faith actively.
While Colombia remains a mostly Roman Catholic country by baptism numbers, the 1991 Colombian constitution guarantees freedom of religion and all religious faiths and churches are equally free before the law.
Colombia is a highly urbanized country. The largest cities in the country are Bogotá, with an estimated 8 million inhabitants, Medellín, with an estimated 2.5 million inhabitants, Cali, with an estimated 2.4 million inhabitants, and Barranquilla, with an estimated 1.2 million inhabitants. Cartagena highlights in number of inhabitants and the city of Bucaramanga is relevant in terms of metropolitan area population.
Colombia lies at the crossroads of Latin America and the broader American continent, and as such has been hit by a wide range of cultural influences. Native American, Spanish and other European, African, American, Caribbean, and Middle Eastern influences, as well as other Latin American cultural influences, are all present in Colombia 's modern culture. Urban migration, industrialization, globalization, and other political, social and economic changes have also left an impression.
Many national symbols, both objects and themes, have arisen from Colombia 's diverse cultural traditions and aim to represent what Colombia, and the Colombian people, have in common. Cultural expressions in Colombia are promoted by the government through the Ministry of Culture.
Colombian literature dates back to pre-Columbian era; a notable example of the period is the epic poem known as the Legend of Yurupary. In Spanish colonial times, notable writers include Juan de Castellanos (Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias), Hernando Domínguez Camargo and his epic poem to San Ignacio de Loyola, Pedro Simón, Juan Rodríguez Freyle (El Carnero), Lucas Fernández de Piedrahita, and the nun Francisca Josefa de Castillo, representative of mysticism.
Post-independence literature linked to Romanticism highlighted Antonio Nariño, José Fernández Madrid, Camilo Torres Tenorio and Francisco Antonio Zea. In the second half of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century the literary genre known as costumbrismo became popular; great writers of this period were Tomás Carrasquilla, Jorge Isaacs and Rafael Pombo (the latter of whom wrote notable works of children 's literature). Within that period, authors such as José Asunción Silva, José Eustasio Rivera, León de Greiff, Porfirio Barba - Jacob and José María Vargas Vila developed the modernist movement. In 1872, Colombia established the Colombian Academy of Language, the first Spanish language academy in the Americas. Candelario Obeso wrote the groundbreaking Cantos Populares de mi Tierra (1877), the first book of poetry by an Afro - Colombian author.
Between 1939 and 1940 seven books of poetry were published under the name Stone and Sky in the city of Bogotá that significantly impacted the country; they were edited by the poet Jorge Rojas. In the following decade, Gonzalo Arango founded the movement of "nothingness '' in response to the violence of the time; he was influenced by nihilism, existentialism, and the thought of another great Colombian writer: Fernando González Ochoa. During the boom in Latin American literature, successful writers emerged, led by Nobel laureate Gabriel García Márquez and his magnum opus, One Hundred Years of Solitude, Eduardo Caballero Calderón, Manuel Mejía Vallejo, and Álvaro Mutis, a writer who was awarded the Cervantes Prize and the Prince of Asturias Award for Letters. Other leading contemporary authors are Fernando Vallejo, William Ospina (Rómulo Gallegos Prize) and Germán Castro Caycedo.
Colombian art has over 3,000 years of history. Colombian artists have captured the country 's changing political and cultural backdrop using a range of styles and mediums. There is archeological evidence of ceramics being produced earlier in Colombia than anywhere else in the Americas, dating as early as 3,000 BCE.
The earliest examples of gold craftsmanship have been attributed to the Tumaco people of the Pacific coast and date to around 325 BCE. Roughly between 200 BCE and 800 CE, the San Agustín culture, masters of stonecutting, entered its "classical period ''. They erected raised ceremonial centres, sarcophagi, and large stone monoliths depicting anthropomorphic and zoomorphhic forms out of stone.
Colombian art has followed the trends of the time, so during the 16th to 18th centuries, Spanish Catholicism had a huge influence on Colombian art, and the popular baroque style was replaced with rococo when the Bourbons ascended to the Spanish crown. More recently, Colombian artists Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martínez Delgado started the Colombian Murial Movement in the 1940s, featuring the neoclassical features of Art Deco.
Since the 1950s, the Colombian art started to have a distinctive point of view, reinventing traditional elements under the concepts of the 20th century. Examples of this are the Greiff portraits by Ignacio Gómez Jaramillo, showing what the Colombian art could do with the new techniques applied to typical Colombian themes. Carlos Correa, with his paradigmatic "Naturaleza muerta en silencio '' (silent dead nature), combines geometrical abstraction and cubism. Alejandro Obregón is often considered as the father of modern Colombian painting, and one of the most influential artist in this period, due to his originality, the painting of Colombian landscapes with symbolic and expressionist use of animals, (specially the Andean condor). Fernando Botero, Omar Rayo, Enrique Grau, Édgar Negret, David Manzur, Rodrigo Arenas Betancourt and Oscar Murillo are some of the Colombian artists featured at the international level.
The Colombian sculpture from the sixteenth to 18th centuries was mostly devoted to religious depictions of ecclesiastic art, strongly influenced by the Spanish schools of sacred sculpture. During the early period of the Colombian republic, the national artists were focused in the production of sculptural portraits of politicians and public figures, in a plain neoclassicist trend. During the 20th century, the Colombian sculpture began to develop a bold and innovative work with the aim of reaching a better understanding of national sensitivity.
Colombian photography was marked by the arrival of the daguerreotype. Jean - Baptiste Louis Gros was who brought the daguerreotype process to Colombia in 1841. The Piloto public library has Latin America 's largest archive of negatives, containing 1.7 million antique photographs covering Colombia 1848 until 2005.
The Colombian press has promoted the work of the cartoonists. In recent decades, fanzines, internet and independent publishers have been fundamental to the growth of the comic in Colombia.
Throughout the times, there have been a variety of architectural styles, from those of indigenous peoples to contemporary ones, passing through colonial (military and religious), Republican, transition and modern styles.
Ancient habitation areas, longhouses, crop terraces, roads as the Inca road system, cemeteries, hypogeums and necropolises are all part of the architectural heritage of indigenous peoples. Some prominent indigenous structures are the preceramic and ceramic archaeological site of Tequendama, Tierradentro (a park that contains the largest concentration of pre-Columbian monumental shaft tombs with side chambers), the largest collection of religious monuments and megalithic sculptures in South America, located in San Agustín, Huila, Lost city (an archaeological site with a series of terraces carved into the mountainside, a net of tiled roads and several circular plazas) and also stand out the large villages mainly built with stone, wood, cane and mud.
Architecture during the period of conquest and colonization is mainly derived of adapting European styles to local conditions, and Spanish influence, especially Andalusian and Extremaduran, can be easily seen. When Europeans founded cities two things were making simultaneously: the dimensioning of geometrical space (town square, street), and the location of a tangible point of orientation. The construction of forts was common throughout the Caribbean and in some cities of the interior, because of the dangers that represented the English, French, and Dutch pirates and the hostile indigenous groups. Churches, chapels, schools, and hospitals belonging to religious orders cause a great urban impact. Baroque architecture is used in military buildings and public spaces. Marcelino Arroyo, Francisco José de Caldas and Domingo de Petrés were great representatives of neo-classical architecture.
The National Capitol is a great representative of romanticism. Wood is extensively used in doors, windows, railings and ceilings during the colonization of Antioquia. The Caribbean architecture acquires a strong Arabic influence. The Teatro Colón in Bogotá is a lavish example of architecture from the 19th century. The quintas houses with innovations in the volumetric conception are some of the best examples of the Republican architecture; the Republican action in the city focused on the design of three types of spaces: parks with forests, small urban parks and avenues and the Gothic style was most commonly used for the design of churches.
Deco style, modern neoclassicism, eclecticism folklorist and art deco ornamental resources significantly influenced the architecture of Colombia, especially during the transition period. Modernism contributed with new construction technologies and new materials (steel, reinforced concrete, glass and synthetic materials) and the topology architecture and lightened slabs system also have a great influence. The most influential architects of the modern movement were Rogelio Salmona and Fernando Martínez Sanabria.
The contemporary architecture of Colombia is designed to give greater importance to the materials, this architecture takes into account the specific natural and artificial geographies and is also an architecture that appeals to the senses. The conservation of the architectural and urban heritage of Colombia has been promoted in recent years.
Colombia has a vibrant collage of talent that touches a full spectrum of rhythms. Musicians, composers, music producers and singers from Colombia are recognized internationally such as Shakira, Juanes, Carlos Vives and others. Colombian music blends European - influenced guitar and song structure with large gaita flutes and percussion instruments from the indigenous population, while its percussion structure and dance forms come from Africa. Colombia has a diverse and dynamic musical environment.
Guillermo Uribe Holguín, an important cultural figure in the National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia, Luis Antonio Calvo and Blas Emilio Atehortúa are some of the greatest exponents of the art music. The Bogotá Philharmonic Orchestra is one of the most active orchestras in Colombia.
Caribbean music has many vibrant rhythms, such as cumbia (it is played by the maracas, the drums, the gaitas and guacharaca), porro (it is a monotonous but joyful rhythm), mapalé (with its fast rhythm and constant clapping) and the "vallenato '', which originated in the northern part of the Caribbean coast (the rhythm is mainly played by the caja, the guacharaca, and accordion).
The music from the Pacific coast, such as the currulao is characterized by its strong use of drums (instruments such as the native marimba, the conunos, the bass drum, the side drum and the cuatro guasas or tubular rattle). An important rhythm of the south region of the Pacific coast is the contradanza (it is used in dance shows, as a result of the striking colours of the costumes). Marimba music, traditional chants and dances from the Colombia South Pacific region are on UNESCO 's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
Important musical rhythms of the Andean Region are the danza (dance of Andean folklore arising from the transformation of the European contredance), the bambuco (it is played with guitar, tiple and mandolin, the rhythm is danced by couples), the pasillo (a rhythm inspired by the Austrian waltz and the Colombian "danza '', the lyrics have been composed by well - known poets), the guabina (the tiple, the bandola and the requinto are the basic instruments), the sanjuanero (it originated in Tolima and Huila Departments, the rhythm is joyful and fast). Apart from these traditional rhythms, salsa music has spread throughout the country, and the city of Cali is considered by many salsa singers to be ' The New Salsa Capital of the World '.
The instruments that distinguish the music of the Eastern Plains are the harp, the cuatro (a type of four - stringed guitar) and maracas. Important rhythms of this region are the joropo (a fast rhythm and there is also tapping as a result of its flamenco ancestry) and the galeron (it is heard a lot while cowboys are working).
The music of the Amazon region is strongly influenced by the indigenous religious practices. Some of the musical instruments used are the manguaré (a musical instrument of ceremonial type, consisting of a pair of large cylindrical drums), the quena (melodic instrument), the rondador, the congas, bells, and different types of flutes.
The music of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina is usually accompanied by a mandolin, a tub - bass, a jawbone, a guitar and maracas. Some popular archipelago rhythms are the Schottische, the Calypso, the Polka and the Mento.
Theater was introduced in Colombia during the Spanish colonization in 1550 through zarzuela companies. Colombian theater is supported by the Ministry of Culture and a number of private and state owned organizations. The Ibero - American Theater Festival of Bogotá is the cultural event of the highest importance in Colombia and one of the biggest theater festivals in the world. Other important theater events are: The Festival of Puppet The Fanfare (Medellín), The Manizales Theater Festival, The Caribbean Theatre Festival (Santa Marta) and The Art Festival of Popular Culture "Cultural Invasion '' (Bogotá).
Although the Colombian cinema is young as an industry, more recently the film industry was growing with support from the Film Act passed in 2003. Many film festivals take place in Colombia, but the two most important are the Cartagena Film Festival, which is the oldest film festival in Latin America, and the Bogotá Film Festival.
Some important national circulation newspapers are El Tiempo and El Espectador. Television in Colombia has two privately owned TV networks and three state - owned TV networks with national coverage, as well as six regional TV networks and dozens of local TV stations. Private channels, RCN and Caracol are the highest - rated. The regional channels and regional newspapers cover a department or more and its content is made in these particular areas.
Colombia has three major national radio networks: Radiodifusora Nacional de Colombia, a state - run national radio; Caracol Radio and RCN Radio, privately owned networks with hundreds of affiliates. There are other national networks, including Cadena Super, Todelar, and Colmundo. Many hundreds of radio stations are registered with the Ministry of Information Technologies and Communications.
Colombia 's varied cuisine is influenced by its diverse fauna and flora as well as the cultural traditions of the ethnic groups. Colombian dishes and ingredients vary widely by region. Some of the most common ingredients are: cereals such as rice and maize; tubers such as potato and cassava; assorted legumes; meats, including beef, chicken, pork and goat; fish; and seafood. Colombia cuisine also features a variety of tropical fruits such as cape gooseberry, feijoa, arazá, dragon fruit, mangostino, granadilla, papaya, guava, mora (blackberry), lulo, soursop and passionfruit. Colombia is one of the world 's largest consumers of fruit juices.
Among the most representative appetizers and soups are patacones (fried green plantains), sancocho de gallina (chicken soup with root vegetables) and ajiaco (potato and corn soup). Representative snacks and breads are pandebono, arepas (corn cakes), aborrajados (fried sweet plantains with cheese), torta de choclo, empanadas and almojábanas. Representative main courses are bandeja paisa, lechona tolimense, mamona, tamales and fish dishes (such as arroz de lisa), especially in coastal regions where kibbeh, suero, costeño cheese and carimañolas are also eaten. Representative side dishes are papas chorreadas (potatoes with cheese), remolachas rellenas con huevo duro (beets stuffed with hard - boiled egg) and arroz con coco (coconut rice). Organic food is a current trend in big cities, although in general across the country the fruits and veggies are very natural and fresh.
Representative desserts are buñuelos, natillas, Maria Luisa cake, bocadillo made of guayaba (guava jelly), cocadas (coconut balls), casquitos de guayaba (candied guava peels), torta de natas, obleas, flan de mango, roscón, milhoja, manjar blanco, dulce de feijoa, dulce de papayuela, torta de mojicón, and esponjado de curuba. Typical sauces (salsas) are hogao (tomato and onion sauce) and Colombian - style ají.
Some representative beverages are coffee (Tinto), champús, cholado, lulada, avena colombiana, sugarcane juice, aguapanela, aguardiente, hot chocolate and fresh fruit juices (often made with water or milk).
Tejo is Colombia 's national sport and is a team sport that involves launching projectiles to hit a target. But of all sports in Colombia, football is the most popular. Colombia was the champion of the 2001 Copa América, in which they set a new record of being undefeated, conceding no goals and winning each match. Interestingly, Colombia has been awarded "mover of the year '' twice.
Colombia is a hub for roller skaters. The national team is a perennial powerhouse at the World Roller Speed Skating Championships. Colombia has traditionally been very good in cycling and a large number of Colombian cyclists have triumphed in major competitions of cycling.
Baseball is popular in the Caribbean, mainly in the cities Cartagena, Barranquilla and Santa Marta. Of those cities have come good players like: Orlando Cabrera, Édgar Rentería who was champion of the World Series in 1997 and 2010, and others who have played in Major League Baseball. Colombia was world amateur champion in 1947 and 1965.
Boxing is one of the sports that more world champions has produced for Colombia. Motorsports also occupies an important place in the sporting preferences of Colombians; Juan Pablo Montoya is a race car driver known for winning 7 Formula One events. Colombia also has excelled in sports such as BMX, judo, shooting sport, taekwondo, wrestling, high diving and athletics, also has a long tradition in weightlifting and bowling.
The overall life expectancy in Colombia at birth is 74.8 years (71.2 years for males and 78.4 years for females). Health standards in Colombia have improved very much since the 1980s, healthcare reforms have led to the massive improvements in the healthcare systems of the country. Although this new system has widened population coverage by the social and health security system from 21 % (pre-1993) to 96 % in 2012, health disparities persist.
Through health tourism, many people from over the world travel from their places of residence to other countries in search of medical treatment and the attractions in the countries visited. Colombia is projected as one of Latin America 's main destinations in terms of health tourism due to the quality of its health care professionals, a good number of institutions devoted to health, and an immense inventory of natural and architectural sites. Cities such as Bogotá, Cali, Medellín and Bucaramanga are the most visited in cardiology procedures, neurology, dental treatments, stem cell therapy, ENT, ophthalmology and joint replacements because of the quality of medical treatment.
A study conducted by América Economía magazine ranked 21 Colombian health care institutions among the top 44 in Latin America, amounting to 48 percent of the total. A cancer research and treatment centre was declared as a Project of National Strategic Interest.
The educational experience of many Colombian children begins with attendance at a preschool academy until age five (Educación preescolar). Basic education (Educación básica) is compulsory by law. It has two stages: Primary basic education (Educación básica primaria) which goes from first to fifth grade -- children from six to ten years old, and Secondary basic education (Educación básica secundaria), which goes from sixth to ninth grade. Basic education is followed by Middle vocational education (Educación media vocacional) that comprises the tenth and eleventh grades. It may have different vocational training modalities or specialties (academic, technical, business, and so on.) according to the curriculum adopted by each school.
After the successful completion of all the basic and middle education years, a high - school diploma is awarded. The high - school graduate is known as a bachiller, because secondary basic school and middle education are traditionally considered together as a unit called bachillerato (sixth to eleventh grade). Students in their final year of middle education take the ICFES test (now renamed Saber 11) in order to gain access to higher education (Educación superior). This higher education includes undergraduate professional studies, technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies. Technical professional institutions of Higher Education are also opened to students holder of a qualification in Arts and Business. This qualification is usually awarded by the SENA after a two years curriculum.
Bachilleres (high - school graduates) may enter into a professional undergraduate career program offered by a university; these programs last up to five years (or less for technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies), even as much to six to seven years for some careers, such as medicine. In Colombia, there is not an institution such as college; students go directly into a career program at a university or any other educational institution to obtain a professional, technical or technological title. Once graduated from the university, people are granted a (professional, technical or technological) diploma and licensed (if required) to practice the career they have chosen. For some professional career programs, students are required to take the Saber - Pro test, in their final year of undergraduate academic education.
Public spending on education as a proportion of gross domestic product in 2015 was 4.49 %. This represented 15.05 % of total government expenditure. The primary and secondary gross enrolment ratios stood at 113.56 % and 98.09 % respectively. School - life expectancy was 14.42 years. A total of 94.58 % of the population aged 15 and older were recorded as literate, including 98.66 % of those aged 15 -- 24.
General information
Government
Culture
Geography
Amazonas Antioquia Arauca Atlántico Bolívar Boyacá
Caldas Caquetá Casanare Cauca Cesar Chocó
Córdoba Cundinamarca Guainía Guaviare Huila La Guajira
Magdalena Meta Nariño N. Santander Putumayo Quindío
Risaralda San Andrés Santander Sucre Tolima Valle del Cauca
Vaupés Vichada Capital district: Bogotá
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what happened to ridge forrester on bold and beautiful | Ridge Forrester - wikipedia
Ridge Forrester is a fictional character from the CBS Daytime soap opera, The Bold and the Beautiful. The character was introduced in the series premiere on March 23, 1987 and has been a regular fixture ever since. Ronn Moss played the role since the beginning, and was one of four remaining original cast members for 25 years, along with Susan Flannery, John McCook and Katherine Kelly Lang. Lane Davies briefly replaced Moss for a small amount of time in 1992. However, Moss departed in 2012. The character 's fate was uncertain, although head - writer Bradley Bell confirmed in an interview with Michael Logan of TV Guide that he had plans for a recast should Moss choose not to return to the series. In October 2013, TV Guide 's Michael Logan reported that the role of Ridge was recast with former All My Children actor, Thorsten Kaye. Kaye made his first appearance as Ridge on December 13, 2013.
Ridge (currently) is described by: "Currently CEO and the driving force behind Forrester Creations Empire, this debonair designer spent his entire life believing that he was Eric 's son, only to later learn that he 's not a Forrester at all, but rather the son of shipping tycoon Massimo Marone, and half brother to sailor, Nick. Father to Thomas, Steffy, and RJ, and stepfather to Hope, the one - time conflicted lover has finally settled down with Brooke, the true love of his life. '' In December 2013 during an interview with TV Guide, executive producer Bradley Bell talked about a significant change in Ridge 's personality following the recasting of the role. He described, "He 's become very introspective about the first chapter of his life, and the highs and lows of being married to a woman like Brooke. He 's been working, traveling, keeping a low profile and really trying to analyze himself and the mistakes he 's made. He 's been thinking a lot about what he wants for the remainder of his life. ''
In August 2012, it was announced that Moss had decided to leave The Bold and the Beautiful after 25 years of being on the series. He will exit the series on September 14, 2012. When approached about the possibility of a recast following Moss ' exit, series executive producer Bradley Bell confessed, "I might go a little younger but we 'll be true to the age range that 's been established. I do have people in mind in terms of a recast -- some very interesting people. '' Bell also revealed that the character would return at some point in the future, whether it was Moss portraying the role or not. He revealed:
Bell later announced he would recast the role, should Moss choose not to return, and had several high - profile actors in mind. On October 15, 2013, it was announced that former All My Children star Thorsten Kaye was recast in the role of Ridge. He made his on - screen debut on December 13, 2013. Bradley Bell explained that Kaye was at the top of his list for a Ridge recast and even considered bringing him to the series prior to the recast. He said, "I 've had Thorsten on a list of several possible Ridges for a long time. Some of the actors on that list came from daytime, others had never done daytime before. ''
Ridge Forrester is the son of Eric and Stephanie Forrester (until a 2001 storyline changes his paternity), the oldest of the five Forrester children: Thorne, Kristen, Felicia and Angela. He is initially portrayed as an arrogant playboy who fully enjoys his status as the favored son. Yet, like Eric, Ridge is a talented designer and soon becomes a central part of the family company, fashion house Forrester Creations. He dates the virginal heiress, Caroline Spencer. They fall in love and set a wedding date, but right before the wedding, Caroline finds out Ridge had a last minute fling and she collapsed at the wedding. Ridge did n't realize he really loved Caroline until she breaks up with him. She went on to marry his brother Thorne and Ridge ventured into a romance with Brooke Logan. Ridge moved Brooke in with him, she became pregnant but miscarried their child. During her recuperation, Ridge went into an inebriated Caroline 's bedroom while her husband Thorne was downstairs and had sex with Caroline. Caroline thought he was Thorne but much later "confessed '' she knew it was Ridge. Caroline and Ridge still loved each other. Caroline finally left Thorne and went to Ridge, Ridge broke up with Brooke, and they were married. Caroline died after being diagnosed with leukemia.
Caroline 's dying wish is for Ridge to be with Brooke, but Brooke has now become involved with Eric, who pursued her when he found out Ridge had broken up with her and broken her heart. Ridge instead romances and then marries Caroline 's oncologist, Taylor Hayes. Taylor instantly clashes with Brooke, who schemes from the beginning to be with Ridge. By the time Taylor is presumed dead in a plane crash, Brooke is engaged to Taylor 's associate, James Warwick. Ridge initially encourages their relationship, but he ends up crashing their wedding. He and Brooke soon marry instead. Taylor was rescued by Prince Omar and married him. When Taylor turns up alive, Ridge initially chooses to stay with Brooke because of the children, but goes back to his true wife (his marriage to Brooke was ruled invalid). This sets in motion a bitter rivalry between Brooke and Taylor. In an attempt to make Ridge jealous, Brooke threatens to elope with Grant, an old friend of Taylor 's who has come to work at Forrester Creations, if Ridge does n't agree to remarry her. When Ridge refuses, she goes through with the wedding, not knowing that Ridge left Taylor at their engagement party to race to the port to try to stop her from marrying Grant. She also gives Grant control of Forrester Creations. When her son Rick shoots Grant, Ridge takes the blame and while waiting to be sentenced, he spills his heart to Taylor confessing it was her he always loved. When Ridge is released, Taylor is pregnant. However, when she goes to tell him she is pregnant, she catches Brooke and Ridge in bed, she decides to tell everyone Thorne, who she has been living with, and went on vacation to Hawaii, is the father. Taylor did n't know that Brooke staged the scene, getting Ridge drunk and out of his shirt and he still refused to make love to her. The truth about Thomas Forrester in fact being Ridge 's son comes out, and he annuls his marriage to Brooke and returns to Taylor. In 1999, identical twin daughters, Steffy and Phoebe, are born.
Several ordeals undermine his happiness during the marriage. His old lover, Morgan DeWitt, tricks him into getting her pregnant. A physical confrontation with Taylor leads to Morgan miscarrying, which in turn leads to her kidnapping Steffy, faking the child 's death and passing the girl off as her own. Morgan eventually has both Taylor and the child held captive; but Ridge manages to save them both. Taylor is killed by Eric 's ex wife, Sheila Carter. Ridge also learns he is n't Eric 's son, but the son of billionaire shipping magnate Massimo Marone (even Stephanie did n't know this), Stephanie 's best friend. Ridge returns to Brooke. When Ridge, Brooke and series newcomer Nick Marone are kidnapped by Sheila, Ridge falls into a fire furnace, and presumed dead. A grieving Brooke collapsed in front of the furnace and Nick "comforted '' her by having sex with her, on the foundry floor! However Ridge is actually alive, returning three days later. She gives birth to R.J. Forrester, Ridge 's child (originally thought to be Nick 's child, later revealed as Ridge 's). Brooke tosses between Nick (who she now loves) and Ridge. She chooses Nick in the end.
Brooke returns to Ridge, however he leaves her for Taylor, who returned from the dead. In reality, she was kidnapped by Prince Omar to recover from her wounds. Stephanie faked a heart attack, and convinced Ridge to marry Taylor as her "dying '' wish. When her lies were exposed, Ridge still goes through with the wedding. Taylor tells Ridge the truth about her sleeping with James Warwick many years ago in a serious emotional time where both thought they were dying; Ridge tells her that the hypocrisy of the standard she has always held others, namely Brooke, up to is what he ca n't forgive. So Ridge returns to Brooke, however she rejects him, choosing Nick instead. When Nick and Brooke marry, Ridge suffers from a heart attack, literally a broken heart, according to his diagnosis. Stephanie realizes and accepts that Ridge really does love Brooke. Brooke returns to L.A after leaving to support Ridge, however remains with Nick. Ridge dated Brooke 's sister, Donna, hoping Brooke will be jealous.
After Bridget and Nick sleep together, Brooke wants Ridge back, however he rejects her; he has his eye on the new chemist at Forrester Originals, Ashley Abbott (a character who had been well established years earlier on The Young and the Restless). They have a brief relationship, and engage however he breaks it off to be with Brooke again after Brooke is savagely beaten and raped by Andy, a man whom Stephanie told how to get into Brooke 's house. Brooke leans on Ridge, who is very supportive and goes to counseling with her. When a man named Shane McGrath dies, Ridge took Shane 's body out on Nick 's boat, The Shady Marlin, and dumped it in the ocean. Ridge is blamed (despite not killing Shane). He is jailed and released. Rick ends up in a relationship with Taylor, however Taylor breaks it off as she still loves Ridge. This results in a fist - fight between Ridge and Rick. Rick falls off a building and ends up paralyzed. In 2009, Ridge and Taylor becoming close again after their daughter Phoebe is killed in a car accident, in a car which Rick was driving. (Phoebe was hitting Rick and pressed her foot down on the gas, causing Rick to lose control of the car). They protect their daughter, Steffy from Rick after she shows interest in him as well. Steffy and Rick break up. Taylor gives Ridge pills for stress, however he starts to overdose himself without Taylor 's knowledge; Taylor gets in bed with him and they have sex. He leaves Brooke and he 's ready to marry Taylor. Steffy and Thomas send texts to Brooke, misleading her about the wedding. But at the last minute Brooke interrupts the ceremony, arriving on a horse, and, after a short period, Ridge leaves Taylor 's house and reunites with Brooke. In 2010, at Hope 's graduation party where all the females are dressed alike and all the males are dressed alike and are wearing masks, Brooke accidentally has sex with Oliver Jones, Hope Logan 's teenage boyfriend. Oliver thinks Brooke is Hope, and Brooke thinks Oliver is Ridge, because they do not talk. Brooke is mortified, Hope is angry with both of them and dumps Oliver. Ridge pardons Brooke and does n't react at all. In 2011, Taylor 's and Ridge 's son, Thomas, set out to promote their Forrester Creations Line called "Taboo '' but end up in a plane crash and get stranded on an island. They return, and Taylor consumes poisonous berries that are brought back, assumed to trigger a sexual anxiety when consumed. Stephanie promises Thomas her shares of Forrester creation at her death if he will lie, so Thomas and Stephanie lie and tell everyone that Thomas and Brooke had sex on the Island, even though Brooke was severely injured in the plane crash. Ridge returned to Taylor, and nearly married her because of this. The truth came out and he returned to Brooke and basically disowned his son, Thomas. He left Taylor heartbroken and she is now dating Thorne. Also Ridge is stunned when he learns that his daughter Steffy married Hope 's fiancee Liam Spencer in Aspen. Despite whatever doubts he may have about the marriage, Ridge supports his daughter 's decision to marry Liam while Brooke does n't. When Liam ends his marriage to Steffy and reunites with Hope, Ridge expresses his personal concerns while Brooke is happy that her daughter is finally with the man she loves. Ridge proposes to Brooke in Italy. Stephanie offers to organise the wedding at her house; it was a simple ceremony with only family as guests. Ridge and Brooke leave for their honeymoon after the speeches have taken place. While on their honeymoon, Brooke is in touch with Deacon via one text conceerning Hope, and Ridge finds out, but when he asks Brooke about it, she denies it. Ridge tells Brooke he can no longer take the lies and tells her he will not be returning home with her. Brooke arrives home without Ridge to deal with Katie. Ridge leaves his son Thomas in charge of Forrester Creations as interim CEO.
Ridge (Thorsten Kaye) returns to L.A. in December 2013 and reconnects with Brooke, but breaks things off when he learns of her affair with Bill Spencer, Jr. Katie, Brooke 's youngest sister, thought she was going to die, but was going through postpartum psychosis. She wanted Brooke to take care of Bill and Will, so arranged circumstances for Brooke and Bill to fall in love and raise Baby Will together. Everyone blames Brooke 's affair with Bill on Ridge leaving Brooke on their honeymoon and spending one year away in Paris. Brooke and Ridge decide to remarry, but Katie and Ridge have connected and have feelings for each other. Katie fakes a fainting spell at the wedding. Ridge begins dating Brooke 's sister Katie Logan, which angers a jealous Brooke and Eric, who wants Ridge and Brooke together. Eric tells Ridge that if he breaks up with Katie and gets together with Brooke he will appoint Ridge CEO of Forrester Creations. Eric makes Brooke and Ridge co-vice presidents with Rick still serving as president. Katie and Ridge become engaged and Bill seizes the opportunity for another chance with Brooke. Bill and Brooke travel to Abu Dhabi for their marriage, which is stopped by Ridge when he learns of Bill 's one night stand with Quinn Fuller. An enraged Bill orders his right hand man Justin Barber, who was secretly piloting the helicopter Ridge and Brooke were on, to dump Ridge into the Persian Gulf. After an extensive search Brooke finds Ridge on the beach but he has suffered memory loss and has lost the ability to draw. Ridge blames Bill for his loss of drawing but finds that he is learning to draw again by working with Rick 's wife and Bill 's niece Caroline Spencer. Eric says he will step down as CEO to travel more with his brother John and will decide on a successor between Ridge and Rick. As Caroline and Ridge work together alone on the new couture line they share a few kisses and declare their attraction for each other. Katie becomes jealous of Caroline 's ability to understand Ridge and help him draw again but tells Ridge not to use Caroline to attain the CEO position. Eric chooses Ridge as the new CEO but changes his mind when he learns about Ridge and Caroline kissing. During a business meeting, Maya told everyone that Ridge and Caroline were having an affair. Though Caroline is crying and begging for Rick 's forgiveness, Ridge stands quietly. Rick is angered and hurt and begins an affair with the greedy and opportunistic Maya Avant, who convinces Rick to accept the CEO position. Rick uses his new role as CEO to enact revenge on Ridge and Caroline. Ridge and Katie 's relationship is strained and a vengeful Katie tells Bill, who gets into a fight with Ridge. Caroline wants to have a relationship with Ridge but he tells her to work things out with Rick. Eric orders Rick to end his affair with Maya or he will fire him as CEO. Rick devises a scheme where it appears he has returned to Caroline until he is secure in his position at Forrester Creations. However, Rick continues his affair with Maya until he was able to gain irrevocable control of the company from Eric. Once he achieves this, he leaves Caroline and moves Maya into the Forrester Mansion, and replaces Stephanie 's portrait above the fireplace with one of Maya. Rick finds Ridge and Caroline making out with each other in the design office and shoots at them with a gun that he stole from Eric. Eric, finally realizes Rick is dangerous and unstable, uses the morality clause in Rick 's contract to fire Rick and make Ridge CEO. Katie then breaks off her engagement with Ridge as his relationship with Caroline progresses.
Caroline takes a trip to New York to visit Karen and Danielle, and is severely injured when she is hit by a car. Upon returning to L.A., she moves in with Ridge and they begin to plan their future. He helps her to recuperate. However, Ridge finds out that he can not father children as a result of an irreversible vasectomy he had while living in Paris, and ends his relationship with Caroline so that she can find someone who can give her children. Ridge does not tell Caroline about his inability to father children, and instead confides in Brooke. Caroline then takes anti-anxiety medication that she stole from Pam 's desk and starts drinking. While drunk and drugged in a hotel room, she calls Thomas (now played by Pierson Fode), and they have sex. The next morning, after realizing what happened, Caroline returns to Ridge. A few weeks later, Caroline finds out she is pregnant, and Ridge tells her that he ca n't be the father. Caroline then confesses to having sex with Thomas and he is her baby 's father. Caroline and Ridge decide to keep the baby 's paternity a secret as Ridge believes that Thomas took advantage of Caroline and is too immature to raise a child. The baby is born, and they decide to name him Douglas, after Stephanie. Thomas begins bonding with Douglas, and Ridge and Caroline eventually reveal the truth after being blackmailed by Brooke and Bill. Ridge then ends his marriage to Caroline so that Thomas, Caroline, and Douglas can be a family.
Ridge then decides to go after Brooke, despite the fact that she is in a relationship with Bill. Ridge then stops Brooke and Bill 's attempted wedding after R.J. (now recast and aged to 16) returns home from boarding school and convinces Ridge that he belongs with Brooke. Ridge and Brooke eventually reunite and get engaged when Ridge proposes on Christmas Day, 2016. Despite being recommitted to Brooke, Ridge starts to develop feelings for Eric 's new wife Quinn Fuller, after he accidentally sees her naked while taking an outdoor shower.
In his column of the newspaper Gettysburg Times on January 10, 1990, John N. Goudas discussed Ridge: "You have to hand it to Ridge Forrester. That handsome devil on The Bold and the Beautiful. In love with two women, Caroline and Brooke, he played a stalling game for 3 years, and got away with it. In December (1989) the writers finally cleared up Ridge 's conscience and finally made a decision in favor of Caroline, the unhappy wife of his brother Thorne, '' not knowing that after years of turmoil Brooke would emerge as his true love (even after another woman, Taylor Hayes, had a life with Ridge). Ronn Moss said on his character (in the very early stages) "Ridge has developed since the show began. He is less devious, and more respectful than others. Besides, he had a problem that was uncommon; he was in love with two ladies. '' Connie Passalacqua from The Rock Hill Herald said at the show 's inception: "Even the most hardened feminist would swoon at the sight of Ronn Moss, Ridge Forrester (...) Ridge has been shown at various angles, sunning his ripply muscled bod by the Forrester swimming pool ''. Passalacqua also commented on the character 's looks and touching on the beauty and good looks of the show 's cast, embodying the title Bold and Beautiful at its very best.
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where was life or something like it filmed | Life or Something Like it - wikipedia
Life or Something Like It is a 2002 romantic comedy / drama film directed by Stephen Herek. The film focuses on television reporter Lanie Kerrigan (Angelina Jolie) and her quest to find meaning in her life. The original music score was composed by David Newman. The film 's taglines are: "Destiny is what you make of it '' and "What if you had only 7 days to live? ''
Lanie Kerrigan (Angelina Jolie), a successful reporter for a Seattle television station, interviews a self - proclaimed prophet, Jack (Tony Shalhoub), to find out if he really can predict football scores. Instead, Prophet Jack not only predicts the football score, and that it would hail the next day, but also that she would die in seven days, meaning the following Thursday. When his first two prophecies turn out to be correct, Kerrigan panics and again meets with Jack, asking him for another prophecy so that she can prove it wrong, which would imply uncertainty of her death. Jack tells her that there will be a relatively significant earthquake in San Francisco at 9: 06 am; she hopes that it will be wrong but again it also becomes reality. Now Lanie becomes sure of her upcoming death and is forced to reevaluate her life.
The remainder of the storyline - which runs for the week of the prophecy - revolves around her attempts at introspection. She seeks consolation in her famous baseball player boyfriend Cal Cooper (Christian Kane), and in her family, but finds little there. Her lifelong ambition, that of appearing on network television, begins to look like a distant dream. In her desperation, she commits professional blunders, but ends up finding support in an unlikely source: her archenemy, the cameraman Pete Scanlon (Edward Burns), with whom she once had casual sex. He introduces her to a new approach to life; to live every moment of her life and to do whatever she always wanted to do.
Lanie implements Pete 's advice; she moves in with Pete for a day, and he introduces her to his son Tommy (Jesse James Rutherford), who lives with his mother, and they spend a whole day together with Tommy. That night they sleep together for the second time. The next day Lanie receives an opportunity for a job she always dreamed of in New York. She asks Pete to come with her, but he declines and tells her that her appetite for success and fame will never end. Lanie sadly leaves for New York.
Pete meets Jack and tells him how wrong he is, as Lanie got the job which Jack foretold she would not get. But Jack explains that he was right as Lanie will never be able to get the job as she 'll die before it begins. He again gives a prophecy of the death of a famous former baseball player in a plane crash. Pete receives the news of the death of the baseball player as foretold by Jack, and tries to call Lanie to warn her. When he can not reach her, he flies to New York.
Lanie - unconcerned with Jack 's prophecy - interviews her idol, famous media personality Deborah Connors (Stockard Channing). Lanie realizes how petty the opening questions are and shares a heartfelt moment with Deborah live on air. The interview receives huge ratings. The network immediately offers her a position, but Lanie declines, realizing that she wants a life with Pete in Seattle.
As she leaves the studio, a police officer gets into a conflict with a man, who shoots a bullet into the air. Pete tries to warn Lanie across the street, but she is shot in the crossfire. Luckily, Lanie survives, and Pete tells her in the hospital that he has loved her since the first time he saw her, and Lanie says she loves him, too. Later, Pete, Lanie and Tommy watch Cal 's baseball game, while Lanie (in a voiceover) says that one part of her has died -- the part which did n't know how to live a life.
The majority of the movie was shot on location in Seattle, Washington although portions were filmed in downtown Vancouver. The TV station in the movie, KQMO, was actually real - life Seattle TV station KOMO - TV (the KOMO logo was altered on the set of KOMO 4 News and on several of KOMO 's news vehicles, in addition to a few mic flags).
Several KOMO personalities make cameo appearances; among them are longtime anchors Dan Lewis and Margo Myers (the latter moved to KIRO - TV in January 2005), weather anchor and Front Runners host Steve Pool, and weekend weather anchor Theron Zahn. Other KOMO personalities who made brief cameo appearances include People Helper John Sharify, and reporter Michelle Esteban.
Additionally, Vancouver news anchors Pamela Martin and Jill Krop, at the time both employed with BCTV, appeared briefly in scenes shot in the BCTV studios.
As of October 17, 2014, based on 121 reviews collected by the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, Life or Something Like It has received an overall rating average of 28 %, with an average score of 4.5 out of 10.
Jolie 's performance in the film earned her a Golden Raspberry Award nomination for Worst Actress.
The film was a commercial and financial loss, grossing only $16,872,671 against its $40,000,000 budget.
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when did the infinity stones appear in comics | Infinity Gems - wikipedia
The Infinity Gems (originally referred to as Soul Gems and later as Infinity Stones) are six immensely powerful gems appearing in Marvel Comics. The gems are named: the Mind, Soul, Space, Power, Time, and Reality gems. In later storylines, crossovers, and other media, a seventh gem has also been included. The Gems have been used by various characters in the Marvel Universe.
The Gems play a prominent role in the first three phases of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, where they are referred to as the Infinity Stones.
The first Infinity Gem appeared in 1972, in Marvel Premiere # 1 (which also introduced the character Adam Warlock), and was originally called a "Soul Gem. '' In 1976 a second "Soul Gem '' appeared in a Captain Marvel story and established that there were six Soul Gems, each with different powers. One year later, two more "Soul Gems '' were introduced in a Warlock crossover with Spider - Man, and the full set of six Gems appeared as the death - obsessed villain Thanos attempted to use them to extinguish every star in the universe. In a 1988 storyline in Silver Surfer, the Elders of the Universe try to use the "Soul Gems '' to steal the energy of the world - eating entity Galactus.
In the 1990 limited series The Thanos Quest, Thanos refers to the entire set as "Infinity Gems '' for the first time. In this storyline, he steals the Gems and inserts them into a golden glove known as the Infinity Gauntlet and reveals the Gems to be the last remains of an omnipotent being. In the miniseries The Infinity Gauntlet, Thanos uses the Gems to become nearly omnipotent and kills half the universe 's population as a gift to his love, the cosmic embodiment of Death. Although he easily repels an attack by Earth 's heroes and other cosmic entities, the Gauntlet is eventually stolen from him by Nebula, who undoes his mass killings. Adam Warlock then recovers the Gauntlet and divides the Gems among a group he calls "the Infinity Watch, '' consisting of himself, the superheroes Gamora, Pip the Troll, Drax the Destroyer, Moondragon, and his former adversary Thanos. This group 's adventures in defending the Gems appeared in the series Warlock and the Infinity Watch (1992 - 1995).
The Gems are next gathered by Warlock 's evil alter ego, the Magus, in a 1992 limited series, The Infinity War, where he is defeated by Warlock and Earth 's heroes. In 1993, a third limited series, The Infinity Crusade, described the attempts of Warlock 's "Good '' side, the Goddess, to destroy evil in the universe by destroying free will; the Gems are once more retrieved by the Infinity Watch.
Following the cancellation of the Infinity Watch series, the one - shot title Rune / Silver Surfer depicts the Gems being stolen by the extradimensional vampire Rune and dispersed throughout the Ultraverse. The Asgardian god Loki subsequently enters the Ultraverse, collects the Gems, and discovers the existence of a seventh Gem, "Ego ''. The Ego Gem, possessing the Avenger Sersi, merges with the other Gems to reform Nemesis, the original omnipotent being whose essence formed the Gems, and battles the Avengers and Ultraforce before being dissipated once again.
In a story arc of theThanos series (2003 - 2004), Galactus gathers the six Gems, but accidentally allows an interdimensional preset named Hunger access into the Earth - 616 universe. Thanos and Galactus banish the entity, and the Gems are scattered again with the exception of the Soul Gem, which Thanos retains for its customary custodian, Adam Warlock. In New Avengers: Illuminati, a 2007 - 2008 limited series, a cabal of Earth 's heroes gather the Gems and attempt to wish them out of existence, but discover that they must exist as part of the cosmic balance. Instead, the Illuminati divide and hide the Gems.
In a 2010 Avengers storyline, the human criminal known as the Hood steals several Gems, but is defeated by use of the remaining Gems; the Illuminati attempt to hide them again. Later, the Illuminati wields the Gems to stop another universe from collapsing into their own, but the Gems are shattered in the effort. Afterwards, the previously vanished Time Gem appears to Captain America and some of the Avengers and transports them into future realities, shattering throughout time in the process.
As a result of the Incursions, the entire Multiverse is destroyed. However, Doctor Doom combines fragments of several alternate realities into Battleworld. Doctor Strange gathers Infinity Gems from various realities into a new Infinity Gauntlet, which he leaves hidden until the surviving heroes of Earth - 616 return. The Gauntlet is subsequently claimed by T'Challa, who uses it to keep the Beyonder - enhanced Doom occupied until Mister Fantastic can disrupt his power source.
Following the recreation of the Multiverse, the Infinity Gems (now known as the Infinity Stones) are recreated and scattered across the universe, with their colors switched and some taking on uncut ingot forms. In Marvel Legacy # 1, the Space Stone (now colored blue) appears on Earth where a Frost Giant working for Loki steals it from a S.H.I.E.L.D. storage facility, however he is intercepted and defeated by Wolverine. Star - Lord discovers an extra-large Power Stone (now colored purple) being protected by the Nova Corps, and an alternate universe Peter Quill named Starkill has the Reality Stone (now colored red). A future version of Ghost Rider is revealed to possess a shard of the Time Stone (now colored green), while in the present the complete stone restores the ruined planet of Sakaar and is claimed by the Super-Skrull. The Mind Stone (now colored yellow) is found on Earth in the hands of petty crook Turk Barrett, and the Soul Stone (now colored orange) is mentioned to Adam Warlock to be in the hands of his dark aspect the Magus; however, Ultron is able to claim it after ambushing and killing him.
Each Gem is shaped like a small oval, and is named after, and represents, a different characteristic of existence. Possessing any single Gem grants the user the ability to command whatever aspect of existence the Gem represents. The Gems are not immutable. For instance, on two occasions, one or more of the Gems have appeared as deep pink spheres several feet in diameter, while on other occasions, the Gems have appeared in their small oval shape but with different coloring. (e.g. the Soul Gem being colored red when worn by the Gardener). In the Ultraverse, after merging into their original form of Nemesis, the Gems were again separated after a battle with Ultraforce and the Avengers. As part of the Marvel Legacy initiative, the Infinity Gems (now known as the Infinity Stones), had their colors altered to match the colors of the Infinity Stones from the Marvel Cinematic Universe.
The six Infinity Gems include:
Additional Gems have appeared in crossover media and alternate universes outside the Marvel Universe.
The Reed Richards of Earth - 616, in an attempt to "solve everything '', meets with a council of alternate universe Reeds. Three of them wear Infinity Gauntlets, which only work in concert with their respective universes.
During the "Incursion '' storyline, the Avengers travel to a parallel Earth where a pastiche on the Justice League have replaced this Earth 's Avengers who all died in a previous cataclysm. Here the Gems are all square planes which are assembled into the "Wishing Cube '', a composite of the concepts of the Infinity Gems and the Cosmic Cube.
After various alternate universes are combined into Battleworld, Doctor Strange gathers Infinity Gems from other universes into a new Infinity Gauntlet that works in the area where Doom has built his palace. Strange leaves the Gauntlet hidden until he has access to someone he can trust it with; after his death, the Gauntlet is claimed by T'Challa, who uses it against Doom in the final battle.
A separate section of Battleworld known as New Xandar also has a Gauntlet fought over by multiple factions until the majority of the Stones, except the Reality Stone, were taken by Thanos. Thanos eventually tracks the missing Stone to Nova Corps member Anwen Bakian. When Thanos confronts her to get the Stone, Anwen gives him a duplicate of the Reality Stone she created called the ' Death Stone '. When used along with the other five Stones, the Death Stone corrupts Thanos with black matter and turns him to dust.
In the Ultimate Marvel universe, an Infinity Gauntlet is seen in Project Pegasus. The Mind Gem (stolen by Hydra) is used by Modi (Thor 's son) to control both Director Flumm and Cassie Lang, but are stopped by the Ultimates. The Power Gem is later revealed to be in the possession of former S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Sayuri Kyota, while a second Infinity Gauntlet is recovered from an A.I.M. base by Thor and Susan Storm. Kang the Conqueror later allies himself with the Hulk, Reed Richards and Quicksilver as part of a plan to steal the two Gauntlets, which results in the destruction of the Triskelion. Quicksilver recovers two additional Gems allowing the villains to teleport away. Richards is later able to recover another of the Gems, which is found lodged in Tony Stark 's brain. He informs Stark that the Infinity Gems are needed to save the world from a coming cataclysm that will destroy the entire universe. After brainwashing Johnny Storm and forcing him to travel to the Earth 's core, the Dark Ultimates are able to recover the final gem, but are defeated by the Ultimates. The gems then shatter, rendering the Gauntlets useless.
In a reality where Doctor Doom retained the power of the Beyonder, he acquired the Infinity Gems from the Elders of the Universe and used them to defeat the Celestials in a 407 - year - long war before finally forsaking his power.
In an alternate reality where the original Fantastic Four died, a new Fantastic Four -- consisting of Spider - Man, Hulk, Wolverine and Ghost Rider -- was formed. With Iron Man replacing Ghost Rider, they were the only heroes available to fight Thanos when he initially assembled the Infinity Gauntlet. Despite Iron Man 's use of Negative Zone -- enhanced Celestial armor, Thanos still easily defeated the team until Wolverine tricked Thanos into erasing Mephisto from existence before cutting off Thanos 's left arm, and therefore the Infinity Gauntlet. With Thanos powerless, Spider - Man used the gauntlet to undo the events of Thanos 's godhood.
In the Contest of Champions miniseries, an alternate version of Tony Stark uses the Reality Gem to win the superhero civil war and affect the outcome of a presidential election. When he tries to use the Gem on Battleworld, he is killed by the Maestro, who says the Gems do not work in any universe other than their own.
The Infinity Stones are significant in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, playing important roles in several films. Director James Gunn created the backstory for the Stones in the film Guardians of the Galaxy, where the Collector explains they are the remnants of six singularities that existed before the Big Bang, which were compressed into stones after the universe began and dispersed throughout the cosmos. In the film Avengers: Infinity War, it is further explained by Wong and Doctor Strange to Tony Stark that each stone embodies and controls an essential aspect of existence.
In order of introduction, they are:
A right - handed gauntlet appears in the film Thor, where it is stored in Odin 's vault; this gauntlet was later revealed to be a fake in Thor: Ragnarok. In the mid-credits scene of Avengers: Age of Ultron, Thanos is seen wearing a left - handed gauntlet.
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when was circus circus built in las vegas | Circus Circus Las Vegas - wikipedia
Circus Circus Las Vegas is a hotel, 123,928 sq ft (11,513.3 m) casino, and RV park located on the Las Vegas Strip in Winchester, Nevada. It is owned and operated by MGM Resorts International. Circus Circus features circus acts and carnival type games daily on the Midway.
Circus Circus is the largest permanent big top in the world. The Lucky The Clown marquee at the entrance was provided by Young Electric Sign Company and was constructed in 1976.
Previous owners of Circus Circus Las Vegas were Jay Sarno and Stanley Mallin (1968 -- 1974) and Mandalay Resort Group, formerly known as Circus Circus Enterprises (1974 -- 2005)
Circus Circus was opened on October 18, 1968 by Jay Sarno and Stanley Mallin, becoming the flagship casino for Circus Circus Enterprises. Architects Rissman and Rissman Associates designed a giant circus tent shaped main structure, which was built by R.C. Johnson Construction of Las Vegas.
At its opening, the $15 million facility only included a casino. The lack of a hotel resulted in financial problems, as the casino was not able to attract high rollers. Sarno obtained a $23 million loan from the Teamsters Pension Fund to construct a hotel. As part of the arrangement, the Chicago Outfit 's enforcer, Anthony Spilotro (under the name of Tony Stuart) was granted a gift shop concession in the hotel. In addition to a government investigation into the organized - crime connections, Sarno and Mallin were also being investigated for tax code violations. The casino 's financial problems also continued and Sarno, along with his partner Stanley Mallin, decided to sell out.
In 1974, ownership changed with the sale of the casino to William Bennett and William Pennington for $25 million. The facility was expanded with hotel tower additions in 1972, 1980, 1985, 1986 and 1996.
A blog reported that on July 1, 2009, Slots - A-Fun would begin the re-branding process in order to be incorporated into Circus Circus.
The hotel rooms are located in several buildings including:
Circus Circus offers:
The hotel 's famous midway was featured in the 1971 James Bond film Diamonds Are Forever.
In his journalistic novel of the early 1970s, Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, Hunter S. Thompson wrote, "The Circus - Circus is what the whole hep world would be doing Saturday night if the Nazis had won the war. This is the sixth Reich. The ground floor is full of gambling tables, like all the other casinos... but the place is about four stories high, in the style of a circus tent, and all manner of strange County - Fair / Polish Carnival madness is going on up in this space. '' When the Thompson work was adapted to film in 1998, the fictional "Bazooko Circus '' was a thinly veiled stand - in for the world - famed resort, which had refused permission for the filmmakers to shoot on their property.
The Adventuredome Theme Park and the Canyon Blaster roller coaster were featured in the 1999 movie Baby Geniuses. The theme park was known as Joyworld in the movie.
Characters in 1977 's post-apocalyptic Damnation Alley seek out at the abandoned Circus Circus to play.
In Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery, Austin and Vanessa sneak into the Circus Circus.
In the 1992 movie Honey, I Blew Up the Kid, the oversized child Adam is shown laughing and smiling at the Lucky the Clown pylon.
The Midway was featured in the 1978 film Corvette Summer, when Mark Hamill was being lured into a scam by a "salesman ''.
In the game Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas, Circus Circus is featured as The Clown 's Pocket.
In the TV series Vega $, private detective Dan Tanna (Robert Urich) lived in a converted warehouse next to Circus Circus, and was often shown driving past the resort in his classic Ford Thunderbird.
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where does the term fairy tale come from | Fairy tale - wikipedia
A fairy tale, wonder tale, magic tale, or Märchen is a folklore genre that takes the form of a short story. Such stories typically feature entities such as dwarfs, dragons, elves, fairies, giants, gnomes, goblins, griffins, mermaids, talking animals, trolls, unicorns, or witches, and usually magic or enchantments. Fairy tales may be distinguished from other folk narratives such as legends (which generally involve belief in the veracity of the events described) and explicit moral tales, including beast fables. The term is mainly used for stories with origins in European tradition and, at least in recent centuries, mostly relates to children 's literature.
In less technical contexts, the term is also used to describe something blessed with unusual happiness, as in "fairy - tale ending '' (a happy ending) or "fairy - tale romance ''. Colloquially, the term "fairy tale '' or "fairy story '' can also mean any far - fetched story or tall tale; it is used especially of any story that not only is not true, but could not possibly be true. Legends are perceived as real; fairy tales may merge into legends, where the narrative is perceived both by teller and hearers as being grounded in historical truth. However, unlike legends and epics, fairy tales usually do not contain more than superficial references to religion and to actual places, people, and events; they take place "once upon a time '' rather than in actual times.
Fairy tales occur both in oral and in literary form; the name "fairy tale '' was first ascribed to them by Madame d'Aulnoy in the late 17th century. Many of today 's fairy tales have evolved from centuries - old stories that have appeared, with variations, in multiple cultures around the world. The history of the fairy tale is particularly difficult to trace because only the literary forms can survive. Still, according to researchers at universities in Durham and Lisbon, such stories may date back thousands of years, some to the Bronze Age more than 6,500 years ago. Fairy tales, and works derived from fairy tales, are still written today.
Folklorists have classified fairy tales in various ways. The Aarne - Thompson classification system and the morphological analysis of Vladimir Propp are among the most notable. Other folklorists have interpreted the tales ' significance, but no school has been definitively established for the meaning of the tales.
Some folklorists prefer to use the German term Märchen or "wonder tale '' to refer to the genre over fairy tale, a practice given weight by the definition of Thompson in his 1977 (1946) edition of The Folktale: "a tale of some length involving a succession of motifs or episodes. It moves in an unreal world without definite locality or definite creatures and is filled with the marvellous. In this never - never land, humble heroes kill adversaries, succeed to kingdoms and marry princesses. '' The characters and motifs of fairy tales are simple and archetypal: princesses and goose - girls; youngest sons and gallant princes; ogres, giants, dragons, and trolls; wicked stepmothers and false heroes; fairy godmothers and other magical helpers, often talking horses, or foxes, or birds; glass mountains; and prohibitions and breaking of prohibitions.
A fairy tale with a tragic rather than a happy end is called an anti-fairy tale.
Although the fairy tale is a distinct genre within the larger category of folktale, the definition that marks a work as a fairy tale is a source of considerable dispute. The term itself comes from the translation of Madame D'Aulnoy's Conte de fées, first used in her collection in 1697.) Common parlance conflates fairy tales with beast fables and other folktales, and scholars differ on the degree to which the presence of fairies and / or similarly mythical beings (e.g., elves, goblins, trolls, giants, huge monsters) should be taken as a differentiator. Vladimir Propp, in his Morphology of the Folktale, criticized the common distinction between "fairy tales '' and "animal tales '' on the grounds that many tales contained both fantastic elements and animals. Nevertheless, to select works for his analysis, Propp used all Russian folktales classified as a folklore Aarne - Thompson 300 - 749 -- in a cataloguing system that made such a distinction -- to gain a clear set of tales. His own analysis identified fairy tales by their plot elements, but that in itself has been criticized, as the analysis does not lend itself easily to tales that do not involve a quest, and furthermore, the same plot elements are found in non-fairy tale works.
Were I asked, what is a fairytale? I should reply, Read Undine: that is a fairytale... of all fairytales I know, I think Undine the most beautiful.
As Stith Thompson points out, talking animals and the presence of magic seem to be more common to the fairy tale than fairies themselves. However, the mere presence of animals that talk does not make a tale a fairy tale, especially when the animal is clearly a mask on a human face, as in fables.
In his essay "On Fairy - Stories '', J. R. R. Tolkien agreed with the exclusion of "fairies '' from the definition, defining fairy tales as stories about the adventures of men in Faërie, the land of fairies, fairytale princes and princesses, dwarves, elves, and not only other magical species but many other marvels. However, the same essay excludes tales that are often considered fairy tales, citing as an example The Monkey 's Heart, which Andrew Lang included in The Lilac Fairy Book.
Steven Swann Jones identified the presence of magic as the feature by which fairy tales can be distinguished from other sorts of folktales. Davidson and Chaudri identify "transformation '' as the key feature of the genre. From a psychological point of view, Jean Chiriac argued for the necessity of the fantastic in these narratives.
In terms of aesthetic values, Italo Calvino cited the fairy tale as a prime example of "quickness '' in literature, because of the economy and concision of the tales.
Originally, stories that would contemporarily be considered fairy tales were not marked out as a separate genre. The German term "Märchen '' stems from the old German word "Mär '', which means story or tale. The word "Märchen '' is the diminutive of the word "Mär '', therefore it means a "little story ''. Together with the common beginning "once upon a time '' it means a fairy tale or a märchen was originally a little story from a long time ago when the world was still magic. (Indeed, one less regular German opening is "In the old times when wishing was still effective ''.)
The English term "fairy tale '' stems from the fact that the French contes often included fairies.
Roots of the genre come from different oral stories passed down in European cultures. The genre was first marked out by writers of the Renaissance, such as Giovanni Francesco Straparola and Giambattista Basile, and stabilized through the works of later collectors such as Charles Perrault and the Brothers Grimm. In this evolution, the name was coined when the précieuses took up writing literary stories; Madame d'Aulnoy invented the term Conte de fée, or fairy tale, in the late 17th century.
Before the definition of the genre of fantasy, many works that would now be classified as fantasy were termed "fairy tales '', including Tolkien 's The Hobbit, George Orwell 's Animal Farm, and L. Frank Baum 's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. Indeed, Tolkien 's "On Fairy - Stories '' includes discussions of world - building and is considered a vital part of fantasy criticism. Although fantasy, particularly the subgenre of fairytale fantasy, draws heavily on fairy tale motifs, the genres are now regarded as distinct.
The fairy tale, told orally, is a sub-class of the folktale. Many writers have written in the form of the fairy tale. These are the literary fairy tales, or Kunstmärchen. The oldest forms, from Panchatantra to the Pentamerone, show considerable reworking from the oral form. The Brothers Grimm were among the first to try to preserve the features of oral tales. Yet the stories printed under the Grimm name have been considerably reworked to fit the written form.
Literary fairy tales and oral fairy tales freely exchanged plots, motifs, and elements with one another and with the tales of foreign lands. The literary fairy tale came into fashion during the 17th century, developed by aristocratic women as a parlour game. This, in turn, helped to maintain the oral tradition. According to Jack Zipes, "The subject matter of the conversations consisted of literature, mores, taste, and etiquette, whereby the speakers all endeavoured to portray ideal situations in the most effective oratorical style that would gradually have a major effect on literary forms. '' Many 18th - century folklorists attempted to recover the "pure '' folktale, uncontaminated by literary versions. Yet while oral fairy tales likely existed for thousands of years before the literary forms, there is no pure folktale, and each literary fairy tale draws on folk traditions, if only in parody. This makes it impossible to trace forms of transmission of a fairy tale. Oral story - tellers have been known to read literary fairy tales to increase their own stock of stories and treatments.
The oral tradition of the fairy tale came long before the written page. Tales were told or enacted dramatically, rather than written down, and handed down from generation to generation. Because of this, the history of their development is necessarily obscure and blurred. Fairy tales appear, now and again, in written literature throughout literate cultures, as in The Golden Ass, which includes Cupid and Psyche (Roman, 100 -- 200 AD), or the Panchatantra (India 3rd century BC), but it is unknown to what extent these reflect the actual folk tales even of their own time. The stylistic evidence indicates that these, and many later collections, reworked folk tales into literary forms. What they do show is that the fairy tale has ancient roots, older than the Arabian Nights collection of magical tales (compiled circa 1500 AD), such as Vikram and the Vampire, and Bel and the Dragon. Besides such collections and individual tales, in China, Taoist philosophers such as Liezi and Zhuangzi recounted fairy tales in their philosophical works. In the broader definition of the genre, the first famous Western fairy tales are those of Aesop (6th century BC) in ancient Greece.
Jack Zipes writes in When Dreams Came True, "There are fairy tale elements in Chaucer 's The Canterbury Tales, Edmund Spenser 's The Faerie Queene, and... in many of William Shakespeare plays. '' King Lear can be considered a literary variant of fairy tales such as Water and Salt and Cap O ' Rushes. The tale itself resurfaced in Western literature in the 16th and 17th centuries, with The Facetious Nights of Straparola by Giovanni Francesco Straparola (Italy, 1550 and 1553), which contains many fairy tales in its inset tales, and the Neapolitan tales of Giambattista Basile (Naples, 1634 -- 6), which are all fairy tales. Carlo Gozzi made use of many fairy tale motifs among his Commedia dell'Arte scenarios, including among them one based on The Love For Three Oranges (1761). Simultaneously, Pu Songling, in China, included many fairy tales in his collection, Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio (published posthumously, 1766). The fairy tale itself became popular among the précieuses of upper - class France (1690 -- 1710), and among the tales told in that time were the ones of La Fontaine and the Contes of Charles Perrault (1697), who fixed the forms of Sleeping Beauty and Cinderella. Although Straparola 's, Basile 's and Perrault 's collections contain the oldest known forms of various fairy tales, on the stylistic evidence, all the writers rewrote the tales for literary effect.
In the mid-17th century, a vogue for magical tales emerged among the intellectuals who frequented the salons of Paris. These salons were regular gatherings hosted by prominent aristocratic women, where women and men could gather together to discuss the issues of the day.
In the 1630s, aristocratic women began to gather in their own living rooms, salons, in order to discuss the topics of their choice: arts and letters, politics, and social matters of immediate concern to the women of their class: marriage, love, financial and physical independence, and access to education. This was a time when women were barred from receiving a formal education. Some of the most gifted women writers of the period came out of these early salons (such as Madeleine de Scudéry and Madame de Lafayette), which encouraged women 's independence and pushed against the gender barriers that defined their lives. The salonnières argued particularly for love and intellectual compatibility between the sexes, opposing the system of arranged marriages.
Sometime in the middle of the 17th century, a passion for the conversational parlour game based on the plots of old folk tales swept through the salons. Each salonnière was called upon to retell an old tale or rework an old theme, spinning clever new stories that not only showcased verbal agility and imagination but also slyly commented on the conditions of aristocratic life. Great emphasis was placed on a mode of delivery that seemed natural and spontaneous. The decorative language of the fairy tales served an important function: disguising the rebellious subtext of the stories and sliding them past the court censors. Critiques of court life (and even of the king) were embedded in extravagant tales and in dark, sharply dystopian ones. Not surprisingly, the tales by women often featured young (but clever) aristocratic girls whose lives were controlled by the arbitrary whims of fathers, kings, and elderly wicked fairies, as well as tales in which groups of wise fairies (i.e., intelligent, independent women) stepped in and put all to rights.
The salon tales as they were originally written and published have been preserved in a monumental work called Le Cabinet des Fées, an enormous collection of stories from the 17th and 18th centuries.
The first collectors to attempt to preserve not only the plot and characters of the tale, but also the style in which they were told, was the Brothers Grimm, collecting German fairy tales; ironically, this meant although their first edition (1812 & 1815) remains a treasure for folklorists, they rewrote the tales in later editions to make them more acceptable, which ensured their sales and the later popularity of their work.
Such literary forms did not merely draw from the folktale, but also influenced folktales in turn. The Brothers Grimm rejected several tales for their collection, though told orally to them by Germans, because the tales derived from Perrault, and they concluded they were thereby French and not German tales; an oral version of Bluebeard was thus rejected, and the tale of Little Briar Rose, clearly related to Perrault 's The Sleeping Beauty, was included only because Jacob Grimm convinced his brother that the figure of Brynhildr, from much earlier Norse mythology, proved that the sleeping princess was authentically Germanic folklore.
This consideration of whether to keep Sleeping Beauty reflected a belief common among folklorists of the 19th century: that the folk tradition preserved fairy tales in forms from pre-history except when "contaminated '' by such literary forms, leading people to tell inauthentic tales. The rural, illiterate, and uneducated peasants, if suitably isolated, were the folk and would tell pure folk tales. Sometimes they regarded fairy tales as a form of fossil, the remnants of a once - perfect tale. However, further research has concluded that fairy tales never had a fixed form, and regardless of literary influence, the tellers constantly altered them for their own purposes.
The work of the Brothers Grimm influenced other collectors, both inspiring them to collect tales and leading them to similarly believe, in a spirit of romantic nationalism, that the fairy tales of a country were particularly representative of it, to the neglect of cross-cultural influence. Among those influenced were the Russian Alexander Afanasyev (first published in 1866), the Norwegians Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe (first published in 1845), the Romanian Petre Ispirescu (first published in 1874), the English Joseph Jacobs (first published in 1890), and Jeremiah Curtin, an American who collected Irish tales (first published in 1890). Ethnographers collected fairy tales throughout the world, finding similar tales in Africa, the Americas, and Australia; Andrew Lang was able to draw on not only the written tales of Europe and Asia, but those collected by ethnographers, to fill his "coloured '' fairy books series. They also encouraged other collectors of fairy tales, as when Yei Theodora Ozaki created a collection, Japanese Fairy Tales (1908), after encouragement from Lang. Simultaneously, writers such as Hans Christian Andersen and George MacDonald continued the tradition of literary fairy tales. Andersen 's work sometimes drew on old folktales, but more often deployed fairytale motifs and plots in new tales. MacDonald incorporated fairytale motifs both in new literary fairy tales, such as The Light Princess, and in works of the genre that would become fantasy, as in The Princess and the Goblin or Lilith.
Two theories of origins have attempted to explain the common elements in fairy tales found spread over continents. One is that a single point of origin generated any given tale, which then spread over the centuries; the other is that such fairy tales stem from common human experience and therefore can appear separately in many different origins.
Fairy tales with very similar plots, characters, and motifs are found spread across many different cultures. Many researchers hold this to be caused by the spread of such tales, as people repeat tales they have heard in foreign lands, although the oral nature makes it impossible to trace the route except by inference. Folklorists have attempted to determine the origin by internal evidence, which can not always be clear; Joseph Jacobs, comparing the Scottish tale The Ridere of Riddles with the version collected by the Brothers Grimm, The Riddle, noted that in The Ridere of Riddles one hero ends up polygamously married, which might point to an ancient custom, but in The Riddle, the simpler riddle might argue greater antiquity.
Folklorists of the "Finnish '' (or historical - geographical) school attempted to place fairy tales to their origin, with inconclusive results. Sometimes influence, especially within a limited area and time, is clearer, as when considering the influence of Perrault 's tales on those collected by the Brothers Grimm. Little Briar - Rose appears to stem from Perrault 's The Sleeping Beauty, as the Grimms ' tale appears to be the only independent German variant. Similarly, the close agreement between the opening of the Grimms ' version of Little Red Riding Hood and Perrault 's tale points to an influence, although the Grimms ' version adds a different ending (perhaps derived from The Wolf and the Seven Young Kids).
Fairy tales tend to take on the color of their location, through the choice of motifs, the style in which they are told, and the depiction of character and local color.
The Brothers Grimm believed that European fairy tales derived from the cultural history shared by all Indo - European peoples and were therefore ancient, far older than written records. This view is supported by research by the anthropologist Jamie Tehrani and the folklorist Sara Graca Da Silva using phylogenetic analysis, a technique developed by evolutionary biologists to trace the relatedness of living and fossil species. Among the tales analysed were Jack and the Beanstalk, traced to the time of splitting of Eastern and Western Indo - European, over 5000 years ago. Both Beauty and the Beast and Rumpelstiltskin appear to have been created some 4000 years ago. The story of The Smith and the Devil (Deal with the Devil) appears to date from the Bronze Age, some 6000 years ago.
Originally, adults were the audience of a fairy tale just as often as children. Literary fairy tales appeared in works intended for adults, but in the 19th and 20th centuries the fairy tale became associated with children 's literature.
The précieuses, including Madame d'Aulnoy, intended their works for adults, but regarded their source as the tales that servants, or other women of lower class, would tell to children. Indeed, a novel of that time, depicting a countess 's suitor offering to tell such a tale, has the countess exclaim that she loves fairy tales as if she were still a child. Among the late précieuses, Jeanne - Marie Le Prince de Beaumont redacted a version of Beauty and the Beast for children, and it is her tale that is best known today. The Brothers Grimm titled their collection Children 's and Household Tales and rewrote their tales after complaints that they were not suitable for children.
In the modern era, fairy tales were altered so that they could be read to children. The Brothers Grimm concentrated mostly on sexual references; Rapunzel, in the first edition, revealed the prince 's visits by asking why her clothing had grown tight, thus letting the witch deduce that she was pregnant, but in subsequent editions carelessly revealed that it was easier to pull up the prince than the witch. On the other hand, in many respects, violence -- particularly when punishing villains -- was increased. Other, later, revisions cut out violence; J. R. R. Tolkien noted that The Juniper Tree often had its cannibalistic stew cut out in a version intended for children. The moralizing strain in the Victorian era altered the classical tales to teach lessons, as when George Cruikshank rewrote Cinderella in 1854 to contain temperance themes. His acquaintance Charles Dickens protested, "In an utilitarian age, of all other times, it is a matter of grave importance that fairy tales should be respected. ''
Psychoanalysts such as Bruno Bettelheim, who regarded the cruelty of older fairy tales as indicative of psychological conflicts, strongly criticized this expurgation, because it weakened their usefulness to both children and adults as ways of symbolically resolving issues. Fairy tales do teach children how to deal with difficult times. To quote Rebecca Walters (2017, p. 56) "Fairytales and folktales are part of the cultural conserve that can be used to address children 's fears.... and give them some role training in an approach that honors the children 's window of tolerance ''. These fairy tales teach children how to deal with certain social situations and helps them to find their place in society. Fairy tales teach children other important lessons too. For example, Tsitsani et al. carried out a study on children to determine the benefits of fairy tales. Parents of the children who took part in the study found that fairy tales, especially the color in them, triggered their child 's imagination as the read them. Jungian Analyst and fairy tale scholar, Marie Louise Von Franz interprets fairy tales based on Jung 's view of fairy tales as a spontaneous and naive product of soul, which can only express what soul is. That means, she looks at fairy tales as images of different phases of experiencing the reality of the soul. They are the "purest and simplest expression of collective unconscious psychic processes '' and "they represent the archetypes in their simplest, barest and most concise form '' because they are less overlaid with conscious material than myths and legends. "In this pure form, the archetypal images afford us the best clues to the understanding of the processes going on in the collective psyche ''. "The fairy tale itself is its own best explanation; that is, its meaning is contained in the totality of its motifs connected by the thread of the story. (...) Every fairy tale is a relatively closed system compounding one essential psychological meaning which is expressed in a series of symbolical pictures and events and is discoverable in these ''. "I have come to the conclusion that all fairy tales endeavour to describe one and the same psychic fact, but a fact so complex and far - reaching and so difficult for us to realize in all its different aspects that hundreds of tales and thousands of repetitions with a musician 's variation are needed until this unknown fact is delivered into consciousness; and even then the theme is not exhausted. This unknown fact is what Jung calls the Self, which is the psychic reality of the collective unconscious. (...) Every archetype is in its essence only one aspect of the collective unconscious as well as always representing also the whole collective unconscious.
Other famous people commented on the importance of fairy tales, especially for children. For example, Albert Einstein once showed how important he believed fairy tales were for children 's intelligence in the quote "If you want your children to be intelligent, read them fairytales. If you want them to be more intelligent, read them more fairytales. ''
The adaptation of fairy tales for children continues. Walt Disney 's influential Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was largely (although certainly not solely) intended for the children 's market. The anime Magical Princess Minky Momo draws on the fairy tale Momotarō. Jack Zipes has spent many years working to make the older traditional stories accessible to modern readers and their children.
In contemporary literature, many authors have used the form of fairy tales for various reasons, such as examining the human condition from the simple framework a fairytale provides. Some authors seek to recreate a sense of the fantastic in a contemporary discourse. Some writers use fairy tale forms for modern issues; this can include using the psychological dramas implicit in the story, as when Robin McKinley retold Donkeyskin as the novel Deerskin, with emphasis on the abusive treatment the father of the tale dealt to his daughter. Sometimes, especially in children 's literature, fairy tales are retold with a twist simply for comic effect, such as The Stinky Cheese Man by Jon Scieszka and The ASBO Fairy Tales by Chris Pilbeam. A common comic motif is a world where all the fairy tales take place, and the characters are aware of their role in the story, such as in the film series Shrek.
Other authors may have specific motives, such as multicultural or feminist reevaluations of predominantly Eurocentric masculine - dominated fairy tales, implying critique of older narratives. The figure of the damsel in distress has been particularly attacked by many feminist critics. Examples of narrative reversal rejecting this figure include The Paperbag Princess by Robert Munsch, a picture book aimed at children in which a princess rescues a prince, and Angela Carter 's The Bloody Chamber, which retells a number of fairy tales from a female point of view.
There are also many contemporary erotic retellings of fairy tales, which explicitly draw upon the original spirit of the tales, and are specifically for adults. Modern retellings focus on exploring the tale through use of the erotic, explicit sexuality, dark and / or comic themes, female empowerment, fetish and BDSM, multicultural, and heterosexual characters. Cleis Press has released several fairy tale themed erotic anthologies, including Fairy Tale Lust, Lustfully Ever After, and A Princess Bound.
It may be hard to lay down the rule between fairy tales and fantasies that use fairy tale motifs, or even whole plots, but the distinction is commonly made, even within the works of a single author: George MacDonald 's Lilith and Phantastes are regarded as fantasies, while his "The Light Princess '', "The Golden Key '', and "The Wise Woman '' are commonly called fairy tales. The most notable distinction is that fairytale fantasies, like other fantasies, make use of novelistic writing conventions of prose, characterization, or setting.
Fairy tales have been enacted dramatically; records exist of this in commedia dell'arte, and later in pantomime. The advent of cinema has meant that such stories could be presented in a more plausible manner, with the use of special effects and animation. The Walt Disney Company has had a significant impact on the evolution of the fairy tale film. Some of the earliest short silent films from the Disney studio were based on fairy tales, and some fairy tales were adapted into shorts in the musical comedy series "Silly Symphonies '', such as Three Little Pigs. Walt Disney 's first feature - length film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, released in 1937, was a ground - breaking film for fairy tales and, indeed, fantasy in general. Disney and his creative successors have returned to traditional and literary fairy tales numerous times with films such as Cinderella (1950), Sleeping Beauty (1959) and Beauty and the Beast (1991). Disney 's influence helped establish the fairy tale genre as a genre for children, and has been accused by some of bowdlerizing the gritty naturalism -- and sometimes unhappy endings -- of many folk fairy tales. However, others note that the softening of fairy tales occurred long before Disney, some of which was even done by the Grimm brothers themselves.
Many filmed fairy tales have been made primarily for children, from Disney 's later works to Aleksandr Rou 's retelling of Vasilissa the Beautiful, the first Soviet film to use Russian folk tales in a big - budget feature. Others have used the conventions of fairy tales to create new stories with sentiments more relevant to contemporary life, as in Labyrinth, My Neighbor Totoro, Happily N'Ever After, and the films of Michel Ocelot.
Other works have retold familiar fairy tales in a darker, more horrific or psychological variant aimed primarily at adults. Notable examples are Jean Cocteau 's Beauty and the Beast and The Company of Wolves, based on Angela Carter 's retelling of Little Red Riding Hood. Likewise, Princess Mononoke, Pan 's Labyrinth, Suspiria, and Spike create new stories in this genre from fairy tale and folklore motifs.
In comics and animated TV series, The Sandman, Revolutionary Girl Utena, Princess Tutu, Fables and MÄR all make use of standard fairy tale elements to various extents but are more accurately categorised as fairytale fantasy due to the definite locations and characters which a longer narrative requires.
A more modern cinematic fairy tale would be Luchino Visconti 's Le Notti Bianche, starring Marcello Mastroianni before he became a superstar. It involves many of the romantic conventions of fairy tales, yet it takes place in post-World War II Italy, and it ends realistically.
Any comparison of fairy tales quickly discovers that many fairy tales have features in common with each other. Two of the most influential classifications are those of Antti Aarne, as revised by Stith Thompson into the Aarne - Thompson classification system, and Vladimir Propp 's Morphology of the Folk Tale.
This system groups fairy and folk tales according to their overall plot. Common, identifying features are picked out to decide which tales are grouped together. Much therefore depends on what features are regarded as decisive.
For instance, tales like Cinderella -- in which a persecuted heroine, with the help of the fairy godmother or similar magical helper, attends an event (or three) in which she wins the love of a prince and is identified as his true bride -- are classified as type 510, the persecuted heroine. Some such tales are The Wonderful Birch; Aschenputtel; Katie Woodencloak; The Story of Tam and Cam; Ye Xian; Cap O ' Rushes; Catskin; Fair, Brown and Trembling; Finette Cendron; Allerleirauh.
Further analysis of the tales shows that in Cinderella, The Wonderful Birch, The Story of Tam and Cam, Ye Xian, and Aschenputtel, the heroine is persecuted by her stepmother and refused permission to go to the ball or other event, and in Fair, Brown and Trembling and Finette Cendron by her sisters and other female figures, and these are grouped as 510A; while in Cap O ' Rushes, Catskin, and Allerleirauh, the heroine is driven from home by her father 's persecutions, and must take work in a kitchen elsewhere, and these are grouped as 510B. But in Katie Woodencloak, she is driven from home by her stepmother 's persecutions and must take service in a kitchen elsewhere, and in Tattercoats, she is refused permission to go to the ball by her grandfather. Given these features common with both types of 510, Katie Woodencloak is classified as 510A because the villain is the stepmother, and Tattercoats as 510B because the grandfather fills the father 's role.
This system has its weaknesses in the difficulty of having no way to classify subportions of a tale as motifs. Rapunzel is type 310 (The Maiden in the Tower), but it opens with a child being demanded in return for stolen food, as does Puddocky; but Puddocky is not a Maiden in the Tower tale, while The Canary Prince, which opens with a jealous stepmother, is.
It also lends itself to emphasis on the common elements, to the extent that the folklorist describes The Black Bull of Norroway as the same story as Beauty and the Beast. This can be useful as a shorthand but can also erase the coloring and details of a story.
Vladimir Propp specifically studied a collection of Russian fairy tales, but his analysis has been found useful for the tales of other countries. Having criticized Aarne - Thompson type analysis for ignoring what motifs did in stories, and because the motifs used were not clearly distinct, he analyzed the tales for the function each character and action fulfilled and concluded that a tale was composed of thirty - one elements (' functions ') and seven characters or ' spheres of action ' (' the princess and her father ' are a single sphere). While the elements were not all required for all tales, when they appeared they did so in an invariant order -- except that each individual element might be negated twice, so that it would appear three times, as when, in Brother and Sister, the brother resists drinking from enchanted streams twice, so that it is the third that enchants him. Propp 's 31 functions also fall within six ' stages ' (preparation, complication, transference, struggle, return, recognition), and a stage can also be repeated, which can affect the perceived order of elements.
One such element is the donor who gives the hero magical assistance, often after testing him. In The Golden Bird, the talking fox tests the hero by warning him against entering an inn and, after he succeeds, helps him find the object of his quest; in The Boy Who Drew Cats, the priest advised the hero to stay in small places at night, which protects him from an evil spirit; in Cinderella, the fairy godmother gives Cinderella the dresses she needs to attend the ball, as their mothers ' spirits do in Bawang Putih Bawang Merah and The Wonderful Birch; in The Fox Sister, a Buddhist monk gives the brothers magical bottles to protect against the fox spirit. The roles can be more complicated. In The Red Ettin, the role is split into the mother -- who offers the hero the whole of a journey cake with her curse or half with her blessing -- and when he takes the half, a fairy who gives him advice; in Mr Simigdáli, the sun, the moon, and the stars all give the heroine a magical gift. Characters who are not always the donor can act like the donor. In Kallo and the Goblins, the villain goblins also give the heroine gifts, because they are tricked; in Schippeitaro, the evil cats betray their secret to the hero, giving him the means to defeat them. Other fairy tales, such as The Story of the Youth Who Went Forth to Learn What Fear Was, do not feature the donor.
Analogies have been drawn between this and the analysis of myths into the Hero 's journey.
Many fairy tales have been interpreted for their (purported) significance. One mythological interpretation saw many fairy tales, including Hansel and Gretel, Sleeping Beauty, and The Frog King, as solar myths; this mode of interpretation subsequently became rather less popular. Freudian, Jungian, and other psychological analyses have also explicated many tales, but no mode of interpretation has established itself definitively.
Specific analyses have often been criticized for lending great importance to motifs that are not, in fact, integral to the tale; this has often stemmed from treating one instance of a fairy tale as the definitive text, where the tale has been told and retold in many variations. In variants of Bluebeard, the wife 's curiosity is betrayed by a blood - stained key, by an egg 's breaking, or by the singing of a rose she wore, without affecting the tale, but interpretations of specific variants have claimed that the precise object is integral to the tale.
Other folklorists have interpreted tales as historical documents. Many German folklorists, believing the tales to have preserved details from ancient times, have used the Grimms ' tales to explain ancient customs.
One approach sees the topography of European Märchen as echoing the period immediately following the last Ice Age. Other folklorists have explained the figure of the wicked stepmother in a historical / sociological context: many women did die in childbirth, their husbands remarried, and the new stepmothers competed with the children of the first marriage for resources.
In a 2012 lecture, Jack Zipes reads fairy tales as examples of what he calls "childism ''. He suggests that there are terrible aspects to the tales, which (among other things) have conditioned children to accept mistreatment and even abuse.
Fairy tales have inspired music, namely opera, such as the French Opéra féerie and the German Märchenoper. French examples include Gretry 's Zémire et Azor, and Auber 's Le cheval de bronze, German operas are Mozart 's Die Zauberflöte, Humperdinck 's Hänsel und Gretel, Siegfried Wagner 's An allem ist Hütchen schuld!, which is based on many fairy tales, and Carl Orff 's Die Kluge. Even contemporary fairy tales have been written for the purpose of inspiration in the music world. "Raven Girl '' by Audrey Niffenegger was written to inspire a new dance for the Royal Ballet in London.
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who plays whitehill on orange is the new black | Lori Petty - wikipedia
Lori Petty (born October 14, 1963) is an American actress and director. Her roles include playing Tyler Endicott in the 1991 film Point Break, Kit Keller in A League of Their Own (1992), and the title role in Tank Girl in 1995.
She guest - starred in the second season, and became a recurring character in the third and fourth seasons, of the Netflix Original series Orange Is the New Black as Lolly Whitehill. Lori also appeared on the television series Prison Break in the last episode of season four.
Petty, the eldest of three children, was born in Chattanooga, Tennessee, the daughter of a Pentecostal minister. She graduated from North High School in Sioux City, Iowa, in 1981, and worked for several years in Omaha, Nebraska, as a graphic designer before pursuing acting.
Petty got her break starring with Richard Grieco in Fox 's Booker. Petty played the surfer who taught Keanu Reeves how to surf in the 1991 action thriller Point Break. In 1992, Petty was featured in A League of Their Own, opposite Tom Hanks, Geena Davis, and Madonna.
She played the title role in the film adaptation of the British cult comic book Tank Girl in 1995. Her other films include Free Willy, The Poker House, and In the Army Now. She also co-starred in the television series Lush Life with her friend Karyn Parsons, but it was cancelled after five episodes. She joined the cast of Brimstone as the owner of Stone 's hotel.
Petty also provided the voice of the supervillain Livewire on the Warner Bros. series Superman: The Animated Series, and The New Batman Adventures. Although she was originally cast as Lt. Lenina Huxley in Demolition Man, disagreements over the character 's direction led producer Joel Silver to recast the role with Sandra Bullock. Petty played the role of "Daddy '', an alpha female inmate in Prison Break: The Final Break.
She starred in a series of television commercials created by Merkley Newman Harty 's Steve Bowen for the National Thoroughbred Racing Association 's "Go, Baby, Go '' advertising campaign in 1998.
Petty 's directorial debut, The Poker House -- a film dramatizing her own difficult childhood -- won awards at the Los Angeles Film Festival. She narrated the first three books of Janet Evanovich 's Stephanie Plum series -- One for the Money, Two for the Dough, and Three to Get Deadly. C.J. Critt read the unabridged version for Recorded Books. Petty read the abridgments for Simon & Schuster.
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who killed the family in the killing season 4 | The Killing (season 4) - Wikipedia
The fourth and final season of the American crime drama television series The Killing consists of six episodes and was released on Netflix on August 1, 2014. Netflix picked up the series after it was canceled by AMC in 2013.
The season features detectives Sarah Linden and Stephen Holder handling the fallout of their actions from the previous season while investigating the murder of a family whose only survivor is a member of an all - boys military academy.
Holder tells Caroline that he must make a choice -- "between me or her. '' She knows he means Linden and says only their unborn daughter matters now. Linden gets called and finds Kyle, who 's been shot by the cadet search party. He identifies Fielding, Knopf, and Rayne as the murderers. Meanwhile, Knopf suggests killing Rayne, but she mentions cleaning up after them when they stole her car the night of the murders. As the detectives arrive, Knopf and Fielding are shot. Rayne confesses to murdering the Stansbury family, insisting that Kyle be left alone leading Linden to infer that Kyle is in fact Rayne 's son who she gave away 17 years previously. Linden wants to use Rayne 's confession and arrest her for all the murders, but Holder wants Kyle for the Stansburys '. Frantic, Linden points her gun at Holder, thinking he has worked against her, even with Reddick 's investigation. She takes Kyle to his family home, where he becomes aware of committing the murders. Fielding and Knopf were there that night, but left, and Kyle killed his family. At the station, Linden confesses to Reddick having killed Skinner and absolves Holder. Mayor Darren Richmond arrives to squelch the confession. Skinner 's death was ruled a suicide, and no killer cop shall tarnish another cop 's or Richmond 's image.
AMC, the network which broadcast the first three seasons, canceled the series after its second season, and revived it for a third, ultimately cancelling it again after the third season in September 2013. However, in November 2013, Netflix, partnering with Fox Television Studios (the production company for The Killing), announced it had picked up the series for a fourth and final season consisting of six episodes. Series developer and executive producer Veena Sud returned as showrunner, with Dawn Prestwich and Nicole Yorkin returning as writers and executive producers. Because they are airing on Netflix, episodes in the fourth season have a longer running time of approximately 55 -- 59 minutes compared to 43 minutes when the series aired on AMC with commercials, and characters are able to use stronger profanity.
Cast members Mireille Enos and Joel Kinnaman return as detectives Sarah Linden and Stephen Holder, respectively. New series regulars for the fourth season include Joan Allen as Margaret Rayne, the head of an all - boys military academy. In February 2014, Sterling Beaumon, Levi Meaden, and Tyler Ross were cast as Lincoln Knopf, AJ Fielding, and Cameron Stanton (later changed to Kyle Stansbury), respectively; playing teens connected to the military academy. Gregg Henry, who had a recurring role in the third season as Detective Carl Reddick, was promoted to series regular for the fourth season. The season also introduces Sarah Linden 's mother, played by Frances Fisher, who abandoned her daughter when Sarah was young.
In July 2014, an official 90 - second trailer was released showing detectives Linden and Holder attempting to cover up Linden 's killing Skinner at the end of the previous season as well as glimpses of a new case at the military academy.
The fourth season scored 53 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 14 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 44 % critics rating with an average rating of 6.5 / 10 based on 18 reviews. The website consensus reads: "While its characters still intrigue and its atmosphere remains absorbingly dark, The Killing succumbs to silliness in its fourth season, straying into distractingly overwrought territory ''.
The fourth season of The Killing was released on DVD on August 4, 2015, exclusively through Amazon 's CreateSpace manufacture - on - demand program.
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who owns the stanley theater in new jersey | Stanley theater (Jersey City, New Jersey) - wikipedia
The Stanley Theater at Kennedy Boulevard and Pavonia Avenue is near Journal Square in Jersey City, New Jersey.
The theater opened to the public on March 24, 1928. Mayor Frank Hague attended the ceremonies that evening and, with the audience, was greeted on the screen by actress Norma Talmadge. An orchestral performance, a stage show called "Sky Blues, '' a newsreel, and a musical piece on the Wurlitzer organ, preceded the showing of The Dove starring Talmadge and Gilbert Roland.
The Stanley was designed by architect Fred Wesley Wentworth (1864 - 1943), who is noted for designing many buildings in Paterson following the 1902 fire. When it opened, its 4,300 seats earned it the rank of the second largest theater on the East Coast, behind only New York City 's Radio City Music Hall. It was fourth in the country in number of seats in a one - screen theater, behind Radio City, and the Detroit and St. Louis Fox theaters. It was an elegant and popular venue into the 1960s. Stage shows at the theater reflected the popular culture of the times with entertainers ranging from The Three Stooges and Jimmy Durante to Tony Bennett, Janis Joplin, Dolly Parton, and the Grateful Dead. During the 1970s, however, movie attendance suffered and the theater fell into disrepair, and became an RKO (Radio - Keith - Orpheum Pictures) grindhouse. The once beautiful metalwork throughout the building was painted dark blue, and the Wurlitzer organ was removed in the 1970s. It finally closed as a movie theater April 20, 1978.
In 1983, the building was purchased by the Watch Tower Society for use as a convention and assembly hall for Jehovah 's Witnesses. Thousands of Witness volunteers worked over a nine - month period to renovate the theater. Beginning in October 2012, the theater underwent further renovation by over 2,000 Witness volunteers from across the United States.
A glittering copper marquee spans the entrance, overhanging the solid brass doors. Over the marquee are three large arched windows. Building materials include marble from Italy, Vermont and Texas, limestone from Indiana, and granite from Maine to face the Corinthian columns.
The interior has a three - story lobby adorned with columns, a broad center staircase with trompe l'oeil alabaster handrails and balusters, lamps, velvet drapes, and stained glass windows of faux "Chartre Blue '' in the foyer. Allegorical paintings by Hungarian muralist Willy Pogany originally adorned the ceiling and walls.
The larger of two crystal chandeliers, suspended from the second floor, is from the New York 's original Waldorf Astoria of the 1880s; it is thirteen feet tall and ten feet wide, and illuminated by 144 bulbs that reflect onto 4,500 hanging crystal teardrops.
The grand staircase is the main feature of the three - story lobby. During the day, sunlight streams in, illuminating the lobby. An immense crystal chandelier shines after the sun sets. On three sides of the lobby, stands a formation of marble columns topped by a balcony. A nearly celestial ceiling actually had machine generated clouds and points of light that twinkled like stars.
Movie palace architect John Eberson contributed the design for the auditorium. Here theatergoers enter the environment of an evening in Venice with a replica of the Rialto Bridge spanning the stage. Above the seating is an eighty - five foot ceiling that permits an open sky effect with stars and moving clouds originally effected by a projecting device called a "Brenkert Brenograph, '' costing $290 (in 1920s dollars). Lighted stained glass windows line the walls with (Grotto (grotto)) es, arches and columns simulating the courtyard motif.
Coordinates: 40 ° 44 ′ 00 '' N 74 ° 03 ′ 44 '' W / 40.7332 ° N 74.0621 ° W / 40.7332; - 74.0621
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what date did the french establish their first colony in north america | French colonization of the Americas - wikipedia
The French colonization of the Americas began in the 16th century, and continued on into the following centuries as France established a colonial empire in the Western Hemisphere. France founded colonies in much of eastern North America, on a number of Caribbean islands, and in South America. Most colonies were developed to export products such as fish, rice, sugar, and furs.
As they colonized the New World, the French established forts and settlements that would become such cities as Quebec and Montreal in Canada; Detroit, Green Bay, St. Louis, Cape Girardeau, Mobile, Biloxi, Baton Rouge and New Orleans in the United States; and Port - au - Prince, Cap - Haïtien (founded as Cap - Français) in Haiti, Cayenne in French Guiana, São Luís (founded as Saint - Louis de Maragnan in northern coast of Brazil), Pariaba in New Holland and Rio de Janeiro in portuguese South America.
The French first came to the New World as explorers, seeking a route to the Ocean and wealth. Major French exploration of North America began under the rule of Francis I, King of France. In 1524, Francis sent Italian - born Giovanni da Verrazzano to explore the region between Florida and Newfoundland for a route to the Pacific Ocean. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, thus promoting French interests.
In 1534, Francis I of France sent Jacques Cartier on the first of three voyages to explore the coast of Newfoundland and the St. Lawrence River. He founded New France by planting a cross on the shore of the Gaspé Peninsula. The French subsequently tried to establish several colonies throughout North America that failed, due to weather, disease, or conflict with other European powers. Cartier attempted to create the first permanent European settlement in North America at Cap - Rouge (Quebec City) in 1541 with 400 settlers but the settlement was abandoned the next year after bad weather and attacks from Native Americans in the area. A small group of French troops were left on Parris Island, South Carolina in 1562 to build Charlesfort, but left after a year when they were not resupplied by France. Fort Caroline established in present - day Jacksonville, Florida, in 1564, lasted only a year before being destroyed by the Spanish from St. Augustine. An attempt to settle convicts on Sable Island off Nova Scotia in 1598 failed after a short time. In 1599, a sixteen - person trading post was established in Tadoussac (in present - day Quebec), of which only five men survived the first winter. In 1604 Pierre Du Gua de Monts and Samuel de Champlain founded a short - lived French colony, the first in Acadia, on Saint Croix Island, presently part of the state of Maine, which was much plagued by illness, perhaps scurvy. The following year the settlement was moved to Port Royal, located in present - day Nova Scotia.
Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec (1608) and explored the Great Lakes. In 1634, Jean Nicolet founded La Baye des Puants (present - day Green Bay), which is one of the oldest permanent European settlements in America. In 1634, Sieur de Laviolette founded Trois - Rivières. In 1642, Paul de Chomedey, Sieur de Maisonneuve, founded Fort Ville - Marie which is now known as Montreal. Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette founded Sault Sainte Marie (1668) and Saint Ignace (1671) and explored the Mississippi River. At the end of the 17th century, René - Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle established a network of forts going from the Gulf of Mexico to the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River. Fort Saint Louis was established in Texas in 1685, but was gone by 1688. Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac founded Fort Pontchartrain du Détroit (modern - day Detroit) in 1701 and Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville founded La Nouvelle Orléans (New Orleans) in 1718. Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville founded Baton Rouge in 1719.
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The French were eager to explore North America but New France remained largely unpopulated. Due to the lack of women, intermarriages between French and Indians were frequent, giving rise to the Métis people. Relations between the French and Indians were usually peaceful. As the 19th - century historian Francis Parkman stated:
"Spanish civilization crushed the Indian; English civilization scorned and neglected him; French civilization embraced and cherished him ''
To boost the French population, Cardinal Richelieu issued an act declaring that Indians converted to Catholicism were considered as "natural Frenchmen '' by the Ordonnance of 1627:
"The descendants of the French who are accustomed to this country (New France), together with all the Indians who will be brought to the knowledge of the faith and will profess it, shall be deemed and renowned natural Frenchmen, and as such may come to live in France when they want, and acquire, donate, and succeed and accept donations and legacies, just as true French subjects, without being required to take no letters of declaration of naturalization. ''
Louis XIV also tried to increase the population by sending approximately 800 young women nicknamed the "King 's Daughters ''. However, the low density of population in New France remained a very persistent problem. At the beginning of the French and Indian War (1754 -- 1763), the British population in North America outnumbered the French 20 to 1. France fought a total of six colonial wars in North America (see the four French and Indian Wars as well as Father Rale 's War and Father Le Loutre 's War).
In 1562, Charles IX, under the leadership of Admiral Gaspard de Coligny sent Jean Ribault and a group of Huguenot settlers in an attempt to colonize the Atlantic coast and found a colony on a territory which will take the name of the French Florida. They discovered the probe and Port Royal Island, which will be called by Parris Island in South Carolina, on which he built a fort named Charlesfort. The group, led by René Goulaine de Laudonnière, moved to the south where they founded the Fort Caroline on the Saint John 's river in Florida on June 22, 1564.
This irritated the Spanish who claimed Florida and opposed the Protestant settlers for religious reasons. In 1565, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés led a group of Spaniards and founded Saint Augustine, 60 kilometers south of Fort Caroline. Fearing a Spanish attack, Ribault planned to move the colony but a storm suddenly destroyed his fleet. On 20 September 1565 the Spaniards, commanded by Menéndez de Avilés, attacked and massacred all the Fort Caroline occupants including Jean Ribault.
The French interest in Canada focused first on fishing off the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. However, at the beginning of the 17th century, France was more interested in fur from North America. The fur trading post of Tadoussac was founded in 1600. Four years later, Champlain made his first trip to Canada in a trade mission for fur. Although he had no formal mandate on this trip, he sketched a map of the St. Lawrence River and in writing, on his return to France, a report entitled Savages (relation of his stay in a tribe of Montagnais near Tadoussac).
Champlain needed to report his findings to Henry IV. He participated in another expedition to New France in the spring of 1604, conducted by Pierre Du Gua de Monts. It helped the foundation of a settlement on Saint Croix Island, the first French settlement in the New World, which would be given up the following winter. The expedition then founded the colony of Port - Royal.
In 1608, Champlain founded a fur post that would become the city of Quebec, which would become the capital of New France. In Quebec, Champlain forged alliances between France and the Huron and Ottawa against their traditional enemies, the Iroquois. Champlain and other French travelers then continued to explore North America, with canoes made from Birch bark, to move quickly through the Great Lakes and their tributaries. In 1634, the Normand explorer Jean Nicolet pushed his exploration to the West up to Wisconsin.
Following the capitulation of Quebec by the Kirke brothers, the British occupied the city of Quebec and Canada from 1629 to 1632. Samuel de Champlain was taken prisoner and there followed the bankruptcy of the Company of One Hundred Associates. Following the Treaty of Saint - Germain - en - Laye, France took possession of the colony in 1632. The city of Trois - Rivières was founded in 1634. In 1642, the Angevin Jérôme le Royer de la Dauversière founded Ville - Marie (later Montreal) which was at that time, a fort as protection against Iroquois attacks (the first great Iroquois war lasted from 1642 to 1667).
Despite this rapid expansion, the colony developed very slowly. The Iroquois wars and diseases were the leading causes of death in the French colony. In 1663 when Louis XIV provided the Royal Government, the population of New France was only 2500 European inhabitants. That year, to increase the population, Louis XIV sent between 800 and 900 ' King 's Daughters ' to become the wives of French settlers. The population of New France reached subsequently 7000 in 1674 and 15000 in 1689.
From 1689 to 1713, the French settlers were faced with almost incessant war during the French and Indian Wars. From 1689 to 1697, they fought the British in the Nine Years ' War. The war against the Iroquois continued even after the Treaty of Rijswijk until 1701, when the two parties agreed on peace. Then, the war against the English took over in the War of the Spanish Succession. In 1690 and 1711, Quebec City had successfully resisted the attacks of the English navy and then British army. Nevertheless, the British took advantage of the second war. With the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, France ceded to Britain Acadia (with a population of 1700 people), Newfoundland and Hudson Bay. Under the Sovereign Council, the population of the colony grew faster. However, the population growth was far inferior to that of the British Thirteen Colonies to the south. In the middle of the 18th century, New France accounted for 60,000 people while the British colonies had more than one million people. This placed the colony at a great military disadvantage against the British. The war between the colonies resumed in 1744, lasting until 1748. A final and decisive war began in 1754. The Canadiens and the French were helped by numerous alliances with Native Americans, but they were usually outnumbered on the battlefield.
On May 17, 1673, explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi River, known to the Sioux as does Tongo, or to the Miami - Illinois as missisipioui (the great river). They reached the mouth of the Arkansas and then up the river, after learning that it flowed into the Gulf of Mexico and not to the California Sea (Pacific Ocean).
In 1682, the Normand Cavelier de la Salle and the Italian Henri de Tonti came down the Mississippi to its Delta. They left from Fort Crevecoeur on the Illinois River, along with 23 French and 18 Native Americans. In April 1682, they arrived at the mouth of the Mississippi; they planted a cross and a column bearing the arms of the king of France. La Salle returned to France and won over the Secretary of State of the Navy to give him the command of Louisiana. He believed that it was close to New Spain by drawing a map on which the Mississippi seemed much further west than its actual rate. He set up a maritime expedition with four ships and 320 emigrants, but it ended in disaster when he failed to find the Mississippi Delta and was killed in 1687.
In 1698, Pierre LeMoyne d'Iberville left La Rochelle and explored the area around the mouth of the Mississippi. He stopped between Isle - aux - Chats (now Cat Island) and Isle Surgeres (renamed Isle - aux - Vascular or Ship Island) on February 13, 1699 and continued his explorations to the mainland, with his brother Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville to Biloxi. He built a precarious fort, called ' Maurepas ' (later ' Old Biloxi '), before returning to France. He returned twice in the Gulf of Mexico and established a fort at Mobile in 1702.
From 1699 to 1702, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville was governor of Louisiana. His brother succeeded him in that post from 1702 to 1713. He was again governor from 1716 to 1724 and again 1733 to 1743. In 1718, Jean - Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville commanded a French expedition in Louisiana. He founded the city of New Orleans, in homage to Regent Duke of Orleans. The architect Adrian de Pauger drew the orthogonal plane of the Old Square.
In 1718, there were only 700 Europeans in Louisiana. The Mississippi Company arranged for ships to bring 800 more, who landed in Louisiana in 1718, doubling the European population. John Law encouraged Germans, particularly Germans of the Alsatian region who had recently fallen under French rule, and the Swiss to emigrate.
Prisoners were set free in Paris in September 1719 onwards, under the condition that they marry prostitutes and go with them to Louisiana. The newly married couples were chained together and taken to the port of embarkation. In May 1720, after complaints from the Mississippi Company and the concessioners about this class of French immigrants, the French government prohibited such deportations. However, there was a third shipment of prisoners in 1721.
The last French and Indian War resulted in the dissolution of New France, with Canada going to Great Britain and Louisiana going to Spain. Only the islands of Saint - Pierre - et - Miquelon are still in French hands.
In 1802 Spain returned Louisiana to France, but Napoleon sold it to the United States in 1803. The French left many toponyms (Illinois, Vermont, Bayous...) and ethnonyms (Sioux, Coeur d'Alene, Nez Percé...) in North America.
A major French settlement lay on the island of Hispaniola, where France established the colony of Saint - Domingue on the western third of the island in 1664. Nicknamed the "Pearl of the Antilles '', Saint - Domingue became the richest colony in the Caribbean due to slave plantation production of sugar cane. It had the highest slave mortality rate in the western hemisphere. A 1791 slave revolt, the only ever successful slave revolt, began the Haitian Revolution, led to freedom for the colony 's slaves in 1794 and, a decade later, complete independence for the country, which renamed itself Haiti. France briefly also ruled the eastern portion of the island, which is now the Dominican Republic.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, France ruled much of the Lesser Antilles at various times. Islands that came under French rule during part or all of this time include Dominica, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Marie - Galante, Martinique, St. Barthélemy, St. Croix, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, St. Martin, St. Vincent and Tobago. Control of many of these islands was contested between the French, the British and the Dutch; in the case of St. Martin, the island was divided in two, a situation that persists to this day. Great Britain captured some of France 's islands during the Seven Years ' War and the Napoleonic Wars. Following the latter conflict, France retained control of Guadeloupe, Martinique, Marie - Galante, St. Barthélemy, and its portion of St. Martin; all remain part of France today. Guadeloupe (including Marie - Galante and other nearby islands) and Martinique each is an overseas department of France, while St. Barthélemy and St. Martin each became an overseas collectivity of France in 2007.
France Antarctique (formerly also spelled France antartique) was a French colony south of the Equator, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, which existed between 1555 and 1567, and had control over the coast from Rio de Janeiro to Cabo Frio. The colony quickly became a haven for the Huguenots, and was ultimately destroyed by the Portuguese in 1567. On November 1, 1555, French vice-admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon (1510 -- 1575), a Catholic knight of the Order of Malta, who later would help the Huguenots to find a refuge against persecution, led a small fleet of two ships and 600 soldiers and colonists, and took possession of the small island of Serigipe in the Guanabara Bay, in front of present - day Rio de Janeiro, where they built a fort named Fort Coligny. The fort was named in honor of Gaspard de Coligny (then a Catholic statesman, who about a year later would become a Huguenot), an admiral who supported the expedition and would use the colony in order to protect his co-religionists. To the still largely undeveloped mainland village, Villegaignon gave the name of Henriville, in honour of Henry II, the King of France, who also knew of and approved the expedition, and had provided the fleet for the trip. Villegaignon secured his position by making an alliance with the Tamoio and Tupinambá Indians of the region, who were fighting the Portuguese.
Unchallenged by the Portuguese, who initially took little notice of his landing, Villegaignon endeavoured to expand the colony by calling for more colonists in 1556. He sent one of his ships, the Grande Roberge, to Honfleur, entrusted with letters to King Henry II, Gaspard de Coligny and according to some accounts, the Protestant leader John Calvin. After one ship was sent to France to ask for additional support, three ships were financed and prepared by the king of France and put under the command of Sieur De Bois le Comte, a nephew of Villegagnon. They were joined by 14 Calvinists from Geneva, led by Philippe de Corguilleray, including theologians Pierre Richier and Guillaume Chartrier. The new colonists, numbering around 300, included 5 young women to be wed, 10 boys to be trained as translators, as well as 14 Calvinists sent by Calvin, and also Jean de Léry, who would later write an account of the colony. They arrived in March 1557. The relief fleet was composed of: The Petite Roberge, with 80 soldiers and sailors was led by Vice Admiral Sieur De Bois le Comte. The Grande Roberge, with about 120 on board, captained by Sieur de Sainte - Marie dit l'Espine. The Rosée, with about 90 people, led by Captain Rosée. Doctrinal disputes arose between Villegagnon and the Calvinists, especially in relation to the Eucharist, and in October 1557 the Calvinists were banished from Coligny island as a result. They settled among the Tupinamba until January 1558, when some of them managed to return to France by ship together with Jean de Léry, and five others chose to return to Coligny island where three of them were drowned by Villegagnon for refusing to recant.
In 1560 Mem de Sá, the new Governor - General of Brazil, received from the Portuguese government the command to expel the French. With a fleet of 26 warships and 2,000 soldiers, on 15 March 1560, he attacked and destroyed Fort Coligny within three days, but was unable to drive off their inhabitants and defenders, because they escaped to the mainland with the help of the Native Brazilians, where they continued to live and to work. Admiral Villegaignon had returned to France in 1558, disgusted with the religious tension that existed between French Protestants and Catholics, who had come also with the second group (see French Wars of Religion). Urged by two influential Jesuit priests who had come to Brazil with Mem de Sá, named José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega, and who had played a big role in pacifying the Tamoios, Mem de Sá ordered his nephew, Estácio de Sá to assemble a new attack force. Estácio de Sá founded the city of Rio de Janeiro on March 1, 1565, and fought the Frenchmen for two more years. Helped by a military reinforcement sent by his uncle, on January 20, 1567, he imposed final defeat on the French forces and decisively expelled them from Brazil, but died a month later from wounds inflicted in the battle. Coligny 's and Villegaignon 's dream had lasted a mere 12 years.
Equinoctial France was the contemporary name given to the colonization efforts of France in the 17th century in South America, around the line of Equator, before "tropical '' had fully gained its modern meaning: Equinoctial means in Latin "of equal nights '', i.e., on the Equator, where the duration of days and nights is nearly the same year round. The French colonial empire in the New World also included New France (Nouvelle France) in North America, particularly in what is today the province of Quebec, Canada, and for a very short period (12 years) also Antarctic France (France Antarctique, in French), in present - day Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. All of these settlements were in violation of the papal bull of 1493, which divided the New World between Spain and Portugal. This division was later defined more exactly by the Treaty of Tordesillas.
France Équinoxiale started in 1612, when a French expedition departed from Cancale, Brittany, France, under the command of Daniel de la Touche, Seigneur de la Ravardière, and François de Razilly, admiral. Carrying 500 colonists, it arrived in the Northern coast of what is today the Brazilian state of Maranhão. De la Ravardière had discovered the region in 1604 but the death of the king postponed his plans to start its colonization. The colonists soon founded a village, which was named "Saint - Louis '', in honor of the French king Louis IX. This later became São Luís in Portuguese, (1) the only Brazilian state capital founded by France. On 8 September, Capuchin friars prayed the first mass, and the soldiers started building a fortress. An important difference in relation to France Antarctique is that this new colony was not motivated by escape from religious persecutions to Protestants (see French Wars of Religion). The colony did not last long. A Portuguese army assembled in the Captaincy of Pernambuco, under the command of Alexandre de Moura, was able to mount a military expedition, which defeated and expelled the French colonists in 1615, less than four years after their arrival in the land. Thus, it repeated the disaster spelt for the colonists of France Antarctique, in 1567. A few years later, in 1620, Portuguese and Brazilian colonists arrived in number and São Luís started to develop, with an economy based mostly in sugar cane and slavery.
French traders and colonists tried again to settle a France Équinoxiale further North, in what is today French Guiana, in 1626, 1635 (when the capital, Cayenne, was founded) and 1643. Twice a Compagnie de la France Équinoxiale was founded, in 1643 and 1645, but both foundered as a result of misfortune and mismanagement. It was only after 1674, when the colony came under the direct control of the French crown and a competent Governor took office, that France Équinoxiale became a reality. To this day, French Guiana is a department of France.
French Guiana was first settled by the French in 1604, although its earliest settlements were abandoned in the face of hostilities from the indigenous population and tropical diseases. The settlement of Cayenne was established in 1643, but was abandoned. It was re-established in the 1660s. Except for brief occupations by the English and Dutch in the 17th century, and by the Portuguese in the 19th century, Guiana has remained under French rule ever since. From 1851 to 1951 it was the site of a notorious penal colony, Devil 's Island (Île du Diable). Since 1946, French Guiana has been an overseas department of France.
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song too much month at the end of the money | Billy Hill (band) - wikipedia
Billy Hill was an American country music group founded by singer / songwriter / guitarists Dennis Robbins, Bob DiPiero and John Scott Sherrill, along with Reno Kling (bass guitar) and Martin Parker (drums). Before the group 's foundation, Robbins had been a member of The Rockets (later The Detroit Wheels), and Kling played bass for Steve Earle. Sherrill and Robbins alternated as lead vocalists, but credited the frontman role to a fictional character named Billy Hill and wrote a biography on the character.
The band recorded one album for Reprise Records and charted two singles on the Billboard country charts. After disbanding in 1990, Robbins became a solo artist for Giant. DiPiero and Sherrill have continued working as songwriters.
All tracks written by DiPiero, Robbins and Sherrill except as noted.
Compiled from liner notes.
Notes:
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