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when did the union pacific and central pacific railroads meet | Central Pacific Railroad - wikipedia
The Central Pacific Railroad (CPRR) was a rail route between California and Utah built eastwards from the West Coast in the 1860s, to complete the western part of the "First Transcontinental Railroad '' in North America. It later became part of the Union Pacific Railroad.
Many 19th century national proposals to build a transcontinental railroad failed because of the energy consumed by political disputes over slavery. With the secession of the South, the modernizers in the Republican Party controlled the US Congress. They passed legislation authorizing the railroad, with financing in the form of government railroad bonds. These were all eventually repaid with interest. The government and the railroads both shared in the increased value of the land grants, which the railroads developed. The construction of the railroad also secured for the government the economical "safe and speedy transportation of the mails, troops, munitions of war, and public stores. ''
Planned by Theodore Judah, the Central Pacific Railroad was authorized by Congress in 1862. It was financed and built through "The Big Four '' (who called themselves "The Associates ''): Sacramento, California businessmen Leland Stanford, Collis Huntington, Charles Crocker, and Mark Hopkins. Crocker was in charge of construction. Construction crews comprised 12,000 Chinese emigrant workers by 1868, when they constituted eighty percent of the entire work force. They laid the first rails in 1863. The "Golden spike '', connecting the western railroad to the Union Pacific Railroad at Promontory, Utah, was hammered on May 10, 1869. Coast - to - coast train travel in eight days became possible, replacing months - long sea voyages and lengthy, hazardous travel by wagon trains.
In 1885 the Central Pacific Railroad was leased by the Southern Pacific Company. Technically the CPRR remained a corporate entity until 1959, when it was formally merged into Southern Pacific. (It was reorganized in 1899 as the Central Pacific "Railway ''.) The original right - of - way is now controlled by the Union Pacific, which purchased Southern Pacific in 1996.
The Union Pacific - Central Pacific (Southern Pacific) mainline followed the historic Overland Route from Omaha, Nebraska to San Francisco Bay.
Chinese labor was the most vital source for constructing the railroad. Fifty Chinese laborers were hired by the Central Pacific Railroad in February 1865, and soon more and more Chinese men were hired. Working conditions were harsh, and Chinese men were compensated less than their white counterparts. Chinese men were paid thirty - one dollars each month, and while white workers were paid the same, they were also given room and board.
Construction of the road was financed primarily by 30 - year, 6 % U.S. government bonds authorized by Sec. 5 of the Pacific Railroad Act of 1862. They were issued at the rate of $16,000 per mile of tracked grade completed west of the designated base of the Sierra Nevada range near Roseville, CA where California state geologist Josiah Whitney had determined were the geologic start of the Sierras ' foothills. Sec. 11 of the Act also provided that the issuance of bonds "shall be treble the number per mile '' (to $48,000) for tracked grade completed over and within the two mountain ranges (but limited to a total of 300 miles (480 km) at this rate), and "doubled '' (to $32,000) per mile of completed grade laid between the two mountain ranges. The U.S. Government Bonds, which constituted a lien upon the railroads and all their fixtures, were repaid in full (and with interest) by the company as and when they became due.
Sec. 10 of the 1864 amending Pacific Railroad Act (13 Statutes at Large, 356) additionally authorized the company to issue its own "First Mortgage Bonds '' in total amounts up to (but not exceeding) that of the bonds issued by the United States. Such company - issued securities had priority over the original Government Bonds. (Local and state governments also aided the financing, although the City and County of San Francisco did not do so willingly. This materially slowed early construction efforts.) Sec. 3 of the 1862 Act granted the railroads 10 square miles (26 km) of public land for every mile laid, except where railroads ran through cities and crossed rivers. This grant was apportioned in 5 sections on alternating sides of the railroad, with each section measuring 0.2 miles (320 m) by 10 miles (16 km). These grants were later doubled to 20 square miles (52 km) per mile of grade by the 1864 Act.
Although the Pacific Railroad eventually benefited the Bay Area, the City and County of San Francisco obstructed financing it during the early years of 1863 - 1865. When Stanford was Governor of California, the Legislature passed on April 22, 1863, "An Act to Authorize the Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco to take and subscribe One Million Dollars to the Capital Stock of the Western Pacific Rail Road Company and the Central Pacific Rail Road Company of California and to provide for the payment of the same and other matters relating thereto '' (which was later amended by Section Five of the "Compromise Act '' of April 4, 1864). On May 19, 1863, the electors of the City and County of San Francisco passed this bond by a vote of 6,329 to 3,116, in a highly controversial Special Election.
The City and County 's financing of the investment through the issuance and delivery of Bonds was delayed for two years, when Mayor Henry P. Coon, and the County Clerk, Wilhelm Loewy, each refused to countersign the Bonds. It took legal actions to force them to do so: in 1864 the Supreme Court of the State of California ordered them under Writs of Mandamus (The People of the State of California ex rel the Central Pacific Railroad Company vs. Henry P. Coon, Mayor; Henry M. Hale, Auditor; and Joseph S. Paxson, Treasurer, of the City and County of San Francisco. 25 Cal. 635) and in 1865, a legal judgment against Loewy (The People ex rel The Central Pacific Railroad Company of California vs. The Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco, and Wilhelm Lowey, Clerk 27 Cal. 655) directing that the Bonds be countersigned and delivered. In 1863 the legislature 's forcing of City and County action became known as the "Dutch Flat Swindle ''. Critics claimed the CPRR intended to build a railroad only as far as Dutch Flat, to connect to the Dutch Flat Wagon Road which they already controlled.
A replica of the Sacramento, California Central Pacific Railroad passenger station is part of the California State Railroad Museum, located in the Old Sacramento State Historic Park.
Nearly all the company 's early correspondence is preserved at Syracuse University, as part of the Collis Huntington Papers collection. It has been released on microfilm (133 reels). The following libraries have the microfilm: University of Arizona at Tucson; and Virginia Commonwealth University at Richmond. Additional collections of manuscript letters are held at Stanford University and the Mariners ' Museum at Newport News, Virginia. Alfred A. Hart was the official photographer of the CPRR construction.
The Central Pacific 's first three locomotives were of the then common 4 - 4 - 0 type, although with the American Civil War raging in the east, they had difficulty acquiring engines from eastern builders, who at times only had smaller 4 - 2 - 4 or 4 - 2 - 2 types available. Until the completion of the Transcontinental rail link and the railroad 's opening of its own shops, all locomotives had to be purchased by builders in the northeastern U.S. The engines had to be dismantled, loaded on a ship, which would embark on a four - month journey that went around South America 's Cape Horn until arriving in Sacramento where the locomotives would be unloaded, re-assembled, and placed in service.
Locomotives at the time came from many manufacturers, such as Cooke, Schenectady, Mason, Rogers, Danforth, Norris, Booth, and McKay & Aldus, among others. Interestingly, the railroad had been on rather unfriendly terms with the Baldwin Locomotive Works, one of the more well - known firms. It is not clear as to the cause of this dispute, though some attribute it to the builder insisting on cash payment (though this has yet to be verified). Consequently, the railroad refused to buy engines from Baldwin, and three former Western Pacific Railroad (which the CP had absorbed in 1870) engines were the only Baldwin engines owned by the Central Pacific. The Central Pacific 's dispute with Baldwin remained unresolved until well after the road had been acquired by the Southern Pacific.
In the 1870s, the road opened up its own locomotive construction facilities in Sacramento. Central Pacific 's 173 was rebuilt by these shops and served as the basis for CP 's engine construction. The locomotives built before the 1870s were given names as well as numbers. By the 1870s, it was decided to eliminate the names and as each engine was sent to the shops for service, their names would be removed. However, one engine that was built in the 1880s did receive a name, the El Gobernador.
Construction of the rails was often dangerous work. Towards the end of construction, almost all workers were Chinese immigrants. The ethnicity of workers depended largely on the "gang '' of workers / specific area on the rails they were working.
The following CP engines have been preserved:
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who was the president of india national congress when the cabinet mission came to india | 1946 Cabinet Mission to India - wikipedia
The United Kingdom Cabinet Mission of 1946 to India aimed to discuss the transfer of power from the British government to the Indian leadership, with the aim of preserving India 's unity and granting it independence. Formulated at the initiative of Clement Attlee, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, the mission had Lord Pethick - Lawrence, the Secretary of State for India, Sir Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of Trade, and A.V. Alexander, the First Lord of the Admiralty. Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India, did not participate in every step but was present.
The British wanted to keep India and its Army united so as to keep it in their system of ' imperial defence ' even after granting it independence. To preserve India 's unity the British formulated the Cabinet Mission Plan. The Cabinet Mission 's role was to hold preparatory discussions with the elected representatives of British India and the Indian states so as to secure agreement to the method of framing the constitution, to set up a constitution body and to set up an Executive Council with the support of the main Indian parties.
The Mission held talks with the representatives of the Indian National Congress and the All - India Muslim League, the two largest political parties in the Constituent Assembly of India. The two parties planned to determine a power - sharing arrangement between Hindus and Muslims to prevent a communal dispute. The Congress, under Gandhi and Nehru, wanted to obtain a strong central government, with more powers than state governments. The All India Muslim League, under Jinnah, wanted to keep India united but with political safeguards provided to Muslims like parity in the legislatures because of the wide belief of Muslims that the British Raj was simply going to be turned into a Hindu Raj once the British departed, and since the Muslim League regarded itself as the sole spokesman party of Indian Muslims, it was incumbent upon it to take the matter up with the Crown. After initial dialogue, the Mission proposed its plan over the composition of the new government on 16 May 1946. In its proposals, the creation of a separate Muslim Pakistan was rejected.
An interim Government at the Centre representing all communities would be installed on the basis of parity between the representatives of the Hindus and the Muslims
The plan of 16 May 1946 had a united India, in line with Congress and Muslim League aspirations, but that was where the consensus between the two parties ended since Congress abhorred the idea of having the groupings of Muslim - majority provinces and that of Hindu - majority provinces with the intention of balancing one another at the central legislature. The Muslim League could not accept any changes to this plan since they wanted to keep the safeguards of British Indian laws to prevent absolute rule of Hindus over Muslims.
Reaching an impasse, the British proposed a second plan on 16 June 1946 to arrange for India to be divided into Hindu - majority India and a Muslim - majority India that would later be renamed Pakistan since Congress had vehemently rejected ' parity ' at the centre. A list of princely states of India, which would be permitted to accede to the dominion or attain independence, was also drawn up.
The Cabinet Mission arrived in India on 23 March 1946 and in Delhi on 2 April 1946. The announcement of the Plan on 16 May 1946 had been preceded by the Simla Conference in the first week of May.
The approval of the plans determined the composition of the new government. The Congress Working Committee officially did not accept either plan. The resolution of the committee dated 24 May 1946 concluded that
The Working Committee consider that the connected problems involved in the establishment of a Provisional Government and a Constituent Assembly should be viewed together... In absence of a full picture, the Committee are unable to give a final opinion at this stage.
And the resolution of 25 June 1946, in response to the June plan concluded
In the formation of a Provisional or other governance, Congressmen can never give up the national character of Congress, or accept an artificial and unjust parity, or agree to a veto of a communal group. The Committee are unable to accept the proposals for formation of an Interim Government as contained in the statement of June 16. The Committee have, however, decided that the Congress should join the proposed Constituent Assembly with a view to framing the Constitution of a free, united and democratic India.
In a provocative speech on 10 July 1946 Nehru was quoted in the press as saying "We are not bound by a single thing except that we have decided to go into the Constituent Assembly ''. By this Nehru effectively "torpedoed '' any hope for a united India. Having been "duped in such a way '', Jinnah withdrew the Muslim League 's acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan on 17 July.
The Viceroy began organising the transfer of power to a Congress - League coalition but League president Muhammad Ali Jinnah denounced the hesitant and conditional approval of the Congress and rescinded League approval of both plans. Thus Congress leaders entered the Viceroy 's Executive Council or the Interim Government of India. Nehru became the head, vice-president in title, but possessing the executive authority. Patel became the home member, responsible for internal security and government agencies. Congress - led governments were formed in most provinces, including the NWFP, in Punjab (a coalition with the Shiromani Akali Dal and the Unionist Muslim League). The League led governments in Bengal and Sind. The Constituent Assembly was instructed to begin work to write a new constitution for India.
Jinnah and the League condemned the new government, and vowed to agitate for Pakistan by any means possible. Disorder arose in Punjab and Bengal, including the cities of Delhi, Bombay and Calcutta. On the League - organized Direct Action Day, over 5,000 people were killed across India, and Hindu, Sikh and Muslim mobs began clashing routinely. Wavell stalled the Central government 's efforts to stop the disorder, and the provinces were instructed to leave this to the governors, who did not undertake any major action. To end the disorder and rising bloodshed, Wavell encouraged Nehru to ask the League to enter the government. While Patel and most Congress leaders were opposed to conceding to a party that was organising disorder, Nehru conceded in hope of preserving communal peace.
League leaders entered the council under the leadership of Liaquat Ali Khan, the future first Prime Minister of Pakistan who became the finance minister, but the council did not function in harmony, as separate meetings were not held by League ministers, and both parties vetoed the major initiatives proposed by the other, highlighting their ideological differences and political antagonism. At the arrival of the new (and proclaimed as the last) viceroy, Lord Mountbatten of Burma in early 1947, Congress leaders expressed the view that the coalition was unworkable. That led to the eventual proposal, and acceptance of the partition of India. The rejection of cabinet mission plan led to a resurgence of confrontational politics beginning with the Muslim League 's Direct action day and the subsequent killings in Noakhali and Bihar. The portioning of responsibility of the League, the Congress and the British Colonial Administration for the breakdown continues to be a topic of fierce disagreement.
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history of the phantom of the opera mask | Erik (the Phantom of the Opera) - wikipedia
Erik (also known as The Phantom of the Opera, commonly referred to as The Phantom) is the title character from Gaston Leroux 's novel Le Fantôme de l'Opéra (1910), best known to English speakers as The Phantom of the Opera. He is unique in that he is both the titular protagonist and at times the antagonist of the novel. The character has been adapted to alternate media several times, including in the 1925 film adaptation starring Lon Chaney, the 1943 remake starring Claude Rains and Andrew Lloyd Webber 's musical.
In the original novel, few details are given regarding Erik 's past, although there is no shortage of hints and implications throughout the book. Erik himself laments the fact that his mother was horrified by his appearance (causing him to run away from home at a young age), and that his father, a true master mason, never even saw him. The text also reveals that "Erik '' was not, in fact, his birth name, but one that was given or found "by accident '', as Erik himself says within the work. Leroux sometimes calls him "the man 's voice ''. Erik refers to himself as "The Opera Ghost '', "The Angel of Music '', and attends a masquerade as the "Red Death '' (evidently Erik is familiar with Edgar Allan Poe 's short story "The Masque of the Red Death '' (1842)). Most of the character 's history is revealed by a mysterious figure, known through most of the novel as The Persian or the Daroga, who had been a local police chief in Persia, following Erik to Paris; other details are discussed in the novel 's epilogue (e.g., his birthplace is given as a small town outside of Rouen, France).
Born hideously deformed, he is a "subject of horror '' for his family and as a result he runs away as a young boy and falls in with a band of gypsies, making his living as an attraction in freak shows, where he is known as "le mort vivant '' ("the living dead ''). During his time with the group Erik becomes a great illusionist, magician, and ventriloquist. His reputation for these skills and his unearthly singing voice spreads quickly, and one day a fur trader mentions him to the Shah of Persia.
The Shah orders the Persian to fetch Erik and bring him to the palace. The Shah - in - Shah commissions Erik, who proves himself a gifted architect, to construct an elaborate palace in Mazenderan. This is designed with so many trap doors and secret rooms that not even the slightest whisper would be considered private. The design itself carries sound to myriad hidden locations, so that one never knew who might be listening. At some point under the Shah 's employment Erik is also a political assassin, using a unique noose referred to as the Punjab Lasso. The Persian dwells on the vague horrors that existed at Mazenderan rather than going in depth into the actual circumstances involved.
The Shah, pleased with Erik 's work and determined that no one else should have such a palace, orders Erik blinded. Thinking that Erik could still make another palace even without his eyesight, the Shah orders Erik 's execution. It is only by the intervention of the daroga (the Persian) that Erik escapes. Erik then goes to Constantinople and is employed by its ruler, helping build certain buildings in the Yildiz - Kiosk, among others. However, he has to leave the city for the same reason he left Mazenderan: he knows too much. He also seems to have traveled to Southeast Asia, since he claims to have learned to breathe underwater using a hollow reed from the "Tonkin pirates ''. By this time Erik is tired of his nomadic life and wants to "live like everybody else ''. For a time he works as a contractor, building "ordinary houses with ordinary bricks ''. He eventually bids on a contract to help with the construction of the Palais Garnier, commonly known as the Paris Opéra.
During the construction, Erik is able to make a sort of playground for himself within the Opera House, creating trapdoors and secret passageways throughout the theatre. He even builds himself a house in the cellars of the Opera where he could live far from man 's cruelty. Erik has spent twenty years composing a piece entitled Don Juan Triumphant. In one chapter, after he takes Christine to his lair, she asks him to play her a piece from his masterwork. He refuses and says: "I will play you Mozart, if you like, which will only make you weep; but my Don Juan, Christine, burns. '' Eventually, after she has wrenched off his mask and seen his deformed face, he begins to play it. Christine says that at first it seems to be "one great awful sob '', but then becomes alert to its nuances and power, as the music is able to convey to her the misery he has endured throughout his life and the hope he finally felt for love.
Upon its completion, Erik originally plans to go to his bed (which is a coffin) and "never wake up '', but by the final chapters of the novel, during which Erik kidnaps Christine right from the stage during a performance, Erik expresses his wish to marry Christine and live a comfortable bourgeois life after his work has been completed. He has stored a massive amount of gunpowder under the Opera, and, should she refuse his offer, plans to detonate it. When she acquiesces to his desires in order to save herself, her lover Raoul (who, aided by the Persian, went looking for Christine and fell into Erik 's torture chamber), and the denizens of the Opera, we find out that his part of the bargain was to take the Persian and Raoul above ground.
Erik does so with the Persian, but Raoul was kept "a hostage '' and was "locked up comfortably, properly chained '' in the dungeon under the opera. When he returns, he finds Christine waiting for him, like "a real living wife '' and he swore she tilted her forehead toward him, and he kissed it. Then he says he was so happy that he fell at her feet, crying, and she cries with him, calling him "poor, unhappy Erik '' and taking his hand. At this point, he is "just a poor dog ready to die for her '' and he returns to her the ring she had lost and said that she was free to go and marry Raoul.
Erik frees Raoul who then leaves with Christine. But before they do, Erik makes Christine promise that when he dies she will come back and bury him. Then she kisses Erik 's forehead. Erik dies three weeks later, but not before he goes to visit the Persian and tells him everything, and promises to send him Erik 's dearest possessions: the papers that Christine wrote about everything that had happened with her "Angel of Music '' and some things that had belonged to her. Christine keeps her promise and returns to the Opera to bury Erik and place the plain gold band he had given her on his finger. Leroux claims that a skeleton bearing such a ring was later unearthed in the Opera cellars.
Many different versions of Erik 's life are told through other adaptations such as films, television shows, books, and musicals. One such popular literary adaptation is the Susan Kay novel Phantom (1990), a fictional in - depth story of Erik from the time of his birth to the end of his life at the Paris Opera House.
For the most part, Kay 's novel stays in context with Erik 's life history as laid down by Leroux, however Kay (as explained in her Author 's Note) changes and shapes the character to match her own vision, influenced by other adaptations besides the original. In addition, the ending / resolution is quite different from Leroux 's. The story follows Erik through his entire life, starting with the night of his birth, and is told from different viewpoints throughout the novel (Erik 's mother, Erik, Nadir / the Persian, Christine, and Raoul). Kay places the highest priority on portraying romantic aspects of Erik 's life. He falls in love twice throughout the novel, but neither of these occasions truly end happily.
The theatrical songwriting team of Maury Yeston and Arthur Kopit created a musical based on the story which investors backed out of after Webber 's version became a huge hit. Erik is portrayed as much kinder and more sympathetic, and also with more of a sense of humor. His mother was a singer in the Opera and, having discovered that she was pregnant with an illegitimate child, swallowed poison. This is the reason for his disfigurement. He was born within the catacombs of the opera house and lived there his entire life. His mother died when he was a young child. His father, Gerard Carriere, was the manager and kept him safe all that time. Over the years, Erik became the creative driving force for the opera company. No artistic decision was made without Carriere seeking his approval.
It is implied that the main reason for Erik 's attraction to Christine is that her astonishing voice and beauty remind him of his mother, the only person who was ever able to look at him with happiness. Yet when he finally brings himself to show Christine his face, she runs away. Christine feels intensely remorseful afterwards and when he is eventually cornered by the police, at the end of the play, she takes off his mask and smiles.
This storyline was also the basis for the 1990 miniseries starring Charles Dance, Teri Polo, and Burt Lancaster as Carriere.
In Nicholas Meyer 's novel The Canary Trainer, Sherlock Holmes develops several theories as to the Phantom 's identity. His first idea is that he is an employee of the Opera; however, when the Phantom 's knowledge of the Opera becomes evident, Holmes then believes that he is Charles Garnier, having faked his own death. When Garnier 's corpse is identified, Holmes then theorizes that the Phantom was Edouard LaFosse, the (fictional) assistant of Garnier who designed much of the Opera 's interior and who allegedly died after a building collapse. Holmes theorizes that he did not die, but was merely disfigured and therefore took to hiding in the Opera. However, when Holmes finally confronts the Phantom, he claims that he can not speak without his mask, as his mother forced him to wear it whenever he wished to speak as a child, and he is not Edouard LaFosse. Holmes therefore admits that he is not sure how true any of the theories or claims of the Phantom 's identity are. The Phantom never provides a given name in the novel; he only tells Christine that his name is "Nobody '' (a reference to the name Odysseus gave Polyphemus in the Odyssey).
Regardless of his identity, the Phantom in The Canary Trainer is much more unhinged and bloodthirsty than in the original novel or play. For example, when killing Madame Giry 's replacement with the chandelier, he kills "almost thirty men and women in the twinkling of an eye '', just to ensure that he kills his main target.
In Sam Siciliano 's novel The Angel of the Opera, Sherlock Holmes is brought in to solve the case of the Opera Ghost, and both Erik 's and Holmes 's stories unfold through the eyes of Holmes 's assistant, Henri Vernier. Siciliano places Holmes and Vernier at several of the crucial scenes in Erik and Christine 's relationship, and draws parallels between Erik and Holmes. Holmes sympathizes with Erik so much that after Christine leaves him, Holmes brings him back to England. One of the first people that Erik meets on his arrival is a blind girl with a fondness for music.
In the original novel, Erik is described as corpse - like and is referred to as having a "death 's - head '' (human skull) throughout the story. He has no nose; eyes that are sunken so deep that all is seen are two skull - like eye sockets except when his golden eyes glow in the dark; skin that is yellow and tightly stretched across his bones; and only a few wisps of ink - black hair behind his ears and on his forehead. (His mouth is never described in as much detail, but is referred to as a ' lipless ' ' dead mouth ' by Christine, and Erik acknowledges that his mouth is abnormal when lifting up his mask to display ventriloquism.) He is described as extremely thin, so much so that he resembles a skeleton. Christine graphically describes his cold, bony hands, which also smell of death. Erik woefully describes himself to Christine as a corpse who is "built up with death from head to foot. '' According to the Persian, Erik was born with this deformity, and was exhibited as ' le mort vivant ' in freak shows earlier in his life. Erik sometimes plays up his macabre appearance, such as sleeping in a coffin and dressing up as the Red Death for the masked ball.
Lon Chaney, Sr. 's characterization of Erik in the silent film The Phantom of the Opera (1925) remains closest to the book in content, in that Erik 's face resembles a skull with an elongated nose slit and protruding, crooked teeth. In this version, Erik is said to have been deformed from birth. Chaney was a master make - up artist and was considered avant garde for creating and applying Erik 's facial makeup design himself. It is said he kept it secret until the first day of filming. The result was allegedly so frightening to the women of the time that theaters showing the movie were cautioned to keep smelling salts on hand.
Several movies based on the novel vary the deformities (or in the case of Dario Argento 's 1998 film, the lack thereof). In Universal 's 1943 adaptation, a poor musician tries to publish his music, and then wrongly accuses the publisher Maurice Pleyel of trying to plagiarize his work. He then strangles the publisher and tries to retrieve his music, only to be disfigured when the publisher 's assistant throws etching acid in his face. In the musical horror film Phantom of the Paradise (1974), Winslow (the Phantom character) gets his head caught in a record - press, while Robert Englund 's horror - version has him selling his soul to Satan and having his face mutilated as a result. This version also has a gruesome variation on the mask, in which Erik is sewing flesh to his face.
In Andrew Lloyd Webber 's musical adaptation, only half of Erik 's face is deformed (thus the famous half - mask often associated with Erik 's appearance.) His show was originally planned to have a full mask and full facial disfigurement, but when the director, Hal Prince, realized that it would make expression onstage very difficult, they halved the mask. The logo featuring a full mask was publicized before the change. The deformity in the musical includes a gash on the right side of his partially balding head with exposed skull tissue, an elongated right nostril, a missing right eyebrow, swollen lips, different colored eyes, and a wrinkled, warped right cheek. It is covered by a white half mask and wig. It originally took roughly four hours per performance to put the prosthetics on in the original London productions. On Broadway, it was cut to roughly three, and over the years has been reduced to 45 minutes. More than one Phantom has described make - up disasters onstage. Michael Crawford recounts a story where he pulled away from the kiss at the end only to see that "(his) lower lip was now hanging off Sarah (Brightman) 's face! ''. To cover the flub, he pulled her back for another kiss and "took back the lips '' and kept that side of his head turned away from the audience.
In the 2004 film adaptation of the musical, Erik 's makeup was made to look much less gruesome than previous adaptations of the story. Instead of a skull - like face, his disfigurement resembles that of a mildly malformed face, which he covers with the mask. Film critic Roger Ebert noted that Butler was more "conventionally handsome '' than his predecessors "in a GQ kind of way ''.
Onscreen, Erik has often been cast as a tragic hero but also a tragic villain, depending on the film 's point of view.
See main list: The Phantom of the Opera
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which of the following decisions of the congress of berlin became a major problem | Congress of Berlin - wikipedia
The Congress of Berlin (13 June -- 13 July 1878) was a meeting of the representatives of six great powers of the time (Russia, Great Britain, France, Austria - Hungary, Italy and Germany), the Ottoman Empire and four Balkan states (Greece, Serbia, Romania and Montenegro). It aimed at determining the territories of the states in the Balkan peninsula following the Russo - Turkish War of 1877 -- 78 and came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Berlin, which replaced the preliminary Treaty of San Stefano, signed three months earlier between Russia and the Ottoman Empire.
German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who led the Congress, undertook to stabilise the Balkans, recognise the reduced power of the Ottoman Empire and balance the distinct interests of Britain, Russia and Austria - Hungary. At the same time, he tried to diminish Russian gains in the region and to prevent the rise of a Greater Bulgaria. As a result, Ottoman lands in Europe declined sharply, Bulgaria was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire, Eastern Rumelia was restored to the Turks under a special administration and the region of Macedonia was returned outright to the Turks, who promised reform.
Romania achieved full independence; forced to turn over part of Bessarabia to Russia, it gained Northern Dobruja. Serbia and Montenegro finally gained complete independence but with smaller territories, with Austria - Hungary occupying the Sandžak (Raška) region. Austria - Hungary also took over Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Britain took over Cyprus.
The results were first hailed as a great achievement in peacemaking and stabilisation. However, most of the participants were not fully satisfied, and grievances on the results festered until they exploded in the First and the Second Balkan wars in 1912 -- 1913 and eventually World War I in 1914. Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece made gains, but all received far less than they thought that they deserved.
The Ottoman Empire, then called the "sick man of Europe '', was humiliated and significantly weakened, which made it more liable to domestic unrest and more vulnerable to attack.
Although Russia had been victorious in the war that occasioned the conference, it was humiliated there and resented its treatment. Austria gained a great deal of territory, which angered the South Slavs, and led to decades of tensions in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Bismarck became the target of hatred by Russian nationalists and Pan-Slavists, and he would find that he had tied Germany too closely to Austria - Hungary in the Balkans.
In the long run, tensions between Russia and Austria - Hungary intensified, as did the nationality question in the Balkans. The congress was aimed at revising the Treaty of San Stefano and at keeping Constantinople within Ottoman hands. It effectively disavowed Russia 's victory over the decaying Ottoman Empire in the Russo - Turkish War. The congress returned territories to the Ottoman Empire that the previous treaty had given to the Principality of Bulgaria, most notably Macedonia, thus setting up a strong revanchist demand in Bulgaria, leadng in 1912 to the First Balkan War.
In the decades leading up to the congress, Russia and the Balkans had been gripped buly Pan-Slavism, a movement to unite all the Balkan Slavs under one rule. That desire, which evolved similarly to the Pan-Germanic and Pan-Italianism, which had resulted in two unifications, took different forms in the various Slavic nations. In Imperial Russia, Pan-Slavism meant the creation of a unified Slavic state, under Russian direction, and essentially a byword for Russian conquest of the Balkan peninsula. The realisation of the goal would have Russian control of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, thus giving Russia economic control of the Black Sea and substantially increasing its geopolitical power. In the Balkans, Pan-Slavism meant unifying the Balkan Slavs under the rule of a particular Balkan state, but the state that was meant to serve as the locus for unification was not always clear, as initiative wafted between Serbia and Bulgaria. The creation of a Bulgarian exarch by the Ottomans in 1870 had been intended to separate the Bulgarians religiously from the Greek patriarch and politically from Serbia. From the Balkan point of view, unification of the peninsula needed both a Piedmont as a base and a corresponding France as a sponsor.
Though the views of how Balkan politics should proceed differed, both began with the deposition of the sultan as ruler of the Balkans and the ousting of the Ottomans from Europe. How and even whether that was to proceed would be the major question to be answered at the Congress of Berlin.
The Balkans were a major stage for competition between the European great powers in the second half of the 19th century. Britain and Russia both had interests in the fate of the Balkans. Russia was interested in the region, both ideologically, as a pan-Slavist unifier, and practically, to secure greater control of the Mediterranean; Britain was interested in preventing Russia from accomplishing its goals. Furthermore, the Unifications of Italy and Germany had stymied the ability of a third European power, Austria - Hungary, to further expand its domain to the southwest. Germany, as the most powerful continental nation after the 1871 Franco - Prussian War had little direct interest in the settlement and so was the only power that could mediate the Balkan question.
Russia and Austria - Hungary, the two powers that were most invested in the fate of the Balkans, were allied with Germany in the conservative League of Three Emperors, founded to preserve the monarchies of Continental Europe. The Congress of Berlin was thus mainly a dispute among supposed Bismarck and his German Empire, the arbiter of the discussion, would thus have to choose before the end of the congress one of their allies to support. That decision was to have direct consequences on the future of European geopolitics.
Ottoman brutality in the Serbian -- Ottoman War and the violent suppression of the Herzegovina Uprising formented political pressure within Russia, which saw itself as the protector of the Serbs, to act against the Ottoman Empire. David MacKenzie wrote that ' sympathy for the Serbian Christians existed in Court circles, among nationalist diplomats, and in the lower classes, and was actively expressed through the Slav committees '.
Eventually, Russia sought and obtained Austria - Hungary 's pledge of benevolent neutrality in the coming war, in return for ceding Bosnia Herzegovina to Austria - Hungary in the Budapest Convention of 1877.
After the Bulgarian April Uprising in 1876 and the Russian victory in the Russo - Turkish War of 1877 -- 1878, Russia had liberated almost all of the Ottoman European possessions. The Ottomans recognized Montenegro, Romania and Serbia as independent, and the territories of all three were expanded. Russia created a large Principality of Bulgaria as an autonomous vassal of the sultan. This expanded Russia 's sphere of influence to encompass the entire Balkans, which alarmed other powers in Europe. Britain, which had threatened war with Russia if it occupied Constantinople, and France both did not want another power meddling in either the Mediterranean or the Middle East, where both powers were prepared to make large colonial gains. Austria - Hungary desired Habsburg control over the Balkans, and Germany wanted to prevent its ally from going to war. German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck thus called the Congress of Berlin to discuss the partition of the Ottoman Balkans among the European powers and to preserve the League of Three Emperors in the face of the spread of European liberalism.
The Congress was attended by Britain, Austria - Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Delegates from Greece, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro attended the sessions that concerned their states, but they were not members of the Congress. The Congress was solicited by Russia 's rivals, particularly Austria - Hungary and Britain, and it was hosted in 1878 by Otto von Bismarck. It proposed and ratified the Treaty of Berlin. The meetings were held at Bismarck 's Reich Chancellery, the former Radziwill Palace, from 13 June 1878 to 13 July 1878. The congress revised or eliminated 18 of the 29 articles in the Treaty of San Stefano. Furthermore, by using as a foundation the Treaties of Paris (1856) and Washington (1871), the treaty rearranged the East.
The principal mission of the participants at the congress was to deal a fatal blow to the burgeoning movement of pan-Slavism. The movement caused serious concern in Berlin and even more so in Vienna, which was afraid that the repressed Slavic nationalities would revolt against the Habsburgs. The British and the French governments were nervous about both the diminishing influence of the Ottoman Empire and the cultural expansion of Russian to the south, where both Britain and France were poised to colonise Egypt and Palestine. By the Treaty of San Stefano, the Russians, led by Chancellor Alexander Gorchakov, had managed to create in a Bulgaria an autonomous principality, under the nominal rule of the Ottoman Empire. That sparked the Great Game, the massive British fear of the growing Russian influence in the Middle East. The new principality, including a very large portion of Macedonia and with access to the Aegean Sea, could easily threaten the Dardanelle Straits, which separate the Black Sea from the Mediterranean Sea. The arrangement was not acceptable to the British, which considered the entire Mediterranean to be a British sphere of influence and saw any Russian attempt to gain access there as a grave threat to British power. On 4 June, before the Congress opened on 13 June, Prime Minister Lord Beaconsfield had already concluded the Cyprus Convention, a secret alliance with the Ottomans against Russia in which Britain was allowed to occupy the strategically - placed island of Cyprus. The agreement predetermined Beaconsfield 's position during the Congress and led him to issue threats to unleash a war against Russia if it did not comply with Ottoman demands. Negotiations between Austro - Hungarian Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy and British Foreign Secretary Marquess of Salisbury had already ' ended on 6 June by Britain agreeing to all the Austrian proposals relative to Bosnia - Herzegovina about to come before the congress while Austria would support British demands '.
The Congress of Berlin is frequently viewed as the culmination of the battle between Chancellors Alexander Gorchakov of Russia and Otto von Bismarck of Germany. They were able to persuade other European leaders that a free and independent Bulgaria would greatly improve the security risks posed by a disintegrating Ottoman Empire. According to historian Erich Eyck, Bismarck supported Russia 's position that "Turkish rule over a Christian community (Bulgaria) was an anachronism which undoubtedly gave rise to insurrection and bloodshed and should therefore be ended ''. He used the Great Eastern Crisis of 1875 as proof of growing animosity in the region.
Bismarck 's ultimate goal during the Congress of Berlin was not to upset Germany 's status on the international platform. He did not wish to disrupt the League of the Three Emperors by choosing between Russia and Austria as an ally. To maintain peace in Europe, Bismarck sought to convince other European diplomats on dividing up the Balkans to foster greater stability. During the division, Russia began to feel cheated even though it eventually gained independence for Bulgaria. Problems in the alliances in Europe before the First World War were thus noticeable.
One reason that Bismarck was able to mediate the various tensions at the Congress of Berlin was his diplomatic persona. He sought peace and stability when international affairs did not pertain to Germany directly. Since he viewed the current situation in Europe as favourable for Germany, any conflicts between the major European powers that were threatening the status quo was against German interests. Also, at the Congress of Berlin, "Germany could not look for any advantage from the crisis '' that had occurred in the Balkans in 1875. As a result, Bismarck claimed impartiality on behalf of Germany at the Congress. That claim enabled him to preside over the negotiations with a keen eye for foul play.
Though most of Europe went into the Congress expecting a diplomatic show, much like the Congress of Vienna, they were to be sadly disappointed. Bismarck, unhappy to be conducting the Congress in the heat of the summer, had a short temper and a low tolerance for malarky. Thus, any grandstanding was cut short by the testy German chancellor. The ambassadors from the small Balkan territories whose fate was being decided were barely even allowed to attend the diplomatic meetings, which were between mainly the representatives of the great powers.
According to Henry Kissinger, the congress saw a shift in Bismarck 's Realpolitik. Until then, as Germany had become too powerful for isolation, his policy was to maintain the League of the Three Emperors. Now that he could no longer rely on Russia 's alliance, he began to form relations with as many potential enemies as possible.
Bowing to Russia 's pressure, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro were declared independent principalities. Russia kept South Bessarabia, which it had annexed in the Russo - Turkish War, but the Bulgarian state that it had created was first bisected and then split further into the Principality of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia, both of which were given nominal autonomy, under the control of the Ottoman Empire. Bulgaria was promised autonomy, and guarantees were made against Turkish interference, but they were largely ignored. Romania received Dobruja. Montenegro obtained Nikšić, along with the primary Albanian regions of Podgorica, Bar and Plav - Gusinje. The Turkish government, or Porte, agreed to obey the specifications contained in the Organic Law of 1868 and to guarantee the civil rights of non-Muslim subjects. The region of Bosnia - Herzegovina was given over to the administration of Austria - Hungary, which also obtained the right to garrison the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, a small border region between Montenegro and Serbia. Bosnia and Herzegovina were put on the fast track to eventual annexation. Russia agreed that Macedonia, the most important strategic section of the Balkans, was too multinational to be part of Bulgaria and permitted it to remain under the Ottoman Empire. Eastern Rumelia, which had its own large Turkish and Greek minorities, became an autonomous province under a Christian ruler, with its capital at Philippopolis. The remaining portions of the original "Greater Bulgaria '' became the new state of Bulgaria.
In Russia, the Congress of Berlin was considered a dismal failure. After finally defeating the Turks despite many past inconclusive Russo - Turkish wars, many Russians had expected "something colossal '', a redrawing of the Balkan borders in support of Russian territorial ambitions. Instead, the victory resulted in an Austro - Hungarian gain on the Balkan front that was brought about by the rest of the European powers ' preference for a powerful Austria - Hungarian Empire, which threatened basically no one, to a powerful Russia, which had been locked in competition with Britain in the so - called Great Game for most of the century. Gorchakov said, "I consider the Berlin Treaty the darkest page in my life ''. The Russian people were by and large furious over the European repudiation of their political gains, and though there was some thought that it represented only a minor stumble on the road to Russian hegemony in the Balkans, it actually gave Bosnia - Herzegovina and Serbia over to Austria - Hungary 's sphere of influence and essentially removed all Russian influence from the area.
The Serbs were upset with "Russia... consenting to the cession of Bosnia to Austria. ''
Ristić who was Serbia 's first plenipotentiary at Berlin tells how he asked Jomini, one of the Russian delegates, what consolation remained to the Serbs. Jomini replied that it would have to be the thought that ' the situation was only temporary because within fifteen years at the latest we shall be forced to fight Austria. ' ' Vain consolation! ' comments Ristić.
Italy was dissatisfied with the results of the Congress, and the tensions between Greece and the Ottoman Empire were left unresolved. Bosnia - Herzegovina would also prove to be problematic for the Austro - Hungarian Empire in later decades. The League of the Three Emperors, established in 1873, was destroyed, as Russia saw lack of German support on the issue of Bulgaria 's full independence as a breach of loyalty and of the alliance. The border between Greece and Turkey was not resolved. In 1881, after protracted negotiations, a compromise border was accepted, occurring after a naval demonstration of the great powers, resulting in the cession of Thessaly and the Arta Prefecture to Greece.
Thus, the Berlin Congress sowed the seeds of further conflicts, including the Balkan Wars and (ultimately) the First World War. In the ' Salisbury Circular ' of 1 April 1878, the British Foreign Secretary, the Marquess of Salisbury, made clear the objections of him and the government to the Treaty of San Stefano because of the favorable position in which it left Russia.
In 1954, British historian AJP Taylor wrote: "If the treaty of San Stefano had been maintained, both the Ottoman Empire and Austria - Hungary might have survived to the present day. The British, except for Beaconsfield in his wilder moments, had expected less and were therefore less disappointed. Salisbury wrote at the end of 1878: We shall set up a rickety sort of Turkish rule again south of the Balkans. But it is a mere respite. There is no vitality left in them. ''
Though the Congress of Berlin constituted a harsh blow to Pan-Slavism, it by no means solved the question of the area. The Slavs in the Balkans were still mostlty under non-Slavic rule, split between the rule of Austria - Hungary and the ailing Ottoman Empire. The Slavic states of the Balkans had learned that banding together as Slavs benefited them less than playing to the desires of a neighboring great power. That damaged the unity of the Balkan Slavs and encouraged competition between the fledgling Slav states.
The underlying tensions of the region would continue to simmer for 30 years until they again exploded in the Balkan Wars of 1912 -- 1913. In 1914, the assassination of Franz Ferdinand the Austro - Hungarian heir, led to the First World War. In hindsight, the stated goal of maintaining peace and balance of powers in the Balkans obviously failed, as the region would remain a source of conflict between the great powers well into the 20th century.
Austro - Hungarian Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy and the occupation and administration of Bosnia - Herzegovina also obtained the right to station garrisons in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, which remained under Ottoman administration. The Sanjak preserved the separation of Serbia and Montenegro, and the Austro - Hungarian garrisons there would open the way for a dash to Salonika that "would bring the western half of the Balkans under permanent Austrian influence ''. "High (Austro - Hungarian) military authorities desired... (an) immediate major expedition with Salonika as its objective ''.
On 28 September 1878 the Finance Minister, Koloman von Zell, threatened to resign if the army, behind which stood the Archduke Albert, were allowed to advance to Salonika. In the session of the Hungarian Parliament of 5 November 1878 the Opposition proposed that the Foreign Minister should be impeached for violating the constitution by his policy during the Near East Crisis and by the occupation of Bosnia - Herzegovina. The motion was lost by 179 to 95. By the Opposition rank and file the gravest accusations were raised against Andrassy.
On 10 October 1878, French diplomat Melchior de Vogüé described the situation as follows:
Particularly in Hungary the dissatisfaction caused by this ' adventure ' has reached the gravest proportions, prompted by that strong conservative instinct which animates the Magyar race and is the secret of its destinies. This vigorous and exclusive instinct explains the historical phenomenon of an isolated group, small in numbers yet dominating a country inhabited by a majority of peoples of different races and conflicting aspirations, and playing a role in European affairs out of all proportions to its numerical importance or intellectual culture. This instinct is today awakened and gives warning that it feels the occupation of Bosnia - Herzegovina to be a menace which, by introducing fresh Slav elements into the Hungarian political organism and providing a wider field and further recruitment of the Croat opposition, would upset the unstable equilibrium in which the Magyar domination is poised.
United Kingdom
Russian Empire
German Empire
Austria - Hungary
French Republic
Kingdom of Italy
Ottoman Empire
Romania
Greece
Serbia
Montenegro
Albanians in the Ottoman Empire
Coordinates: 52 ° 30 ′ 42 '' N 13 ° 22 ′ 55 '' E / 52.51167 ° N 13.38194 ° E / 52.51167; 13.38194
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the beatles i want you she's so heavy lyrics | I Want You (She 's So Heavy) - wikipedia
"I Want You (She 's So Heavy) '' is a song by the Beatles, written by John Lennon (credited to Lennon -- McCartney). The song closes side one on the Beatles ' 1969 album Abbey Road. This song is an unusual Beatles composition for a variety of reasons, namely its length (nearly eight minutes), few lyrics (the title makes up most of the lyrics, aside from two more phrases; only 14 different words are sung), a three - minute descent through repeated guitar chords (a similar arpeggiated figure appears in another Lennon contribution to the album, "Because ''), and abrupt ending. It was the first song recorded for the Abbey Road album but one of the last songs to be finished, on 20 August 1969, the last time all four Beatles were together in the studio.
The song begins in time, with an arpeggio guitar theme in D minor, progressing through E and B ♭ before cadencing on an A augmented chord. In this chord sequence, the F note is a drone. The bass and lead guitar ascend and descend with a riff derived from the D minor scale. As the last chord fades, a verse begins in time, based on the A and D blues scales, with Lennon singing "I want you / I want you so bad... '' The two blues verses alternate, before the reappearance of the E chord, and McCartney playing a notably aggressive bass riff. This would function, throughout the song, as a transition to the main theme. The main theme repeats with Lennon singing "She 's so heavy '', with a long sustain on the last word. The second set of verses are rendered instrumentally with lead guitar. Another repeat of the "She 's So Heavy '' theme (this time featuring harmonies) is followed by Lennon singing a livelier repeat of the "I Want You '' verse. During the next E transition, Lennon lets loose a primal scream of "Yeah '', until his voice breaks. The song 's coda consists of a three - minute repetition of the "She 's So Heavy '' theme, with the arpeggios double tracked, intensifying with "white noise '' fading in as the theme continues; this consists of multi-tracked guitars from Lennon and Harrison, Moog white - noise from Lennon, and drums and bass from Starr and McCartney respectively until an abrupt ending.
Josh Hart and Damien Fanelli, writing for Guitar World, placed the song 34th in their list of the 50 Heaviest Songs Before Black Sabbath, and called the song a "bluesy rocker '' that "might have inadvertently started doom metal. '' Similarly, Jo Kendall of Classic Rock magazine commented that the song pre-dated "Black Sabbath 's creation of doom rock by several months '' and noted the "Santana - like Latin blues section '' in the song.
Lennon wrote the song about his love for Yoko Ono. The song was rehearsed several times during the Get Back / Let It Be sessions; the basic track and Lennon 's guide vocal (which is used in the master) were recorded at Trident Studios on 22 February 1969, shortly after shooting for the Let It Be film ended. Lennon played the lead guitar, as George Harrison stated:
It 's very heavy. John plays lead guitar and sings the same as he plays. It 's really basically a bit like a blues. The riff that he sings and plays is really a very basic blues - type thing. But again, it 's very original sort of John - type song.
Lennon and Harrison overdubbed multi-tracked heavy guitars on 18 April 1969. Billy Preston 's keyboards and Ringo Starr 's congas were added on 20 April 1969. "I Want You '' received the "She 's So Heavy '' vocals on 11 August, and thus the title became "I Want You (She 's So Heavy) ''. "' She 's So Heavy ' was about Yoko, '' Lennon told Rolling Stone. "When you 're drowning, you do n't say, ' I would be incredibly pleased if someone would have the foresight to notice me drowning and come and help me. ' You just scream. ''
Three takes from 22 February were edited into a master (second generation), which was overdubbed, mixed down on 18 April (third generation), and overdubbed on 18 April, 20 April, 8 August and 11 August. Different overdubs were made to the second generation tape on 8 August. The mix is the third generation for 4: 37 and then the second generation tape, which has white noise produced by the Moog synthesizer played by Lennon and additional drums added on 8 August. The final overdub session for "I Want You (She 's So Heavy) '', which included the final mixing and editing, was the last time all four Beatles worked in the studio together.
The final master lasted 8: 04, but Lennon decided on a surprise ending. During the final edit with the guitars, drums and white noise climaxing endlessly, he told recording engineer Geoff Emerick to "cut it right there '' at the 7: 44 mark, bringing the song (and Side 1 of Abbey Road) to an abrupt end. On Love, the three - minute stretch of repeated guitar chords that ends the song intercuts with elements of "Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite! '' and "Helter Skelter '', while retaining the abrupt cut to silence at the end.
Numerous bands and solo artists have covered "I Want You (She 's So Heavy) '' in the studio and live, in particular the following:
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how did post world war i treaties affect national borders in europe and asia | Partition of the Ottoman Empire - wikipedia
The partition of the Ottoman Empire (Armistice of Mudros, 30 October 1918 -- Abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate, 1 November 1922) was a political event that occurred after World War I and the occupation of Constantinople by British, French and Italian troops in November 1918. The partitioning was planned in several agreements made by the Allies early in the course of World War I, notably the Sykes - Picot Agreement. As world war loomed, the Ottoman Empire sought protection but was rejected by Britain, France, and Russia, and finally formed the Ottoman -- German Alliance. The huge conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was divided into several new states. The Ottoman Empire had been the leading Islamic state in geopolitical, cultural and ideological terms. The partitioning of the Ottoman Empire led to the rise in the Middle East of Western powers such as Britain and France and brought the creation of the modern Arab world and the Republic of Turkey. Resistance to the influence of these powers came from the Turkish national movement but did not become widespread in the post-Ottoman states until after World War II.
The League of Nations mandate granted French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon and British Mandate for Mesopotamia (later Iraq) and British Mandate for Palestine, later divided into Mandatory Palestine and Emirate of Transjordan (1921 - 1946). The Ottoman Empire 's possessions in the Arabian Peninsula became the Kingdom of Hejaz, which was annexed by the Sultanate of Nejd (today Saudi Arabia), and the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen. The Empire 's possessions on the western shores of the Persian Gulf were variously annexed by Saudi Arabia (Alahsa and Qatif), or remained British protectorates (Kuwait, Bahrain, and Qatar) and became the Arab States of the Persian Gulf.
After the Ottoman government collapsed completely it signed the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920. However, the Turkish War of Independence forced the European powers to return to the negotiating table before the treaty could be ratified. The Europeans and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey signed and ratified the new Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, superseding the Treaty of Sèvres and solidifying most of the territorial issues. One unresolved issue, the dispute between the Kingdom of Iraq and the Republic of Turkey over the former province of Mosul was later negotiated under the League of Nations in 1926. The British and French partitioned the eastern part of the Middle East, also called Greater Syria, between them in the Sykes -- Picot Agreement. Other secret agreements were concluded with Italy and Russia. The Balfour Declaration encouraged the international Zionist movement to push for a Jewish homeland in the Palestine region. While a part of the Triple Entente, Russia also had wartime agreements preventing it from participating in the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire after the Russian Revolution. The Treaty of Sèvres formally acknowledged the new League of Nations mandates in the region, the independence of Yemen, and British sovereignty over Cyprus.
The Western powers had long believed that they would eventually become dominant in the area claimed by the weak central government of the Ottoman Empire. Britain anticipated a need to secure the area because of its strategic position on the route to Colonial India, and perceived itself as locked in a struggle with Russia for imperial influence known as The Great Game. These powers disagreed over their contradictory post-war aims and made several dual and triple agreements.
Syria and Lebanon became a French protectorate (thinly disguised as a League of Nations Mandate). French control was met immediately with armed resistance, and, in order to combat Arab nationalism, France divided the Mandate area into Lebanon and four sub-states.
Greater Lebanon was the name of a territory created by France. It was the precursor of modern Lebanon. It existed between 1 September 1920 and 23 May 1926. France carved its territory from the Levantine land mass (mandated by the League of Nations) in order to create a "safe haven '' for the Maronite Christian population. Maronites gained self - rule and secured their position in the independent Lebanon in 1943.
French intervention on behalf of the Maronites had begun with the capitulations of the Ottoman Empire, agreements made during the 16th to the 19th centuries. In 1866, when Youssef Bey Karam led a Maronite uprising in Mount Lebanon, a French - led naval force arrived to help, making threats against the governor, Dawood Pasha, at the Sultan 's Porte and later removing Karam to safety.
The British were awarded three mandated territories, with one of Sharif Hussein 's sons, Faisal, installed as King of Iraq and Transjordan providing a throne for another of Hussein 's sons, Abdullah. Mandatory Palestine was placed under direct British administration, and the Jewish population was allowed to increase, initially under British protection. Most of the Arabian peninsula fell to another British ally, Ibn Saud, who created the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932.
Great Britain and Turkey disputed control of the former Ottoman province of Mosul in the 1920s. Under the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne Mosul fell under the British Mandate of Mesopotamia, but the new Turkish republic claimed the province as part of its historic heartland. A three - person League of Nations committee went to the region in 1924 to study the case and in 1925 recommended the region remain connected to Iraq, and that the UK should hold the mandate for another 25 years, to assure the autonomous rights of the Kurdish population. Turkey rejected this decision. Nonetheless, Britain, Iraq and Turkey made a treaty on 5 June 1926, that mostly followed the decision of the League Council. Mosul stayed under British Mandate of Mesopotamia until Iraq was granted independence in 1932 by the urging of King Faisal, though the British retained military bases and transit rights for their forces in the country.
During the war, Britain produced three contrasting, but feasibly compatible, statements regarding their ambitions for Palestine. Britain had supported, through British intelligence officer T.E. Lawrence (aka: Lawrence of Arabia), the establishment of a united Arab state covering a large area of the Arab Middle East in exchange for Arab support of the British during the war. The Balfour Declaration of 1917 encouraged Jewish ambitions for a national home. Lastly, the British promised via the Hussein -- McMahon Correspondence that the Hashemite family would have lordship over most land in the region in return for their support in the Great Arab Revolt.
The Arab Revolt, which was in part orchestrated by Lawrence, resulted in British forces under General Edmund Allenby defeating the Ottoman forces in 1917 in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign and occupying Palestine and Syria. The land was administered by the British for the remainder of the war.
The United Kingdom was granted control of Palestine by the Versailles Peace Conference which established the League of Nations in 1919. Herbert Samuel, a former Postmaster General in the British cabinet who was instrumental in drafting the Balfour Declaration, was appointed the first High Commissioner in Palestine. In 1920 at the San Remo conference, in Italy, the League of Nations mandate over Palestine was assigned to Britain. In 1923 Britain transferred a part of the Golan Heights to the French Mandate of Syria, in exchange for the Metula region.
When the Ottomans departed, the Arabs proclaimed an independent state in Damascus, but were too weak, militarily and economically, to resist the European powers for long, and Britain and France soon re-established control.
During the 1920s and 1930s Iraq, Syria and Egypt moved towards independence, although the British and French did not formally depart the region until after World War II. But in Palestine, the conflicting forces of Arab nationalism and Zionism created a situation which the British could neither resolve nor extricate themselves from. The rise to power of Nazism in Germany created a new urgency in the Zionist quest to create a Jewish state in Palestine, leading to the Israeli -- Palestinian conflict, see also History of Palestine.
On the Arabian Peninsula, the Arabs were able to establish a number of independent states. In 1916 Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, established the Kingdom of Hejaz, while the Emirate of Riyadh was transformed into the Sultanate of Nejd. In 1926 the Kingdom of Nejd and Hejaz was formed, which in 1932 became the kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen became independent in 1918, while the Arab States of the Persian Gulf became de facto British protectorates, with some internal autonomy.
The Russians, British, Italians, French, Greeks, Assyrians and Armenians all made claims to Anatolia, based on a collection of wartime promises, military actions, secret agreements, and treaties. According to the Treaty of Sèvres, all but the Assyrians would have had their wishes honored. Armenia was to be given a significant portion of the east, known as Wilsonian Armenia, extending as far down as the Lake Van area and as far west as Mush, Greece was to be given Smyrna and the area around it (and likely would have gained Constantinople and all of Thrace, which was administered as internationally controlled and demilitarized territory), Italy was to be given control over the south - central and western coast of Anatolia around Antalya, France to be given the area of Cilicia, and Britain to be given all the area south of Armenia. The Treaty of Lausanne, by contrast, forfeited all arrangements and territorial annexations.
In March 1915, Foreign Minister Sergey Sazonov told British and French Ambassadors George Buchanan and Maurice Paléologue that a lasting postwar settlement demanded Russian possession of "the city of Constantinople, the western shore of the Bosporus, Sea of Marmara, and Dardanelles, as well as southern Thrace up to the Enos - Midia line '', and "a part of the Asiatic coast between the Bosporus, the Sakarya River, and a point to be determined on the shore of the Bay of İzmit. '' The Constantinople Agreement was made public by the Russian newspaper Izvestiya in November 1917, to gain the support of the Armenian public for the Russian revolution. However, the said revolution effectively ended Russian plans.
The British seeking control over the straits of Marmara led to the Occupation of Constantinople, with French assistance, from 13 November 1918 to 23 September 1923. After the Turkish War of Independence and the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne, the troops left the city.
Under the 1917 Agreement of Saint - Jean - de-Maurienne between France, Italy, and the United Kingdom, Italy was to receive all southwestern Anatolia except the Adana region, including İzmir. However, in 1919 the Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos obtained the permission of the Paris Peace Conference to occupy İzmir, overriding the provisions of the agreement.
Under the secret Sykes -- Picot Agreement of 1916, the French obtained Hatay, Lebanon and Syria and expressed a desire for part of South - Eastern Anatolia. The 1917 Agreement of St. Jean - de-Maurienne between France, Italy and the United Kingdom allotted France the Adana region.
The French army, along with the British, occupied parts of Anatolia from 1919 to 1921 in the Franco - Turkish War, including coal mines, railways, the Black Sea ports of Zonguldak, Karadeniz Ereğli and Constantinople, Uzunköprü in Eastern Thrace and the region of Cilicia. France eventually withdrew from all these areas, after the Armistice of Mudanya, the Treaty of Ankara and the Treaty of Lausanne.
The western Allies, particularly British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, promised Greece territorial gains at the expense of the Ottoman Empire if Greece entered the war on the Allied side. The promised territories included eastern Thrace, the islands of Imbros (Gökçeada) and Tenedos (Bozcaada), and parts of western Anatolia around the city of İzmir.
In May 1917, after the exile of Constantine I of Greece, Greek prime minister Eleuthérios Venizélos returned to Athens and allied with the Entente. Greek military forces (though divided between supporters of the monarchy and supporters of Venizélos) began to take part in military operations against the Bulgarian army on the border. That same year, İzmir was promised to Italy under the Agreement of Saint - Jean - de-Maurienne between France, Italy and the United Kingdom.
At the 1918 Paris Peace Conference, based on the wartime promises, Venizélos lobbied hard for an expanded Hellas (the Megali Idea) that would include the large Greek communities in Northern Epirus, Thrace (including Constantinople) and Asia Minor. In 1919, despite Italian opposition, he obtained the permission of the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 for Greece to occupy İzmir.
The South West Caucasian Republic was an entity established on Russian territory in 1918, after the withdrawal of Ottoman troops to the pre-World War I border as a result of the Armistice of Mudros. It had a nominally independent provisional government headed by Fakhr al - Din Pirioghlu and based in Kars.
After fighting broke out between it and both Georgia and Armenia, British High Commissioner Admiral Somerset Arthur Gough - Calthorpe occupied Kars on 19 April 1919, abolishing its parliament and arresting 30 members of its government. He placed Kars province under Armenian rule.
In the later years of the world war, the Armenians in Russia established a provisional government in the north - west of the Russian Empire. Military conflicts between the Turks and Armenians both during and after the war eventually determined the borders of the state of Armenia.
In April 1915, Russia supported the establishment of the Armenian provisional government under Russian - Armenian Governor Aram Manukian, leader of the resistance in the Defense of Van. The Armenian national liberation movement hoped that Armenia could be liberated from the Ottoman regime in exchange for helping the Russian army. However, the Tsarist regime had a secret wartime agreement with the other members of the Triple Entente about the eventual fate of several Anatolian territories, named the Sykes -- Picot Agreement. These plans were made public by the Armenian revolutionaries in 1917 to gain the support of the Armenian public.
In the meantime, the provisional government was becoming more stable as more Armenians were moving into its territory. In 1917, 150,000 Armenians relocated to the provinces of Erzurum, Bitlis, Muş and Van. And Armen Garo (known as Karekin Pastirmaciyan) and other Armenian leaders asked for the Armenian regulars in the European theatre to be transferred to the Caucasian front.
The Russian revolution left the front in eastern Turkey in a state of flux. In December 1917, a truce was signed by representatives of the Ottoman Empire and the Transcaucasian Commissariat. However, the Ottoman Empire began to reinforce its Third Army on the eastern front. Fighting began in mid-February 1918. Armenians, under heavy pressure from the Ottoman army and Kurdish irregulars, were forced to withdraw from Erzincan to Erzurum and then to Kars, eventually evacuating even Kars on 25 April. As a response to the Ottoman advances, the Transcaucasian Commissariat evolved into the short - lived Transcaucasian Federation; its disintegration resulted in Armenians forming the Democratic Republic of Armenia on 30 May 1918. The Treaty of Batum, signed on 4 June, reduced the Armenian republic to an area of only 11,000 square km.
At the Paris Peace Conference, 1919, the Armenian Diaspora and the Armenian Revolutionary Federation argued that Historical Armenia, the region which had remained outside the control of the Ottoman Empire from 1915 to 1918, should be part of the Democratic Republic of Armenia. Arguing from the principles in Woodrow Wilson 's "Fourteen Points '' speech, the Armenian Diaspora argued Armenia had "the ability to control the region '', based on the Armenian control established after the Russian Revolution. The Armenians also argued that the dominant population of the region was becoming more Armenian as Turkish inhabitants were moving to the western provinces. Boghos Nubar, the president of the Armenian National Delegation, added: "In the Caucasus, where, without mentioning the 150,000 Armenians in the Imperial Russian Army, more than 40,000 of their volunteers contributed to the liberation of a portion of the Armenian vilayets, and where, under the command of their leaders, Antranik and Nazerbekoff, they, alone among the peoples of the Caucasus, offered resistance to the Turkish armies, from the beginning of the Bolshevist withdrawal right up to the signing of an armistice. ''
President Wilson accepted the Armenian arguments for drawing the frontier and wrote: "The world expects of them (the Armenians), that they give every encouragement and help within their power to those Turkish refugees who may desire to return to their former homes in the districts of Trebizond, Erzerum, Van and Bitlis remembering that these peoples, too, have suffered greatly. '' The conference agreed with his suggestion that the Democratic Republic of Armenia should expand into present - day eastern Turkey.
After the fall of the Russian Empire, Georgia became an independent republic and sought to maintain control of Batumi as well as Ardahan, Artvin, and Oltu, the areas with Muslim Georgian elements, which had been acquired by Russia from the Ottomans in 1878. The Ottoman forces occupied the disputed territories by June 1918, forcing Georgia to sign the Treaty of Batum. After the demise of the Ottoman power, Georgia regained Ardahan and Artvin from local Muslim militias in 1919 and Batum from the British administration of that maritime city in 1920. It claimed but never attempted to control Oltu, which was also contested by Armenia. Soviet Russia and Turkey launched a near - simultaneous attack on Georgia in February -- March 1921, leading to new territorial rearrangements finalized in the Treaty of Kars, by which Batumi remained within the borders of now - Soviet Georgia, while Ardahan and Artvin were recognized as parts of Turkey.
Between 1918 and 1923, Turkish resistance movements led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk forced the Greeks and Armenians out of Anatolia, while the Italians never established a presence. The Turkish revolutionaries also suppressed Kurdish attempts to become independent in the 1920s. After the Turkish resistance gained control over Anatolia, there was no hope of meeting the conditions of the Treaty of Sèvres.
Before joining the Soviet Union, the Democratic Republic of Armenia signed the Treaty of Alexandropol, on 3 December 1920, agreeing to the current border between the two countries, though the Armenian government had already collapsed due to a concurrent Soviet invasion on 2 December. Afterwards Armenia became an integral part of the Soviet Union. This border was ratified again with the Treaty of Moscow (1921), in which the Bolsheviks ceded the already Turkish - occupied provinces of Kars, Igdir, Ardahan, and Artvin to Turkey in exchange for the Adjara region with its capital city of Batumi.
Turkey and the newly formed Soviet Union, along with the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic and Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic, ratified the Treaty of Kars on 11 September 1922, establishing the north - eastern border of Turkey and bringing peace to the region, despite none of them being internationally recognized at the time. Finally, the Treaty of Lausanne, signed in 1923, formally ended all hostilities and led to the creation of the modern Turkish republic.
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when do they pick rookie of the year nfl | National Football League Rookie of the Year award - wikipedia
The National Football League Rookie of the Year Award refers to any number of awards presented by various entities to the top American football rookie (s) in the National Football League (NFL). The NFL considers the rookie of the year award by the Associated Press (AP) to be its official honor.
The Pepsi NFL Rookie of the Year award is an annual award given since 2002 to the top rookie in the NFL. The winner is selected by fans through an online voting process at NFL.com.
Every week during the NFL regular season, five finalists are chosen for the Pepsi NFL Rookie of the Week award, and the winner is determined by fan voting online. Those results are used to help determine the finalists for the Rookie of the Year award. Voting occurs throughout the postseason and concludes the week before the Super Bowl. More than 350,000 votes were cast for the inaugural award in 2002, 1.002 million votes in 2009, and more than 1.59 million votes in 2010. Since 2011, the winner of the Pepsi Rookie of the Year award is announced at the NFL Honors show the night before the Super Bowl.
The Pro Football Weekly / Pro Football Writers Association (PFW / PFWA) Rookie of the Year awards have been given annually to an offensive and defensive rookie in the NFL since 1969, except in 1985. In 2013, PFWA began selecting an overall NFL rookie of the year in addition to its offensive and defensive honors. The winners are chosen by Pro Football Weekly writers / editors and PFWA members.
The Sporting News NFL Rookie of the Year award is chosen annually by NFL players, coaches, and executives. There were 617 voters in 2010, 632 voters in 2011, and over 800 voters in 2012.
United Press International (UPI) awarded an annual NFL Rookie of the Year award from 1955 -- 1959 and two annual awards from 1960 to 1996. From 1960 to 1969 the awards went to a rookie from the NFL and American Football League (AFL), and after the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970, the awards went to a rookie from the National Football Conference (NFC) and American Football Conference (AFC).
The NEA NFL Rookie of the Year award was founded in 1964 by the Newspaper Enterprise Association and was created by Murray Olderman, the senior sports editor for the NEA. From 1971 through 1976 winners for both the American Football Conference and National Football Conference were chosen, except in 1974. The award was discontinued after the 1996 season. Winners were awarded the Bert Bell Memorial Trophy in honor of former NFL commissioner Bert Bell.
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who was the slytherin seeker in harry potter 1 | Will Theakston - Wikipedia
William Theakston (born 4 October 1984) is an English actor who appeared in the first Harry Potter film. He played the role of the Slytherin Quidditch Seeker Terence Higgs. He attended Latymer Upper School.
He has also appeared in two children 's TV series: CBBC 's The Ghost Hunter and CITV 's Sir Gadabout: The Worst Knight in the Land. In Ghost Hunter he played the character of Roddy, one of the main characters. Roddy and his sister Tessa make friends with the ghost of a Victorian shoe - shine boy who is being hunted by the sinister Ghost Hunter. In Sir Gadabout he played the character of Will, a more minor character who is the friend of the princess in the series. This programme was loosely based on the stories of King Arthur.
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what is the us best finish in the world cup | United States men 's national Soccer team - Wikipedia
The United States men 's national soccer team is controlled by the United States Soccer Federation and competes in the Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football. The team has appeared in ten FIFA World Cups, including the first in 1930, where they reached the semi-finals. The U.S. participated in the 1934 and 1950 World Cups, winning 1 -- 0 against England in the latter. After 1950, the U.S. did not qualify for the World Cup until 1990. The U.S. hosted the 1994 World Cup, where they lost to Brazil in the round of sixteen. They qualified for five more consecutive World Cups after 1990 (for a total of seven straight appearances, a feat shared with only seven other nations), becoming one of the tournament 's regular competitors and often advancing to the knockout stage. The U.S. reached the quarter - finals of the 2002 World Cup, where they lost to Germany. In the 2009 Confederations Cup, they eliminated top - ranked Spain in the semi-finals before losing to Brazil in the final, their only appearance in a final. The team failed to qualify for the 2018 World Cup, having been eliminated in continental qualifying, ending the streak of consecutive World Cups at seven.
The U.S. also competes in continental tournaments, including the CONCACAF Gold Cup and Copa América. The U.S. has hosted fourteen editions of the Gold Cup, winning six, and has achieved a fourth - place finish in two Copa Américas, including the 2016 edition that they hosted. The team 's head coaching position was vacated with Bruce Arena 's resignation in October 2017, after which Dave Sarachan became the team 's interim head coach. Earnie Stewart is the team 's General Manager since August 1, 2018.
The first U.S. national soccer team was constituted in 1885, when it played Canada in the first international match held outside the United Kingdom. Canada defeated the U.S. 1 -- 0 in Newark, New Jersey. The U.S. had its revenge the following year when it beat Canada 1 -- 0, also in Newark, although neither match was officially recognized. The U.S. earned both silver and bronze medals in men 's soccer at the 1904 St. Louis Summer Olympics through Christian Brothers College and St. Rose Parish, though the tournament is declared official only by the IOC (FIFA does n't endorse tournaments held before 1908). The U.S. played its first official international match under the auspices of U.S. Soccer on August 20, 1916, against Sweden in Stockholm, where the U.S. won 3 -- 2.
The U.S. fielded a team in the 1930 World Cup in Uruguay, the first ever World Cup to be played. The U.S. began group play by beating Belgium 3 -- 0. The U.S. then earned a 3 -- 0 victory over Paraguay, with FIFA crediting Bert Patenaude with two of the goals. In November 2006, FIFA announced that it had accepted evidence that Patenaude scored all three goals against Paraguay, and was thus the first person to score a hat trick in a World Cup. In the semifinals, the U.S. lost to Argentina 6 -- 1. There was no third place game. However, using the overall tournament records in 1986, FIFA credited the U.S. with a third - place finish ahead of fellow semi-finalist Yugoslavia. This remains the U.S. team 's best World Cup result, and is the highest finish of any team from outside of South America and Europe.
The U.S. qualified for the 1934 World Cup by defeating Mexico 4 -- 2 in Italy a few days before the finals started. In a straight knock - out format, the team first played host Italy and lost 7 -- 1, eliminating the U.S. from the tournament. At the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin, the U.S. again lost to Italy in the first round and were eliminated, although this time with a score of 1 - 0.
The 1950 World Cup in Brazil was the next World Cup appearance for the U.S. as it withdrew in 1938 and the tournament was n't held again until 1950. The U.S. lost its first match 3 -- 1 against Spain, but then won 1 -- 0 against England at Independência Stadium in Belo Horizonte. Striker Joe Gaetjens was the goal scorer. Called "The Miracle on Grass '', the result is considered one of the greatest upsets in the history of the World Cup. Months before the World Cup, England had beaten an all - star "rest of Europe '' side 6 -- 1 in an exhibition match. In their third game of the tournament, a 5 - 2 defeat by Chile saw the U.S. eliminated from the tournament. It would be four decades before the U.S. would make another appearance in the World Cup finals.
The national team spent the mid-to - late 20th century in near complete irrelevance in both the international game and the domestic sporting scene. There was only one World Cup berth for CONCACAF during this period until 1982. The emergence of the North American Soccer League in the 1960s and 1970s raised hopes that the U.S. national team would soon improve and become a global force. However such hopes were not realized and by the 1980s the U.S. Soccer Federation found itself in serious financial struggles, with the national team playing only two matches from 1981 to 1983. U.S. Soccer targeted the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles and the 1986 World Cup as means of rebuilding the national team and its fan base. The International Olympic Committee declared that teams from outside Europe and South America could field full senior teams, including professionals (until then, the amateur - only rule had heavily favored socialist countries from Eastern Europe whose players were professionals in all but name). The U.S. had a very strong showing at the tournament, beating Costa Rica, tying Egypt, losing only to favorite Italy and finishing 1 -- 1 -- 1 but did n't make the second round, losing to Egypt on a tiebreaker (both had three points).
To provide a more stable national team program and renew interest in the NASL, U.S. Soccer entered the national team into the NASL league schedule for the 1983 season as Team America. This team lacked the continuity and regularity of training that conventional clubs enjoy, and many players were unwilling to play for the national team instead of their own clubs when conflicts arose. Team America finished the season at the bottom of the league, with U.S. Soccer canceling the experiment and withdrawing the national team from the NASL after one season. By the end of 1984, the NASL had folded, leaving the U.S. without a single professional - level outdoor soccer league.
The U.S. bid to host the 1986 World Cup after Colombia withdrew from contention due to economic concerns, but FIFA selected Mexico to host the tournament. In the last game of CONCACAF qualifying for the 1986 World Cup, the U.S. needed only a tie against Costa Rica to reach the final qualification group against Honduras and Canada. U.S. Soccer scheduled the game to be played in Torrance, California, an area with many Costa Rican expatriates, and marketed the game almost exclusively to the Costa Rican community. Costa Rica won the match 1 -- 0, and kept the U.S. from reaching its fourth World Cup finals.
In 1988, U.S. Soccer attempted to re-implement its national - team - as - club concept, offering contracts to players to train with the national program full - time while occasionally loaning them to club teams as a revenue source for the federation. This brought many key veterans back into the program and allowed the team to begin playing more matches which, combined with an influx of talent from new youth clubs and leagues established across the nation in the wake of the NASL 's popularity, allowed the national team to end the 1980s with optimism and higher hopes of qualifying for the 1990 World Cup than had existed for previous tournaments.
In 1988, FIFA named the U.S. as the host of the 1994 World Cup (success of the 1984 Summer Olympics played the major role), but it did so under significant international criticism because of the perceived weakness of the national team and the lack of a professional outdoor league. This criticism diminished somewhat when a 1 -- 0 win against Trinidad and Tobago, the U.S. 's first road win in nearly two years, in the last match of the 1989 CONCACAF Championship, earned the U.S. its first World Cup appearance in 40 years.
The team was managed by Bob Gansler in preparation for the 1990 World Cup in Italy, with two of the team 's more experienced players, Rick Davis and Hugo Perez, recovering from serious injuries and unavailable for selection. Rather than fill out his team with veteran professionals from American indoor soccer leagues as suggested by some, Gansler and his assistant Stejem Mark chose to select many younger players with better conditioning for the outdoor game, including some amateurs playing for college teams. The U.S. entered the tournament as massive underdogs and suffered defeats in all three of its group games to Czechoslovakia, Italy, and Austria.
In a historic match, in 1993 U.S. Cup, U.S. beat England by 2 -- 0.
After qualifying automatically as the host of the 1994 World Cup under Bora Milutinović, the U.S. opened its tournament schedule with a 1 -- 1 tie against Switzerland in the Pontiac Silverdome in the suburbs of Detroit, the first World Cup game played indoors. In its second game, the U.S. faced Colombia, then ranked fourth in the world, at the Rose Bowl. Aided by an own goal from Andrés Escobar, the U.S. won 2 -- 1. Escobar was later murdered in his home country, possibly in retaliation for this mistake. Despite a 1 -- 0 loss to Romania in its final group game, the U.S. made it past the initial round for the first time since 1930. In the round of 16, the U.S. lost 1 -- 0 to the eventual champion Brazil. Despite this success, the team fired Bora in 1995, reportedly because he was not interested in administrative duties.
In a 1995 friendly, the U.S. came back from 3 -- 0 to win 4 -- 3 against Saudi Arabia, the biggest comeback in the team 's history.
In the 1998 World Cup in France, the team lost all three group matches, 2 -- 0 to Germany, 2 -- 1 to Iran, and 1 -- 0 to Yugoslavia, finishing dead last in the field of 32. Head coach Steve Sampson received much of the blame for the performance as a result of abruptly cutting team captain John Harkes, whom Sampson had named "Captain for Life '' shortly before, as well as several other players who were instrumental to the qualifying effort, from the squad. Thomas Dooley became the Captain at that point. It emerged in February 2010 that Sampson removed Harkes from the team due to Harkes allegedly having an affair with teammate Eric Wynalda 's wife.
In the 2002 World Cup under Bruce Arena, the U.S. reached the quarterfinals, its best finish in a World Cup since 1930. The team advanced in the group stage with a 1 -- 1 -- 1 record. The team started with a 3 -- 2 upset win over Portugal, followed by a 1 -- 1 tie with co-host and eventual semi-finalist, South Korea. The third and final match was lost 1 -- 3 to Poland, but the team still got to the round of 16 when South Korea defeated Portugal. This set the stage for a face - off with continental rivals Mexico, the first time they met in a World Cup. The U.S. won the game 2 -- 0. Brian McBride opened the scoring, and Landon Donovan scored the second goal. That victory advanced the team to the quarterfinals, where it met Germany. The team lost 1 -- 0 after being denied a penalty when Torsten Frings handled the ball to prevent a Gregg Berhalter goal. All of the U.S. games in the 2002 World Cup were played in South Korea and all their victories came wearing the white kit while their only defeats came while wearing the blue kit.
In the 2006 World Cup, after finishing top of the CONCACAF qualification tournament, the U.S. was drawn into Group E along with the Czech Republic, Italy, and Ghana. The United States opened its tournament with a 3 -- 0 loss to the Czech Republic. The team then tied 1 -- 1 against Italy, who went on to win the World Cup. The U.S. was then knocked out of the tournament when beaten 2 -- 1 by Ghana in its final group match, with Clint Dempsey scoring the U.S. 's only goal in the tournament -- the goal against Italy had been an own goal by Italian defender Cristian Zaccardo. Following the tournament, Arena 's contract was not renewed. After the national team remained dormant for the rest of 2006 while negotiating with various coaches, the federation hired former Chicago Fire, MetroStars and Chivas USA manager Bob Bradley in early 2007.
Bradley began his competitive career with the national team with the 2007 Gold Cup. In the final, the United States beat Mexico 2 -- 1, which qualified it for the 2009 Confederations Cup.
The U.S. had a notable performance at the 2009 Confederations Cup. In the semifinals, the U.S. defeated Spain 2 -- 0. At the time, Spain was atop the FIFA World Rankings and was on a run of 35 games undefeated. With the win, the United States advanced to its first - ever final in a men 's FIFA tournament. The team lost 3 -- 2 to Brazil after leading 2 -- 0 at half time.
The United States then hosted the 2009 Gold Cup. In the final, the United States was beaten by Mexico 5 -- 0. This defeat broke the U.S. team 's 58 - match home unbeaten streak against CONCACAF opponents, and was the first home loss to Mexico since 1999.
In the Fourth round of the 2010 World Cup qualification, the U.S. began by beating Mexico 2 -- 0. The February 2009 loss extended Mexico 's losing streak against America on U.S. soil to 11 matches. Jozy Altidore became the youngest U.S. player to score a hat - trick, in a 3 -- 0 victory over Trinidad and Tobago. Near the end of the summer of 2009, the United States lost 2 -- 1 to Mexico at Estadio Azteca. On October 10, the U.S. secured qualification to the 2010 World Cup with a 3 -- 2 win over Honduras. Four days later, the U.S. finished in first place in the group with a 2 -- 2 tie against Costa Rica.
In the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the U.S. team were drawn in Group C against England, Slovenia and Algeria. After drawing against England (1 -- 1) and Slovenia (2 -- 2), the U.S. defeated Algeria 1 -- 0 with a stoppage time goal from Landon Donovan, taking first place in a World Cup Finals group for the first time since 1930. In the round of 16, the U.S. was eliminated by Ghana, 2 -- 1. On FIFA 's ranking of World Cup teams the U.S. finished in 12th place out of the 32 - team field.
The U.S. again hosted the Gold Cup in 2011. The U.S. advanced past the group stage, then defeated Jamaica 2 -- 0 in the quarterfinals and Panama 1 -- 0 in the semifinals before losing to Mexico 4 -- 2 in the final. Later in the summer, Bob Bradley was relieved of his duties and former German national team manager Jürgen Klinsmann was hired as head coach.
The U.S. had some success in friendlies in 2012 and 2013. The U.S. team won 1 -- 0 in Italy on February 29, 2012, the team 's first ever win over Italy. On June 2, 2013, the U.S. played a friendly against Germany at a sold out RFK Stadium in Washington D.C., with the U.S. winning 4 -- 3. In July 2013, the U.S. hosted the 2013 CONCACAF Gold Cup where it went undefeated in the group stage and won with a 1 -- 0 victory over Panama in the final, with Landon Donovan winning the tournament 's golden ball award.
A 4 -- 3 victory over Bosnia and Herzegovina in an international friendly match in Sarajevo represented the 12th straight win for the USMNT, the longest winning streak for any team in the world at that time. The 12 game winning streak ended September 6, 2013, when the U.S. lost to Costa Rica 3 -- 1 in San José. In 2013 the national team played the final round of qualification, and by defeating Mexico in September, the U.S. clinched a spot in the 2014 World Cup.
For the 2014 World Cup, the U.S. was drawn into Group G, along with Ghana, Germany, and Portugal. The U.S. took revenge on the Ghanaians, winning 2 -- 1. They tied their second group game against Portugal 2 -- 2. In the final game of the group stage, the U.S. fell to Germany 1 -- 0, but moved on to the knockout stage on goal difference. This was the first time that the team made two consecutive trips to the knockout stage of the FIFA World Cup. In the round of 16, the U.S. lost 2 -- 1 to Belgium in extra time, despite goalkeeper Tim Howard making a World Cup record 15 saves during the match.
The national team 's next tournament under Klinsmann was the 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup. The U.S. were eliminated by Jamaica 2 -- 1 in the semifinals, before losing to Panama on penalties in the third place match. The fourth - place finish was the worst Gold Cup performance by the national team since 2000, and the first time the team failed to make the tournament final since 2003. In the 2015 CONCACAF Cup playoff to determine the region 's entry to the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup, the U.S. were defeated 3 -- 2 by Mexico at the Rose Bowl. In June 2016, the U.S. played as hosts of Copa América Centenario. The U.S. topped Group A on goal difference against Colombia. The U.S. beat Ecuador 2 -- 1 in the quarter - finals, but then fell to Argentina 4 -- 0 and lost to Colombia again 1 -- 0 in the third place match. They finished fourth at the Copa América, tying their best finish ever in 1995.
Following consecutive losses to Mexico and Costa Rica in the opening games of the final round of qualification for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, Klinsmann was removed as national team coach and technical director and replaced by previous U.S. manager Bruce Arena. World Cup qualification resumed on March 24, 2017, where Arena and his team had a record 6 -- 0 win over Honduras. Four days later, the team traveled to Panama City, drawing Panama 1 -- 1. After beating Trinidad and Tobago 2 -- 0, the U.S. got their third ever result in World Cup Qualification at the Estadio Azteca when they drew 1 -- 1 against Mexico. In July 2017, the U.S. won their sixth CONCACAF Gold Cup with a 2 -- 1 win over Jamaica in the final. Following an agonizing 2 -- 1 defeat to Trinidad and Tobago on October 10, 2017, the U.S. failed to qualify for the 2018 World Cup, missing the tournament for the first time since 1986. On October 13, 2017, Arena resigned. Many pundits and analysts called this the worst result and worst performance in the history of the national team.
In June 2018 Earnest Stewart was named General Manager of the U.S. Soccer Federation.
Since their first unofficial game against Canada, the most common U.S. uniform has been white tops with blue shorts. In 1950, the U.S. adopted a Peru - styled diagonal stripe or "sash '' across the shirt. The stripe has been on third uniforms for 2003, 2004, and 2006, as well as the 2010 home, road and third uniforms. An additional color scheme based on the U.S. flag has been occasionally used (most prominently in the 1994 World Cup and 2012 -- 13 qualifiers as well the 1983 Team America franchise of the North American Soccer League) comprising a shirt with red and white stripes with blue shorts.
Adidas provided the uniforms for the United States from 1984 until 1994. Since 1995, Nike has been the uniform supplier.
The teams of Mexico and the United States are widely considered as the two major powers of CONCACAF. Matches between the two nations often attract much media attention, public interest and comment in both countries. Although the first match was played in 1934, their rivalry was not considered major until the 1980s, when the teams began to frequently compete in CONCACAF cups. On August 15, 2012, the United States defeated Mexico at Estadio Azteca in the first victory for the U.S. against Mexico on Mexican soil in 75 years. Ever since their first meeting in 1934, the two teams have met 65 times, with Mexico leading the overall series 34 -- 18 -- 15 (W -- L -- T), outscoring the U.S. 138 -- 79. However, since the 1990s, the tide began to change due to a rapid growth of soccer in the United States. During the 21st century, the series has favored the U.S. 13 -- 7 -- 6 (W -- L -- T). The United States and Mexico have won every edition of the CONCACAF Gold Cup except one (the 2000 CONCACAF Gold Cup was won by Canada).
In recent years the United States has also begun to develop a rivalry with Costa Rica.
There have been two main supporter groups backing the United States men 's national soccer team, Sam 's Army and The American Outlaws. Sam 's Army started shortly after the 1994 World Cup in the United States and were active through 2014. Sam 's Army members wore red to matches and sung or chanted throughout the match. They often brought huge U.S. flags and other banners to the game.
The American Outlaws was started in Lincoln, Nebraska in 2007 as a local supporters ' group. The group 's membership attempted to address a lack of consistency from game to game in supporter organization and social events on match days. To achieve this goal the American Outlaws became a nationwide, non-profit, supporters ' group. Some American Outlaws members wear American flag bandanas over their faces and commonly wear soccer supporter scarves. Some branches of the American Outlaws have their own scarves specific to their branch.
The United States does not have a dedicated national stadium like other national teams; instead, the team has played their home matches at 107 venues in 27 states and the District of Columbia. Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium, located in the national capital of Washington, D.C., has hosted 24 matches, the most of any stadium. The State of California has hosted 109 matches, the most of any state, and the Los Angeles metropolitan area has hosted 73 matches at several venues in and around the city of Los Angeles. The Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum hosted 20 matches from 1965 to 2000, but fell out of use due to its age. The Rose Bowl, a 92,000 - seat venue in Pasadena, has hosted 17 national team matches, as well as the 1994 FIFA World Cup Final, the 1999 FIFA Women 's World Cup Final, and the 1984 Olympics Gold Medal Match.
ESPN and Fox Sports 1 evenly split the English language rights for U.S. Soccer broadcasts from 2015 to 2022. Univision Deportes has the Spanish language rights to all U.S. Soccer broadcasts from 2015 to 2022. These agreements do not apply to FIFA World Cup away qualifiers, whose rights are distributed by the host country. Therefore, these matches can often be found on other networks such as beIN Sports and Telemundo.
For all past and present players who have appeared for the national team, see United States men 's national team players.
The following 20 players were named to the squad for the friendly against France, on June 9, 2018. Caps and goals are updated as of June 9, 2018, after the match against France.
The following players have also been called up to the United States squad within the last twelve months.
Notes:
The following is a list of match results from the previous 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.
For all past match results of the national team, see single - season articles and the team 's results page.
The U.S. regularly competes at the FIFA World Cup, the CONCACAF Gold Cup, and the Summer Olympics. The U.S. has also played in the FIFA Confederations Cup, Copa América by invitation, as well as several minor tournaments.
The best result for the United States in a World Cup came in 1930 when they reached the semifinals. The best result in the modern era is the 2002 World Cup, when the U.S. reached the quarterfinals. The worst result in the modern era was a first round elimination in 1990, 1998, and 2006.
In the Confederations Cup, the United States finished in third place in both 1992 and 1999, and were runner - up in 2009. The United States appeared in their first intercontinental tournament final at the 2009 Confederations Cup. In the semifinals, the United States upset top ranked Spain 2 -- 0, to advance to the final. In the final, the United States lost 3 -- 2 to Brazil.
The U.S. men 's soccer team have played in the Summer Olympics since 1924. From that tournament to 1976, only amateur players were allowed on Olympic teams per Olympic rules. The Olympics became a full international tournament in 1984 after the IOC allowed full national teams from outside FIFA CONMEBOL & UEFA confederations. Since then the U.S. national team results have dramatically improved. Ever since 1992 the men 's Olympic event has been age - restricted, under 23 plus three overage players, and participation has been by the United States men 's national under - 23 soccer team.
In regional competitions, the United States has won the CONCACAF Gold Cup six times, with their most recent title in 2017. Their best ever finish at the Copa América was fourth - place at the 1995 and 2016 editions.
CONCACAF Championship 1963 -- 1989, CONCACAF Gold Cup 1991 -- present
South American Championship 1916 -- 1967, Copa América 1975 -- present
Major competitions
Minor competitions
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the two types of objectives most commonly used in management by objectives (mbo) are | Management by objectives - wikipedia
Management by objectives (MBO), also known as management by results (MBR), was first popularized by Peter Drucker in his 1954 book The Practice of Management. Management by objectives is the process of defining specific objectives within an organization that management can convey to organization members, then deciding on how to achieve each objective in sequence. This process allows managers to take work that needs to be done one step at a time to allow for a calm, yet productive work environment. This process also helps organization members to see their accomplishments as they achieve each objective, which reinforces a positive work environment and a sense of achievement. An important part of MBO is the measurement and comparison of an employee 's actual performance with the standards set. Ideally, when employees themselves have been involved with the goal - setting and choosing the course of action to be followed by them, they are more likely to fulfill their responsibilities. According to George S. Odiorne, the system of management by objectives can be described as a process whereby the superior and subordinate jointly identify common goals, define each individual 's major areas of responsibility in terms of the results expected of him or her, and use these measures as guides for operating the unit and assessing the contribution of each of its members.
Peter Drucker first used the term "management by objectives '' in his 1954 book The Practice of Management. While the basic ideas of MBO were not original to Drucker, they pulled from other management practices to create a complete "system ''. The idea draws on the many ideas presented in Mary Parker Follett 's 1926 essay, "The Giving of Orders ''.
After the term and idea were brought up, Drucker 's student, George Odiorne, continued to develop the idea in his book Management Decisions by Objectives, published in the mid-1960s. MBO was popularized by companies like Hewlett - Packard, who claimed it led to their success.
Management by objectives at its core is the process of employers / supervisors attempting to manage their subordinates by introducing a set of specific goals that both the employee and the company strive to achieve in the near future, and working to meet those goals accordingly.
Five steps:
The principle of MBO is for employees to have a clear understanding of their roles and the responsibilities expected of them, so they can understand how their activities relate to the achievement of the organization 's goals. MBO also places importance on fulfilling the personal goals of each employee.
Proponents argue that benefits of MBO include:
There are endless ways to exercise management by objectives. One must simply find specific goals to aim for in an organization or business. Many noteworthy companies have used MBO. The management at the computer company Hewlett - Packard (HP), has said that it considers the policy a huge component of its success. Many other corporations praise the effectiveness of MBO, including Xerox, DuPont, Intel, and countless others. Companies that use MBO often report greater sales rates and productiveness within the organization. Objectives can be set in all domains of activities, such as production, marketing, services, sales, R&D, human resources, finance, and information systems. Some objectives are collective, and some can be goals for each individual worker. Both make the task at hand seem attainable and enable the workers to visualize what needs to be done and how.
In the MBO paradigm, managers determine the mission and the strategic goals of the enterprise. The goals set by top - level managers are based on an analysis of what can and should be accomplished by the organization within a specific period of time. The functions of these managers can be centralised by appointing a project manager who can monitor and control activities of the various departments. If this can not be done or is not desirable, each manager 's contributions to the organizational goal should be clearly spelled out.
Objectives need quantifying and monitoring. Reliable management information systems are needed to establish relevant objectives and monitor their "reach ratio '' in an objective way. Pay incentives (bonuses) are often linked to results in reaching the objectives.
The mnemonic S.M.A.R.T. is associated with the process of setting objectives in this paradigm. "SMART '' objectives are:
The aphorism "what gets measured gets done '', is aligned with the MBO philosophy.
MBO has its detractors and attention notably among them W. Edwards Deming, who argued that a lack of understanding of systems commonly results in the misapplication of objectives. Additionally, Deming stated that setting production targets will encourage workers to meet those targets through whatever means necessary, which usually results in poor quality.
Point 7 of Deming 's key principles encourages managers to abandon objectives in favour of leadership because he felt that a leader with an understanding of systems was more likely to guide workers to an appropriate solution than the incentive of an objective. Deming also pointed out that Drucker warned managers that a systemic view was required and felt that Drucker 's warning went largely unheeded by the practitioners of MBO.
There are several limitations to the assumptive base underlying the impact of managing by objectives, including:
That context includes everything from the availability and quality of resources, to relative buy - in by leadership and stake - holders. As an example of the influence of management buy - in as a contextual influencer, in a 1991 comprehensive review of thirty years of research on the impact of Management by Objectives, Robert Rodgers and John Hunter concluded that companies whose CEOs demonstrated high commitment to MBO showed, on average, a 56 % gain in productivity. Companies with CEOs who showed low commitment only saw a 6 % gain in productivity.
When this approach is not properly set, agreed and managed by organizations, self - centered employees might be prone to distort results, falsely representing achievement of targets that were set in a short - term, narrow fashion. In this case, managing by objectives would be counterproductive.
Management by Objectives is still practiced today, with a focus on planning and development aiding various organizations. The most recent research focuses on specific industries, specifying the practice of MBO for each. In addition, following criticism of the original MBO approach, a new formula was introduced in 2016, aiming at revitalizing it, that is the OPTIMAL MBO, which stands for its components, namely: (O) Objectives, Outside - in; (P) Profitability (budget) related goals; (T) Target Setting; (I) Incentives & Influence; (M) Measurement; (A) Agreement, Accountability, Appraisal, Appreciation; and (L) Leadership Support.
While the practice is used today, it may go by different names -- the letters "MBO '' have lost their formality, and future planning is a more standard practice.
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how long does it take for a bulls balls to fall off | Bull riding - wikipedia
Bull riding is a rodeo sport that involves a rider getting on a bucking bull and attempting to stay mounted while the animal attempts to buck off the rider.
In the American tradition, the rider must stay on top of the bucking bull while holding onto the bull rope with one hand for eight seconds and not touching the bull or himself with his free hand. A bull rope is a fiber rope wrapped around the chest of the bull directly behind the bull 's front legs, which the rider grips while riding. If he does that, it is a qualified ride. If he gets bucked off before eight seconds, it is a no score. In most bull riding circuits, four judges mark scores for the rider and the bull. Two judges score the rider based on his ability up to 25 points each for up to a total of 50 points. The other two judges score the bull on his bucking performance for up to 25 points each for a total of up to 50 points. Thus, the ride is scored up to 100 points. Most professional riders score between the mid-70s and high 80s. Bull riding has been called "the most dangerous eight seconds in sports. ''
Outside of the United States, bull riding traditions with varying rules and histories also exist in Canada, Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Cuba, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Australia and New Zealand with the majority of them following similar rules, especially with the Professional Bull Riders organization.
The taming of bulls has ancient roots in contests dating as far back as Minoan culture. Bull riding itself has its direct roots in Mexican contests of equestrian and ranching skills now collectively known as charreada. During the 16th century, a hacienda contest called jaripeo developed. Originally considered a variant of bull fighting, in which riders literally rode a bull to death, the competition evolved into a form where the bull was simply ridden until it stopped bucking. By the mid-19th century, charreada competition was popular on Texas and California cattle ranches where Anglo and Hispanic ranch hands often worked together.
Many early Texas rangers, who had to be expert horsemen and later went on to become ranchers, learned and adapted Hispanic techniques and traditions to ranches in the United States. Many also enjoyed traditional Mexican celebrations, and H.L. Kinney, a rancher, promoter and former Texas Ranger staged what is thought to be the first Anglo - American organized bullfight in the southwest in 1852. This event also included a jaripeo competition and was the subject of newspaper reports from as far away as the New Orleans Daily Delta. However, popular sentiment shifted away from various blood sports and both bullfighting and prize fighting were banned by the Texas legislature in 1891. In the same time period, however, Wild West Shows began to add steer riding to their exhibitions, choosing to use castrated animals because steers were easier to handle and transport than bulls. Additionally, informal rodeos began as competitions between neighboring ranches in the American Old West. The location of the first formal Rodeo is debated. Deer Trail, Colorado claims the first rodeo in 1869 but so does Cheyenne, WY in 1872.
Although steer riding contests existed into the 1920s, the sport did not gain popularity until bulls were returned to the arena and replaced steers as the mount of choice. The first - known rodeo to use brahma bulls was in Columbia, Mississippi, produced in 1935 by Canadian brothers Earl and Weldon Bascom with Jake Lybbert and Waldo Ross. This rodeo was the first to feature a bull riding event at a night rodeo held outdoors under electric lights. A pivotal moment for modern bull riding, and rodeo in general, came with the founding of the Rodeo Cowboy Association (RCA) in 1936, which later became the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association (PRCA). Through this organization many hundreds of rodeos are held each year. Since that time, the popularity of all aspects of the rodeo has risen. In addition to the PRCA, which has PRCA ProRodeo with bull riding and the Xtreme Bulls events for bull riding only, there are two separate organizations that promote and produce shows for stand - alone professional bull riding in the United States: Championship Bull Riding (CBR) and Professional Bull Riders (PBR). CBR tours all over the United States and its major league tour, the Road to Cheyenne Tour, is broadcast on Fox Sports Networks. The CBR world championships take place at Cheyenne Frontier Days. The Professional Bull Riders (PBR) stages a large number of events in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Brazil, and Australia. For many years the annual PBR World Finals were held at the Thomas and Mack Center in Las Vegas, Nevada. However, starting in 2016, the Finals are now held at the T - Mobile Arena in Las Vegas. The PBR 's major league tour, the Built Ford Tough Series, is broadcast on CBS Sports Network, with the primary broadcast network televising selected bonus rounds (known as 15 / 15 bucking battles). From these roots, bull riding as a competitive sport has spread to a number of other nations worldwide.
Each bull has a unique name and number used to help identify it. A sufficient number of bulls, each judged to be of good strength, health, agility, and age, are selected to perform. The rider and bull are matched randomly before the competition, although starting in 2008, some ranked riders are allowed to choose their own bulls from a bull draft for selected rounds in PBR events.
A rider mounts a bull and grips a flat braided rope. After they secure a good grip on the rope, the rider nods to signal they are ready. The bucking chute (a small enclosure which opens from the side) is opened and the bull storms out into the arena. The rider must attempt to stay on the bull for at least eight seconds, while only touching the bull with their riding hand. The other hand must remain free for the duration of the ride. Originally, the rules required a 10 - second ride, but that was changed to the current eight seconds.
The bull bucks, rears, kicks, spins, and twists in an effort to throw the rider off. This continues for a number of seconds until the rider bucks off or dismounts after completing the ride. A loud buzzer or whistle announces the completion of an eight - second ride.
Throughout the ride, bullfighters, also popularly known as rodeo clowns, stay near the bull to aid the rider if necessary. When the ride ends, either intentionally or not, the bullfighters distract the bull to protect the rider from harm.
Many competitions have a format that involves multiple rounds, sometimes called "go - rounds ''. Generally, events span two to three nights. The rider is given a chance to ride one bull per night. The total points scored by the end of the event are recorded, and after the first or first two go rounds, the top 20 riders are given a chance to ride one more bull. This final round is called the "short go ''. After the end of the short go, the rider with the most total points wins the event.
The ride is scored from 0 -- 100 points. Both the rider and the bull are awarded points. There are usually two judges, each judge scoring the bull from 0 -- 50 points, and the rider from 0 -- 50 points. The combined point totals from both judges make up the final score for the ride. This system was spearheaded by former PRCA president Dale Smith. Scores of zero are quite common as many riders lose control of the animal almost immediately after the bull leaves the bucking chute. Many experienced professionals are able to earn scores of 75 or more. Scores above 80 are considered excellent, and a score in the 90s exceptional.
Judges award points based on several key aspects of the ride. Judges look for constant control and rhythm in the rider in matching their movements with the bull. Points are usually deducted if a rider is constantly off balance. For points actually to be awarded the rider must stay mounted for a minimum of 8 seconds, and they are scored only for actions during those 8 seconds. The ability to control the bull well allows riders to gain extra style points. These are often gained by spurring the animal. A rider is disqualified for touching the bull, the rope, or themselves with their free arm.
Bulls have more raw power and a different style of movement from bucking horses. One move particular to bulls is a belly roll or sunfishing, in which the bull is completely off the ground and kicks either his hind feet or all four feet to the side in a twisting, rolling motion. Bulls also are more likely than horses to spin in tight, quick circles, while they are less likely to run or to jump extremely high and "break in two ''.
For the bull, judges look at the animal 's overall agility, power and speed; its back end kicks; and its front end drops. In general, if a bull gives a rider a very hard time, more points will be awarded. If a rider fails to stay mounted for at least 8 seconds the bull is still awarded a score. The PBR, CBR, PRCA, IPRA and PRS record bulls ' past scores so that the best bulls can be brought to the finals, ensuring that riders will be given a chance to score highly. All five organizations also award one bull the "Bucking Bull of the Year '' award, decided by scores and the number of riders it has bucked off. The award brings prestige to the ranch at which the bull was raised.
If a rider scores sufficiently low due to poor bull performance, the judges may offer the rider the option of a re-ride. By taking the option, the rider gives up the score received, waits until all other riders have ridden, and rides again. This can be risky because the rider loses their score and risks being bucked off and receiving no score. A re-ride may also be given if a bull stumbles or runs into the fence or gate.
Bull riders use many pieces of equipment both functionally and to ensure maximum safety, both to themselves and to the animals involved.
The primary piece of equipment used is the bull rope. The bull rope is a braided rope made of polypropylene, grass, or some combination. A handle is braided into the center of the rope and is usually stiffened with leather. One side of the rope is tied in an adjustable knot that can be changed for the size of bull. The other side of the rope (the tail) is a flat braid and is usually coated with rosin to keep it from sliding through the rider 's hand. A metallic bell is strapped to the knot and hangs directly under the bull throughout the ride. In addition to the sound the bell produces, it also gives the rope some weight, allowing it to fall off the bull once a rider has dismounted.
Chaps are probably the most noticeable piece of bull rider clothing, as their distinctive coloring and patterns add flair to the sport. Usually made of leather, chaps also provide protection for the rider 's legs and thighs.
Bull riders are required to wear a protective vest, most usually wear one made of high impact foam that allows the shock to disperse over a wide area, thereby reducing pain and injury.
To prevent a rope burn, riders must wear a protective glove, usually of leather. This glove must be fastened to the rider 's hand since the force the animal is able to exert could tear the glove away. The rider often applies rosin to the glove, which allows for additional grip.
Cowboy boots are also worn. The dull and loosely locked spurs help keep the rider balanced and is crucial piece of equipment to the sport as a whole. The bulls are unharmed by the rowels, as their hide is roughly seven times thicker than a human being 's skin. Truly skilled riders will often spur the bull in the hope of achieving extra style points from the judges.
Cowboy hats remain the primary headwear used. While the professional organizations permit protective helmets and masks, some riders continue to believe that this equipment can detrimentally affect balance, and many professionals still avoid wearing them. However, the trend is changing, as more champion riders begin to wear helmets for added safety.
Public health researchers found evidence suggesting that bull riding helmets are protective, when riders wearing one particular type of helmet suffered approximately 50 % fewer head and facial injuries. In 2004, at the 1st International Rodeo Research and Clinical Care Conference in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, a group of top rodeo medicine researchers and clinical care providers came to a consensus on the use of helmets declaring that all youth rodeo participants should wear helmets, and that helmets should be recommended for adult bull riders.
For competitors under the age of 18, protective headgear incorporating a helmet and ice hockey style face mask are worn. While optional at the upper levels of the sport, it has become mandatory at younger levels, and riders who use helmets and face masks as youths tend to continue to wearing them as they reach adulthood and turn professional.
The flank strap is a rope made of a soft cotton rope at least 5 / 8 '' in diameter is acceptable as a flank strap and does not require extra padding with sheepskin or neoprene. It is tied around the bull 's flank. Contrary to popular belief, the flank strap is not tied around the bull 's testicles. This rope is to encourage the bull to use its hind legs more in a bucking motion, as this is a true test of a rider 's skill in maintaining the ride. If it is applied improperly a rider may request to ride again, as the bull will not buck well if the flank strap is too tight. The flank strap is applied by the stock contractor or his designate.
The arenas used in professional bull riding vary. Some are rodeo arenas that are used only for bull riding and other rodeo events. Others are event centers that play host to many different sports. Common to all arenas is a large, open area that gives the bulls, bull riders, and bull fighters plenty of room to maneuver. The area is fenced, usually 6 to 7 feet high, to protect the audience from escaped bulls. There are generally exits on each corner of the arena for riders to get out of the way quickly. Riders can also hop onto the fence to avoid danger. One end of the arena contains the bucking chutes from which the bulls are released. There is also an exit chute where the bulls can exit the arena.
In the United States and Canada, most professional bull riders start out riding in high school rodeo or other junior associations. From there, riders may go on the college rodeo circuit or to one of several semi-pro associations including the Southern Extreme Bull Riding Association (SEBRA), the Southern States Bull Riders Association (SSBR), the International Bull Riders Association (IBR), the Professional Championship Bull Riders Tour (PCB), Bull Riders Canada (BRC), the American Bull Riders Tour (ABT), the International Professional Rodeo Association (IPRA), the Cowboys Professional Rodeo Association (CPRA), the United Professional Rodeo Association (UPRA), the Southern Rodeo Association (SRA), the Professional Western Rodeo Association (PWRA), the Canadian Cowboys Association (CCA), among others. Bull riders compete in these organizations as they are climbing the ladder to the professional ranks and to supplement their income.
The top bull riders in the world compete on the Professional Bull Riders (PBR), Championship Bull Riding (CBR) and Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association (PRCA) circuits. Most of the riders who compete in the CBR tour also compete in the PRCA 's rodeos and ' Xtreme Bulls ' tour (a small series of one day bull riding events sanctioned by the PRCA), while only a handful of PBR riders also compete in the PRCA. Professional bull riders can win in excess of $100,000 a year while competing in any of these three organizations.
In Mexico, there are several American - style bull riding organizations. The big three that travel around the country include Cuernos Chuecos (Crooked Horns), Jinete Supremo (Supreme Bull Rider) and Danger Bull Riding Company. There are also a number of local associations.
There are approximately 200 rodeos and bushmen 's carnivals held annually across Australia. At most of these events bull riding is one of the featured competitions.
Initially bullocks and steers were used for roughriding events and these were owned by local graziers that lent them for these events. Nowadays bulls are used for the open events and stock contractors supply the various roughriding associations. Contract stock has produced a more uniform range of bucking stock which is also quieter to handle. The competitions are run and scored in a similar style to that used in the United States.
In May 1992 the National Rodeo Council of Australia (NRCA) was formed to promote and further the sport of rodeo and has represented the following associations, which also control bull riding:
There are strict standards for the selection, care and treatment of rodeo livestock, arenas, plus equipment requirements and specifications.
Chainsaw was one of Australia 's most famous bucking bulls. Only nine contestants scored on him and he won the Australian national title of Bull of the Year a world record eight times during 1987 to 1994.
Some of Australia 's best bull riders travel and compete internationally in Canada, New Zealand and the United States. Some of Australia 's leading bull riders conduct bull riding clinics to assist learners and novice riders.
A World Challenge of Professional Bull Riders (PBR) was held on 29 May 2010 at the Brisbane Entertainment Centre (BEC). The 2010 PBR Finals were held over two nights at the Australian Equine and Livestock Events Centre (AELEC), with five top - ranked professional bull riders from the United States and 25 of Australia 's best bull riders contesting the event.
Rodeo is also popular in country regions of New Zealand where approximately 32 rodeos, which include bull riding contests, are held each summer.
There is debate between animal rights / welfare organizations and bull riding enthusiasts over many aspects of the sport. One source of controversy is the flank strap. The flank strap is placed around a bull 's flank, just in front of the hind legs, to encourage bucking. Critics say that the flank strap encircles or otherwise binds the genitals of the bull. However, the flank strap is anatomically impossible to place over the testicles. Many point out that the bull 's genes are valuable and that there is a strong economic incentive to keep the animal in good reproductive health. Further, particularly in the case of bulls, an animal that is sick and in pain usually will not want to move at all, will not buck as well, and may even lie down in the chute or ring rather than buck.
Critics also claim that electric cattle prods ("hot shots '') are used to injure and torture bulls, while supporters of bull riding claim that the cattle prod simply gets the bull out of the chute quickly and is only a moderate irritation due to the thickness of the animal 's hide. Cattle prods have not been used in the Professional Bull Riders (PBR) tour for several years. However, in smaller associations, a cattle prod is still sometimes used to ensure that the animal leaves the chute as soon as the rider nods their head. Cattle prods are not allowed by any major association.
Spurs are also a source of controversy, though modern rodeo rules place strict regulations on the type and use of spurs and participants point out that they are a tool commonly used in other non-rodeo equestrian disciplines. Spurs used in bull riding do not have a fixed rowel, nor can they be sharpened. The PBR currently allows only two types of rowels to ensure the safety of the animals.
Bull riding has the highest rate of injury to humans of any rodeo sport. It accounts for approximately 50 % of all traumatic injuries to rodeo contestants, and the bullfighters have the highest injury rate of any non-contestant group.
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the big bang theiry season 11 episode 12 | The Big Bang Theory (season 11) - wikipedia
The eleventh season of the American television sitcom The Big Bang Theory premiered on CBS on Monday, September 25, 2017. It returned to its regular Thursday time slot on November 2, 2017, after Thursday Night Football on CBS ended.
In March 2017, CBS renewed the series for two additional seasons, bringing its total to twelve, and running through the 2018 -- 19 television season.
Just like the previous three seasons, the first five episodes aired on Mondays due to CBS ' contractual rights to air the Thursday Night Football games. After Thursday Night Football ended, the series returned to its regular Thursday schedule starting on November 2, 2017. Filming for the eleventh season began on August 15, 2017; it was also announced with the taping report that the premiere for the eleventh season would be titled "The Proposal Proposal ''. Before the season premiered, five episodes were filmed from August 15 to September 19, 2017.
According to TV Guide, Steve Holland announced on September 22, 2017 that both Bob Newhart and Wil Wheaton would return this season since their absences from Season 10.
Amy enthusiastically accepts Sheldon 's marriage proposal. However, when dining with Amy 's colleagues later that night, Sheldon is offended that they are more impressed with Amy 's work than his own. With help from Stephen Hawking, Sheldon later comes to grips with the fact that he will not always be the center of attention in the marriage. Bernadette is shocked to realize that she is pregnant again. She and Howard are not thrilled at the idea of having another baby so soon after their first. They attempt to convince Leonard and Penny to have a child as well, but are rebuffed.
Leonard gives an interview on public radio where he admits physics research might be at a dead end. The university is furious and, while trying to think of reasons to put in a retraction, he depresses Sheldon into thinking he might be right. Howard and Raj come over and end up just as depressed. Getting drunk with Penny, the guys go to the grave of Richard Feynman and realize there is hope for physics as long as they believe in it. Leonard accidentally sends a drunken email to Human Resources. Meanwhile, Amy and Bernadette agree with each other to keep quiet about the success in their careers so as not to upset Sheldon and Howard. While bragging to each other, they end up arguing which of their fields is better.
Sheldon can not find the perfect wedding date and begins talking in his sleep, adopting the persona of a laid - back person who goes with the flow. Amy and Penny believe that his subconscious mind is trying to tell him to be more relaxed; his attempt to be so while wearing flip - flops ends in disaster. He decides to leave all the wedding planning to Amy while he wears a Star Trek uniform underneath his tuxedo. Meanwhile, Raj and Stuart both become interested in Bernadette 's new coworker Ruchi. While she likes them both as friends, she does not want a relationship with anyone.
Howard and Bernadette learn their second child will be a boy, leading Howard to doubt whether he can be a good father to a son. He and Sheldon go out in the desert to test launch a model rocket, but it explodes, causing him further doubt. On the way home, Howard does a good job coaching Sheldon to drive them home, for which Sheldon tells him he will be a good teacher to his son. Leonard 's mother Beverly begins talking to Penny as a friend and confidant, troubling Leonard, especially when he learns that Beverly told Penny that she was proud of her, a level of praise she never bestowed upon Leonard himself. When Leonard confronts Beverly, he is touched when she says that of all of her children 's spouses, Penny is the one by whom she is most impressed and that, for this, she is indeed proud of him. Meanwhile, Raj helps Bernadette turn baby girl clothes into boy ones.
Amy and Howard begin collaborating on a neuroprosthetics project, upsetting Sheldon and Raj, who feel they are not spending as much time with them. When they seek solace with an annoyed Bernadette, she exploits the situation to trick Sheldon into doing Howard 's chores. Penny employs the approaches recommended in one of Bernadette 's parenting books to deal with Sheldon with success, but Leonard believes she is coddling Sheldon too much. Sheldon and Raj resolve the issue of missing their significant others by spending time together.
Sheldon 's childhood science show with Professor Proton is being rebooted. After unsuccessfully auditioning for the part, he goes to Wil Wheaton for acting tips for his second audition. However, Sheldon is later dismayed when Wil has somehow taken the role instead. Talking it over with Arthur in his dreams he is still upset his idol is replaced and considers Wil an enemy again. Meanwhile, Howard gets a vasectomy while Bernadette is on bed rest. Penny offers to take care of Halley for them but they insult her by saying Penny is irresponsible. Halley ends up saying her first word by calling Penny "Mama. ''
Bert asks for Sheldon 's help in a geology research project relating to dark matter. Sheldon secretly agrees, but is too embarrassed to admit he is working with rocks. Bert finds out about this and ends their partnership. After talking with Amy, Sheldon goes to apologize, only to find Leonard has taken his place. Meanwhile, Raj runs into Ruchi again and goes out with her, but she does not believe in romantic love. After Howard and Bernadette tell Raj that he can just have sex with Ruchi, he agrees to keep it casual.
After learning Sheldon went behind their backs to work with the military again, Leonard and Howard say Sheldon is like Thomas Edison, taking credit for other 's ideas, while they are more like Nikola Tesla. Leonard and Howard bring in Barry Kripke to help create a better idea than Sheldon 's, but Kripke goes to the military himself cutting all three of them out. Meanwhile, Bernadette fears Ruchi is trying to steal her projects at work while she is on maternity leave, and hires Raj to spy on her. Though he finds proof that Ruchi may be stealing from Bernadette, Raj tries to defend Ruchi like a boyfriend would, pointing out Bernadette 's hypocrisy as she would 've most likely stolen from other people 's projects as well. Ruchi is not happy about this and promptly dumps Raj.
In 2010, Leonard, Howard and Raj mined a lot of Bitcoin, worth thousands of dollars seven years later, but leave Sheldon out due to his fear of tax implications. Flashbacks are shown of how the Bitcoin ended up on an old laptop of Leonard 's, which Penny gave to her old boyfriend Zack after she and Leonard broke up. In 2017, Leonard and Penny retrieve the computer from Zack, who first shows them a video of a drunken Penny apologizing for breaking up with Leonard. The Bitcoin is not found on the laptop. Sheldon had moved it to a flash drive on Leonard 's keychain to teach them a lesson, but Leonard lost the keychain years ago. A final flashback to 2013 shows Stuart discovering the flash drive, which he decides to erase and sell for $10.
When Raj loses a job interview at a planetarium, his father says he has no confidence because Howard always makes fun of him. Raj distances himself from Howard and later gets the job. Howard is hurt by this (even after apologizing to him) and tries to make amends with Raj after his first talk at the planetarium, but when he sees him get a date, he leaves without speaking to him, thinking that the latter 's life is better without him. Meanwhile, Sheldon and Amy try randomly dividing up wedding tasks, but they keep arguing. The only thing they can agree on is to get married so they decide to just get married at City Hall. However, Sheldon decides that he wants a first dance with his new wife, and they go home to plan their wedding.
Howard and Raj are still fighting so Howard dis - invites Raj to Halley 's birthday party. However, when Howard 's designated party planner Stuart pulls out at the last minute, Raj agrees to plan the party, which does n't turn out too well due to Halley being asleep, Bernadette on bed rest and no people turning up. When Howard and Raj get into a shoving match in the party 's bounce house, they end up letting out their frustrations with each other, but also having fun and reconciling. Leonard is depressed upon receiving his successful brother 's Christmas card and attempts to make a list of what he and Penny accomplished this year, but does n't come up with much. This prompts them to think about their plans for the future, so they decide to go on trips and achieve more out of life together before starting a family. Sheldon cooks Amy a Little House on the Prairie - themed birthday dinner, which gives them both food poisoning. They eventually recover enough to attend Halley 's birthday party with the others, where they decide to have fun in the bouncy castle and then have sex in Howard and Bernadette 's house.
Sheldon and Amy struggle to choose a best man and maid of honor from their friends. They secretly decide to test and score them, allowing everyone to have an equal shot at either role. Once the gang finds out, none of them apart from Bernadette and Stuart want to be in the wedding. Sheldon settles for Stuart as best man, but once Leonard tells Sheldon that as the groom, the decision is his alone, he picks Leonard. Amy is set to call Bernadette but once Penny realizes Amy is her best friend, she immediately pitches herself for the position and Amy enthusiastically chooses her. Amy later makes Penny tell Bernadette the bad news.
With Leonard, Howard, Raj and Amy accomplishing so much on their respective projects, Sheldon is forced to admit he has nothing important to work on. He makes Amy leave the apartment for a few days so he can focus, but can not come up with any ideas and calls his mother as a distraction. Leonard and Amy have fun recreating experiments from when they were growing up, boring Penny, so she eats with Sheldon as he mulls over his scientific studies. Penny helps him realize that his study of dark matter is his rebound science from string theory, which Sheldon admits he never forgot about, but explaining string theory to her inspires Sheldon, helping him discover a potential breakthrough in the field. Meanwhile Howard is too busy with his family to be in the band with Raj, so Raj brings in Bert. But when Howard annoys Bernadette by writing an astronaut - themed musical while she is on bed - rest, she makes him rejoin the band. The three are poorly received, after singing Bert 's original song about the boulder from Indiana Jones at a Bar mitsvah.
Raj hooks up with a recently separated woman, Nell, after one of his lectures at the planetarium. Her husband Oliver confronts Raj at the planetarium and then breaks down over the end of his marriage. After comforting Oliver, Raj talks to Nell and convinces her to give her husband another chance. Meanwhile, after diving once again into string theory and sprawling his work across his and Amy 's apartment, Sheldon approaches a reluctant Leonard and Penny and convinces them to let him use his old room to study for a three - day trial period with an agreement to be quiet and stay out of their way. Sheldon surprisingly sticks to this agreement, being a reasonably good guest, which shockingly frustrates Leonard to no end. After Leonard lets out his frustrations, Sheldon then renegotiates the guest tenancy agreement for an extra few days and resumes being his normal demanding self, much to Leonard 's relief.
Sheldon and Amy are surprised to find that Wil Wheaton 's new Professor Proton show is actually very entertaining and that Wil had Howard on as a guest. On Howard 's suggestion, Sheldon apologizes to Wil, mending their friendship, and tells him he wants to be on the show; but Wil asks for Amy. Sheldon tells her to do it, but she says she often does n't do things to avoid upsetting him. Sheldon is horrified when he realises how selfish he has been, especially when he finds out that the guys do the same for him. Sheldon encourages Amy to go on the show to inspire girls to pursue science while trying to control his obvious jealousy for her. Meanwhile, Leonard writes a book about a physicist that solves a murder, the protagonist Logan Dean is based on himself. Bernadette points out Logan 's mean boss Illsa is similar to Penny, who thinks it is based on Bernadette, though Leonard does not correct her. However, Bernadette tells Penny the truth, upsetting her and making her mad at Leonard. After calling his mother for advice, Leonard learns that Illsa is actually like her; but abandons the book when he realizes he wrote romantic tension into the relationship between the characters.
Bernadette 's due date arrives but she still has n't given birth. As Amy and Howard work together at the college, the rest of the friends try various ways to initiate her labor, though Sheldon wants to play a complicated board game instead. Amy shocks Howard by saying Bernadette has already decided to name the baby after her father, Michael. He does n't agree and everyone makes suggestions as to what to name the baby. Bernadette goes into labor and gives birth to a son named Neil, after Neil Armstrong, Neil Gaiman, and Neil Diamond, with Michael as the middle name.
Sheldon and Amy decide on a wedding date of May 12th. They want to have their reception at the Athenaeum at Caltech. While scouting the location, they are shocked to see Leonard and Penny eating there, as Leonard had told Sheldon their application had been denied. In reality, Leonard just wanted a place to avoid Sheldon. Kripke has booked the venue for his birthday party on the same day as the wedding. Leonard cleans radioactive sludge for Kripke to get the date for Sheldon as an apology for lying. Kripke eventually agrees to change the day but when Amy hears he wants to sing at the wedding, she suggests they get married at the Griffith Observatory instead. Meanwhile, Howard and Bernadette are unsure if one of them should quit their job to stay home with the kids. Howard volunteers, but when left alone with the children he passes out exhausted, leaving Raj in charge. When Bernadette meets Penny for lunch, she realizes that she loves being at the office again, but does n't want to leave the kids. She and Howard promise to figure it out later after they take a nap.
The guys are excited that Bill Gates is visiting Penny 's pharmaceutical company though she says they can not meet him. Sheldon believes it 's an April Fools Day prank. Leonard sees what hotel he is staying at on Penny 's schedule, so he, Raj and Howard meet Gates in the lobby the day before. Once Sheldon sees proof the guys twice send him to the wrong hotel as the real prank. Penny says Leonard can meet Bill for real so he fakes being sick to avoid him. But Penny puts Bill on a video call, exposing what Leonard did. Sheldon later thinks the apology dinner is for him. Meanwhile, Amy is tired of Bernadette only talking about her kids; so Bernadette uses her expanded maternal brain to learn morbid science facts.
General references
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who won season 2 of the world of dance | World of Dance (season 2) - wikipedia
The second season of American reality competition television series World of Dance premiered May 29, 2018, on NBC. Jennifer Lopez, Ne - Yo, and Derek Hough returned as the judges, with Jenna Dewan also returning as the host.
Season 2 was taped between January and March 2018 at Universal Studios Hollywood; about two months before first airing.
While the format for season 2 remained relatively unchanged, there were a few slight alterations. Season 2 received a 16 - episode order., six more than the ten - episode first season. Additionally, this season, a fourth category, Junior Team, was added for acts under 18 with 5 or more members. The qualifier rounds are cut down from a two minutes to an one - minute routine. The Duels are cut down from two minutes to a _́ 75 seconds _́ - routine. The top three highest - scoring acts in The Cut from each division will move on to The Divisional Final, in last season it was just the top two. The Cut, Divisional and World Final rounds are cut down from a two minutes to a ' 90 seconds ' - routine. In The Cut and Divisional Final guess celebrities are assigned as mentors to each division. On World Final there are intermezzo shows. This season by Les Twins, Keone & Mari (actually Mariel) Madrid, Kinjaz and Derek Hough.
In preparation for season two, handpicked competitors, being talented in any styles of dancing, from qualifying events around the nation and thousands of online submissions, are divided into four divisions: Junior (groups of 1 - 4, under 18), Upper (groups of 1 - 4, 18 and older), Junior Team (groups of 5 +, under 18) and Upper Team (groups of 5 +, 18 and older). In some cases dancers who did n't apply were directly contacted by the producers or their agents.
The elimination process of the contestants are in four rounds:
In the World Final all four division champions will compete for the $1,000,000 USD grand prize. The concept of last season is copied; every contestant will perform twice in two separate rounds. The average score of both rounds by each contestant will make their final score. The contestant (s) with the highest final score will be crowned World of Dance champion 2018 and will win the $1,000,000 USD grand prize.
The judges are scoring in 5 categories. Each category is worth 20 points, with a perfect score of 100:
Jennifer Lopez, Ne - Yo, and Derek Hough returned as the series judges, with Jenna Dewan returning as host. Misty Copeland, who judged in season 1, is announced coming back as guest judge for the Divisional Final, with Julianne Hough, Mel B, Savion Glover and Paula Abdul also joining as guest mentors for The Cut.
Tony Award winner Savion Glover will collaborate with judge Jennifer Lopez with the Junior Team division. Actress, dancer, singer and Emmy Award - winning choreographer Julianne Hough, who will be working with her brother, judge Derek Hough, in the Upper division. "America 's Got Talent '' judge Mel B will join forces with judge Ne - Yo in mentoring the Junior division. World - renowned dancer / choreographer Paula Abdul will team with host / mentor Jenna Dewan in the Upper Team division Grammy Award - winning and multi-platinum selling artist Ciara joining as guest mentor during the Divisional Final as well (airing Wednesday, Sept. 5 at 9 p.m. ET / PT).
Three weeks after the season finale host Jenna Dewan publicly announced that she would not return as host for season 3. "It has been an absolute thrill to be a part of this incredible, groundbreaking show from the very beginning, and I am forever grateful ". While she may not return for season 3 as a host she confirmed she would be returning briefly as a mentor.
The acts competing in season 2 were released by People on May 1, 2018 and Bustle. The list of contestants who made it to The Duels is published by NewsWeek, except Elektro Elite and ThaMOST (s. below). The ages for each dance act were made available on the World of Dance website.
^ 1 This dance act competed on Season 1 of World of Dance
The qualifier round took place between May 29, 2018 and July 24. In each round of the Qualifiers, the dance acts performed a 1 - minute routine in front of the judges and a live studio audience. For a dance act to move to the next round, they had to receive an average score of 80 or higher. Karen y Ricardo was the first dance act of the season (and the second in the show 's history) to receive a score of 100 from one or more of the judges, setting up an all - time show high score of 99.7 points, until Charity & Andres became the first act in the show 's history to receive a perfect score of 100 in The Duels.
Some average scores are taken from a summary clip from the TV broadcast of part 8. Elektro Elite has qualified with 80 points and ThaMOST with 84 points, but neither performance was posted as a Digital Exclusive, nor are the acts listed on NBC World of Dance website.
In each round of The Duels, two acts in the same division compete for a spot in the next round. In each division, the acts with the top qualifying scores choose their opponents, then both acts perform back - to - back, receiving feedback from the judges. The act with the highest average at the end of the duel moves on to the next round; the other faces immediate elimination. Charity & Andres earned the first perfect score in the show 's run during The Duels.
Opponent selection proceeded according to rank within each division, but performances have been arranged to spread the favorites among the episodes, in an effort to keep ratings up across all episodes.
Some average scores are taken from a summary clip from the TV broadcast of part 4.
In The Cut, the 30 remaining acts compete for three spots in each of their divisions. As each dance act competes, their final score is displayed on a leaderboard for their division. Once a dance act 's score falls out of the top 3, they face immediate elimination. For this round, each of the judges and the host, Jenna Dewan, became mentors for one of the four divisions; They were also joined by four guest mentors: Savion Glover, Julianne Hough, Paula Abdul, and Mel B. Jennifer & Savion worked with the Junior Teams, Derek & Julianne worked with the Upper acts, Jenna & Paula worked with the Upper Teams, and Ne - Yo & Mel B worked with the Junior acts.
In the Divisional Final, the 3 remaining acts in each division square off, with only one act going to the World Final to represent their division. Same as The Cut, each of the judges and the host, Jenna Dewan, became mentors for one of the four divisions. Jennifer mentored the Upper acts, Derek worked with the Junior Teams, Ne - Yo worked with the Upper Teams, and Jenna worked with the Junior acts. Guest mentor Ciara helped each division in their practice as well. Guest judge Misty Copeland joined the panel for this segment.
In the World Final, the final 4 division champions competed head to head to win the one million dollar prize. As with the previous 2 rounds, the judges and the host, Jenna, became mentors for each of the finalists. Derek worked with Charity & Andres, Jennifer worked with S - Rank, Jenna worked with Michael Dameski, and Ne - Yo worked with The Lab. Each of the 4 finalists performed twice. The first performance 's music was chosen by their judge, or Jenna, and the second was chosen by the finalist. After each performance, the final scores were displayed on a leaderboard. The winner of the World Finals was determined by the judges combined average scores from both performances. After the first four performances, Season 1 's Divisional Finalists Kinjaz and Keone & Mari performed with Derek Hough. Season 1 's winner Les Twins also performed before the crowning. After the final performances, The Lab were announced as the winners of World of Dance; their final combined score of 97.5 beat out Michael Dameski by 1.5 points.
4th S - Rank (93.5)
3rd Charity & Andres (94.3)
2nd Michael Dameski (96)
WINNER The Lab (97.5)
^ 1 Misty Copeland joined the Judges panel for Division Final round
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who won the academy award for best actor | Academy award for Best actor - wikipedia
The Academy Award for Best Actor is an award presented annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS). It is given in honor of an actor who has delivered an outstanding performance in a leading role while working within the film industry.
The 1st Academy Awards ceremony was held in 1929 with Emil Jannings receiving the award for his roles in The Last Command and The Way of All Flesh. Currently, nominees are determined by single transferable vote within the actors branch of AMPAS; winners are selected by a plurality vote from the entire eligible voting members of the Academy.
In the first three years of the awards, actors were nominated as the best in their categories. At that time, all of their work during the qualifying period (as many as three films, in some cases) was listed after the award. However, during the 3rd ceremony held in 1930, only one of those films was cited in each winner 's final award, even though each of the acting winners had two films following their names on the ballots. The following year, this system was replaced by the current system in which an actor is nominated for a specific performance in a single film. Starting with the 9th ceremony held in 1937, the category was officially limited to five nominations per year.
Since its inception, the award has been given to 80 actors. Daniel Day - Lewis has received the most awards in this category with three Oscars. Spencer Tracy and Laurence Olivier were nominated on nine occasions, more than any other actor. As of the 2018 ceremony, Gary Oldman is the most recent winner in this category for portraying Winston Churchill in Darkest Hour.
In the following table, the years are listed as per Academy convention, and generally correspond to the year of film release in Los Angeles County; the ceremonies are always held the following year. For the first five ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned twelve months from August 1 to July 31. For the 6th ceremony held in 1934, the eligibility period lasted from August 1, 1932, to December 31, 1933. Since the 7th ceremony held in 1935, the period of eligibility became the full previous calendar year from January 1 to December 31.
The following individuals received two or more Best Actor awards:
The following individuals received four or more Best Actor nominations:
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what episode dies george die in grey's anatomy | George O'Malley - wikipedia
Louise O'Malley (mother)
George O'Malley is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy, which airs on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States. The character was created by series producer Shonda Rhimes, and was portrayed by actor T.R. Knight from 2005 to 2009. Introduced as a surgical intern at the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, O'Malley worked his way up to resident level, while his relationships with his colleagues Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl) and Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) formed a focal point of the series. O'Malley married Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) whom he later separated with to pursue a relationship with Izzie Stevens. O'Malley also had entertained a romantic interest with Meredith Grey and Olivia Harper (Sarah Utterback).
Knight auditioned for the show, expecting a one - season run. In 2007, Knight 's co-star Isaiah Washington (Preston Burke) insulted him with a homophobic slur, which resulted in the termination of Washington 's Grey 's Anatomy contract. In 2009, after the conclusion of the fifth season, it was confirmed that Knight would not be returning for the show 's sixth season. The actor stated the reason for his departure was due to a "breakdown in communication '' with Rhimes, his character 's lack of screen time, as well as his decision to come out as openly gay. Knight received generally positive reviews for his performance as O'Malley, and garnered a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards. Despite this, his death received mixed feedback.
George O'Malley is introduced as a fellow surgical intern to Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl) and Alex Karev (Justin Chambers); the five of them working under Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson). O'Malley and Stevens move in with Meredith, for whom he has romantic feelings but did not express them due to his fear of rejection and the fact that she and one of the attendings Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) had a mutual interest in one another. On the first day of internship, O'Malley is selected by chief of cardiothoracic surgery Preston Burke (Isaiah Washington) as the first intern to perform surgery. He freezes in the operating room, and is mocked by his peers, and earns the nickname "007 '' because of almost killing a patient in such a simple operation (referring to James Bond 's "licence to kill ''). O'Malley dates nurse Olivia Harper (Sarah Utterback), breaking up with her when he contracts syphilis from her, which she in turn contracted from Karev. His friendship with Karev is further strained when the two become trapped in an elevator with a patient who begins to bleed out. Karev freezes, and O'Malley is able to save the patient single - handedly. He goes on to admit his feelings to Meredith, and the two have a one - night stand. When Meredith tells him that sleeping together was a mistake, O'Malley begins avoiding her and starts dating orthopedic surgeon Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez).
During a camping trip, O'Malley learns that Torres has slept with chief of plastic surgery Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), and also discovers that Burke is experiencing tremors in his hand. When O'Malley's father is diagnosed with esophageal cancer and a leaking aortic valve, he refuses to allow Burke to operate on him, instead contacting Erica Hahn (Brooke Smith), Burke 's medical school rival. His relationship with Torres is strained when he confronts her about sleeping with Sloan, but he allows her to support him through his father 's deteriorating health. Complications from his father 's surgery leave him in multi-system organ failure, and his life support is turned off. In an attempt to overcome his grief, O'Malley elopes with Callie to Las Vegas. He later begins to feel that he was mistaken to marry her, and sleeps with Stevens while intoxicated. Stevens confesses that she is in love with him, so O'Malley considers transferring to a different hospital so he can be faithful to his wife. However, he is ineligible to transfer after failing the intern exams. O'Malley decides to repeat his intern year, and confesses to Torres that he slept with Stevens, leading the two to separate. O'Malley and Stevens embark on a short - lived relationship, only to discover there is no real chemistry between them.
O'Malley moves in with new intern Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh), Meredith 's half - sister. Lexie and O'Malley discover that he only failed his exam by a single point, leading him to confront Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.), the chief of surgery, to ask for a chance to retake the exam. He passes the second attempt, and begins to distance himself from Lexie, who has fallen in love with him. O'Malley supports Stevens when she discovers she has melanoma, and walks her down the aisle as she marries Karev. O'Malley begins to display a talent for trauma surgery, and is told by the chief of trauma surgery Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) that it is definitely his specialty. He then abruptly and inexplicably decides to join the U.S. Army. While his friends at the hospital prepare an intervention to convince O'Malley to stay, they all work on a severely disfigured John Doe, brought in after a horrible bus accident, in which he pushed a woman out of the way and saved her life. When Meredith goes to check on John Doe, he seems to recognize her and will not let go of her hand. After several attempts at trying, he succeeds in tracing "007 '' on Meredith 's hand. Shocked, she realizes "John Doe '' is in fact O'Malley. She informs the other surgeons and they rush him to surgery. However, he flatlines and is ultimately declared braindead. His organs are donated after Stevens confirms that is what O'Malley would have wanted, and he is buried a week later.
T.R. Knight signed on for the pilot as O'Malley, expecting that the role might be short - lived, because he liked that the character was multi-faceted. In October 2006, news reports surfaced that Washington had insulted Knight with a homophobic slur, during an argument with Patrick Dempsey (Derek Shepherd). Shortly after, the details of the argument became public, and Knight later disclosed that the slur made him come out as gay. "I was under no delusions, '' Knight said at the time. "My friends on the set knew. We talked about it. Publicly it 's not my thing to call up People magazine and be like, ' Hey, you want to know something about me? '... I could 've just let it slide and not said anything, but it became important. It became important to make the statement. '' The situation seemed somewhat resolved when Washington issued a statement, apologizing for his "unfortunate use of words during the recent incident on - set ''.
At the 64th Golden Globe Awards, while being interviewed on the red carpet, Washington joked, "I love gay. I wanted to be gay. Please let me be gay. '' Later, Washington claimed he never used the slur, labeling it "vile ''. In June 2007, it was reported that the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) and Shonda Rhimes had chosen not to renew Washington 's contract with the show, not immediately specifying a reason. In a subsequent interview, Washington claimed that "they fired the wrong guy '' (referring to Knight), and said he was considering filing a lawsuit as a result. He accused Knight of using the controversy to bolster his own career and increase his salary on Grey 's Anatomy.
On July 2, 2007, Washington appeared on Larry King Live, to present his side of the controversy. According to Washington, he never used the "F Word '' in reference to Knight, but rather blurted it out in an unrelated context in the course of an argument "provoked '' by Dempsey, who he felt was treating him like a "B - word '', a "P - word '', and the "F - word '', which Washington said conveyed "somebody who is being weak and afraid to fight back ''. In 2009, Rhimes told Entertainment Weekly that she may not have handled the incident correctly, stating: "I was n't interested in what anybody thought publicly. I was interested in what was going on right here on the ground... with the people I work with every day. Did I do it perfectly? Of course not. This is my first television show. It was a learning experience. '' Knight said that Rhimes was among those for discouraging him to come out, however Rhimes said: "I remember saying (to fellow executive producer), ' This is our proudest day here. T.R. got to come out and I got to say to him that it would n't affect his character ' because he was concerned he was going to come out and George would suddenly be gay. (...) The idea that a gay actor ca n't play a straight man is insulting. ''
In December 2008, reports speculated that Knight requested to be released from his contract and that "they were working out the details '' at that time. In June 2009, after the conclusion of the fifth season of Grey 's Anatomy, it was confirmed that Knight would not be returning for the show 's sixth season. The actor stated the reason for his departure was due to a "breakdown in communication '' with Rhimes, O'Malley's lack of screen time, as well as his decision to be openly gay. Prior to the official announcement of his departure, there was speculation that the role of O'Malley would be recast, but Rhimes labeled it as a "hilarious, ridiculous rumor ''. After the confirmation of his exit, Knight told TV Guide: "Leaving Grey 's Anatomy was not an easy decision for me to make. I am extremely grateful to have had the opportunity to play this character and will miss my fellow cast and crew very much. I continue to wish them the very best, and wholeheartedly thank all of the fans who have supported me and the show with such passion and enthusiasm. '' In a statement confirming Knight 's departure, Rhimes said: "I think I speak for the entire Grey 's Anatomy family when I say we wish T.R. Knight the best in his future endeavors. He is an incredibly talented actor and a person whose strength of character is admired by all of us. ''
In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, Rhimes said she tried to talk him out of quitting, explaining: "I looked in his face and he was really sure. It felt like the right thing for him. '' However, in another interview, Knight said of his exit: "My five - year experience proved to me that I could not trust any answer that was given (about O'Malley). '' Knight was "at peace '' with his departure, saying: "There just comes a time when it 's so clear that moving on is the best decision. '' However, Heigl tried to talk Knight out of leaving, saying: "I did n't think it was the right decision. I felt like some of the problems could be worked through. But by the time it came to fruition, I was (glad) for him because he was ready to go. '' On the topic of losing a US $14 million contract, Knight commented: "From an outsider 's perspective, I get the (impression that) ' He 's just a spoiled actor, he does n't know how good he has it. ' There are a lot of people who would like to be in my position. But in the end, I need to be fulfilled in my work. ''
O'Malley was characterized a "hapless naif ''. On the topic of O'Malley's longtime crush on Meredith in the second season, Knight said: "What 's going to be very interesting to see is what he 's going to do with Meredith. It 's getting close to time. Whatever he chooses to do will inform who he is the rest of his life. '' After their sexual encounter occurred onscreen, Knight said in an interview with Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune: "George was n't really paying full attention. He was letting his own feelings override his respect for Meredith. A person really clued in would get that there was n't anything coming back, but he was so in his head about it and caught up in his own feelings that he was n't listening. It 's not just that he loves her... it 's a kind of selfish love he had for her. '' He also added that, "I think George has a lot of growing up to do. Part of that is making horrible, stupid mistakes. He 's been pretty sheltered. ''
Series writer Stacy McKee said of the sexual encounter: "There 's no turning back. There 's nothing George and Meredith can do. The damage is done -- things will never be the same. They 've just changed something important in their lives forever. '' When asked if O'Malley was becoming more assertive, Knight said:
Knight also commented that the character does not appreciate himself and his positive traits. On the topic of O'Malley performing open heart surgery in an elevator, Knight said: "It 's a slow change but he 's starting to realize, ' The way I have been doing things is not working. ' The big thing about the open - heart surgery in the elevator was he was forced into it. He needs to be kind of kicked in the (butt) to do these things. ''
Knight felt a parallel to George in that his "confidence is n't always at its absolute highest '', but overall he sees more differences than similarities. However, when the actor starts to think he is so different from O'Malley, an awkward move can suggest otherwise. "I was walking, doing a scene with Katherine Heigl. I finished my line with her, and then I walked straight into the light stand. '' Critical of her affair with O'Malley, Knight 's co-star Heigl explained: "They really hurt somebody, and they did n't seem to be taking a lot of responsibility for it. I have a really hard time with that kind of thing. I 'm maybe a little too black and white about it. '' Speaking of O'Malley's relationship with Lexie, Rhimes offered her insight: "I love them as friends. They make good friends. We all have that friend we met in school or the gym or somewhere -- we just hit it off right away. And right away there was no pretense or airs. Just pure honesty. That 's Lexie and George. They 're really good friends and I can see the friendship evolving into something even greater. '' When asked what his "favorite George moment '' was, Knight said his relationships with Stevens and Bailey.
Fans were "widely against '' O'Malley's affair with Meredith in the second season, however certain fans who supported their relationship were critical when Torres was introduced as a love interest for him. Fans and critics were also against O'Malley's relationship with Stevens in the fourth season; Maclean 's said: "George must die. He 's slept with virtually everyone except the male cast and has been in love with virtually everyone except the male cast. And he 's not that great of a doctor. Evolve or die. '' Christopher Monfette of IGN said O'Malley and Stevens were a "mismatch '', adding: "Unfortunately, while it 's refreshing to see a plotline driven by activity versus apathy, the idea of these two ever - affable, best - friend characters suddenly discovering their potential, out - of - nowhere love for each other quickly feels both force - fed and emotionally - incorrect. '' Similarly, DVD Verdict stated that George and Izzie were "one of the strongest ' best friend ' vibes on television '' for the first three seasons, explaining "they were perfect as friends (while) George and Callie made a good couple. '' UGO.com put the two on their list of "Character Couples Who Should Have Never Happened ''.
Jennifer Armstrong of Entertainment Weekly said that when O'Malley told Torres about his affair with Stevens, the scene was too "melodramatic ''. Laura Burrows, also of IGN, said that the fourth - season premiere "introduced a new side of George ''. Armstrong said of O'Malley and Stevens ' reconciliation: "George and Izzie are finally on the old Grey 's Anatomy road to ruin. And I admit this is a good lesson in Grey 's viewing as well as life: Sit tight if you hate something, as nothing is permanent. '' Armstrong also commented that the "sparkling '' friendship development between Lexie and O'Malley "won her over ''. The following year, Monfette observed of O'Malley's lack of screen time: "His growing interest in trauma surgery at the side of Owen leads to an interesting development in the finale, but the character is virtually side - lined this season. '' Carina MacKenzie of the Los Angeles Times said of the character 's death: "The time - lapse episode was an interesting choice, and though we sped through six weeks of mourning in two hours, it did n't feel rushed to me. I 'm not sure the show could have held my attention for another season of crippling sadness. ''
The Huffington Post 's Michael Pascua commented that O'Malley's funeral did not live up to his expectations, writing that it "was n't as sad as (he) thought it would be ''. In 2006, Knight and the other cast of Grey 's Anatomy were nominated for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series, at the 12th Screen Actors Guild Awards. Also in 2006, the cast won the award for Best Cast -- Television Series at the 11th Satellite Awards. The cast won the award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series at the 13th Screen Actors Guild Awards, and were nominated again the following year. Knight 's performance in season three earned him a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards.
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who has played james bond over the years | James Bond filmography - wikipedia
Commander James Bond RN -- code number 007 -- is a fictional character created by the British journalist and novelist Ian Fleming in 1952. The character appeared in a series of twelve novels and two short story collections written by Fleming and a number of continuation novels and spin - off works after Fleming 's death in 1964. There have been twenty - six films in total, produced between 1962 and 2015.
Fleming portrayed Bond as a tall, athletic, handsome secret agent in his thirties or forties; he has several vices including drinking, smoking, gambling, automobiles and womanising. He is an exceptional marksman, and skilled in unarmed combat, skiing, swimming and golf. While Bond kills without hesitation or regret, he usually kills only when carrying out orders, while acting in self - defence and occasionally as revenge.
American actor Barry Nelson was the first to portray Bond on screen, in a 1954 television adaptation, "Casino Royale ''. In 1961 Eon Productions began work on Dr. No, an adaptation of the novel of the same name. The result was a film that spawned a series of twenty - four films produced by Eon Productions and two independent films. After considering the likes of "refined '' English actors such as Cary Grant and David Niven, the producers cast Sean Connery as Bond in the film. Fleming was appalled at the selection of the uncouth, 31 - year - old Scottish actor, considering him to be the antithesis of his character. However, Connery 's physical prowess and sexual magnetism in the role came to be closely identified with the character, with Fleming ultimately changing his view on Connery and incorporating aspects of his portrayal into the books.
Seven actors in total have portrayed Bond on film. Following Connery 's portrayal, David Niven, George Lazenby, Roger Moore, Timothy Dalton, Pierce Brosnan and Daniel Craig have assumed the role. These screen versions have retained many traits from Fleming 's depiction, although some of Bond 's less fashionable attitudes have been dropped, such as racism, homophobia, retaining the services of a maid, and in the more recent films, smoking. Despite playing the same character, there have been notable differences among the portrayals. Daniel Craig is the incumbent Bond in the long - running Eon series, and played the part for a fourth time in the latest film, Spectre, released in October 2015.
A Secret Service agent, James Bond was a composite based on a number of commandos whom author Ian Fleming had known during his service in the Naval Intelligence Division during World War II, to whom he added his own style and a number of his own tastes. Fleming appropriated his character 's name from the eponymous American ornithologist. Bond 's code number 007 comes from one of British naval intelligence 's key achievements of World War I: the breaking of the German diplomatic code. One of the German documents cracked and read by the British was the Zimmermann Telegram, which was coded 0075, and which was one of the factors that led the US entering the war. Subsequently, if material was graded 00 it meant it was highly classified. Fleming later told a journalist, "When I was at the Admiralty... all the top - secret signals had the double - 0 prefix... and I decided to borrow it for Bond ''.
Although James Bond is in his mid-to - late thirties, he does not age in Fleming 's stories. Fleming biographer Andrew Lycett noted that, "within the first few pages (of Casino Royale) Ian had introduced most of Bond 's idiosyncrasies and trademarks '', which included his looks, his Bentley and his smoking and drinking habits: Bond 's penchant for alcohol runs throughout the series of books and he smokes up to 70 cigarettes a day.
Fleming decided to underplay Bond 's character, observing that "Exotic things would happen to and around him, but he would be a neutral figure ''. On another occasion, he reinforced his point, saying, "When I wrote the first one in 1953, I wanted Bond to be an extremely dull, uninteresting man to whom things happened; I wanted him to be a blunt instrument ''.
Sean Connery was the first actor to portray Bond on film in Dr. No (1962). An amateur bodybuilder, he had come to the attention of the Bond film producers after several appearances in British films from the late 1950s. At a muscular 6'2 ", Connery was initially met with disapproval from Fleming, who believed him to be an overgrown stuntman who lacked the finesse and elegance to play James Bond; he envisaged a suave actor, such as David Niven playing the role. Producer Albert R. Broccoli -- known to all as Cubby -- disagreed with Fleming 's view, later commenting that "I wanted a ballsy guy... put a bit of veneer over that tough Scottish hide and you 've got Fleming 's Bond instead of all the mincing poofs we had applying for the job ''. Eon 's choice of Connery was also based on his looks and sex appeal, an appeal that would later be echoed by Honor Blackman who said, after appearing with Connery in Goldfinger, "He was exceedingly handsome, virile and sexy and that really was the tenor of what the script was always trying to display ''. After Connery was chosen, director Terence Young took the actor to his tailor and hairdresser, and introduced him to the high life, restaurants, casinos and women of London. In the words of Bond writer Raymond Benson, Young educated the actor "in the ways of being dapper, witty, and above all, cool ''.
Connery 's interpretation of the character differed considerably from Fleming 's, being more promiscuous and cold blooded than the literary version. Connery described Bond as "a complete sensualist -- senses highly tuned, awake to everything, quite amoral. I particularly like him because he thrives on conflict ''. Academic James Chapman observed that for Dr. No, Connery 's interpretation of the character, although not complete, showed the actor "should be credited with having established a new style of performance: a British screen hero in the manner of an American leading man ''. In his second film, From Russia with Love, Connery looked less nervous and edgy; he gave "a relaxed, wry performance of subtle wit and style ''. Pfeiffer and Worrall noted that Connery "personified James Bond with such perfection that even Ian Fleming... admitted that it was difficult imagining anyone else in the part ''; academic Jeremy Black agreed and declared that "Connery made the role his own and created the Bond audience for the cinema ''. Black also observed that Connery gave the character a "spare, pared - down character... (with) inner bleakness along with the style ''. Connery played Bond with "the right mix of cool charisma, violence and arrogance... against which all others are judged ''. Raymond Benson perceived that Connery "embodies a ruggedness and an intense screen presence this transcends any preconceived notions about the character ''. Benson also noted that Bond was witty, but contains "an assured toughness that epitomises the machismo male ''. Roger Moore agreed with Black and Benson, commenting that "Sean was Bond. He created Bond. He embodied Bond and because of Sean, Bond became an instantly recognisable character the world over -- he was rough, tough, mean and witty... he was a bloody good 007 ''. However, despite his charm and virility, Connery was characteristically laconic in his delivery. Christopher Bray says of him that "in his single - minded, laconic, mocking, self - sufficient vanity, Connery 's Bond was the epitome of sixties consumer culture ''.
Interviewed by Oriana Fallaci in 1965, Connery identified where he had altered the character for the films, saying "I said to the producers that the character had one defect, there was no humor about him; to get him accepted, they 'd have to let me play him tongue - in - cheek, so people could laugh. They agreed, and there you are: today Bond is accepted to such an extent that even philosophers take the trouble to analyze him, even intellectuals enjoy defending him or attacking him. And even while they 're laughing at him, people take him terribly seriously ''. Connery went on to add that "Bond is important: this invincible superman that every man would like to copy, that every woman would like to conquer, this dream we all have of survival. And then one ca n't help liking him ''. After the pressures of five films in six years, Connery left the role after the 1967 film You Only Live Twice saying, "It became a terrible pressure, like living in a goldfish bowl... that was part of the reason I wanted to be finished with Bond. Also I had become completely identified with it, and it became very wearing and very boring ''.
After a hiatus of one film -- On Her Majesty 's Secret Service, in which George Lazenby played Bond -- Connery returned to the role for Diamonds Are Forever after David Picker, the head of United Artists, made it clear that Connery was to be enticed back to the role and that money was no object. When approached about resuming the role of Bond, Connery demanded -- and received -- a fee of £ 1.25 million (£ 24 million in 2016 pounds), 12.5 % of the gross profits and, as a further enticement, United Artists offered to back two films of his choice. His performance received mixed reviews, with Raymond Benson considering that Connery "looks weary and bored... he is overweight, slow - moving, and does n't seem to be trying to create a credible character ''. Despite that, Benson considers that Connery "still radiates more screen presence than Roger Moore or George Lazenby ''. On the other hand, Pauline Kael said "Connery 's James Bond is less lecherous than before and less foppish -- and he 's better this way ''.
In the early 1980s producer Jack Schwartzman moved ahead with a non-Eon Bond film, following the controversy over the 1961 novel Thunderball and the subsequent long legal battle; the result was Never Say Never Again. Connery accepted an offer to play Bond once more, asking for (and receiving) a fee of $3 million ($7 million in 2017 dollars), a percentage of the profits, as well as casting, director and script approval. The script has several references to Bond 's advancing years -- playing on Connery being 52 at the time of filming. David Robinson, reviewing the film for The Times considered that, "Connery... is back, looking hardly a day older or thicker, and still outclassing every other exponent of the role, in the goodnatured throwaway with which he parries all the sex and violence on the way ''. In 2003 Bond, as portrayed by Connery, was selected as the third - greatest hero in cinema history by the American Film Institute.
When Sean Connery had been cast in November 1961, David Niven had been Fleming 's choice for the role as the actor reflected his image of the character. In 1965 producer Charles Feldman signed Niven to play Sir James Bond for Casino Royale, a film not made by Eon Productions. Connery and Peter Sellers had both turned down the role. Niven was 56 when he played Bond and his characterisation was that of an elderly man who had won the Victoria Cross at the Siege of Mafeking, had a daughter by his lover, the spy Mata Hari, played Claude Debussy on the piano, ate royal jelly and cultivated black roses. The concept of Bond is that once Niven 's Bond retired, his name and 007 designation was passed to another agent to keep the legend alive; James Chapman notes that the implication was that the "other Bond '' was that played by Connery.
Chapman considered the concept of an elderly Bond to be an interesting one, with Bond referring to Connery 's Bond as a "sexual acrobat who leaves a trail of beautiful dead women behind like blown roses ''. In line with the literary Bond, Niven 's character drives a vintage Bentley, rather than the Aston Martin favoured by Connery. Bond scholar Steven Jay Rubin thought Niven perfectly cast as the retired Bond, and saw him as "a throw - back to the hell - for - leather adventure heroes '' of the character, which paralleled Niven 's own life and career. Barnes and Hearn describe this as a "perfectly fair interpretation '', given the way Niven approached the role, while Raymond Benson thinks casting Niven was "intelligent ''. Jeremy Black questioned the use of Niven in the role, observing that he did not seem to be a killer, and did not have the "disconcerting edge '' that Connery had.
With the departure of Connery after You Only Live Twice, Broccoli and director Peter R. Hunt chose Australian George Lazenby to play the role of Bond. He first came to their attention after seeing him in a Fry 's Chocolate Cream advertisement. Lazenby dressed the part by sporting several sartorial Bond elements such as a Rolex Submariner wristwatch and a Savile Row suit (ordered, but uncollected, by Connery), and going to Connery 's barber at the Dorchester Hotel. Lazenby consolidated his claim during a screen test, when he accidentally punched a professional wrestler, who was acting as stunt coordinator, in the face, impressing Broccoli with his ability to display aggression. Lazenby never signed a contract, with negotiations dragging on during production, and he was subsequently convinced by his agent Ronan O'Rahilly that the secret agent would be archaic in the liberated 1970s; as a result he left the role before the release of On Her Majesty 's Secret Service in 1969. For his performance as Bond, Lazenby was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year -- Actor at the 27th Golden Globe Awards.
Critical opinion was split about Lazenby; he has been considered to have been the worst Bond, and has variously been described as "laconic and humourless '', "a little stiff '' and "annoying and smug ''. Derek Malcolm of The Guardian was dismissive of Lazenby 's performance, saying that he "is not a good actor and though I never thought Sean Connery was all that stylish either, there are moments when one yearns for a little of his louche panache ''. The New York Times critic AH Weiler also weighed in against Lazenby, saying that "Lazenby, if not a spurious Bond, is merely a casual, pleasant, satisfactory replacement ''. Pauline Kael called Lazenby "quite a dull fellow '' in her otherwise positive review in The New Yorker. However, Peter R. Hunt, director of On Her Majesty 's Secret Service, stated that Lazenby should have undertaken more films in the role, saying "he would have made a very credible Bond and been very good indeed ''.
Smith and Lavington consider that Lazenby "had chosen to play Bond the same way as Sean Connery had, with perhaps more humility and humanity ''; they went on to say that "Lazenby 's inexperience rarely shows '' in the film, and that "he invariably rises to the occasion ''. Alexander Walker in the London Evening Standard said that, "The truth is that George Lazenby is almost as good a James Bond as the man referred to in his film as ' the other fellow '. Lazenby 's voice is more suave than sexy - sinister and he could pass for the other fellow 's twin on the shady side of the casino. Bond is now definitely all set for the Seventies ''. Judith Crist of New York Magazine commented that, "This time around there 's less suavity and a no - nonsense muscularity and maleness to the role via the handsome Mr. Lazenby ''. Feminist film critic Molly Haskell wrote an approving review in the Village Voice: "Lazenby... seems more comfortable in a wet tuxedo than a dry martini, more at ease as a donnish genealogist than reading (or playing) Playboy, and who actually dares to think that one woman who is his equal is better than a thousand part - time playmates ''.
James Chapman considers that Lazenby looks the part of Bond, identifying his athleticism and "arrogant swagger '', which "convey the snobbery of the character ''. Chapman also distinguished a more vulnerable and human characterisation in Bond -- feeling exhausted and falling in love -- as opposed to the "heroic superman '' of Connery. Brian Fairbanks noted that "OHMSS gives us a James Bond capable of vulnerability, a man who can show fear and is not immune to heartbreak. Lazenby is that man, and his performance is superb ''. Ben Macintyre also observed that of all the Bonds, Lazenby 's characterisation was closest to that of Fleming 's original character.
After Diamonds Are Forever, Broccoli and Saltzman tried to convince Sean Connery to return as Bond, but he declined. After considering Jeremy Brett, Michael Billington and Julian Glover, the two producers finally turned to Roger Moore, who they had previously discussed for On Her Majesty 's Secret Service, but who had been unavailable, and he was ultimately cast to play Bond in Live and Let Die. At the time Moore was an established television actor, known for his performances as Simon Templar in The Saint and Lord Brett Sinclair in The Persuaders!: in both of which he played a "charming, debonair, international playboy ''. When playing Bond, Moore tried not to imitate either Connery or his previous roles, and screenwriter Tom Mankiewicz fitted the screenplay around Moore 's persona by giving more comedy scenes and a light - hearted feel to Bond, an approach that led Raymond Benson to describe Moore 's Bond as "a rather smarmy, eyebrow - raising international playboy who never seemed to get hurt ''.
Film writer Andrew Spicer considered Roger Moore to be the most elegant and mannerly of the Bonds, with the voice and style of an English debonair country gentleman. Benson agreed, stating that Moore was, "too nice and well - mannered to be a James Bond of any real substance '', while Doug Pratt said that "the writers worked out an amenable personality for Roger Moore and found a breezy balance between comedy and action ''. To make Moore 's character appear tougher, a Smith & Wesson. 44 Magnum -- which at the time was associated with the macho image of the Clint Eastwood character, Dirty Harry -- was chosen for Moore to use in Live and Let Die rather than Bond 's usual choice of Walther PPK.
Spicer says "Roger Moore re-created Bond as an old - style debonair hero, more polished and sophisticated than Connery 's incarnation, using the mocking insouciance he had perfected in his role as Simon Templar... Moore 's humour was a throwaway, and certainly in the later films, verged on self - parody. It was an essential strand in the increasingly tongue - in - cheek direction of the series which became more light - hearted, knowing and playfully intertextual ''. Chapman noted that Moore was the most comedic of the Bonds, with a more light - hearted approach to playing the character with a mocking wit and innuendo. Additionally, Moore 's one - liners were delivered in a way to suggest that the violence inherent in the films was a joke, as opposed to Connery 's, which was used to mitigate the violence. Moore explained his approach to the humour by saying "to me, the Bond situations are so ridiculous... I mean, this man is supposed to be a spy, and yet everybody knows he 's a spy... it 's outrageous. So you have to treat the humour outrageously as well ''.
Pauline Kael was a fairly vocal critic of Moore 's, dismissing him as an "iceberg '' in The Man with the Golden Gun. In reviewing For Your Eyes Only, she wrote "Roger Moore is Bond again, and his idea of Bond 's imperturbable cool is the same as playing dead ''. Reviewing Moonraker, she wrote "Roger Moore is dutiful and passive as Bond; his clothes are neatly pressed and he shows up for work, like an office manager who is turning into dead wood but hanging on to collect his pension ''. Only in The Spy Who Loved Me, one of Kael 's favourite Bond films, did she praise him describing him as self - effacing: "Moore gets the chance to look scared -- an emotion that suits him and makes him more likable ''.
A number of Moore 's personal preferences were transferred into his characterisation of Bond: his taste for Cuban cigars and his wearing of safari suits were assigned to the character. Moore 's use for cigars in his early films put him in contrast to the cigarette - smoking Connery, Lazenby and Dalton. By the time of Moore 's fifth film, For Your Eyes Only, released in 1981, his characterisation had come to represent an old - fashioned character, in contrast to the fashionability Connery had brought to the role in the 1960s.
In 1985 Moore appeared in his seventh and final film, A View to a Kill; he was 57 (he appeared alongside co-star Tanya Roberts, who was 30). Critics focused on Moore 's age: The Washington Post said "Moore is n't just long in the tooth -- he 's got tusks, and what looks like an eye job has given him the pie - eyed blankness of a zombie. He 's not believable anymore in the action sequences, even less so in the romantic scenes ''. When he was cast for the film, Moore recalled that he felt "a bit long in the tooth '', and in December 2007 admitted that he "was only about four hundred years too old for the part ''. Like Connery, Moore appeared as Bond in seven films; by the time he retired in 1985, he was the oldest actor to play 007 in the Eon series, and his Bond films had earned over $1 billion at the box office.
With the retirement of Roger Moore in 1985, a search for a new actor to play Bond took place that saw a number of actors, including Sam Neill, Pierce Brosnan and Timothy Dalton, audition for the role in 1986. Bond co-producer Michael G. Wilson, director John Glen, Dana and Barbara Broccoli "were impressed with Sam Neill and very much wanted to use him '', although Bond producer Albert R. Broccoli was not sold on the actor. Dalton and Brosnan were both considered by Eon, but after Brosnan was eventually ruled out by his Remington Steele contract, Dalton was appointed in August 1986 on a salary of $5.2 million. When he was either 24 or 25 years old Dalton had discussed playing Bond with Broccoli, but decided he was too young to accept the role, thinking Bond should be played between 35 and 40 years old. In preparing for the role, Dalton, a green - eyed, dark haired, slender, 6'2 '' (1 m 88 cm) classically trained Shakespearean actor, was keen to portray the character as accurately as possible, reading up extensively on the books before his role in The Living Daylights (1987).
Dalton 's Bond was a serious one: dark, cold, emotional, stern, ruthless, showing little humour, and focused as a killer with little time for fun and indulgence. Dalton 's interpretation of the character came from his "desire to see a darker Bond '', one that was "less of a womaniser, tougher and closer to the darker character Ian Fleming wrote about ''. James Chapman also considered Dalton to be closer to Fleming 's Bond than the previous actors, writing that Dalton was "clearly less comfortable... with the witty asides and one - liners... so he becomes something closer to the Bond of the books, who rarely develops a sense of humour ''. When reviewing Licence to Kill, Iain Johnstone of The Sunday Times disagreed, declaring that "any vestiges of the gentleman spy... by Ian Fleming '' have now gone; he went on to say that "this character is remarkably close both in deed and action to the eponymous hero of the new Batman film ''.
Not all viewers were taken with Dalton. Jay Scott of The Globe and Mail was entirely dismissive. "The new Bond has been widely described in feature stories as a throwback to the Ian Fleming original (studying the Fleming novels, Dalton was pleased to discover that Bond was a human being, he says), and that may be true, if the Fleming original lacked charm, sex appeal and wit. Timothy Dalton 's Bond is a serious bloke who swallows his words and approaches his job with responsibility and humanity, and eschews promiscuity -- Dirtless Harry. You get the feeling that on his off nights, he might curl up with the Reader 's Digest and catch an episode of Moonlighting -- he 'd try to memorize the jokes -- before nodding off under the influence of Ovaltine. The British reviews of The Living Daylights have been laudatory, perhaps because this Bond is the most British of all, if British is to be understood as a synonym for reserved ''.
Raymond Benson noted that Dalton "purposely played Bond as a ruthless and serious man with very little of the wit displayed by Connery, Lazenby or Moore '', and considered him to be "the most accurate and literal interpretation of the role... ever seen on screen ''. His character also reflected a degree of moral ambiguity; in Licence to Kill, for instance, he becomes a rogue agent, while Dalton himself saw the character as a "man, not a superhuman; a man who is beset with moral confusions and apathies and uncertainties, and who is often very frightened and nervous and tense ''. Smith and Lavington observed that during Dalton 's portrayal in Licence to Kill, Bond appeared "self - absorbed... reckless, brutal, prone to nervous laughter and... probably insane, or at least seriously disturbed. In the light of Licence to Kill, one academic, Martin Willis, referred to Dalton 's Bond as a "muscular vigilante ''. Steven Jay Rubin noted that Dalton 's films had "a hard - edged reality and some unflinching violent episodes that were better suited to Dalton 's more realistic approach to the character ''. Rubin considered Dalton 's portrayal to be "Fleming 's Bond... the suffering Bond ''. In contrast to the previous incarnations of the character, Smith and Lavington identified Dalton 's humour as "brooding rather than flippant ''; combined with his heavy smoking, they considered him "an effective leading man ''. Eoghan Lyng, writing for The James Bond Dossier, favourably compared him to Daniel Craig, stating that "Despite chronological placement, it was Dalton, not Brosnan, who proved to be the prototype for the 21st century Bond. ''. Although Bond screenwriter Richard Maibaum called Sean Connery the best Bond, he considered Dalton the best actor of the four he worked with. His predecessor, Roger Moore also felt that Dalton was the best actor to play Bond.
Dalton 's films did not perform as well at the box office as most of the previous films. Commentators such as Screen International considered the Bond series had run its course in the age of series such as Indiana Jones and Lethal Weapon. Edward P. Comentale observed that "Dalton, for all his occasional flat northern vowels, was probably too much the stage actor to be convincing as an action hero in the age of Willis, Schwarzenegger and Stallone ''. After just two films -- The Living Daylights and Licence to Kill -- litigation ensued over the licensing of the Bond catalogue, delaying what would have been Dalton 's third film by several years. His six - year contract expired in 1993 and he left the series in 1994.
After Timothy Dalton retired from the Bond role in 1994, Eon turned to the actor they had considered after A View to a Kill: Pierce Brosnan. He was offered a three - film contract, with an option on a fourth; his salary for his first film, GoldenEye, was $4 million, which rose to $16.5 million for his fourth and final outing, Die Another Day. Brosnan had first met Broccoli on the set of For Your Eyes Only, when Brosnan 's wife, Cassandra Harris, was appearing in the film as Countess Lisl von Schlaf, and the couple lunched with Broccoli during filming. Brosnan went on to play a criminal - turned - private investigator in Remington Steele in the 1980s, where he captured some of the traits of previous Bonds in playing the role: like Moore, he exemplified a high degree of suavity, elegance, charm and wit, but displayed a masculinity and grittiness on occasion reminiscent of Connery 's Bond, both successfully "combine the character 's Englishness with a classless internationalism that is highly knowing ''. Andrew Spicer says that "Brosnan 's frame carries the ' Armani look ' with its refined understated Englishness, to perfection. His lithe, sinuous athleticism is well suited to the fast - paced action and state - of - the - art gadgetry that retains the series ' core appeal ''. James Chapman also considered Brosnan 's appearance striking, saying the actor had "old - fashioned, darkly handsome matinee idol looks ''.
With Brosnan, the Bond writers knew that because of the changes in public attitudes, he could not be as overtly sexual and dominant over women as Connery 's Bond, and was denounced by M in GoldenEye to be a "sexist, misogynist dinosaur, a relic of the Cold War ''. Brosnan was seen by many as the quintessential James Bond in appearance and manner; displaying an air of coolness, elegance and a grace which made him believable as an international playboy, if not purely as an assassin. John G. Stackhouse for instance argues that it is preposterous that any man as strikingly handsome as Brosnan and Connery could be a secret agent, saying, "When Sean Connery or Pierce Brosnan enters a room, everyone notices. Thus it is ridiculous to suppose that James Bond, looking like that, could be a secret agent for longer than about two seconds ''.
Brosnan 's Bond was introduced in GoldenEye; James Chapman argues that the film works his portrayal of Bond into the history of the others in the series through the post-credits sequence use of the Aston Martin DB5, previously seen in Goldfinger and Thunderball, "thus immediately evoking the memory of (Sean) Connery ''. Brosnan 's characterisation of Bond was seen by Jeremy Black as being "closer to the Fleming novels than Moore... yet he is also lighter and less intense than Dalton ''. Black also commented that the shift in character in the first three films reflected changing social opinions, with Bond not smoking. Brosnan was clear he wanted to change Bond 's smoking habit, saying "I do n't give a damn about everyone 's perception of the character: I think smoking causes cancer therefore he does n't smoke '', although he did smoke a Cuban cigar in Die Another Day. Brosnan continued with the use of humour prevalent with other portrayals, and provided a "mix of action and danger threaded through with the right amount of wit and humour ''; Smith and Lavington saw the humour largely as puns that were "flippant, but not crass ''.
After four films in the role, Brosnan stated he wished to do one final Bond film. Although plans were made for a film to be released in 2004, negotiations stalled and Brosnan announced his intention to leave in July 2004.
On 14 October 2005 Eon Productions, Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer and Sony Pictures Entertainment announced at a press conference in London that Daniel Craig would be the sixth actor to portray Bond in the Eon series (although seventh film Bond overall). A tuxedo - and lifejacket - clad Craig arrived via a Royal Navy speedboat. Craig had based his acceptance of the role on the strength of the script for the first film, Casino Royale; he later recalled that "once I sat down and read the story, I just thought that I wanted to tell (it)... I 'm a big Bond fan, and I love what he represents ''. Significant controversy followed the decision, with some critics and fans expressing doubt the producers had made the right choice. Throughout the entire production period, Internet campaigns such as danielcraigisnotbond.com expressed their dissatisfaction and threatened to boycott the film in protest. Craig, unlike previous actors, was not considered by the protesters to fit the tall, dark, handsome and charismatic image of Bond to which viewers had been accustomed. Many disparagingly called him "James Blonde '', believing the 5 ft 10 in (1.78 m) blond - haired blue - eyed rugged Craig to be far fitting from the traditional tall, dark and suave actors who had earlier portrayed him. The Daily Mirror ran a front - page news story critical of Craig, with the headline, The Name 's Bland -- James Bland.
Craig first played Bond in the 2006 film Casino Royale, an adaptation of Fleming 's novel of the same name and a reboot of the Eon series, which saw Bond earn his 00 status. Despite the negative press on his appointment, Craig was widely praised by critics and former Bonds after the release of Casino Royale, believing him to have been the first actor to truly nail Fleming 's character in the book: Todd McCarthy, reviewing the film for Variety, considered that "Craig comes closer to the author 's original conception of this exceptionally long - lived male fantasy figure than anyone since early Sean Connery '', and he went on to say that "Craig once and for all claims the character as his own '', while Steven Spielberg called Craig "the perfect 21st - century Bond ''. Paul Arendt, writing for the BBC, agreed, observing that "Daniel Craig is not a good Bond. He 's a great Bond. Specifically, he is 007 as conceived by Ian Fleming -- a professional killing machine, a charming, cold - hearted patriot with a taste for luxury. Craig is the first actor to really nail 007 's defining characteristic: he 's an absolute swine ''. James Chapman commented on the realism and violence in the film noting that Bond is seen to seriously bleed for the first time in the series; Chapman also identified a number of violent scenes which make Casino Royale notable in the series. In 2012 Skyfall was released: it was Craig 's third outing as 007. Reviewing the film, Philip French, writing in The Observer, considered that Craig managed to "get out of the shadow of Connery '', while the New Statesman thought that he had "relaxed into Bond without losing any steeliness ''.
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where was the tv series the musketeers filmed | The Musketeers - Wikipedia
The Musketeers is a BBC period action drama programme based on the characters from Alexandre Dumas 's novel The Three Musketeers and co-produced by BBC America and BBC Worldwide. The first episode was shown on BBC One on 19 January 2014. It stars Tom Burke as Athos, Santiago Cabrera as Aramis, Howard Charles as Porthos, Luke Pasqualino as d'Artagnan, with Tamla Kari as Constance, Maimie McCoy as Milady de Winter, Ryan Gage as King Louis XIII and Alexandra Dowling as Queen Anne. It also features Peter Capaldi as Cardinal Richelieu in the first series and Marc Warren as Comte de Rochefort in the second series, with Rupert Everett as the Marquis de Feron for the final series.
Jessica Pope and Adrian Hodges produce the show for the BBC. The programme is largely filmed in the Czech Republic. In February 2015, it was announced that the show had been renewed for a third series, which was announced in April 2016 to be the last. The third series premiered in multiple countries first, before premiering in the UK on 28 May 2016, and concluding on 1 August 2016.
In 1630s Paris, Athos, Aramis and Porthos are a group of highly trained musketeers commanded by Captain Treville who meet d'Artagnan, a skillful farm boy with hopes of becoming a musketeer. The series follows them as they fight to protect King and country.
The BBC had been developing the idea of a new series based on The Three Musketeers since as far back as 2007, when the project was envisaged as a Saturday evening show to run between series of Doctor Who. The eventual production of the series was finally announced in 2012, with Adrian Hodges in charge of the project.
Paris was not considered as a filming location because over the decades, development had detracted from the grittier architecture wanted. Dublin was also considered before settling on the Czech Republic, which suffered little damage during the two world wars. Many historic buildings were intact and privately owned stately homes were rented for filming.
Filming for the series took place mainly in Doksany, 30 kilometres north - west of Prague, where a Parisian square, a number of streets and the musketeers garrison were constructed. A disused convent had additional sets constructed including taverns, bedrooms and mortuary.
During filming of the first series Peter Capaldi learned that he had been given the role of the Twelfth Doctor in Doctor Who. The show 's executive producer Jessica Pope commented that they would have to "recalibrate '' plans for a prospective second series, in order to accommodate Capaldi now being unable to reprise his role. Marc Warren joined the cast for the second series. The Musketeers was originally planned to be broadcast in 2013, but was later delayed until 2014.
The Musketeers initially received mixed reviews from critics, but they have become more positive as the series has continued. Jim Shelley, writing for the Daily Mail, heavily criticised the programme, saying "The Musketeers did n't take itself too seriously but was still so bad it bordered on self - parody '' and that "the quality of the sub-plots hardly merited its 9pm slot in the schedule rather than (like Merlin or Robin Hood) much earlier, consisting of such clichéd set pieces as a fight following an accusation of cheating during a card game and a randy musketeer being caught in the act and having to dangle out of his lover 's bedroom window while his mates watched on chuckling ''. Overall, he said "The main problem with The Musketeers, apart from the quality of the script, the acting and the predictability of the plot, was that there are only so many ways to make sword fights between men wearing blue leather tunics that entertaining or exciting ''.
However, reviewing the third episode of the drama, Morgan Jeffery, writing for Digital Spy, praised the development of the characters, stating that there was a "real feeling of growth '' and that it delivered "something a little more substantial ''. Den of Geek writer Rob Kemp also gave a positive review, stating that The Musketeers had "won a lot of people over with its fun and adventurous take on this well - loved story '', but also wrote that some of the dramatic elements felt "shoe horned and deliberate ''. Overall, Kemp had hope for the series and praised the change in focus in the third episode, saying that the "time was definitely right to start to explore the characters '', before going on to say that the series would have "plenty more opportunities for the Musketeers to hit their more (and hopefully, better) dramatic strides ''.
Upon its premiere on BBC America, Alessandra Stanley of The New York Times gave the drama a positive review, calling the series "not at all bad, just a bit old - fashioned ''. She also praised the updates made to the series, writing "purists may be dismayed that Mr. Hodges took so many liberties with the original plot, but purists are rarely any fun ''.
These are the premiere and finale dates for the show airing on BBC, its origin channel. Series 2 concluded earlier in the U.S., and Series 3 was aired / released before the UK in multiple countries; see the episode tables and broadcast details for these dates.
Shown on BBC One, the first series of The Musketeers was broadcast weekly at 9pm on Sunday nights starting on 19 January 2014. The programme was the highest rated drama to debut that year. For the second series, it was moved to 9pm on Friday nights and screening began on 2 January 2015. The series premiered in the United States on 22 June 2014 on BBC America. The complete first series was "striped '' on 3 August 2014 on the Australian Foxtel Cable TV channel BBC First, the day of that channel 's premiere. The series started on 18 September 2014 on ' Box ' Sky TV in New Zealand.
The third series premiered in Canada on Showcase Canada on 10 April 2016. The full series was made available on Netflix Latin America on 16 April 2016, and on Hulu in the United States on 14 May 2016. The series premiered in the UK on 28 May 2016.
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dns entry in the subject alternative name extension | Subject Alternative Name - Wikipedia
Subject Alternative Name (SAN) is an extension to X. 509 that allows various values to be associated with a security certificate using a subjectAltName field. These values are called "Subject Alternative Names '' (SANs). Names include:
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list of prime ministers in the united kingdom | List of Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom - wikipedia
The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of the Government of the United Kingdom, and chairs Cabinet meetings. There is no specific date when the office of Prime Minister first appeared, as the role was not created but rather evolved over a period of time. The term was used in the House of Commons in 1805 and it was certainly in parliamentary use by the 1880s, and in 1905 the post of Prime Minister was officially given recognition in the order of precedence. Modern historians generally consider Sir Robert Walpole, who led the government of Great Britain from 1721 to 1742, as the first Prime Minister. Walpole is also the longest - serving Prime Minister by this definition. However, Sir Henry Campbell - Bannerman was the first Prime Minister and Margaret Thatcher the longest - serving Prime Minister to have been officially referred to as such.
Strictly, the first Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (of Great Britain and Ireland) was William Pitt the Younger. The first Prime Minister of the current United Kingdom (the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) was David Lloyd George, although the country was not renamed officially until 1927 when Stanley Baldwin was serving as Prime Minister.
Due to the gradual evolution of the post of Prime Minister, the title is applied to early Prime Ministers only retrospectively; this has sometimes given rise to academic dispute. Lord Bath and Lord Waldegrave are both sometimes listed as prime ministers. Bath was invited to form a ministry by King George II when Henry Pelham resigned in 1746, as was Waldegrave in 1757 after the dismissal of William Pitt the Elder, who dominated the government during the Seven Years ' War. Neither was able to command sufficient parliamentary support to form a government; Bath stepped down after two days, and Waldegrave after three. Modern academic consensus does not consider either man to have held office as Prime Minister, and they are not listed.
Before the Georgian era, the Treasury of England was led by the Lord High Treasurer. By the late Tudor period, the Lord High Treasurer was regarded as one of the Great Officers of State and tended to be the dominant figure in government: the Duke of Somerset, Lord High Treasurer (1547 -- 1549), served as Lord Protector to his nephew King Edward VI; Lord Burghley, Lord High Treasurer (1572 -- 1598), was the dominant minister among Queen Elizabeth I 's ministers; Burghley 's son Lord Salisbury succeeded his father as chief minister to Elizabeth I (1598 -- 1603) and later served King James I as Lord High Treasurer (1608 -- 1612).
By the late Stuart period, the Treasury was often run not by a single individual such as a Lord High Treasurer but by a committee of Lords of the Treasury, led by the First Lord of the Treasury. The last Lords High Treasurer, Lord Godolphin (1702 -- 1710) and Lord Oxford (1711 -- 1714), ran the government of Queen Anne.
After the succession of King George I in 1714, the arrangement of a commission of Lords of the Treasury as opposed to a single Lord High Treasurer became permanent. For the next three years, the government was headed by Lord Townshend, who was appointed Secretary of State for the Northern Department. Subsequently, Lord Stanhope and Lord Sunderland ran the government jointly, with Stanhope managing foreign affairs and Sunderland managing domestic affairs. Stanhope died in February 1721 and Sunderland resigned two months later; Townshend and Robert Walpole were then invited to form the next government. From that point, the holder of the office of First Lord also unofficially held the status of Prime Minister. It was not until the Edwardian era that the title Prime Minister was constitutionally recognised. With only few exceptions, the Prime Minister still holds the office of First Lord by constitutional convention.
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initiation of struggle for a separate state of telangana | Telangana movement - wikipedia
Early events
Srikrishna Committee and aftermath
Formation of Telengana
The ' Telangana movement refers to a movement for the creation of a new state, Telangana, from the pre-existing state of Andhra Pradesh in India. The new state corresponds to the Telugu - speaking portions of the erstwhile princely state of Hyderabad. After several years of protest and agitation, the central government, under the United Progressive Alliance, decided to bifurcate the existing Andhra Pradesh state and on 7 February 2014, the Union Cabinet unilaterally cleared the bill for the creation of Telangana. Lasting for almost a decade, this has been one of the most longlasting movements in South India. On 18 February 2014, the Lok Sabha passed the bill with a voice vote. Subsequently, the bill was passed by Rajya Sabha two days later, on 20 February. As per the bill, Hyderabad would be the capital of Telangana, while the city would also remain the capital of residual state of Andhra Pradesh for no more than ten years. On 2 June 2014, Telangana was created.
In December 1953, the States Reorganisation Commission was appointed to prepare for the creations of states on linguistic line. The commission, due to public demand, recommended disintegration of Hyderabad State and to merge Marathi speaking region with Bombay state and Kannada speaking region with Mysore state. The States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) discussed pros and cons of the merger of Telugu speaking Telangana region of Hyderabad state with Andhra state. Paragraph 374 of the SRC report said "The creation of Vishalandhra is an ideal to which numerous individuals and public bodies, both in Andhra and Telangana, have been passionately attached over a long period of time, and unless there are strong reasons to the contrary, this sentiment is entitled to consideration ''. Discussing the case of Telangana, paragraph 378 of the SRC report said "One of the principal causes of opposition of Vishalandhra also seems to be the apprehension felt by the educationally backward people of Telangana that they may be swamped and exploited by the more advanced people of the coastal areas who were swamped by people of Tamilnadu already ''. In its final analysis SRC recommended against the immediate merger. In paragraph 386 it said "After taking all these factors into consideration we have come to the conclusions that it will be in the interests of Andhra as well as Telangana, if for the present, the Telangana area is to constitute into a separate State, which may be known as the Hyderabad State with provision for its unification with Andhra after the general elections likely to be held in or about 1961 if by a two thirds majority the legislature of the residuary Hyderabad State expresses itself in favor of such unification. ''
After going through the recommendations of the SRC, the then Home Minister Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant decided to merge Andhra state and Telangana to form Andhra Pradesh state on 1 November 1956 after providing safeguards to Telangana in the form of Gentleman 's agreement.
Telangana was the largest of the three regions of Andhra Pradesh state, covering 41.47 % of its total area. It is inhabited by 40.54 % of the state 's population. The following is the breakup of Andhra Pradesh 's revenue by region:
Note: The income generated by the capital city of the erstwhile Andhra Pradesh is a complex issue with income being generated from all regions. This has caused a lot of confusion in region-wise income distribution. Also, after the bifurcation, companies will pay their portion of taxes to Telangana or present day Andhra Pradesh depending on where they operate. Before the bifurcation, many companies were paid taxes to capital city Hyderabad for their operations in Seemandhra.
Proponents of a separate Telangana state cite perceived injustices in the distribution of water, budget allocations, and jobs. Within the state of Andhra Pradesh, 68.5 % of the catchment area of the Krishna River and 69 % of the catchment area of the Godavari River are in the plateau region of Telangana and flowing through the other parts of the state into bay of Bengal. Telangana and non-coastal parts of Karnataka and Maharashtra states form Deccan Plateau. Telangana supporters state that 74.25 % of irrigation water through the canal system under major irrigation projects goes to the Coastal Andhra region, while Telangana gets 18.20 %. The remaining 7.55 % goes to the Rayalaseema region.
As per Volume - II of Krishna Water Dispute Tribunal Award, "The area which we are considering for irrigation formed part of Hyderabad State and had there been no division of that State, there were better chances for the residents of this area to get irrigation facilities in Mahboobnagar District. We are of the opinion that this area should not be deprived of the benefit of irrigation on account of the reorganisation of States. ''
The share of education funding for Telangana ranges from 9.86 % in government - aided primary schools to 37.85 % in government degree colleges. The above numbers include the expenditure in Hyderabad. Budget allocations to Telangana are generally less than 1 / 3 of the total Andhra Pradesh budget. There are allegations that in most years, funds allocated to Telangana were never spent. Since 1956, Andhra Pradesh government established 11 new medical colleges in the state. 8 were in Seemandhra and only 3 were in Telangana. Telangana was not compensated for lost opportunities because of inward migration of lot of students into Hyderabad from Seemandhra.
According to Professor Jayashankar only 20 % of the total Government employees, less than 10 % of employees in the secretariat, and less than 5 % of department heads in the Andhra Pradesh government are from Telangana; those from other regions make up the bulk of employment. He also alleged that the state was represented by Telangana chief ministers for only 6 1 / 2 years out of over five decades of its existence, with no chief minister from the region being in power continuously for more than 2 1 / 2 years. As per Srikrishna committee on Telangana, Telangana held the position of CM for 10.5 years while Seema - Andhra region held it for 42 years.
According to the Backward Regions Grant Fund 2009 -- 10, 13 backward districts are located in Andhra Pradesh: nine (all except Hyderabad) are from Telangana and the rest are from other regions.
Proponents of a separate Telangana state feel that the agreements, plans, and assurances from the legislature and Lok Sabha over the last fifty years have not been honoured, and as a consequence Telangana has remained neglected, exploited, and backward. They allege that the experiment to remain as one state has proven to be a futile exercise and that separation is the best solution.
Note: The above content has been sourced from news articles and articles. It can only be regarded as opinions of a few people rather than solid facts.
Most of the parties in the state changed their stand about Telangana statehood several times. Here are the stands taken by various parties in the state when the movement was at its peak between 2009 and 2013. Congress party, the ruling party at center, took its final decision to go ahead with creating the Telangana state in July 2013.
In parenthesis (MP seats / MLA seats from Andhra Pradesh)
(a) Parties which were in favor of Telangana state before 9 December 2009, but changed the stand to neutral on 10 December 2009, the day the process for formation of Telangana state was announced by central government and later retracted on 23 December.
(b) After 9 December 2009, Jagan Mohan Reddy as a Congress MP opposed the Telangana state formation. After he formed the YSR Congress party, it adopted a neutral stand.
(c) The Praja Rajyam Party of actor - politician Chiranjeevi was against the division of the state, but merged into the Congress in 2011.
(d) The Lok Satta adds that it will welcome the formation of a separate state as part of a comprehensive and amicable solution. It, however, states that the real issue is to improve the lives of people irrespective of the formation of a separate state.
(e) During the all party meeting on 28 December 2012, TDP representatives gave a letter signed by its president to Home minister of India which said that the party had never withdrawn its letter to Pranab Mukherjee in 2008 which supported Telangana state formation.
(f) MIM wants the state to remain united. If division is unavoidable, the party wants a separate state of Rayala - Telangana with Telangana and Rayalseema regions along with Hyderabad as capital. They oppose Hyderabad being declared as a union territory.
(g) The Congress Working Committee (CWC) unanimously passed a resolution On 30 July to create the State of Telangana.
1969 to 1973: This period was marked by two political kranthi namely ' Jai Telangana ' and ' Jai Andhra ' movements. Social tensions arose due to influx of people from the Coastal Andhra region. Protests started with the hunger strike of a student from Khammam district for the implementation of safe - guards promised during the creation of Andhra Pradesh. The movement slowly manifested into a demand for a separate Telangana.
Some students protested for "implementation of the safe guards from Andhra Pradesh '' while some protested for a "Separate Telangana ''. The local newspaper Indian Express reported that the latter group were dominant. According to the 19 January 1969 edition of The Indian Express, the agitation turned violent when a crowd attempted to set fire to a sub-inspector's residence. 17 were injured in police firing. Discussions about the promised safe - guards were held. The Telangana Regional Committee was, however, not fully convinced of the outcome. This agitation was met by a counter agitation by the Andhra students accusing the transfer Andhra employees as a discrimination between one region and the other. The transfers were eventually challenged in the high - court.
The army had to be called in. After several days of talks with leaders of both regions, on 12 April 1969, Prime minister put forth, an eight - point plan. Telangana leaders rejected the plan and protests continued under the leadership of newly formed political party Telangana Praja Samithi in 1969 asking for the formation of Telangana. Under the Mulki rules in force at the time, anyone who had lived in Hyderabad for 12 years was considered a local, and was thus eligible for certain government posts.
Telangana Praja Samithi was formed under the leadership of Pratap Kishore with the intention of leading the movement. The party however, split in November 1969 with the exit of dissident Congress leaders.
1971: In the May 1971 parliamentary elections, Telangana Praja Samithi won 10 out the 14 Parliament seats in Telangana. Despite these electoral successes, some of the new party leaders gave up their agitation in September 1971 after realising that the Prime Minister was not inclined to towards a separate state of Telangana, and rejoined the safer political haven of the Congress ranks. Chief Minister Brahmananda Reddy resigns to make room for a Telangana Chief Minister. On 30 - September - 1971, P.V. Narasimha Rao -- who would later become the Prime Minister of India -- was appointed the Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh. "The Telangana Praja Samiti was dissolved and its members rejoined the Congress. ''
1972: When the Supreme Court upheld the Mulki rules the Jai Andhra movement, with the aim of re-forming a separate state of Andhra, was started in Coastal Andhra and Rayalseema regions. The movement lasted for 110 days. The Supreme Court upheld the implementation of Mulki rules. The people from the Andhra region viewed the Mulki rules as "treating them like aliens in their own land ''.
1973: a political settlement was reached with the Government of India with a Six - Point Formula. It was agreed upon by the leaders of the two regions to prevent any recurrence of such agitations in the future. To avoid legal problems, constitution was amended (32nd amendment) to give the legal sanctity to the Six - point formula.
In 1985, when Telangana employees complained about the violations to six point formula, government enacted government order 610 (GO 610) to correct the violations in recruitment. As Telangana people complained about the non-implementation of GO 610, in 2001, the government formed the Girglani commission to look into violations.
In 1997, the state unit of the BJP passed a resolution seeking a separate Telangana. In 2000, Congress party MLAs from the Telangana region who supported a separate Telangana state formed the Telangana Congress Legislators Forum and submitted momorandum to their president Sonia Gandhi requesting to support the Telangana state.
A new party called Telangana Rashtra Samithi (TRS), led by Kalvakuntla Chandrashekar Rao (KCR), was formed in April 2001 with the single - point agenda of creating a separate Telangana state with Hyderabad as its capital.
In 2001, the Congress Working Committee sent a resolution to the NDA government for constituting a second SRC to look into the Telangana state demand. This was rejected by then union home minister L.K. Advani citing that smaller states were neither viable nor conducive to the integrity of the country.
In April 2002, Advani wrote a letter to MP A. Narendra rejecting a proposal to create Telangana state explaining that "regional disparities in economic development could be tackled through planning and efficient use of available resources ''. He said that the NDA government, therefore, does "not propose creation of a separate state of Telangana '' However, in 2012, Advani said that if their then partner TDP cooperated during NDA tenure, a separate state of Telangana could have been created. This was confirmed by the President of the TDP, Chandrababu Naidu, on 1 September 2013 in a public meeting.
In the run - up to the 2004 Assembly and Parliament elections, then Union Home Minister L.K. Advani ruled out inclusion of Telangana in the NDA agenda and said "Unless there is consensus among all political parties in the state and unless that consensus is reflected in a resolution of the state Assembly, we do n't propose to include it in the NDA agenda ''
For these elections, the Congress party and the TRS forged an electoral alliance in the Telangana region to consider the demand of separate Telangana State. Congress came to power in the state and formed a coalition government at the centre; TRS joined the coalition after the common minimum program of the coalition government included that the demand for separate Telangana state will be considered after due consultations and consensus.
In February 2009 the state government declared that it had no objection, in principle, to the formation of separate Telangana and that the time had come to move forward decisively on this issue. To resolve related issues, the government constituted a joint house committee. In the lead - up to the 2009 General Elections in India, all the major parties in Andhra Pradesh supported the formation of Telangana.
In the 2009 elections TRS managed to win only 10 assembly seats out of the 45 it contested and only 2 MP seats. Some media analysts thought Telangana sentiment faded.
Within few months of getting re-elected as popular CM, Y.S. Rajasekhara Reddy (YSR) died in a helicopter crash in September 2009. This resulted in a leadership crisis within the Congress party and also created a political vacuum in the state. During this time, TRS president K. Chandrashekar Rao (KCR) raised his pitch for the separate state. On 29 November 2009, he started a fast - unto - death, demanding that the Congress party introduce a Telangana bill in Parliament. Student organisations, employee unions, and various organisations joined the movement. General strikes shut down Telangana on 6 and 7 December. In an all party meeting called by the state government on the night of 7 December to discuss regarding KCR 's fast and how to handle it, all major Opposition parties extended their support for a separate state for Telangana. The state Congress and its ally Majlis - e-Ittehadul Muslimeen have left it to the Congress high command to take a final decision. Minutes of the meeting were faxed to Congress high command.
On 9 December 2009, Union Minister of Home Affairs P. Chidambaram announced that the Indian government would start the process of forming a separate Telangana state, pending the introduction and passage of a separation resolution in the Andhra Pradesh assembly. This resulted in protests across both Andhra and Rayalseema. Students, workers, lawyers and various organisations in the regions launched the Samaikyandhra Movement demanding that the state be kept united. MLAs from these regions also submitted their resignations in protest seeking a reversal of the home minister 's statement.
On 23 December, keeping in view the reactions of people of other regions, the Government of India announced that no action on Telangana will be taken until a consensus is reached by all parties and groups in the state. Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema region MLAs started withdrawing their resignations while MLAs and ministers from Telangana started submitting their resignations, and demanded that the Centre take immediate steps to initiate the process of bifurcating Andhra Pradesh.
A Joint Action Committee (also known as JAC or TJAC) comprising political and non-political groups was formed to lead the demand for separate Telangana with Osmania University professor M Kodandaram as its convenor.
On 3 February, the government appointed a five - member committee headed by Justice SriKrishna to look into the issue.
The Srikrishna Committee headed by former Chief Justice B.N. Srikrishna toured all the regions of state extensively and invited people from all sections of the society to give their opinion on the statehood. It received over one lakh petitions and representations from political parties, organisations, NGOs and individuals. It also held consultations with political parties and general public while also factoring in the impact of recent developments on different sections of people such as women, children, students, minorities, Other Backward Classes, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
On 16 December 2010, two weeks before the deadline for the submission of the Srikrishna report, TRS organised a public meeting in Warangal. It was estimated that over 2.6 million people attended this meeting. It was reported that even more would have attended, but were stranded due to traffic jams along roads leading to the city. TRS president K. Chandrasekhar Rao appealed to Prime Minister Manmohan Singh to note that the people of Telangana were losing patience. He demanded that the Centre introduce the Bill on Telangana in the next session of Parliament.
Days before the Srikrishna committee submitted its report to the Central government, KCR declared that his party was ready to wash Sonia Gandhi 's feet if she agrees to the Telangana demand. He said his party is associated with the movement and was willing to dissolve the party if the state was formed.
The Indian Home Ministry released the 505 page Srikrishna committee on 6 January 2011. The committee opined that most regions of Telangana (excluding Hyderabad) were either "on par or a shade lower '' than Coastal Andhra. When Hyderabad is included, Telangana fared better. The most backward of all regions was in fact Rayalaseema. The committee, however, agreed with the violations of GO 610. Most violations, however, have been in the education and health sectors due to dearth of qualified locals. It also noted that the funds released for educational institutions in Telangana were lower than in the other two regions of the state. The committee did not see the Telangana movement as a threat to national integrity. Noting the emotions in the general public about the issue, a perceived neglect in implementation of assurances given to the region, it also said that "The continuing demand, therefore, for a separate Telangana, the Committee felt, has some merit and is not entirely unjustified ''. The conclusion of the report included the following statements "Therefore, after taking into account all the pros and cons, the Committee did not think it to be the most preferred, but the second best, option. Separation is recommended only in case it is unavoidable and if this decision can be reached amicably amongst all the three regions ''
The report discusses six solutions to the problem, the preferred option being keeping the State united by simultaneously providing certain definite constitutional and statutory measures for socio - economic development and political empowerment of Telangana region through the creation of a statutorily empowered Telangana Regional Council. The second best option is bifurcation of the State into Telangana and Seemandhra as per existing boundaries, with Hyderabad as the capital of Telangana and Seemandhra to have a new capital.
The eighth chapter of the report was not made public for undisclosed reasons. After a judgement delivered by Justice L Narasimha Reddy of Andhra Pradesh High Court, the contents of the "secret '' chapter were submitted to the High Court. The Chief Justice, in his 60 page judgement, said "The Committee travelled beyond the terms of reference in its endeavour to persuade the Union of India not to accede to the demand for Telangana ''. The judgement also quoted the SKC report 's 8th chapter and said "The manoeuvre suggested by the Committee in its secret supplementary note poses an open challenge, if not threat, to the very system of democracy. '' The eighth chapter was not make public after division bench comprising the Chief Justice of the AP high court has stayed the order of Justice L Narasimha Reddy. Hence, the facts of the comments of the judge on the eighth chapter remain unverified.
On 17 February 2011, a noncooperation movement was started which lasted for 16 days with participation by 3, 00,000 government employees. It caused a loss of Rs 8 billion per day in revenue to government. In February and March, Assembly session was boycotted for weeks and Parliament session was disrupted for several days by Telangana representatives.
Million March was organised by Telangana JAC in Hyderabad on 10 March 2011. Many seemandhra bound police were dropped into Hyderabad city to stop the Telangana movement. In a move to disrupt the march, seemandhra police arrested over thousand activists throughout the region and closed down entry to Hyderabad city by stopping certain transportation services and diverting traffic. Around 50,000 people reached the venue of the march, Tank Bund by hoodwinking police. Telangana activists damaged 16 statues of personalities representing Andhra culture and threw some of the remnants into the lake.
In November 2011, Telangana Rashtra Samiti Vidyarthi Vibhagam (TRSV) state president Balka Suman was arrested by Hyderabad police after cases were registered against him in connection with damaging statues on Tank Bund during the ' Million March, ' attacking police personnel, damaging police and seemandhra media vehicles.
From April till June, the movement saw a lull, with different parties citing various reasons and fresh deadlines to renew the agitation. In July, 81 of 119 Telangana MLAs in the state, 12 out of 15 Telangana ministers in state, 13 out of 17 Telangana MPs in Lok Sabha, 1 Rajyasabha MP (Congress), 20 MLCs resigned protesting delay in the formation of Telangana. On 20 July 30 - year - old Yadi Reddy was found dead 100 yards from Parliament House in Delhi. An eight - page suicide note says the young driver from greater Hyderabad region of Telangana was upset over the government not creating a new state for his homeland. The speaker of the AP assembly on 23 July summarily rejected the resignations of all 101 MLAs citing that they were made in an emotionally surcharged atmosphere. All Telangana MPs who earlier submitted their resignations and were boycotting the parliament session also decided to attend the parliament monsoon session citing Sonia Gandhi 's ill health.
On 12 September 2011, a day before Sakala Janula Samme (All people 's strike), TRS organised a public meeting in Karimnagar which was attended by over a million people including TJAC leaders, BJP and New Democracy party leaders.
Starting 13 September, as part of ' strike by all section of people ' supporting Telangana statehood, government employees throughout Telangana stayed out of work, lawyers boycotted courts and 60,000 coal miners of Singareni Collieries (SCCL Ltd.) also joined the strike. Soon government teachers, state road transport corporation employees and state electricity board employees joined the strike.
On a call given by JAC, road blockades on national highways throughout Telangana, rail blockade and the strike of auto rikshaw union were organised on 24 and 25 September causing disruption in transport services. Virtually all sections of people joined this strike. On 30 September, as the strike entered the 18th day, even while Congress central leadership met several Telangana congress leaders, JAC called a bundh in Hyderabad city. On 2 October, JAC leaders, employee unions leaders and TRS leaders including KCR met Prime minister to explain the situation in Telangna due to the strike and asked to expedite the decision on the statehood demand. The strike has resulted in an unprecedented power crisis in the state with only 223 MU of power generated against the demand of 275MU impacting both the industry and agriculture.
Due to Rail blockade call on 15 October 110 trains were cancelled and 68 trains were diverted by authorities. The railways operated 12 trains and Hyderabad metro trains with full police protection. Telangana protestors tried to have sit in on rail platforms or on railway tracks at various places. Police arrested thousands of protesters including 8 MPs and 4 MLAs. On 16 October public transport employees called off the strike. Within days other unions too called off the strike one after another. After 42 days, on 24 October, remaining employees unions called off the strike. M. Kodandaram said that the strike had impacted the overall thinking of the Centre towards creation of separate State and the movement will continue with other protest activities.
On 29 October 2011, three Congress party MLAs belonging to Telangana region resigned and joined TRS in protest as they were disappointed with Congress leadership 's delay in Telangana state formation.
On 1 November, Congress MLA Komatireddy Venkat Reddy started an indefinite hunger strike until the central government announced a roadmap for Telangana state. 5 days later, the fast was broken when police arrested him under Section 309 of IPC (attempt to commit suicide) and shifted him to NIMS, Hyderabad where he was kept under intravenous fluids. He ended his fast on 9 November. 97 - year - old Freedom fighter Konda Laxman Bapuji also launched his week - long satyagraha at Jantar Mantar in New Delhi, demanding statehood to the region.
In January, BJP led by State party president Kishan Reddy started the 22 - day Telangana ' Poru Yatra ', across 88 assembly constituencies stressing the need for Telangana state. Though the tour was successful in reiterating the party 's pro-Telangana stance, it could not garner as much support as hoped because of the indifferent attitude of the TRS and TJAC. In fact the failure of the TRS in declaring its support to Kishan Reddy 's yatra has resulted in growing differences between the two parties.
Bye elections took place on 18 March in 6 Telangana assembly seats. TRS won four out of five seats it contested with huge majorities ranging from 15,024 to 44,465. In two out of the four seats won by TRS (Kamareddy and Adilabad), the TRS candidates polled less number of votes compared to 2009 assembly elections when they contested as candidates from TDP which was in alliance with TRS. Ex-TDP MLA Nagam Janardhan Reddy won from Nagarkurnool seat as an independent with TJAC support. Congress lost deposit in one constituency and TDP in 3 constituencies.
Bye - polls were conducted for 18 Assembly seats and 1 Parliament seat on 12 June. The YSRCP won 15 assembly seats and the lone Parliament seat in Seema - Andhra region. TRS 's candidate managed to win the Parkal seat with a slender majority of 1562 votes over YSRCP candidate Konda Surekha. TDP finished third after polling 30,000 votes and retained its deposit. Both BJP and Congress lost their deposits.
In September 2012, Sushilkumar Shinde, the newly appointed Home minister of India commented that the Telangana demand needs to be handled carefully since similarly carved smaller states saw increased Naxal problems. Addressing a public meeting in Nizamabad district, AIMIM president Asaduddin Owaisi said that formation of a separate Telangana state is not possible and reaffirmed his party 's stand on the issue. He also said that Muslims would not accept a separate state.
On 14 August 2012, KCR gave a deadline to the centre to declare statehood in 2 weeks and promised to launch another round of agitation if the centre does n't. He later declared that he got feelers that a positive announcement will be made by Eid. In another interview after Eid, he remarked that Sonia Gandhi has always been in favour of Telangana and that the central government will call his party for discussions in "few weeks or so '' On 6 September, KCR left for Delhi and announced that the issue will be resolved by end of September. After his 23 - day stay in Delhi, KCR returned to Hyderabad hoping for a final round of talks with the Congress leadership on the issue. He claimed that his discussions with several leaders was fruitful.
After setting 30 September as the deadline for the Centre to announce the formation of Telangana, the TJAC threatened to organise a ' Telangana March ' in Hyderabad on the lines of the ' Dandi March '. Anticipating violence and possibility of attack on properties of Andhraites, Police initially refused permission to the march which is scheduled around the time of Ganesh Nimmajjan on 29 September and UN conference on Bio diversity on 1 October. The Police begun checking buses and trains entering the city and students who are trying to enter the city to participate in the protest are being sent back. They identified troublemakers and arrested certain pro-Telangana activists throughout the Telangana region. Police said that there are intelligence reports that the protestors could attack properties of people of Seemandhra.
On 28 September, after long discussions between JAC leaders and ministers from Telangana region, the state government ignoring warnings about the possible breakdown of law and order, gave permission for the march. The JAC leaders gave written assurance to the government that the agitation programme would be conducted in a peaceful and "gandhian '' manner from 15: 00 to 19: 00 on 30 September on the Necklace Road on the edge of Hussain Sager lake. Indian Railways cancelled several express and passenger trains and all local and sub-urban train services in Hyderabad reportedly on the advice of police.
On 30 September, the day of the march, Police closed the gates and blocked students at the Osmania University gate and other protestors at several places in the city when they were proceeding in rallies towards the March venue. Congress MPs from Telangana were arrested in front of Chief minister 's office when they staged a dharna as they were not allowed to meet him over the detention of their party supporters who were stopped from reaching the venue.
Though police sealed all the entry points to the Necklace Road and opened only the Buddha Bhavan route, by 4pm around 2 lakh protestors including various party leaders and their supporters reached the venue from all routes. Coming under attack from both sides, the police ceded the entire Necklace Road to the protesters who marched on till Jal Vihar. According to the Police, the protesters torched two police vehicles at People 's Plaza on the Necklace Road. The mobs also set afire three police vehicles, a couple of media outdoor broadcasting vans, machinery and a temporary cabin room of a construction company. The protesters made an attempt to set on fire a local train at Khairatabad station. At the railway 's Hussainsagar junction cabin, around 1,000 Telangana supporters went on a rampage overpowering over 100 uniformed men stationed in the area and burnt down the cabin after manhandling railway staff. The entire signalling system was damaged and officials pegged the loss at around Rs. 60 lakh.
After 19: 00, TJAC leaders violated the deadline and refused to leave the venue till the government issues a statement on Telangana. Police first used water cannons and later lobbed tear gas shells on the crowd and on to the stage to force the protestors to leave the venue. Finally at midnight the JAC called off the March citing heavy rain and injured supporters.
The next day, local police registered 15 cases against Kodandaram and others for conducting the march beyond the permitted time of 7 pm and till midnight and also for violence during the march. Railway police also registered cases against unidentified persons for damage to the signalling system at Lakdikapul. Cases were booked against the student leaders of TSJAC, OUJAC, Telangana Vidyarti Parishad and TVV. The bandh drew little response in Hyderabad and was partial in Telangana districts. Osmania University students again resorted to stone throwing and police retaliated by using tear gas shells.
On 27 December 2012 a meeting was organised by Home minister of India to discuss the Telangana issue. It was attended by 8 political parties having significant presence in the state legislature. After hearing views of all the parties, the home minister said that this will be the last such meeting on this issue and that the government will come up with a decision within 30 days. In the meeting, MIM and CPI (M) reiterated their strong opposition to division of the state. YSR Congress remained neutral and requested the central government to take a decision. Congress representatives gave conflicting views, one supporting the division and one opposing it. TDP representatives gave a letter signed by its president which said that it never withdrawn its letter to Pranab Mukharjee in 2008 supporting Telangana state formation. Telangana JAC demanded more clarity from Telugu Desam before they allow TDP to be a member of JAC.
2013 witnessed more protest by the TJAC including blockade of the road blockade of NH 7 in Mahbubnagar district. Public property was destroyed. This year also witnessed protest by 5 Congress MPs for 48 hours at the entrance of the Indian Parliament.
Leaders from various political parties joined TRS in support of the movement.
In May 2013, the TJAC gave a call to lay siege to the state legislative Assembly in Hyderabad on 14 June 2013 to demand the formation of Telangana. Government refused permission to the march as they had information that anti-social elements might participate in the event and cause violence like in previous events of Sagara Haram and Million March where violence erupted despite promises made by the TJAC. Police made pre-emptive arrests of activists through the region which led to stalling of the assembly proceedings by opposition parties. The chief minister directed the Director - General of Police at a high - level review meeting not to use even rubber bullets in their efforts and observe utmost restraint in maintaining law and order. Amid fear of violence by Naxalites after an open letter claimed to have been written by them on the rally, police sounded a high alert across the state and almost sealed all the arterial roads leading to the Assembly. Over 25,000 policemen belonging to both central and state security forces were deployed. The TJAC leaders alleged that the government has been using repressive measures to prevent them from representing the aspirations of Telangana people in a peaceful manner. Educational institutions declared a holiday and public transport went off the roads and shops and establishments shut as a precautionary measure.
On the day of the event in spite of the restrictions placed, police could not totally prevent Telangana activists from sneaking into prime locations and making a vain bid to rush towards the Assembly. Hundreds of people including state legislators, the JAC Chairman and other leaders were arrested across the city. Osmania University campus witnessed pitched battles as police closed the campus gate to stop students leaving campus in a rally then resorted to tear gas shelling when student started stone pelting. After the march, the TJAC Chairman remarked that their goal to reach the Assembly complex and highlight their demand was fulfilled.
According to an internal survey reportedly done for the state government (cited by media sources in June), the Congress party will get around 35 - 40 seats out of 294 MLA seats in the state, with TRS ahead in Telangana region while YSRCP in the Seema - Andhra region. This survey was reportedly being considered to arrive at a decision on the statehood issue.
On 30 June, Congress leaders belonging to Telangana region organised a public meeting in Hyderabad with a turn out of over 100,000 to show their support to Telangana state. It was attended by Damodar Raja Narasimha, Deputy Chief minister of the state, central ministers, state ministers, MPs and MLAs who expressed the confidence that their party leadership will create the separate state soon and said that Congress will perform well in the next elections in such a situation.
On 1 July, Congress party 's in - charge of the state, Digvijay Singh said that party is at the final stages of taking decision on Telangana issue. He also directed state chief minister, deputy chief minister and state party president (they represent assembly constituencies in Rayalaseema, Telangana and Coastal Andhra regions respectively) to furnish a roadmap, keeping both options open, that could help lead to a decision. On 11 July the three leaders presented their views in the Congress core committee meeting, post which it was announced that a decision will be taken by the Congress Working Committee.
The Chief Minister N Kiran Kumar Reddy met several MPs, MLAs and MLCs on 29 July in a bid to resolve the issue being taken up by the central Congress government.
The Congress Working Committee (CWC) unanimously passed a resolution On 30 July to create the State of Telangana. The committee also assured that the concerns of people from the remaining regions regarding sharing of water and power resources will be addressed. The bifurcation decision sparked off fresh protests as part of the Samaikyandhra Movement.
TRS welcomed the decision and its chief K. Chadrashekhar Rao said that his party is fine with Hyderabad being the joint capital. This was seen as an attempt by the INC to merge TRS into itself for the general and provincial election after being marginalised in the Rayalseema and coastal regions by the YSR Congress. "News ''. msn.com. < / ref > and that their party supports the creation of Telangana and Vidarbha. They demanded that other requests for the creation of new states such as those of Gorkhaland and Bodoland need to be done by appointing a Second States Reorganisation Commission earlier too. We now demand that the government should set it up and seek a report within a specific timeframe.
Many parties and politicians including the Chief Minister - who hails from Rayalaseema - protested the bill. Some even termed it as "undemocratic ''. The congress and YSRCP were wiped out in the following elections, however in all three regions of the erstwhile Andhra Pradesh. Indian general election, 2014.
The decision sparked protests by the Gorkha Janmukti Morcha (GJM) in the form of an indefinite strike for Gorkhaland. GJM President Bimal Gurung also resigned from the Gorkhaland Territorial Administration in demand for Gorkhaland, citing West Bengal government 's interference with its autonomy. It was even speculated by the media that more such moves could gain steam, such as that by the Bundelkhand Mukti Morcha for Bundelkhand. Meanwhile, the national Home Ministry opined that the lack of development in the proposed areas and the proximity to other hotbeds in Chattishgarh 's Bastar and Maharashtra 's Gadhidoli regions might cause an increase in Naxalism in Telangana Communist Party of India (Maoist) if the administration is not quickly consolidated.
The next steps towards the re-formation of Telangana, expected by early 2014, are: The national cabinet sharing its plans with the President of India and the Andhra Pradesh legislature. The Prime Minister would then organise a committee to negotiate a consensus between the leaders from the three regions for issues such as sharing revenue and water. Both national houses of parliament would then have to pass a resolution to create Telangana.
3 October 2013, the Union Cabinet approved the creation of the new State of Telangana. A Group of Ministers (GoM) was created to settle issues concerning the new state and the State of Andhra Pradesh. Hyderabad will be the shared capital for 10 years, after which it will belong to Telangana, said the Home Minister.
On 8 October, recently retired director general of police Dinesh Reddy said the Chief minister, Kiran Kumar Reddy pressured him to issue a public statement that the creation of Telangana would lead to intensification of Maoist activities. He also charged that the CM had reprimanded him for seeking additional central forces for containing expected trouble in Seemandhra in the run up to the Congress Working Committee 's Telangana resolution at the end of July.
Govt of India set up the Group of Ministers (GOM) headed by union home minister Sushilkumar Shinde to address all the issues that need resolution at the central and state government levels during the formation of Telangana state. GOM met on 11 October for the first time released its terms of reference)) on 16 Oct. GOM met 2nd time on 19 October and considered the background notes which had been prepared by the Home Ministry regarding the various issues pertaining to the bifurcation. It also asked feedback from public to send their suggestions pertaining to the specific terms of reference before 5 November. On 29 October, the background notes prepared by Home ministry for GOM appeared in the media. On 30 October, Union Home Minister Sushil Kumar Shinde called for an all - party meeting, to be attended by representatives of national and regional parties of the state, to discuss the issues related to bifurcation. In a letter to 8 major political parties in the state, home ministry asked the parties to submit their suggestions to the GoM by 5 November, following which an all - party meeting will be held. On 13 - 14 November GOM met the representatives all parties of the state to discuss (TDP boycotted the meeting) about the issues related to bifurcation. GOM had meetings including some with CM, Deputy CM, cabinet ministers from the state and other state leaders while finalizing the Telangana draft bill.
On 3 December, Talk of including two Rayalaseema districts, Ananthapur district and Kurnool district, in Telangana state by GOM was criticised by pro-Telangana groups. TRS and JAC called for Telangana wide bandh (strike) on 5 December 2013 which had a good response.
On the evening of 5 December 2013, the cabinet approved the Telangana draft bill prepared by Group of Ministers (GoM). The bill have to approved by Parliament before it becomes 29th state of the union.
6 December 2013: India 's Union Home Ministry sends the Telangana draft bill to The President of India.
11 December 2013: The President of India reviews the bill and passes it on to the Andhra Pradesh State Assembly to elicit its views, giving it until 23 January to respond with its views. The bill was urgently hand - delivered the following day, to Assembly Secretariat by the Joint Secretary of Union Home Ministry.
16 December 2013: The Telangana draft bill was introduced in Andhra Pradesh state assembly by deputy speaker Mallu Bhatti Vikramarka in the speaker 's absence. This was met by protests and chaos created by the Seemandhra MLAs.
17 December 2013: Assembly 's proceedings remain disrupted. The Business Advisory Committee (BAC) of the State Assembly decides to discuss the Bill starting the following day. This evokes mixed reactions including allegations on Seemandhra leaders ' attempt to derail the bill by delaying the process.
18, 19 December 2013: Assembly proceedings continue to be disrupted. The situation forces the speaker, Nadendla Manohar to adjourn the house until 3 January. This is met with protests from the Telangana MLAs. Telangana and Seemandhra leaders meet The President Pranab Mukherjee vying with each other to complain about the way the Telangana bill was being handled.
1 January 2014: 2 days before the start of the next assembly session, the Chief Minister Kiran kumar Reddy replaces D Sridhar Babu with S Sailajanath. This move comes criticised as the former hails from Telangana and the latter is actively involved with Samaikyandhra Movement. Sridhar Babu resigns from the cabinet in protest.
3, 4 January 2014: Situation fails to improve as Assembly sessions remain disrupted.
6 January 2014: Unable to continue Assembly sessions amid chaos, the speaker requests members to submit written amendments, if any, to the clauses of the Bill by 10 January.
8 January 2014: The bill is finally taken up for debate. However, this lasts for only a few minutes with the YSR Congress Party MLAs resuming protests.
9 January: The debate continues only after YSRCP MLAs were suspended. While there was polarisation on regional lines, debate more or less turned into a blame game over the state bifurcation issue as every party indulged in a game of political one - upmanship. Congress leader from Seemandhra and minister Vatti Vasanth Kumar spoke opposing the Telangana bill and said bifurcation is against Seemandhra interests. On 10 January, debate started after YSRCP members staged walk out. Among others, TRS floor leader, E Rajender spoke in length supporting Telangana bill while highlighting the grievances of Telangana people and the history of the movement. CPI floor leader G Mallesh, Congress leader from Telangana and government chief whip Gandra Venkaramana Reddy spoke supporting Telangana bill. House was adjorned until 17 January. After 17 January, debate had less disruptions. Chief Minister requested the President four weeks of additional time for the debate a move opposed by Telangana leaders. On 23 January, President gave 7days extension, until 30 January, for assembly to give its views on Telangana draft bill.
23 - 25 Jan 2014: The Chief Minister presents his analysis on how the bifurcation is detrimental to both regions, the highlights being the effect on current irrigation projects in Telangana and better subsidised electricity given to farmers of Telangana. Telangana MLAs ridicule the Chief Minister and prevent the proceedings citing no opportunity to make a counter argument. The Chief Minister later expresses his opinion as the AP Reorganisation Bill - 2013 being defective. Other members view this as an unduly delayed reaction.
27 Jan 2014: Chief Minister Kirankumar Reddy, gave notice to assembly speaker requesting to move resolution rejecting the Telangana bill. The move was criticised by Telangana MLAs including the ministers and deputy chief minister saying that cabinet was not consulted on the subject. They said this "amounts to defying the Union Cabinet, Constitution and President ''. After this, no debate was possible in the assembly as Telangana members insisted that speaker reject the Chief minister 's notice.
On 30 January 2014, Andhra Pradesh assembly speaker declared that assembly completed the debate and all the members gave their views. He said, he would send to the President of India a compilation of 9,072 suggestions and amendments he received in writing from members, including 87 members who had spoken on the Bill in the house. Further he accepted the Chief minister 's notice of resolution to reject the AP Reorganisation Bill and declared that resolution passed by voice vote without even waiting for the MLAs in the house to say ' aye ', admist pandemonium and protests from Telangana MLAs. Earlier in the day Seemandhra members rushed to the well of the House demanding that the resolution moved by the CM, without cabinet approval, be put to vote, those from the Telangana region, including the ministers and deputy chief minister, did the same with the demand that there should be no voting. At 11.30 pm, in what appears to be a coordinated strategy between the speaker, the chief minister and the Seemandhra legislators, all the members from that region converged at the well of the House and formed a wall around the speaker even as Manohar read out the resolution, put it to voice vote and declared it as having been passed. The bill will now be sent back to President Pranab Mukherjee after which it is slated to be tabled in Parliament. The resolution was placed in the house and was declared passed within 15 seconds. Analysts say "rejection of Telangana bill '' is not valid and is useful only for political grand standing. Union cabinet minister Jaipal Reddy said that the resolution to reject the Telangana bill was passed in the assembly by cheating and it has no statutory and political sanctity. General secretary of Congress Party and party 's in - charge for Andhra Pradesh, Digvijay Singh said that the bill that the President sent to the Assembly was never meant to be put to vote and said that the Congress high command and the Center would go ahead with its plans to introduce and pass the Telangana Bill in Parliament during the forthcoming session.
On 4 February, GOM cleared the Telangana bill after making few amendments to it based upon the input from state assembly.
On 7 February, Union cabinet cleared the Telangana bill and plans to introduce in upper house of Parliament with 32 amendments. Amendments include the details of financial package to Seemandhra to address their concerns.
On 13 February, Telangana bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of Parliament, by Union home minister, Sushilkumar Shinde despite protests, disruptions of Seemandhra MPs. In an unprecedented incidence, the use of pepper spray by Seemandhra MP, Lagadapati Rajagopal in the Lok Sabha during the introduction of the bill caused all the members to leave the house and some members to be hospitalised.
18 February 2014: the Telangana Bill is passed by the Lok Sabha with support from the Congress, TRS and other local parties. Broadcast of the proceedings enters a blackout during the voice vote. This caused widespread criticism of the manner in which the bill was passed.
20 February 2014: The Telangana bill is passed by Rajya Sabha with the support from the Congress, TRS, BJP and other local parties. The bill receives the assent of the President and published in the gazette on 1 March 2014. On 4 March 2014 the Government of India declares 2 June 2014 the Telangana Formation Day. Telangana is the 29th state of the Union of India with Hyderabad as its capital. Both states will share the capital for 10 years until Seemandhra can establish its own. However, the revenues of Hyderabad and state governing power will go only to Telangana. No special status was accorded to Seemandhra, though it was hinted in the Telangana Bill.
Coordinates: 17 ° 59 ′ N 79 ° 35 ′ E / 17.99 ° N 79.59 ° E / 17.99; 79.59
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when was the first stop motion animation made | Stop motion - wikipedia
Stop motion (hyphenated stop - motion when used as an adjective) is an animation technique that physically manipulates an object so that it appears to move on its own. The object is moved in small increments between individually photographed frames, creating the illusion of movement when the series of frames is played as a fast sequence. Dolls with movable joints or clay figures are often used in stop motion for their ease of repositioning. Stop motion animation using plasticine is called clay animation or "clay - mation ''. Not all stop motion requires figures or models; many stop motion films can involve using humans, household appliances and other things for comedic effect. Stop motion can also use sequential drawing in a similar manner to traditional animation, such as a flip book. Stop motion using humans is sometimes referred to as pixilation or pixilate animation.
The term "stop motion '', related to the animation technique, is often spelled with a hyphen, "stop - motion ''. Both orthographical variants, with and without the hyphen, are correct, but the hyphenated one has, in addition, a second meaning, not related to animation or cinema: "a device for automatically stopping a machine or engine when something has gone wrong '' (The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 1993 edition).
Stop motion is often confused with the time lapse technique, where still photographs of a live surrounding are taken at regular intervals and combined into a continuous film. Time lapse is a technique whereby the frequency at which film frames are captured is much lower than that used to view the sequence. When played at normal speed, time appears to be moving faster.
Stop motion animation has a long history in film. It was often used to show objects moving as if by magic. The first instance of the stop motion technique can be credited to Albert E. Smith and J. Stuart Blackton for Vitagraph 's The Humpty Dumpty Circus (1897), in which a toy circus of acrobats and animals comes to life. In 1902, the film Fun in a Bakery Shop used the stop trick technique in the "lightning sculpting '' sequence. French trick film maestro Georges Méliès used stop motion animation once to produce moving title - card letters in one of his short films, and a number of his special effects are based on stop motion photography. In 1907, The Haunted Hotel is a new stop motion film by J. Stuart Blackton, and was a resounding success when released. Segundo de Chomón (1871 -- 1929), from Spain, released El Hotel Eléctrico later that same year, and used similar techniques as the Blackton film. In 1908, A Sculptor 's Welsh Rarebit Nightmare was released, as was The Sculptor 's Nightmare, a film by Billy Bitzer. Italian animator Roméo Bossetti impressed audiences with his object animation tour - de-force, The Automatic Moving Company in 1912. The great European stop motion pioneer was Wladyslaw Starewicz (1892 -- 1965), who animated The Beautiful Lukanida (1910), The Battle of the Stag Beetles (1910), The Ant and the Grasshopper (1911).
One of the earliest clay animation films was Modelling Extraordinary, which impressed audiences in 1912. December 1916 brought the first of Willie Hopkins ' 54 episodes of "Miracles in Mud '' to the big screen. Also in December 1916, the first woman animator, Helena Smith Dayton, began experimenting with clay stop motion. She would release her first film in 1917, an adaptation of William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet.
In the turn of the century, there was another well known animator known as Willis O ' Brien (known by others as O'bie). His work on The Lost World (1925) is well known, but he is most admired for his work on King Kong (1933), a milestone of his films made possible by stop motion animation.
O'Brien's protege and eventual successor in Hollywood was Ray Harryhausen. After learning under O'Brien on the film Mighty Joe Young (1949), Harryhausen would go on to create the effects for a string of successful and memorable films over the next three decades. These included The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms (1953), It Came from Beneath the Sea (1955), Jason and the Argonauts (1963), The Golden Voyage of Sinbad (1973) and Clash of the Titans (1981).
In a 1940 promotional film, Autolite, an automotive parts supplier, featured stop motion animation of its products marching past Autolite factories to the tune of Franz Schubert 's Military March. An abbreviated version of this sequence was later used in television ads for Autolite, especially those on the 1950s CBS program Suspense, which Autolite sponsored.
In the 1960s and 1970s, independent clay animator Eliot Noyes Jr. refined the technique of "free - form '' clay animation with his Oscar - nominated 1965 film Clay (or the Origin of Species). Noyes also used stop motion to animate sand lying on glass for his musical animated film Sandman (1975).
Stop motion was used by Rankin / Bass Productions on some of their television programs and feature films including The New Adventures of Pinocchio (1960 -- 1961), Willy McBean and his Magic Machine (1963, 1965) and most notably seasonal / holiday favorites like Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer (1964), Mad Monster Party? (1966, 1967), The Little Drummer Boy (1968), Santa Claus is Comin ' to Town (1970) and Here Comes Peter Cottontail (1971). Under the name of "Animagic '', the stop motion works of Rankin / Bass were supervised by Tadahito Mochinaga at his MOM Production in Tokyo, Japan.
In 1975, filmmaker and clay animation experimenter Will Vinton joined with sculptor Bob Gardiner to create an experimental film called Closed Mondays which became the world 's first stop motion film to win an Oscar. Will Vinton followed with several other successful short film experiments including The Great Cognito, Creation, and Rip Van Winkle which were each nominated for Academy Awards. In 1977, Vinton made a documentary about this process and his style of animation which he dubbed "claymation ''; he titled the documentary Claymation. Soon after this documentary, the term was trademarked by Vinton to differentiate his team 's work from others who had been, or were beginning to do, "clay animation ''. While the word has stuck and is often used to describe clay animation and stop motion, it remains a trademark owned currently by Laika Entertainment, Inc. Twenty clay - animation episodes featuring the clown Mr. Bill were a feature of Saturday Night Live, starting from a first appearance in February 1976.
At very much the same time in the UK, Peter Lord and David Sproxton formed Aardman Animations. In 1976 they created the character Morph who appeared as an animated side - kick to the TV presenter Tony Hart on his BBC TV programme Take Hart. The five - inch - high presenter was made from a traditional British modelling clay called Plasticine. In 1977 they started on a series of animated films, again using modelling clay, but this time made for a more adult audience. The soundtrack for Down and Out was recorded in a Salvation Army Hostel and Plasticine puppets were animated to dramatise the dialogue. A second film, also for the BBC followed in 1978. A TV series The Amazing Adventures of Morph was aired in 1980.
Sand - coated puppet animation was used in the Oscar - winning 1977 film The Sand Castle, produced by Dutch - Canadian animator Co Hoedeman. Hoedeman was one of dozens of animators sheltered by the National Film Board of Canada, a Canadian government film arts agency that had supported animators for decades. A pioneer of refined multiple stop motion films under the NFB banner was Norman McLaren, who brought in many other animators to create their own creatively controlled films. Notable among these are the pinscreen animation films of Jacques Drouin, made with the original pinscreen donated by Alexandre Alexeieff and Claire Parker.
Italian stop motion films include Quaq Quao (1978), by Francesco Misseri, which was stop motion with origami, The Red and the Blue and the clay animation kittens Mio and Mao. Other European productions included a stop motion - animated series of Tove Jansson 's The Moomins (from 1979, often referred to as "The Fuzzy Felt Moomins ''), produced by Film Polski and Jupiter Films.
One of the main British Animation teams, John Hardwick and Bob Bura, were the main animators in many early British TV shows, and are famous for their work on the Trumptonshire trilogy.
Disney experimented with several stop motion techniques by hiring independent animator - director Mike Jittlov to do the first stop motion animation of Mickey Mouse toys ever produced for a short sequence called Mouse Mania, part of a TV special commemorating Mickey Mouse 's 50th Anniversary called Mickey 's 50 in 1978. Jittlov again produced some impressive multi-technique stop motion animation a year later for a 1979 Disney special promoting their release of the feature film The Black Hole. Titled Major Effects, Jittlov 's work stood out as the best part of the special. Jittlov released his footage the following year to 16mm film collectors as a short film titled The Wizard of Speed and Time, along with four of his other short multi-technique animated films, most of which eventually evolved into his own feature - length film of the same title. Effectively demonstrating almost all animation techniques, as well as how he produced them, the film was released to theaters in 1987 and to video in 1989.
In the 1970s and 1980s, Industrial Light & Magic often used stop motion model animation for films such as the original Star Wars trilogy: the chess sequence in Star Wars, the Tauntauns and AT - AT walkers in The Empire Strikes Back, and the AT - ST walkers in Return of the Jedi were all stop motion animation, some of it using the Go films. The many shots including the ghosts in Raiders of the Lost Ark and the first two feature films in the RoboCop series use Phil Tippett 's go motion version of stop motion.
In the UK, Aardman Animations continued to grow. Channel 4 funded a new series of clay animated films Conversation Pieces based on real recorded soundtracks. A further series in 1986 called Lip Sync premiered the work of Richard Goleszowski - Ident, Barry Purves - Next and Nick Park - Creature Comforts as well as further films by Sproxton and Lord. Creature Comforts won the Oscar for Best Animated Short in 1990.
In 1980, Marc Paul Chinoy directed the 1st feature - length clay animated film; a film based on the famous Pogo comic strip. Titled I go Pogo, it was aired a few times on American cable channels, but has yet to be commercially released. Primarily clay, some characters required armatures, and walk cycles used pre-sculpted hard bases legs.
Stop motion was also used for some shots of the final sequence of Terminator movie, also for the scenes of the small alien ships in Spielberg 's Batteries Not Included in 1987, animated by David W. Allen. Allen 's stop motion work can also be seen in such feature films as The Crater Lake Monster (1977), Q - The Winged Serpent (1982), The Gate (1986) and Freaked (1993). Allen 's King Kong Volkswagen commercial from the 1970s is now legendary among model animation enthusiasts.
In 1985, Will Vinton and his team released an ambitious feature film in stop motion called "The Adventures Of Mark Twain '' based on the life and works of the famous American author. While the film may have been a little sophisticated for young audiences at the time, it got rave reviews from critics and adults in general. Vinton 's team also created the Nomes and the Nome King for Disney 's "Return to Oz '' feature, for which they received an Academy Award Nomination for Special Visual Effects. In the 80 's and early 90 's, Will Vinton became very well known for his commercial work as well with stop motion campaigns including The California Raisins.
Of note are the films of Czech filmmaker Jan Švankmajer, which mix stop motion and live actors. These include Alice, an adaptation of Lewis Carroll 's Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland, and Faust, a rendition of the legend of the German scholar. The Czech school is also illustrated by the series Pat & Mat (1979 -- present). Created by Lubomír Beneš and Vladimír Jiránek, and it was wildly popular in a number of countries.
Since the general animation renaissance headlined by the likes of Who Framed Roger Rabbit and The Little Mermaid at the end of the 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s, there have been an increasing number of traditional stop motion feature films, despite advancements with computer animation. The Nightmare Before Christmas, directed by Henry Selick and produced by Tim Burton, was one of the more widely released stop motion features and become the highest grossing stop motion animated movie of its time, grossing over $50 million domestic. Henry Selick also went on to direct James and the Giant Peach and Coraline, and Tim Burton went on to direct Corpse Bride and Frankenweenie.
In 1999, Will Vinton launched the first prime - time stop - motion television series called The PJs, co-created by actor - comedian Eddie Murphy. The Emmy - winning sitcom aired on Fox for two seasons, then moved to the WB for an additional season. Vinton launched another series, Gary & Mike, for UPN in 2001.
Another individual who found fame in clay animation is Nick Park, who created the characters Wallace and Gromit. In addition to a series of award - winning shorts and featurettes, he won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature for the feature - length outing Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were - Rabbit. Chicken Run, to date, is the highest grossing stop motion animated movie ever grossing nearly $225 million worldwide.
The BBC commissioned thirteen episodes of stop frame animated Summerton Mill in 2004 as inserts into their flagship pre-school program, Tikkabilla. Created and produced by Pete Bryden and Ed Cookson, the series was then given its own slot on BBC1 and BBC2 and has been broadcast extensively around the world.
Other notable stop motion feature films released since 1990 include The Secret Adventures of Tom Thumb (1993), Fantastic Mr. Fox and $9.99, both released in 2009, and Anomalisa (2015).
Stop motion has very rarely been shot in stereoscopic 3D throughout film history. The first 3D stop motion short was In Tune With Tomorrow (also known as Motor Rhythm) in 1939 by John Norling. The second stereoscopic stop motion release was The Adventures of Sam Space in 1955 by Paul Sprunck. The third and latest stop motion short in stereo 3D was The Incredible Invasion of the 20,000 Giant Robots from Outer Space in 2000 by Elmer Kaan and Alexander Lentjes. This is also the first ever 3D stereoscopic stop motion and CGI short in the history of film. The first all stop motion 3D feature is Coraline (2009), based on Neil Gaiman 's best - selling novel and directed by Henry Selick. Another recent example is the Nintendo 3DS video software which comes with the option for Stop Motion videos. This has been released December 8, 2011 as a 3DS system update. Also, the movie ParaNorman is in 3D stop motion.
Another more complicated variation on stop motion is go motion, co-developed by Phil Tippett and first used on the films The Empire Strikes Back (1980), Dragonslayer (1981), and the RoboCop films. Go motion involved programming a computer to move parts of a model slightly during each exposure of each frame of film, combined with traditional hand manipulation of the model in between frames, to produce a more realistic motion blurring effect. Tippett also used the process extensively in his 1984 short film Prehistoric Beast, a 10 minutes long sequence depicting a herbivorous dinosaur (Monoclonius), being chased by a carnivorous one (Tyrannosaurus). With new footage Prehistoric Beast became Dinosaur! in 1985, a full - length dinosaurs documentary hosted by Christopher Reeve. Those Phil Tippett 's go motion tests acted as motion models for his first photo - realistic use of computers to depict dinosaurs in Jurassic Park in 1993. A low - tech, manual version of this blurring technique was originally pioneered by Wladyslaw Starewicz in the silent era, and was used in his feature film The Tale of the Fox (1931).
Reasons for using stop motion instead of the more advanced computer - generated imagery (CGI) include the low entry price and the appeal of its distinct look. It is now mostly used in children 's programming, in commercials and some comic shows such as Robot Chicken. Another merit of stop motion is that it legitimately displays actual real - life textures, as CGI texturing is more artificial, therefore not quite as close to realism. This is appreciated by a number of animation directors, such as Tim Burton, Henry Selick, Wes Anderson and Travis Knight.
Dominating children 's TV stop motion programming for three decades in America was Art Clokey 's Gumby series (1955 -- 1989) and its feature film, Gumby I (1992, 1995), using both freeform and character clay animation. Clokey started his adventures in clay with a 1953 freeform clay short film called Gumbasia (1953) which shortly thereafter propelled him into his more structured Gumby TV series. In partnership with the United Lutheran Church in America, he also produces Davey and Goliath (1960 -- 2004).
In November 1959, the first episode of Sandmännchen was shown on East German television, a children 's show that had Cold War propaganda as its primary function. New episodes, minus any propaganda, are still being produced in the now - reunified Germany, making it one of the longest running animated series in the world.
In the 1960s, the French animator Serge Danot created the well - known The Magic Roundabout (1965) which played for many years on the BBC. Another French / Polish stop motion animated series was Colargol (Barnaby the Bear in the UK, Jeremy in Canada), by Olga Pouchine and Tadeusz Wilkosz.
A British TV series, Clangers (1969), became popular on television. The British artists Brian Cosgrove and Mark Hall (Cosgrove Hall Films) produced the two stop motion animated adaptions of Enid Blyton 's Noddy book series including the original series of the same name (1975 -- 1982) and Noddy 's Toyland Adventures (1992 -- 2001), a full - length film The Wind in the Willows (1983) and later a multi-season TV series, both based on Kenneth Grahame 's classic children 's book of the same title. They also produced a documentary of their production techniques, Making Frog and Toad. Since the 1970s and continuing into the 21st century, Aardman Animations, a British studio, has produced short films, television series, commercials and feature films, starring plasticine characters such as Wallace and Gromit; they also produced a notable music video for "Sledgehammer '', a song by Peter Gabriel.
During 1986 to 1991, Churchill Films produced The Mouse and the Motorcycle, Runaway Ralph, and Ralph S. Mouse for ABC television. The shows featured stop - motion characters combined with live action, based on the books of Beverly Cleary. John Clark Matthews was animation director, with Justin Kohn, Joel Fletcher, and Gail Van Der Merwe providing character animation.
From 1986 to 2000, over 150 five - minute episodes of Pingu, a Swiss children 's comedy were produced by Trickfilmstudio. In the 1990s Trey Parker and Matt Stone made two shorts and the pilot of South Park almost entirely out of construction paper.
In 1999, Tsuneo Gōda directed an official 30 - second sketches of the character Domo. With the shorts animated by stop - motion studio dwarf is still currently produced in Japan and has then received universal critical acclaim from fans and critics. Gōda also directed the stop - motion movie series Komaneko in 2004.
In 2003, the pilot film for the series Curucuru and Friends, produced by Korean studio Ffango Entertoyment is greenlighted into a children 's animated series in 2004 after an approval with the Gyeonggi Digital Contents Agency. It was aired in KBS1 on November 24, 2006 and won the 13th Korean Animation Awards in 2007 for Best Animation. Ffango Entertoyment also worked with Frontier Works in Japan to produce the 2010 film remake of Cheburashka.
Since 2005, Robot Chicken has mostly utilized stop motion animation, using custom made action figures and other toys as principal characters.
Since 2009 Laika, the stop - motion successor to Will Vinton Studios, has released four feature films, which have collectively grossed over $400 million.
Singer - songwriter Oren Lavie 's music video for the song Her Morning Elegance was posted on YouTube on January 19, 2009. The video, directed by Lavie and Yuval and Merav Nathan, uses stop motion and has achieved great success with over 25.4 million views, also earning a 2010 Grammy Award nomination for "Best Short Form Music Video ''.
Stop motion has occasionally been used to create the characters for computer games, as an alternative to CGI. The Virgin Interactive Entertainment Mythos game Magic and Mayhem (1998) featured creatures built by stop motion specialist Alan Friswell, who made the miniature figures from modelling clay and latex rubber, over armatures of wire and ball - and - socket joints. The models were then animated one frame at a time, and incorporated into the CGI elements of the game through digital photography. "ClayFighter '' for the Super NES and The Neverhood for the PC are other examples.
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2012 important discovery about lake vida in antarctica | Lake Vida - wikipedia
Lake Vida is a hypersaline lake in Victoria Valley, the northernmost of the large McMurdo Dry Valleys, on the continent of Antarctica. It is isolated under year - round ice cover, and is considerably more saline than seawater. It came to public attention in 2002 when microbes frozen in its ice cover for more than 2,800 years were successfully thawed and reanimated.
Lake Vida is one of the largest lakes in the McMurdo Dry Valley region and is a closed - basin endorheic lake. The permanent surface ice on the lake is the thickest non-glacial ice on earth, reaching a depth of at least 21 metres (69 ft). The ice at depth is saturated with brine that is seven times as saline as seawater. The high salinity allows the brine to remain liquid at an average yearly water temperature of − 13 ° C (9 ° F). The ice cap has sealed the saline brine from external air and water for thousands of years creating a time capsule for ancient DNA. This combination of lake features make Lake Vida a unique lacustrine ecosystem on Earth.
The lake gained widespread recognition in December 2002 when a research team, led by the University of Illinois at Chicago 's Peter Doran, announced the discovery of 2,800 ‐ year ‐ old halophile microbes (primarily filamentous cyanobacteria) preserved in ice layer core samples drilled in 1996. The microbes reanimated upon thawing, grew and reproduced. Due to this discovery and the freezing mechanisms forming Lake Vida 's ice - seal, Lake Vida is now noted as a location for research into Earth 's climate and life under extreme conditions, specifically the fauna that could have existed on Mars. The unmanned Lake Vida Meteorological Station monitors climate conditions around the lake year round for such scientific study.
A 2010 field campaign, funded by the National Science Foundation through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, to investigate the microbiology and geochemistry of Lake Vida. Led by Peter Doran and Alison Murray from Nevada 's Desert Research Institute, the expedition recovered ice cores, brine and sediment samples from the lake using clean drilling procedures to avoid contamination.
The lake itself has no permanent settlements or infrastructure. The nearby Lake Vida Meteorological Station is unmanned, sending meteorological data to McMurdo Dry Valleys Long Term Ecological Research organization. The closest human settlement is Scott Base McMurdo approximately 125 kilometres (78 mi) away. In addition to the unmanned observation station, a 5 - day emergency supply of food for 6 people is cached 600 metres (2,000 ft) from the southwestern shore. Research teams establish temporary camps from which research activities are conducted on short term basis in the summer months.
Lake Vida does not possess many factors attributed to the existence of life formations. Lake Vida contains high levels of nitrous oxide (N O) and also molecular hydrogen (H). The chemicals are believed to be released from chemical reactions between the brine and underlying sediments. The molecular hydrogen may be crucial as an energy source for life in the lake and aids in justifying the presence of life in an oxygen - deprived environment.
Lake Vida has at least three named inflows: Victoria River, Kite Stream, and Dune Creek. Victoria River passes through the Vida Basin into Victoria Valley, Victoria Land as ephemeral glacial meltwater from the Upper Victoria Glacier, draining from Victoria Upper Lake, 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) to the northwest, to finally drain into the west end of Lake Vida. Kite Stream is also located in the Vida Basin and flows as ephemeral glacial meltwater west from the Victoria Lower Glacier into the east end of Lake Vida. The United States Geological Survey 's Atlas of Antarctic Research maps up to nine Lake Vida inflows or outflows including Victoria River and Kite Stream. The inflows and outflows are normally dry due to average annual temperatures down to − 30 ° C (− 22 ° F) at Lake Vida. Meltwater flows for a few weeks in the summer months when temperatures rise sufficiently for the nearby glaciers to melt. The McMurdo Dry Valleys are classified as extreme desert. The area receives less than 10 centimetres (3.9 in) of snow precipitation a year, in the form of snow that builds the nearby glaciers.
In the vicinity of Lake Vida, a variety of geological features are noted, the most significant being glaciers, lakes, valleys, ridges, and summits. There are approximately 25 named glaciers within a 25 kilometres (16 mi) radius with the nearest being Upper Victoria Glacier, Packard Glacier, Clark Glacier, and Clio Glacier. In the same radius, there are approximately 14 named ridges with the nearest being Robertsons Ridge, Helios Ridge, and Nottage Ridge. In addition to Victoria Valley, there are 16 named valleys with the nearest being Sanford Valley, Barwick Valley and McKelvey Valley. In addition to Upper Victoria Lake that feeds Lake Vida with meltwater, there are approximately 11 other lakes, the nearest being Lake Thomas. The summits around Lake Vida are as follows, Mautino Peak, Mount Saga, Mount Allen, Mount Theseus, Mount Cerberus, Mount Insel, Nickell Peak, and Sponsors Peak.
Other more minor features include benches, cliffs, gaps, and streams. The Victoria Valley dunefield, an approximately 1.5 km belt which is about 3.1 km long, lies to the east of Lake Vida. It is an important site for research into the landforms and processes of perennial niveo - aeolian environments.
Kite stream is named after a researcher, James Kite, who found numerous meteorites in the area (1977 -- 1978).
Lake Vida lies north of Mount Cerberus in the Victoria Valley of Victoria Land. Named by the Victoria University of Wellington Antarctic Expedition (1958 -- 59) after Vida (Vaida), a sledge dog of the Nimrod Expedition, 1910 - 13. Lake Vida was originally thought to be frozen to the lakebed.
Lake Vida has no noted economic features. Any commercial benefits from the scientific expeditions to Lake Vida are indirect.
Scientists have found life in an Antarctic Lake Vida that was sealed off from the outside world by a thick sheet of ice several thousands of years ago. The discovery of the ecosystem pushes the boundaries of what life can endure, and may inform the search for alien microbes on other planets, such as Mars, or on icy moons, for instance, Jupiter 's moon Europa.
The following eukaryote species have been catalogued within 1 degree of Lake Vida:
Kingdom Animalia
Kingdom Fungi
Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Protista
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what is the address of the new apple campus | Apple Park - wikipedia
Apple Park is the corporate headquarters of Apple Inc., located at 1 Apple Park Way in Cupertino, California, United States. It opened to employees in April 2017, while construction was still underway. Its research and development facilities are occupied with over 2,000 people. It replaced the original headquarters at 1 Infinite Loop, which opened in 1993.
Its circular design and extreme scale have earned a media nickname of ' the spaceship '. Located on a suburban site totaling 175 acres (71 hectares), it houses more than 12,000 employees in one central four - storied circular building of approximately 2,800,000 square feet (260,000 square meters). Steve Jobs wanted the whole campus to look less like an office park and more like a nature refuge. Eighty percent of the site consists of green space planted with drought - resistant trees and plants indigenous to the Cupertino area, and the center courtyard of the main building features an artificial pond.
In April 2006, Apple 's former CEO Steve Jobs announced to the city council of Cupertino that Apple had acquired nine contiguous properties to build a second campus, the Apple Campus 2. The building was conceived by Jobs, and designed by Norman Foster. Jobs took Foster to the cathedral - like building on the Disney Pixar campus in Emeryville, which Jobs designed himself with the goal of keeping everything under one roof. He spent a large part of two years on the project before his death in October 2011.
Purchases of the needed properties were made through the company Hines Interests, which in at least some cases did not disclose the fact that Apple was the ultimate buyer; Philip Mahoney, a partner with a local commercial real estate brokerage, noted that this is common practice in attempts to arrange the purchase of contiguous land made up of multiple parcels with separate owners, in order to keep costs from skyrocketing and not reveal the company 's plans to competitors. Among the sellers of the properties were SummerHill Homes (a plot of 8 acres or 3.2 hectares) and Hewlett - Packard (three buildings of their campus in Cupertino), among others.
Until April 2008, Apple had not sought the necessary permits to begin construction, so it was estimated that the project would not be ready in 2010 as originally proposed; however, the buildings on the site are held by Apple for its operations. In November 2010 the San Jose Mercury News revealed that Apple had bought an additional 98 acres (40 ha) no longer used by HP Inc., just north across Pruneridge Ave. This space used to be the HP campus in Cupertino before it was relocated to Palo Alto.
On June 7, 2011, Steve Jobs presented to Cupertino City Council details of the architectural design of the new buildings and their environs.
On October 15, 2013, Cupertino City Council unanimously approved Apple 's plans for the new campus after a six - hour debate. Shortly thereafter, demolition work began to prepare the site for construction.
On February 22, 2017, Apple announced the official name of the campus to be "Apple Park '', and the auditorium to be named "Steve Jobs Theater ''.
Originally expected to break ground in 2013 and open in 2015, the project experienced delays and started in 2014. The campus opened in April 2017, despite continued construction work. This was followed by the first event at Steve Jobs Theater, which took place on September 12, 2017.
As a consequence of the presence of Apple Park in the area, surrounding streets have met with both increased tourism, along with rising real estate values of local housing, often drawing in Apple employees wanting to live near to work.
Apple Park is located one mile east of the original Apple Campus. Apple has had a presence in Cupertino since 1977, which is why the company decided to build in the area rather than move to a cheaper, distant location. The campus is also next to a contaminated site under Superfund legislation with a groundwater plume.
Steve Jobs, in his last public appearance before his death in October 2011:
The ring - shaped building, advertised as "a perfect circle, '' was not originally planned as such. The inner rim and outer rim on each floor are left open as walkways. There are 8 buildings, separated by 9 mini-atria. The campus is one mile in circumference, with a diameter of 1,512 feet (461 meters). The one circular building houses most employees. It is four stories above the ground and three stories underground. Apple created life - size mock - ups of all parts of the building to iron out any design issues.
The design hides the roads and parking spaces underground. The campus uses only glass for its walls and views of the inner courtyard or to the landscape facing the exterior of the building. Around 83,000 sq ft (7,700 m) of space is for meetings and breakout spaces in the building. The inner part of the circular building contains a 30 - acre (12 ha) park featuring a pond, with fruit trees and winding pathways inspired by fruit orchards of California.
Steve Jobs wanted no seam, gap, or paintbrush stroke visible for a clean fit and finish. He was inspired by the main quad on Stanford University.
All interior wood used for furniture was harvested from a certain species of maple, with Apple working with construction companies from 19 countries for design and material supply.
A breathing, hollow concrete slab acts as the building 's floors, ceilings, and HVAC system. A total of 4,300 such slabs have been used for building. Some of the slabs weigh 60,000 pounds (27,000 kilograms).
During construction, the building core and shell were started by DPR / Skanska, but they were removed from the job for undisclosed reasons. Rudolph & Sletten and Holder Construction worked to complete core and shell along with the interior fit - out.
The land cost was estimated at $160 million. In 2011, the budget for Apple 's Campus 2 was less than $3 billion. However, in 2013 the total cost was estimated to be closer to $5 billion.
Apple states that the entire complex may eventually be powered entirely from renewable energy. The whole site is one of the most energy - efficient buildings in the world. The solar panels installed on the roof of the campus can generate 17 megawatts of power, sufficient to power 75 % during peak daytime, and making it one of the biggest solar roofs of the world. The other 4 megawatts are generated onsite using Bloom Energy Server fuel cells, which are powered by biofuel or natural gas. The air flows freely between the inside and outside of the building, providing natural ventilation and obviating the need for HVAC systems during nine months of the year.
The campus has seven cafés, with the largest being a three - level café for 3,000 sitting people. It has light - colored stone lining and glass railing with no metal support, and is surrounded by extensive landscaping. The mezzanine space of 20,000 sq ft (1,900 m) can accommodate 600 people and 1,750 seats on terraces outside, with a capacity to serve 15,000 lunches a day, housed by specially designed 500 tables made of solid spesshart white oak, measuring 18 ft (5.5 m) long and 4 ft (1.2 m) wide.
The sports tables and benches resemble those in Apple Stores. The large doors of the three - level restaurant are 92 ft (28 m) tall, the biggest in the world. The café extends to the grassy landscaped area well beyond the glass walls, and offers al fresco dining in an area Apple has called the glade.
Officially known as the Steve Jobs Theater, after the co-founder and former CEO of Apple, the facility is located atop a hill on the campus. It is an underground, 1,000 - seat auditorium intended for Apple product launches and press meets. It has a large above - ground cylinder - shaped lobby with stairs down to the auditorium. The theater has 350 parking spaces on North Tantau and a pedestrian path leading to the main campus located northwest of the theater. This provides Apple with more control over product releases and unveilings.
The theater 's lobby has cylindrical - shaped glass walls and no support columns, which give an unhindered 360 - degree view of the campus. The 80 - short - ton (73 - metric - ton) carbon fiber roof, made of 44 identical panels, was supplied by the Dubai - based company, Premier Composite Technologies. Each panel is 70 ft (21 m) long and 11 ft (3.4 m) wide and locks in the middle with the other panels. It is the largest carbon - fiber roof and the largest glass - supported structure in the world.
The theater also includes a 42 - foot (13 m) high glass elevator that rotates 171 degrees from the bottom to upper lobby level. The elevator is made from chemically - tempered glass, and is considered to be the tallest free - standing, glass elevator in the world.
Its first - ever press event was held on September 12, 2017 at 10: 00 PDT, where the iPhone 8, iPhone 8 Plus, iPhone X, Apple Watch Series 3 and Apple TV 4K were announced.
A 100,000 square foot fitness center is located in the northwest of the campus. It can serve up to 20,000 employees from around the area. Apart from gym equipment, the fitness center features other amenities like changing rooms, showers, laundry services, and rooms for group sessions.
The research and development facilities feature two large 300,000 square feet (28,000 m) buildings on the southern edge of the campus. The top floor of each building houses the department comprising industrial design and human interface teams headed by design chief Jonathan Ive.
Employees traveling by bus will board and depart from the subterranean bus station, which leads to the main campus via two white staircases. The area is also served by the Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority, which runs local bus service from Cupertino to nearby cities.
Parking is located both underground and in two large parking structures accommodating approximately 14,200 employees. Cupertino regulations required a minimum of 11,000 parking spaces, 700 of which have electric vehicle charging stations.
There are 2,000 parking spaces in the subterranean parking garage. The parking is managed by sensors and apps, which manage the traffic and parking spaces.
There are 1,000 bikes on the campus for employees to get around, with miles of cycling and jogging trails all over the 175 - acre (71 ha) campus. There are an additional 2,000 bicycle parking spaces in the subterranean car parking garage.
Apple Park Visitor Center is a two - story 20,135 sq ft (1,870.6 m) structure with four main areas: an Apple Store featuring Apple - branded merchandise (T - shirts, hats, tote bags, post cards) not sold at regular Apple stores, a 2,386 sq ft (221.7 m) café, an exhibition space which currently showcases a 3D model of Apple Park with augmented reality, and a roof terrace overlooking the campus. It opened to the public on November 17, 2017. The estimated cost of the center is $80 M. The property at 10600 N. Tantau (NE corner of Tantau and Pruneridge) is across the road from the campus proper and abuts a Santa Clara residential neighborhood. The underground parking garage, with close to 700 spaces, has an estimated cost of $26 million.
When construction is complete, 80 % of the campus will consist of green space. The big courtyard in the middle of the main building will be verdant with apricot, olive, and apple orchards, as well as an herb garden near the cafe. The plants selected for the campus landscape are drought tolerant. Recycled water is used to water the campus.
Apple hired a leading arborist, Dave Muffly, from Stanford University to cultivate California 's natural environment around the campus. There are 9,000 trees on the campus, of 309 varieties of indigenous species. The planted trees are Oak savanna, Oak wood, and fruit trees including apricot, apple, plum, cherry and persimmon. An additional 15 acres (6 ha) are used for a native California grassland. Of the 4,506 trees on the former campus, 1,000 are replanted on the new campus. Their arborist grew more than 4,600 trees in various nurseries which were transplanted to the campus. These include both young and mature trees, and native and drought - tolerant plants that thrive in Santa Clara County with minimal water consumption.
The trees on the perimeter have been retained and more will be moved to the perimeter, to act as a natural fence.
The land that Apple purchased for the campus came with an old barn that was built in 1916 by John Leonard using redwood planks. Leonard married into the Glendenning Family, who immigrated to the United States from Scotland and settled in the area in the 1850s. After Apple purchased the property, there were discussions between Apple, the City of Cupertino, and the Cupertino Historical Society as to the fate of the barn. The city had an interest in the fate of the barn, because the city declared the barn in 2004 as a historical site.
Eventually Apple agreed to keep the barn on the property, and is using it to "store maintenance tools and other landscaping materials ''. The barn was disassembled during the campus construction and then reassembled in a different location from where it was originally located.
The inner courtyard is 30 acres (12 ha), and covered in fruit trees with a pond. Measurements of the Apple inner courtyard "central park '' via Google Earth yields 24.7 acres.
The design of the Apple Park campus has been called the "ultimate example '' of suburban office parks, which have been in decline as companies seek to relocate to urban areas with better transit, bicycle, and pedestrian access. Kaid Benfield of the Natural Resources Defense Council, a non-profit environmental advocacy group, criticized the proposed campus for contributing to existing suburban sprawl, with car - dependent features and waste of expensive real estate that could have been used for affordable housing.
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sata 6 gb/s - 7 pin serial ata | Serial ATA - wikipedia
Serial ATA (SATA, abbreviated from Serial AT Attachment) is a computer bus interface that connects host bus adapters to mass storage devices such as hard disk drives, optical drives, and solid - state drives. Serial ATA succeeded the older Parallel ATA (PATA) standard, offering several advantages over the older interface: reduced cable size and cost (seven conductors instead of 40 or 80), native hot swapping, faster data transfer through higher signaling rates, and more efficient transfer through an (optional) I / O queuing protocol. Although, a number of hot plug PATA offering were first invented and marketed by Core International beginning in the late 1980s for the Micro Channel architecture bus controllers.
Before SATA 's introduction in 2000, PATA was simply known as ATA. The "AT Attachment '' (ATA) name originated after the 1984 release of the IBM Personal Computer AT, more commonly known as the IBM AT. The IBM AT 's controller interface became a de facto industry interface for the inclusion of hard disks. "AT '' was IBM 's abbreviation for "Advanced Technology ''; thus, many companies and organizations indicate SATA is an abbreviation of "Serial Advanced Technology Attachment ''. However, the ATA specifications simply use the name "AT Attachment '', to avoid possible trademark issues with IBM.
SATA host adapters and devices communicate via a high - speed serial cable over two pairs of conductors. In contrast, parallel ATA (the redesignation for the legacy ATA specifications) uses a 16 - bit wide data bus with many additional support and control signals, all operating at a much lower frequency. To ensure backward compatibility with legacy ATA software and applications, SATA uses the same basic ATA and ATAPI command sets as legacy ATA devices.
SATA has replaced parallel ATA in consumer desktop and laptop computers; SATA 's market share in the desktop PC market was 99 % in 2008. PATA has mostly been replaced by SATA for any use; with PATA in declining use in industrial and embedded applications that use CompactFlash (CF) storage, which was designed around the legacy PATA standard. A 2008 standard, CFast to replace CompactFlash is based on SATA.
Serial ATA industry compatibility specifications originate from the Serial ATA International Organization (SATA - IO). The SATA - IO group collaboratively creates, reviews, ratifies, and publishes the interoperability specifications, the test cases and plugfests. As with many other industry compatibility standards, the SATA content ownership is transferred to other industry bodies: primarily the INCITS T13 subcommittee ATA, the INCITS T10 subcommittee (SCSI), a subgroup of T10 responsible for Serial Attached SCSI (SAS). The remainder of this article strives to use the SATA - IO terminology and specifications.
The Serial ATA Spec requires SATA device hot plugging; that is, devices that meet the specification are capable of insertion / removal of a device into / from a backplane connector (combined signal and power) that has power on. After insertion, the device initializes and then operates normally. Depending upon the operating system the host may also initialize resulting in a hot swap. The powered host or device are not necessarily in a quiescent state.
Unlike PATA, both SATA and eSATA support hotplugging by design. However, this feature requires proper support at the host, device (drive), and operating - system levels. In general, all SATA devices (drives) support hotplugging (due to the requirements on the device - side), also most SATA host adapters support this function.
Advanced Host Controller Interface (AHCI) is an open host controller interface published and used by Intel, which has become a de facto standard. It allows the use of advanced features of SATA such as hotplug and native command queuing (NCQ). If AHCI is not enabled by the motherboard and chipset, SATA controllers typically operate in "IDE emulation '' mode, which does not allow access to device features not supported by the ATA (also called IDE) standard.
Windows device drivers that are labeled as SATA are often running in IDE emulation mode unless they explicitly state that they are AHCI mode, in RAID mode, or a mode provided by a proprietary driver and command set that allowed access to SATA 's advanced features before AHCI became popular. Modern versions of Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, FreeBSD, Linux with version 2.6. 19 onward, as well as Solaris and OpenSolaris, include support for AHCI, but older operating systems such as Windows XP do not. Even in those instances, a proprietary driver may have been created for a specific chipset, such as Intel 's.
SATA revisions are often designated with a dash followed by roman numerals, e.g. "SATA - III '', to avoid confusion with the speed, which is always displayed in Arabic numerals, e.g. "SATA 6 Gbit / s ''.
Revision 1.0 a was released on January 7, 2003. First - generation SATA interfaces, now known as SATA 1.5 Gbit / s, communicate at a rate of 1.5 Gbit / s, and do not support Native Command Queuing (NCQ). Taking 8b / 10b encoding overhead into account, they have an actual uncoded transfer rate of 1.2 Gbit / s (150 MB / s). The theoretical burst throughput of SATA 1.5 Gbit / s is similar to that of PATA / 133, but newer SATA devices offer enhancements such as NCQ, which improve performance in a multitasking environment.
During the initial period after SATA 1.5 Gbit / s finalization, adapter and drive manufacturers used a "bridge chip '' to convert existing PATA designs for use with the SATA interface. Bridged drives have a SATA connector, may include either or both kinds of power connectors, and, in general, perform identically to their native - SATA equivalents. However, most bridged drives lack support for some SATA - specific features such as NCQ. Native SATA products quickly took over the bridged products with the introduction of the second generation of SATA drives.
As of April 2010, the fastest 10,000 rpm SATA hard disk drives could transfer data at maximum (not average) rates of up to 157 MB / s, which is beyond the capabilities of the older PATA / 133 specification and also exceeds the capabilities of SATA 1.5 Gbit / s.
SATA revision 2.0 was released in April 2004, introducing Native Command Queuing (NCQ). It is backward compatible with SATA 1.5 Gbit / s.
Second - generation SATA interfaces run with a native transfer rate of 3.0 Gbit / s that, when accounted for the 8b / 10b encoding scheme, equals to the maximum uncoded transfer rate of 2.4 Gbit / s (300 MB / s). The theoretical burst throughput of the SATA revision 2.0, which is also known as the SATA 3 Gbit / s, doubles the throughput of SATA revision 1.0.
All SATA data cables meeting the SATA spec are rated for 3.0 Gbit / s and handle modern mechanical drives without any loss of sustained and burst data transfer performance. However, high - performance flash - based drives can exceed the SATA 3 Gbit / s transfer rate; this is addressed with the SATA 6 Gbit / s interoperability standard.
Announced in August 2005, SATA revision 2.5 consolidated the specification to a single document.
Announced in February 2007, SATA revision 2.6 introduced the following features:
Serial ATA International Organization (SATA - IO) presented the draft specification of SATA 6 Gbit / s physical layer in July 2008, and ratified its physical layer specification on August 18, 2008. The full 3.0 standard was released on May 27, 2009.
Third - generation SATA interfaces run with a native transfer rate of 6.0 Gbit / s; taking 8b / 10b encoding into account, the maximum uncoded transfer rate is 4.8 Gbit / s (600 MB / s). The theoretical burst throughput of SATA 6.0 Gbit / s is double that of SATA revision 2.0. It is backward compatible with SATA 3 Gbit / s.
The SATA 3.0 specification contains the following changes:
In general, the enhancements are aimed at improving quality of service for video streaming and high - priority interrupts. In addition, the standard continues to support distances up to one meter. The newer speeds may require higher power consumption for supporting chips, though improved process technologies and power management techniques may mitigate this. The later specification can use existing SATA cables and connectors, though it was reported in 2008 that some OEMs were expected to upgrade host connectors for the higher speeds.
Released in July 2011, SATA revision 3.1 introduced or changed the following features:
Released in August 2013, SATA revision 3.2 introduced the following features:
Released in February 2016, SATA revision 3.3 introduced the following features:
The new Power Disable feature (similar to the SAS Power Disable feature) uses Pin 3 of the SATA power connector. Some legacy power supplies that provide 3.3 V power on Pin 3 would force drives with Power Disable feature to get stuck in a hard reset condition preventing them from spinning up. The problem can usually be eliminated by using a simple "Molex to SATA '' power adaptor to supply power to these drives.
Connectors and cables present the most visible differences between SATA and parallel ATA drives. Unlike PATA, the same connectors are used on 3.5 - inch (89 mm) SATA hard disks (for desktop and server computers) and 2.5 - inch (64 mm) disks (for portable or small computers).
Standard SATA connectors for both data and power have a conductor pitch of 1.27 mm (0.050 inches). Low insertion force is required to mate a SATA connector. A smaller mini-SATA or mSATA connector is used by smaller devices such as 1.8 - inch SATA drives, some DVD and Blu - ray drives, and mini SSDs.
A special eSATA connector is specified for external devices, and an optionally implemented provision for clips to hold internal connectors firmly in place. SATA drives may be plugged into SAS controllers and communicate on the same physical cable as native SAS disks, but SATA controllers can not handle SAS disks.
Female SATA ports (on motherboards for example) are for use with SATA data cables that have locks or clips to prevent accidental unplugging. Some SATA cables have right - or left - angled connectors to ease connection to circuit boards.
The SATA standard defines a data cable with seven conductors (three grounds and four active data lines in two pairs) and 8 mm wide wafer connectors on each end. SATA cables can have lengths up to 1 metre (3.3 ft), and connect one motherboard socket to one hard drive. PATA ribbon cables, in comparison, connect one motherboard socket to one or two hard drives, carry either 40 or 80 wires, and are limited to 45 centimetres (18 in) in length by the PATA specification; however, cables up to 90 centimetres (35 in) are readily available. Thus, SATA connectors and cables are easier to fit in closed spaces and reduce obstructions to air cooling. Although they are more susceptible to accidental unplugging and breakage than PATA, users can purchase cables that have a locking feature, whereby a small (usually metal) spring holds the plug in the socket.
SATA connectors may be straight, right - angled, or left angled. Angled connectors allow lower - profile connections. Right - angled (also called 90 - degree) connectors lead the cable immediately away from the drive, on the circuit - board side. Left - angled (also called 270 - degree) connectors lead the cable across the drive towards its top.
One of the problems associated with the transmission of data at high speed over electrical connections is described as noise, which is due to electrical coupling between data circuits and other circuits. As a result, the data circuits can both affect other circuits and be affected by them. Designers use a number of techniques to reduce the undesirable effects of such unintentional coupling. One such technique used in SATA links is differential signaling. This is an enhancement over PATA, which uses single - ended signaling. The use of fully shielded twin - ax conductors, with multiple ground connections, for each differential pair improves isolation between the channels and reduces the chances of lost data in difficult electrical environments.
A seven - pin SATA data cable (left - angled version of the connector)
SATA connector on a 3.5 - inch hard drive, with data pins on the left and power pins on the right. The two different pin lengths ensure a specific mating order; the longer lengths are ground pins and make contact first.
SATA 3.0 (6 Gbit / s) cable showing fully shielded twin - ax pairs
SATA specifies a different power connector than the four - pin Molex connector used on Parallel ATA (PATA) devices (and earlier small storage devices, going back to ST - 506 hard disk drives and even to floppy disk drives that predated the IBM PC). It is a wafer - type connector, like the SATA data connector, but much wider (fifteen pins versus seven) to avoid confusion between the two. Some early SATA drives included the four - pin Molex power connector together with the new fifteen - pin connector, but most SATA drives now have only the latter.
The new SATA power connector contains many more pins for several reasons:
Passive adapters are available that convert a four - pin Molex connector to a SATA power connector, providing the 5 V and 12 V lines available on the Molex connector, but not 3.3 V. There are also four - pin Molex - to - SATA power adapters that include electronics to additionally provide the 3.3 V power supply. However, most drives do not require the 3.3 V power line.
SATA 2.6 is the first revision that defined the slimline connector, intended for smaller form - factors such as notebook optical drives. Pin 1 of the slimline signal connector, denoting device presence, is shorter than the others to allow hot - swapping. The slimline signal connector is identical and compatible with the standard version, while the power connector is reduced to six pins so it supplies only + 5 V, and not + 12 V or + 3.3 V.
Low - cost adapters exist to convert from standard SATA to slimline SATA.
A six - pin slimline SATA power connector
The back of a SATA - based slimline optical drive
The micro SATA connector (sometimes called uSATA or μSATA) originated with SATA 2.6, and is intended for 1.8 - inch (46 mm) hard disk drives. There is also a micro data connector, similar in appearance but slightly thinner than the standard data connector.
Standardized in 2004, eSATA (e standing for external) provides a variant of SATA meant for external connectivity. It uses a more robust connector, longer shielded cables, and stricter (but backward - compatible) electrical standards. The protocol and logical signaling (link / transport layers and above) are identical to internal SATA. The differences are:
Aimed at the consumer market, eSATA enters an external storage market served also by the USB and FireWire interfaces. The SATA interface has certain advantages. Most external hard - disk - drive cases with FireWire or USB interfaces use either PATA or SATA drives and "bridges '' to translate between the drives ' interfaces and the enclosures ' external ports; this bridging incurs some inefficiency. Some single disks can transfer 157 MB / s during real use, about four times the maximum transfer rate of USB 2.0 or FireWire 400 (IEEE 1394a) and almost twice as fast as the maximum transfer rate of FireWire 800. The S3200 FireWire 1394b specification reaches around 400 MB / s (3.2 Gbit / s), and USB 3.0 has a nominal speed of 5 Gbit / s. Some low - level drive features, such as S.M.A.R.T., may not operate through some USB or FireWire or USB + FireWire bridges; eSATA does not suffer from these issues provided that the controller manufacturer (and its drivers) presents eSATA drives as ATA devices, rather than as SCSI devices, as has been common with Silicon Image, JMicron, and NVIDIA nForce drivers for Windows Vista. In those cases SATA drives do not have low - level features accessible.
The eSATA version of SATA 6G operates at 6.0 Gbit / s (the term "SATA III '' is avoided by the SATA - IO organization to prevent confusion with SATA II 3.0 Gbit / s, which was colloquially referred to as "SATA 3G '' (bit / s) or "SATA 300 '' (MB / s) since the 1.5 Gbit / s SATA I and 1.5 Gbit / s SATA II were referred to as both "SATA 1.5 G '' (bit / s) or "SATA 150 '' (MB / s)). Therefore, eSATA connections operate with negligible differences between them. Once an interface can transfer data as fast as a drive can handle them, increasing the interface speed does not improve data transfer.
There are some disadvantages, however, to the eSATA interface:
As of mid 2017 few new computers have dedicated external SATA (eSATA) connectors, with USB3 dominating and USB3 Type C, often with the Thunderbolt replacement for the Lightning standard, starting to replace the earlier USB connectors. Still sometimes present are single ports supporting both USB3 and eSATA.
Desktop computers without a built - in eSATA interface can install an eSATA host bus adapter (HBA); if the motherboard supports SATA, an externally available eSATA connector can be added. Notebook computers with the now rare Cardbus or ExpressCard could add an eSATA HBA. With passive adapters, the maximum cable length is reduced to 1 metre (3.3 ft) due to the absence of compliant eSATA signal - levels.
eSATAp stands for powered eSATA. It is also known as Power over eSATA, Power eSATA, eSATA / USB Combo, or eSATA USB Hybrid Port (EUHP). An eSATAp port combines the four pins of the USB 2.0 (or earlier) port, the seven pins of the eSATA port, and optionally two 12 V power pins. Both SATA traffic and device power are integrated in a single cable, as is the case with USB but not eSATA. The 5 V power is provided through two USB pins, while the 12 V power may optionally be provided. Typically desktop, but not notebook, computers provide 12 V power, so can power devices requiring this voltage, typically 3.5 - inch disk and CD / DVD drives, in addition to 5 V devices such as 2.5 - inch drives.
Both USB and eSATA devices can be used with an eSATAp port, when plugged in with a USB or eSATA cable, respectively. An eSATA device can not be powered via an eSATAp cable, but a special cable can make both SATA or eSATA and power connectors available from an eSATAp port.
An eSATAp connector can be built into a computer with internal SATA and USB, by fitting a bracket with connections for internal SATA, USB, and power connectors and an externally accessible eSATAp port. Though eSATAp connectors have been built into several devices, manufacturers do not refer to an official standard.
Mini-SATA (abbreviated as mSATA), which is distinct from the micro connector, was announced by the Serial ATA International Organization on September 21, 2009. Applications include netbooks, laptops and other devices that require a solid - state drive in a small footprint.
The connector is similar in appearance to a PCI Express Mini Card interface, but is not electrically compatible; the data signals (TX ± / RX ± SATA, PETn0 PETp0 PERn0 PERp0 PCI Express) need a connection to the SATA host controller instead of the PCI Express host controller.
Slim 2.5 - inch SATA devices, 5 mm (0.20 inches) in height, use the twenty - pin SFF - 8784 edge connector to save space. By combining the data signals and power lines into a slim connector that effectively enables direct connection to the device 's printed circuit board (PCB) without additional space - consuming connectors, SFF - 8784 allows further internal layout compaction for portable devices such as ultrabooks.
Pins 1 to 10 are on the connector 's bottom side, while pins 11 to 20 are on the top side.
SATA Express, initially standardized in the SATA 3.2 specification, is an interface that supports either SATA or PCI Express storage devices. The host connector is backward compatible with the standard 3.5 - inch SATA data connector, allowing up to two legacy SATA devices to connect. At the same time, the host connector provides up to two PCI Express 3.0 lanes as a pure PCI Express connection to the storage device, allowing bandwidths of up to 2 GB / s.
Instead of the otherwise usual approach of doubling the native speed of the SATA interface, PCI Express was selected for achieving data transfer speeds greater than 6 Gbit / s. It was concluded that doubling the native SATA speed would take too much time, too many changes would be required to the SATA standard, and would result in a much greater power consumption when compared to the existing PCI Express bus.
In addition to supporting legacy Advanced Host Controller Interface (AHCI), SATA Express also makes it possible for NVM Express (NVMe) to be used as the logical device interface for connected PCI Express storage devices.
M. 2, formerly known as the Next Generation Form Factor (NGFF), is a specification for computer expansion cards and associated connectors. It replaces the mSATA standard, which uses the PCI Express Mini Card physical layout. Having a smaller and more flexible physical specification, together with more advanced features, the M. 2 is more suitable for solid - state storage applications in general, especially when used in small devices like ultrabooks or tablets.
The M. 2 standard is designed as a revision and improvement to the mSATA standard, so that larger printed circuit boards (PCBs) can be manufactured. While mSATA took advantage of the existing PCI Express Mini Card form factor and connector, M. 2 has been designed to maximize usage of the card space, while minimizing the footprint.
Supported host controller interfaces and internally provided ports are a superset to those defined by the SATA Express interface. Essentially, the M. 2 standard is a small form factor implementation of the SATA Express interface, with the addition of an internal USB 3.0 port.
U. 2, formerly known as SFF - 8639. Like its predecessor it carries a PCI Express electrical signal, however U. 2 uses a PCIe 3.0 × 4 link providing a higher bandwidth of 32 Gbit / s in each direction.
The SATA specification defines three distinct protocol layers: physical, link, and transport.
The physical layer defines SATA 's electrical and physical characteristics (such as cable dimensions and parasitics, driver voltage level and receiver operating range), as well as the physical coding subsystem (bit - level encoding, device detection on the wire, and link initialization).
Physical transmission uses differential signaling. The SATA PHY contains a transmit pair and receive pair. When the SATA - link is not in use (example: no device attached), the transmitter allows the transmit pins to float to their common - mode voltage level. When the SATA - link is either active or in the link - initialization phase, the transmitter drives the transmit pins at the specified differential voltage (1.5 V in SATA / I).
SATA physical coding uses a line encoding system known as 8b / 10b encoding. This scheme serves multiple functions required to sustain a differential serial link. First, the stream contains necessary synchronization information that allows the SATA host / drive to extract clocking. The 8b / 10b encoded sequence embeds periodic edge transitions to allow the receiver to achieve bit - alignment without the use of a separately transmitted reference clock waveform. The sequence also maintains a neutral (DC - balanced) bitstream, which lets transmit drivers and receiver inputs be AC - coupled. Generally, the actual SATA signalling is half - duplex, meaning that it can only read or write data at any one time.
Also, SATA uses some of the special characters defined in 8b / 10b. In particular, the PHY layer uses the comma (K28. 5) character to maintain symbol - alignment. A specific four - symbol sequence, the ALIGN primitive, is used for clock rate - matching between the two devices on the link. Other special symbols communicate flow control information produced and consumed in the higher layers (link and transport).
Separate point - to - point AC - coupled low - voltage differential signaling (LVDS) links are used for physical transmission between host and drive.
The PHY layer is responsible for detecting the other SATA / device on a cable, and link initialization. During the link - initialization process, the PHY is responsible for locally generating special out - of - band signals by switching the transmitter between electrical - idle and specific 10b - characters in a defined pattern, negotiating a mutually supported signalling rate (1.5, 3.0, or 6.0 Gbit / s), and finally synchronizing to the far - end device 's PHY - layer data stream. During this time, no data is sent from the link - layer.
Once link - initialization has completed, the link - layer takes over data - transmission, with the PHY providing only the 8b / 10b conversion before bit transmission.
After the PHY - layer has established a link, the link layer is responsible for transmission and reception of Frame Information Structures (FISs) over the SATA link. FISs are packets containing control information or payload data. Each packet contains a header (identifying its type), and payload whose contents are dependent on the type. The link layer also manages flow control over the link.
Layer number three in the serial ATA specification is the transport layer. This layer has the responsibility of acting on the frames and transmitting / receiving the frames in an appropriate sequence. The transport layer handles the assembly and disassembly of FIS structures, which includes, for example, extracting content from register FISs into the task - file and informing the command layer. In an abstract fashion, the transport layer is responsible for creating and encoding FIS structures requested by the command layer, and removing those structures when the frames are received.
When DMA data is to be transmitted and is received from the higher command layer, the transport layer appends the FIS control header to the payload, and informs the link layer to prepare for transmission. The same procedure is performed when data is received, but in reverse order. The link layer signals to the transport layer that there is incoming data available. Once the data is processed by the link layer, the transport layer inspects the FIS header and removes it before forwarding the data to the command layer.
SATA uses a point - to - point architecture. The physical connection between a controller and a storage device is not shared among other controllers and storage devices. SATA defines multipliers, which allows a single SATA controller port to drive up to fifteen storage devices. The multiplier performs the function of a hub; the controller and each storage device is connected to the hub. This is conceptually similar to SAS expanders.
Modern PC systems have SATA controllers built into the motherboard, typically featuring two to eight ports. Additional ports can be installed through add - in SATA host adapters (available in variety of bus - interfaces: USB, PCI, PCIe).
At the hardware interface level, SATA and PATA (Parallel AT Attachment) devices are completely incompatible: they can not be interconnected without an adapter.
At the application level, SATA devices can be specified to look and act like PATA devices.
Many motherboards offer a "Legacy Mode '' option, which makes SATA drives appear to the OS like PATA drives on a standard controller. This Legacy Mode eases OS installation by not requiring that a specific driver be loaded during setup, but sacrifices support for some (vendor specific) features of SATA. Legacy Mode often if not always disables some of the boards ' PATA or SATA ports, since the standard PATA controller interface supports only four drives. (Often, which ports are disabled is configurable.)
The common heritage of the ATA command set has enabled the proliferation of low - cost PATA to SATA bridge chips. Bridge chips were widely used on PATA drives (before the completion of native SATA drives) as well in standalone converters. When attached to a PATA drive, a device - side converter allows the PATA drive to function as a SATA drive. Host - side converters allow a motherboard PATA port to connect to a SATA drive.
The market has produced powered enclosures for both PATA and SATA drives that interface to the PC through USB, Firewire or eSATA, with the restrictions noted above. PCI cards with a SATA connector exist that allow SATA drives to connect to legacy systems without SATA connectors.
The designers of SATA standard as an overall goal aimed for backward and forward compatibility with future revisions of the SATA standard. To prevent interoperability problems that could occur when next generation SATA drives are installed on motherboards with standard legacy SATA 1.5 Gbit / s host controllers, many manufacturers have made it easy to switch those newer drives to the previous standard 's mode. Examples of such provisions include:
The "force 150 '' switch (or equivalent) is also useful for attaching SATA 3 Gbit / s hard drives to SATA controllers on PCI cards, since many of these controllers (such as the Silicon Image chips) run at 3 Gbit / s, even though the PCI bus can not reach 1.5 Gbit / s speeds. This can cause data corruption in operating systems that do not specifically test for this condition and limit the disk transfer speed.
SATA 3 Gbit / s and SATA 6 Gbit / s are compatible with each other. Most devices that are only SATA 3 Gbit / s can connect with devices that are SATA 6 Gbit / s, and vice versa, though SATA 3 Gbit / s devices only connect with SATA 6 Gbit / s devices at the slower 3 Gbit / s speed.
SATA 1.5 Gbit / s and SATA 6 Gbit / s are compatible with each other. Most devices that are only SATA 1.5 Gbit / s can connect with devices that are SATA 6 Gbit / s, and vice versa, though SATA 1.5 Gbit / s devices only connect with SATA 6 Gbit / s devices at the slower 1.5 Gbit / s speed.
Parallel SCSI uses a more complex bus than SATA, usually resulting in higher manufacturing costs. SCSI buses also allow connection of several drives on one shared channel, whereas SATA allows one drive per channel, unless using a port multiplier. Serial Attached SCSI uses the same physical interconnects as SATA, and most SAS HBAs also support 3 and 6 Gbit / s SATA devices (an HBA requires support for Serial ATA Tunneling Protocol).
SATA 3 Gbit / s theoretically offers a maximum bandwidth of 300 MB / s per device, which is only slightly lower than the rated speed for SCSI Ultra 320 with a maximum of 320 MB / s total for all devices on a bus. SCSI drives provide greater sustained throughput than multiple SATA drives connected via a simple (i.e., command - based) port multiplier because of disconnect - reconnect and aggregating performance. In general, SATA devices link compatibly to SAS enclosures and adapters, whereas SCSI devices can not be directly connected to a SATA bus.
SCSI, SAS, and fibre - channel (FC) drives are more expensive than SATA, so they are used in servers and disk arrays where the better performance justifies the additional cost. Inexpensive ATA and SATA drives evolved in the home - computer market, hence there is a view that they are less reliable. As those two worlds overlapped, the subject of reliability became somewhat controversial. Note that, in general, the failure rate of a disk drive is related to the quality of its heads, platters and supporting manufacturing processes, not to its interface.
Use of serial ATA in the business market increased from 22 % in 2006 to 28 % in 2008.
SCSI - 3 devices with SCA - 2 connectors are designed for hot swapping. Many server and RAID systems provide hardware support for transparent hot swapping. The designers of the SCSI standard prior to SCA - 2 connectors did not target hot swapping, but in practice, most RAID implementations support hot swapping of hard disks.
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where was the first european civilization located germany crete italy scandinavia | History of Europe - wikipedia
The history of Europe covers the peoples inhabiting Europe from prehistory to the present.
The period known as classical antiquity began with the emergence of the city - states of ancient Greece. Later, the Roman Empire came to dominate the entire Mediterranean basin. The fall of the Roman Empire in AD 476 traditionally marks the start of the Middle Ages. Beginning in the 14th century a Renaissance of knowledge challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology. Simultaneously, the Protestant Reformation set up Protestant churches primarily in Germany, Scandinavia and England. After 1800, the Industrial Revolution brought prosperity to Britain and Western Europe. The main powers set up colonies in most of the Americas and Africa, and parts of Asia. In the 20th century, World War I and World War II resulted in massive numbers of deaths. The Cold War dominated European geo - politics from 1947 to 1989. Unification into a European Union moved forward after 1950, with some setbacks. Today, most countries west of Russia belong to the NATO military alliance, along with the United States and Canada.
Some of the best - known civilizations of prehistoric Europe were the Minoan and the Mycenaean, which flourished during the Bronze Age until they collapsed in a short period of time around 1200 BC.
The period known as classical antiquity began with the emergence of the city - states of Ancient Greece. After ultimately checking the Persian advance in Europe through the Greco - Persian Wars in the 5th century BC, Greek influence reached its zenith under the expansive empire of Alexander the Great, spreading throughout Asia, Africa, and other parts of Europe. The Roman Empire came to dominate the entire Mediterranean basin. By 300 AD the Roman Empire was divided into the Western and Eastern empires. During the 4th and 5th centuries, the Germanic peoples of Northern Europe grew in strength, and repeated attacks led to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire. AD 476 traditionally marks the end of the classical period and the start of the Middle Ages.
In Western Europe, Germanic peoples became more powerful in the remnants of the former Western Roman Empire and established kingdoms and empires of their own. Of all of the Germanic peoples, the Franks would rise to a position of hegemony over Western Europe, the Frankish Empire reaching its peak under Charlemagne around 800. This empire was later divided into several parts; West Francia would evolve into the Kingdom of France, while East Francia would evolve into the Holy Roman Empire, a precursor to modern Germany and Italy. The British Isles were the site of several large - scale migrations.
The Viking Age, a period of migrations of Scandinavian peoples, occurred from the late 8th century to the middle 11th century. The Normans, a Viking people who settled in Northern France, had a significant impact on many parts of Europe, from the Norman conquest of England to Southern Italy and Sicily. The Rus ' people founded Kievan Rus ', which evolved into Russia. After 1000 the Crusades were a series of religiously motivated military expeditions originally intended to bring the Levant back under Christian rule. The Crusaders opened trade routes which enabled the merchant republics of Genoa and Venice to become major economic powers. The Reconquista, a related movement, worked to reconquer Iberia for Christendom.
Eastern Europe in the High Middle Ages was dominated by the rise and fall of the Mongol Empire. Led by Genghis Khan, the Mongols were a group of steppe nomads who established a decentralized empire which, at its height, extended from China in the east to the Black and Baltic Seas in Europe. As Mongol power waned towards the Late Middle Ages, the Grand Duchy of Moscow rose to become the strongest of the numerous Russian principalities and republics and would grow into the Tsardom of Russia in 1547. The Late Middle Ages represented a period of upheaval in Europe. The epidemic known as the Black Death and an associated famine caused demographic catastrophe in Europe as the population plummeted. Dynastic struggles and wars of conquest kept many of the states of Europe at war for much of the period. In Scandinavia, the Kalmar Union dominated the political landscape, while England fought with Scotland in the Wars of Scottish Independence and with France in the Hundred Years ' War. In Central Europe, the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth became a large territorial empire, while the Holy Roman Empire, which was an elective monarchy, came to be dominated for centuries by the House of Habsburg. Russia continued to expand southward and eastward into former Mongol lands. In the Balkans, the Ottoman Empire overran Byzantine lands, culminating in the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, which historians mark as the end of the Middle Ages.
Beginning in the 14th century in Florence and later spreading through Europe, a Renaissance of knowledge challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology. The rediscovery of classical Greek and Roman knowledge had an enormous liberating effect on intellectuals. Simultaneously, the Protestant Reformation under German Martin Luther questioned Papal authority. Henry VIII seized control of the English Church and its lands. The European religious wars between German and Spanish rulers. The Reconquista ended Muslim rule in Iberia. By the 1490s a series of oceanic explorations marked the Age of Discovery, establishing direct links with Africa, the Americas, and Asia. Religious wars continued to be fought in Europe, until the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. The Spanish crown maintained its hegemony in Europe and was the leading power on the continent until the signing of the Treaty of the Pyrenees, which ended a conflict between Spain and France that had begun during the Thirty Years ' War. An unprecedented series of major wars and political revolutions took place around Europe and the world in the period between 1610 and 1700.
The Industrial Revolution began in Britain, based on coal, steam, and textile mills. Political change in continental Europe was spurred by the French Revolution under the motto liberté, égalité, fraternité. Napoleon Bonaparte took control, made many reforms inside France, and transformed Western Europe. But his rise stimulated both nationalism and reaction and he was defeated in 1814 -- 15 as the old royal conservatives returned to power.
The period between 1815 and 1871 saw revolutionary attempts in much of Europe (apart from Britain). They all failed however. As industrial work forces grew in Western Europe, socialism and trade union activity developed. The last vestiges of serfdom were abolished in Russia in 1861. Greece and the other Balkan nations began a long slow road to independence from the Ottoman Empire, starting in the 1820s. Italy was unified in its Risorgimento in 1860. After the Franco - Prussian War of 1870 -- 71, Otto von Bismarck unified the German states into an empire that was politically and militarily dominant until 1914. Most of Europe scrambled for imperial colonies in Africa and Asia in the Age of Empire. Britain and France built the largest empires, while diplomats ensured there were no major wars in Europe, apart from the Crimean War of the 1850s.
The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 was precipitated by the rise of nationalism in Southeastern Europe as the Great Powers took sides. The 1917 October Revolution led the Russian Empire to become the world 's first communist state, the Soviet Union. The Allies, led by Britain, France, and the United States, defeated the Central Powers, led by the German Empire and Austria - Hungary, in 1918. During the Paris Peace Conference the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, especially the Treaty of Versailles. The war 's human and material devastation was unprecedented.
Germany lost its overseas empire and several provinces, had to pay large reparations, and was humiliated by the victors. They in turn had large debts to the United States. The 1920s were prosperous until 1929 when the Great Depression broke out, which led to the collapse of democracy in many European states. The Nazi regime under Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, rearmed Germany, and along with Mussolini 's Italy sought to assert themselves on the continent by demands and appeasement, leading eventually to the Second World War. Most of the fighting took place on the Eastern Front, and the war ended with the defeat of the Axis powers, leaving the USSR and the United States dominating Eastern and Western Europe respectively. The Iron Curtain now separated the east under Moscow 's control from the capitalist West. The United States launched the Marshall Plan from 1948 -- 51 and NATO from 1949, and rebuilt industrial economies that all were thriving by the 1950s. France and West Germany took the lead in forming the European Economic Community, which eventually became the European Union (EU). Secularization saw the weakening of Protestant and Catholic churches across most of Europe, except where they were symbols of anti-government resistance, as in Poland. The Revolutions of 1989 brought an end to both Soviet hegemony and communism in Eastern Europe. Germany was reunited, Europe 's integration deepened, and both NATO and the EU expanded to the east. The EU came under increasing pressure because of the worldwide recession after 2008.
Homo erectus migrated from Africa to Europe before the emergence of modern humans. Lézignan - la - Cèbe in France, Orce in Spain, Monte Poggiolo Italy and Kozarnika in Bulgaria are amongst the oldest Palaeolithic sites in Europe.
The earliest appearance of anatomically modern people in Europe has been dated to 35,000 BC, usually referred to as the Cro - Magnon man. Some locally developed transitional cultures (Uluzzian in Italy and Greece, Altmühlian in Germany, Szeletian in Central Europe and Châtelperronian in the southwest) use clearly Upper Palaeolithic technologies at very early dates.
Nevertheless, the definitive advance of these technologies is made by the Aurignacian culture. The origins of this culture can be located in the Levant (Ahmarian) and Hungary (first full Aurignacian). By 35,000 BC, the Aurignacian culture and its technology had extended through most of Europe. The last Neanderthals seem to have been forced to retreat during this process to the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula.
Around 29,000 BC a new technology / culture appeared in the western region of Europe: the Gravettian. This technology / culture has been theorised to have come with migrations of people from the Balkans (see Kozarnika).
Around 16,000 BC, Europe witnessed the appearance of a new culture, known as Magdalenian, possibly rooted in the old Gravettian. This culture soon superseded the Solutrean area and the Gravettian of mainly France, Spain, Germany, Italy, Poland, Portugal and Ukraine. The Hamburg culture prevailed in Northern Europe in the 14th and the 13th millennium BC as the Creswellian (also termed the British Late Magdalenian) did shortly after in the British Islands. Around 12,500 BC, the Würm glaciation ended. Slowly, through the following millennia, temperatures and sea levels rose, changing the environment of prehistoric people. Nevertheless, Magdalenian culture persisted until c. 10,000 BC, when it quickly evolved into two microlithist cultures: Azilian (Federmesser), in Spain and southern France, and then Sauveterrian, in southern France and Tardenoisian in Central Europe, while in Northern Europe the Lyngby complex succeeded the Hamburg culture with the influence of the Federmesser group as well. Evidence of permanent settlement dates from the 8th millennium BC in the Balkans. The Neolithic reached Central Europe in the 6th millennium BC and parts of Northern Europe in the 5th and 4th millenniums BC.
The first well - known literate civilization in Europe was that of the Minoans. The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization that arose on the island of Crete and flourished from approximately the 27th century BC to the 15th century BC. It was rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century through the work of the British archaeologist Arthur Evans. Will Durant referred to it as "the first link in the European chain ''.
The Minoans were replaced by the Mycenaean civilization which flourished during the period roughly between 1600 BC, when Helladic culture in mainland Greece was transformed under influences from Minoan Crete, and 1100 BC. The major Mycenaean cities were Mycenae and Tiryns in Argolis, Pylos in Messenia, Athens in Attica, Thebes and Orchomenus in Boeotia, and Iolkos in Thessaly. In Crete, the Mycenaeans occupied Knossos. Mycenaean settlement sites also appeared in Epirus, Macedonia, on islands in the Aegean Sea, on the coast of Asia Minor, the Levant, Cyprus and Italy. Mycenaean artefacts have been found well outside the limits of the Mycenean world.
Quite unlike the Minoans, whose society benefited from trade, the Mycenaeans advanced through conquest. Mycenaean civilization was dominated by a warrior aristocracy. Around 1400 BC, the Mycenaeans extended their control to Crete, center of the Minoan civilization, and adopted a form of the Minoan script (called Linear A) to write their early form of Greek in Linear B.
The Mycenaean civilization perished with the collapse of Bronze - Age civilization on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The collapse is commonly attributed to the Dorian invasion, although other theories describing natural disasters and climate change have been advanced as well. Whatever the causes, the Mycenaean civilization had definitely disappeared after LH III C, when the sites of Mycenae and Tirynth were again destroyed and lost their importance. This end, during the last years of the 12th century BC, occurred after a slow decline of the Mycenaean civilization, which lasted many years before dying out. The beginning of the 11th century BC opened a new context, that of the protogeometric, the beginning of the geometric period, the Greek Dark Ages of traditional historiography.
The Greeks and the Romans left a legacy in Europe which is evident in European languages, thought, visual arts and law. Ancient Greece was a collection of city - states, out of which the original form of democracy developed. Athens was the most powerful and developed city, and a cradle of learning from the time of Pericles. Citizens ' forums debated and legislated policy of the state, and from here arose some of the most notable classical philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, the last of whom taught Alexander the Great.
Through his military campaigns, the king of the kingdom of Macedon, Alexander, spread Hellenistic culture and learning to the banks of the River Indus. Meanwhile, the Roman Republic strengthened through victory over Carthage in the Punic Wars. Greek wisdom passed into Roman institutions, as Athens itself was absorbed under the banner of the Senate and People of Rome -- SPQR.
The Romans expanded from Arabia to Britannia. In 44 BC as it approached its height, its dictator Julius Caesar was murdered by senators in an attempt to restore the Republic. In the ensuing turmoil, Octavian (ruled as Augustus; and as divi filius, or Son of God, as Julius had adopted him as an heir) usurped the reins of power and fought the Roman Senate. While proclaiming the rebirth of the Republic, he had ushered in the transfer of the Roman state from a republic to an empire, the Roman Empire, which lasted for more than four centuries until the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
The Hellenic civilisation was a collection of city - states or poleis with different governments and cultures that achieved notable developments in government, philosophy, science, mathematics, politics, sports, theatre and music.
The most powerful city - states were Athens, Sparta, Thebes, Corinth, and Syracuse. Athens was a powerful Hellenic city - state and governed itself with an early form of direct democracy invented by Cleisthenes; the citizens of Athens voted on legislation and executive bills themselves. Athens was the home of Socrates, Plato, and the Platonic Academy.
The Hellenic city - states established colonies on the shores of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean (Asian Minor, Sicily and Southern Italy in Magna Graecia). By the late 6th century BC, all the Greek city states in Asia Minor had been incorporated into the Persian Empire, while the latter had made territorial gains in the Balkans (such as Macedon, Thrace, Paeonia, etc.) and Eastern Europe proper as well. In the course of 5th century BC, some of the Greek city states attempted to overthrow Persian rule in the Ionian Revolt, which failed. This sparked the first Persian invasion of mainland Greece. At some point during the ensuing Greco - Persian Wars, namely during the Second Persian invasion of Greece, and precisely after the Battle of Thermopylae and the Battle of Artemisium, almost all of Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth had been overrun by the Persians, but the Greek city states reached a decisive victory at the Battle of Plataea. With the end of the Greco - Persian wars, the Persians were eventually decisively forced to withdraw from their territories in Europe. The Greco - Persian Wars and the victory of the Greek city states directly influenced the entire further course of European history and would set its further tone. Some Greek city - states formed the Delian League to continue fighting Persia, but Athens ' position as leader of this league led Sparta to form the rival Peloponnesian League. The Peloponnesian Wars ensued, and the Peloponnesian League was victorious. Subsequently, discontent with Spartan hegemony led to the Corinthian War and the defeat of Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra.
Hellenic infighting left Greek city states vulnerable, and Philip II of Macedon united the Greek city states under his control. The son of Philip II, known as Alexander the Great, invaded neighboring Persia, toppled and incorporated its domains, as well as invading Egypt and going as far off as India, increasing contact with people and cultures in these regions that marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period.
Much of Greek learning was assimilated by the nascent Roman state as it expanded outward from Italy, taking advantage of its enemies ' inability to unite: the only challenge to Roman ascent came from the Phoenician colony of Carthage, and its defeats in the three Punic Wars marked the start of Roman hegemony. First governed by kings, then as a senatorial republic (the Roman Republic), Rome finally became an empire at the end of the 1st century BC, under Augustus and his authoritarian successors.
The Roman Empire had its centre in the Mediterranean, controlling all the countries on its shores; the northern border was marked by the Rhine and Danube rivers. Under emperor Trajan (2nd century AD) the empire reached its maximum expansion, controlling approximately 5,900,000 km (2,300,000 sq mi) of land surface, including Britain, Romania and parts of Mesopotamia. Pax Romana, a period of peace, civilisation and an efficient centralised government in the subject territories ended in the 3rd century, when a series of civil wars undermined Rome 's economic and social strength.
In the 4th century, the emperors Diocletian and Constantine were able to slow down the process of decline by splitting the empire into a Western part with a capital in Rome and an Eastern part with the capital in Byzantium, or Constantinople (now Istanbul). Whereas Diocletian severely persecuted Christianity, Constantine declared an official end to state - sponsored persecution of Christians in 313 with the Edict of Milan, thus setting the stage for the Church to become the state church of the Roman Empire in about 380.
The Roman Empire had been repeatedly attacked by invading armies from Northern Europe and in 476, Rome finally fell. Romulus Augustus, the last Emperor of the Western Roman Empire, surrendered to the Germanic King Odoacer. The British historian Edward Gibbon argued in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776) that the Romans had become decadent, they had lost civic virtue.
Gibbon said that the adoption of Christianity, meant belief in a better life after death, and therefore made people lazy and indifferent to the present. "From the eighteenth century onward '', Glen W. Bowersock has remarked, "we have been obsessed with the fall: it has been valued as an archetype for every perceived decline, and, hence, as a symbol for our own fears. '' It remains one of the greatest historical questions, and has a tradition rich in scholarly interest.
Some other notable dates are the Battle of Adrianople in 378, the death of Theodosius I in 395 (the last time the Roman Empire was politically unified), the crossing of the Rhine in 406 by Germanic tribes after the withdrawal of the legions to defend Italy against Alaric I, the death of Stilicho in 408, followed by the disintegration of the western legions, the death of Justinian I, the last Roman Emperor who tried to reconquer the west, in 565, and the coming of Islam after 632. Many scholars maintain that rather than a "fall '', the changes can more accurately be described as a complex transformation. Over time many theories have been proposed on why the Empire fell, or whether indeed it fell at all.
When Emperor Constantine had reconquered Rome under the banner of the cross in 312, he soon afterwards issued the Edict of Milan in 313, declaring the legality of Christianity in the Roman Empire. In addition, Constantine officially shifted the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to the Greek town of Byzantium, which he renamed Nova Roma - it was later named Constantinople ("City of Constantine '').
In 395 Theodosius I, who had made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, would be the last emperor to preside over a united Roman Empire. The empire was split into two halves: the Western Roman Empire centred in Ravenna, and the Eastern Roman Empire (later to be referred to as the Byzantine Empire) centred in Constantinople. The Western Roman Empire was repeatedly attacked by Germanic tribes (see: Migration Period), and in 476 finally fell to the Heruli chieftain Odoacer.
Roman authority in the Western part of the empire had collapsed, and a power vacuum left in the wake of this collapse; the central organization, institutions, laws and power of Rome had broken down, resulting in many areas being open to invasion by migrating tribes. Over time, feudalism and manorialism arose, two interlocking institutions that provided for division of land and labor, as well as a broad if uneven hierarchy of law and protection. These localised hierarchies were based on the bond of common people to the land on which they worked, and to a lord, who would provide and administer both local law to settle disputes among the peasants, as well as protection from outside invaders. Unlike under Roman rule, with its standard laws and military across the empire and its great bureaucracy to administer them and collect taxes, each lord (although having obligations to a higher lord) was largely sovereign in his domain. A peasant 's lot could vary greatly depending on the leadership skills and attitudes to justice of the lord toward his people. Tithes or rents were paid to the lord, who in turn owed resources, and armed men in times of war, to his lord, perhaps a regional prince. However, the levels of hierarchy were varied over time and place.
The western provinces soon were to be dominated by three great powers: first, the Franks (Merovingian dynasty) in Francia 481 -- 843 AD, which covered much of present France and Germany; second, the Visigothic kingdom 418 -- 711 AD in the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain); and third, the Ostrogothic kingdom 493 -- 553 AD in Italy and parts of the western Balkans The Ostrogoths were later replaced by the Kingdom of the Lombards 568 -- 774 AD. These new powers of the west built upon the Roman traditions until they evolved into a synthesis of Roman and Germanic cultures. Although these powers covered large territories, they did not have the great resources and bureaucracy of the Roman empire to control regions and localities. The ongoing invasions and boundary disputes usually meant a more risky and varying life than that under the empire. This meant that in general more power and responsibilities were left to local lords. On the other hand, it also meant more freedom, particularly in more remote areas.
In Italy, Theodoric the Great began the cultural romanization of the new world he had constructed. He made Ravenna a center of Romano - Greek culture of art and his court fostered a flowering of literature and philosophy in Latin. In Iberia, King Chindasuinth created the Visigothic Code.
In the feudal system, new princes and kings arose, the most powerful of which was arguably the Frankish ruler Charlemagne. In 800, Charlemagne, reinforced by his massive territorial conquests, was crowned Emperor of the Romans (Imperator Romanorum) by Pope Leo III, effectively solidifying his power in western Europe. Charlemagne 's reign marked the beginning of a new Germanic Roman Empire in the west, the Holy Roman Empire. Outside his borders, new forces were gathering. The Kievan Rus ' were marking out their territory, a Great Moravia was growing, while the Angles and the Saxons were securing their borders.
For the duration of the 6th century, the Eastern Roman Empire was embroiled in a series of deadly conflicts, first with the Persian Sassanid Empire (see Roman -- Persian Wars), followed by the onslaught of the arising Islamic Caliphate (Rashidun and Umayyad). By 650, the provinces of Egypt, Palestine and Syria were lost to the Muslim forces, followed by Hispania and southern Italy in the 7th and 8th centuries (see Muslim conquests). The Arab invasion from the east was stopped after the intervention of the Bulgarian Empire (see Tervel of Bulgaria).
The Middle Ages are commonly dated from the fall of the Western Roman Empire (or by some scholars, before that) in the 5th century to the beginning of the early modern period in the 16th century, marked by the rise of nation states, the division of Western Christianity in the Reformation, the rise of humanism in the Italian Renaissance, and the beginnings of European overseas expansion which allowed for the Columbian Exchange.
Many consider Emperor Constantine I (reigned 306 -- 337) to be the first "Byzantine Emperor ''. It was he who moved the imperial capital in 324 from Nicomedia to Byzantium, which re-founded as Constantinople, or Nova Roma ("New Rome ''). The city of Rome itself had not served as the capital since the reign of Diocletian. Some date the beginnings of the Empire to the reign of Theodosius I (379 -- 395) and Christianity 's official supplanting of the pagan Roman religion, or following his death in 395, when the empire was split into two parts, with capitals in Rome and Constantinople. Others place it yet later in 476, when Romulus Augustulus, traditionally considered the last western Emperor, was deposed, thus leaving sole imperial authority with the emperor in the Greek East. Others point to the reorganisation of the empire in the time of Heraclius (c. 620) when Latin titles and usages were officially replaced with Greek versions. In any case, the changeover was gradual and by 330, when Constantine inaugurated his new capital, the process of hellenization and increasing Christianisation was already under way. The Empire is generally considered to have ended after the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The Plague of Justinian was a pandemic that afflicted the Byzantine Empire, including its capital Constantinople, in the years 541 -- 542. It is estimated that the Plague of Justinian killed as many as 100 million people across the world. It caused Europe 's population to drop by around 50 % between 541 and 700. It also may have contributed to the success of the Muslim conquests.
The Early Middle Ages span roughly five centuries from 500 to 1000.
From the 7th century Byzantine history was greatly affected by the rise of Islam and the Caliphates. Muslim Arabs first invaded historically Roman territory under Abū Bakr, first Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, who entered Roman Syria and Roman Mesopotamia. As the Byzantines and neighboring Sasanids were severely weakened by the time, amongst the most important reason (s) being the protracted, centuries - lasting and frequent Byzantine -- Sasanian wars, which included the climactic Byzantine -- Sasanian War of 602 -- 628, under Umar, the second Caliph, the Muslims entirely toppled the Sasanid Persian Empire, and decisively conquered Syria and Mesopotamia, as well as Roman Palestine, Roman Egypt, and parts of Asia Minor and Roman North Africa. In the mid 7th century AD, following the Muslim conquest of Persia, Islam penetrated into the Caucasus region, of which parts would later permanently become part of Russia. This trend, which included the conquests by the invading Muslim forces and by that the spread of Islam as well continued under Umar 's successors and under the Umayyad Caliphate, which conquered the rest of Mediterranean North Africa and most of the Iberian Peninsula. Over the next centuries Muslim forces were able to take further European territory, including Cyprus, Malta, Crete, and Sicily and parts of southern Italy.
The Muslim conquest of Hispania began when the Moors (Berbers and Arabs) invaded the Christian Visigothic kingdom of Hispania in the year 711, under the Berber general Tariq ibn Ziyad. They landed at Gibraltar on 30 April and worked their way northward. Tariq 's forces were joined the next year by those of his Arab superior, Musa ibn Nusair. During the eight - year campaign most of the Iberian Peninsula was brought under Muslim rule -- save for small areas in the northwest (Asturias) and largely Basque regions in the Pyrenees. In 711, Visigothic Hispania was very weakened because it was immersed in a serious internal crisis caused by a war of succession to the throne involving two Visigoth suitors. The Muslims took advantage of the crisis that crossed the Hispano - Visigothic society to carry out their conquests. This territory, under the Arab name Al - Andalus, became part of the expanding Umayyad empire.
The unsuccessful second siege of Constantinople (717) weakened the Umayyad dynasty and reduced their prestige. In 722 Don Pelayo, a nobleman of Visigothic origin, formed an army of 300 Astur soldiers, to confront Munuza 's Muslim troops. In the battle of Covadonga, the Astures defeated the Arab - Moors, who decided to retire. The Christian victory marked the beginning of the Reconquista and the establishment of the Kingdom of Asturias, whose first sovereign was Don Pelayo. The conquerors intended to continue their expansion in Europe and move northeast across the Pyrenees, but were defeated by the Frankish leader Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers in 732. The Umayyads were overthrown in 750 by the ' Abbāsids, and, in 756, the Umayyads established an independent emirate in the Iberian Peninsula.
The Holy Roman Empire emerged around 800, as Charlemagne, king of the Franks, was crowned by the pope as emperor. His empire based in modern France, the Low Countries and Germany expanded into modern Hungary, Italy, Bohemia, Lower Saxony and Spain. He and his father received substantial help from an alliance with the Pope, who wanted help against the Lombards.
To the east, Bulgaria was established in 681 and became the first Slavic country. The powerful Bulgarian Empire was the main rival of Byzantium for control of the Balkans for centuries and from the 9th century became the cultural centre of Slavic Europe. The Empire created the Cyrillic script during the 10th century AD, at the Preslav Literary School. Two states, Great Moravia and Kievan Rus ', emerged among the Slavic peoples respectively in the 9th century. In the late 9th and 10th centuries, northern and western Europe felt the burgeoning power and influence of the Vikings who raided, traded, conquered and settled swiftly and efficiently with their advanced seagoing vessels such as the longships. The Hungarians pillaged mainland Europe, the Pechenegs raided Bulgaria, Rus States and the Arab states. In the 10th century independent kingdoms were established in Central Europe including Poland and the newly settled Kingdom of Hungary. The kingdoms of Croatia and Serbia also appeared in the Balkans. The subsequent period, ending around 1000, saw the further growth of feudalism, which weakened the Holy Roman Empire.
In eastern Europe, Volga Bulgaria became an Islamic state in 921, after Almış I converted to Islam under the missionary efforts of Ahmad ibn Fadlan.
Slavery in the early medieval period had mostly died out in western Europe by about the year 1000 AD, replaced by serfdom. It lingered longer in England and in peripheral areas linked to the Muslim world, where slavery continued to flourish. Church rules suppressed slavery of Christians. Most historians argue the transition was quite abrupt around 1000, but some see a gradual transition from about 300 to 1000.
The slumber of the Dark Ages was shaken by a renewed crisis in the Church. In 1054, the East -- West Schism, an insoluble split, occurred between the two remaining Christian seats in Rome and Constantinople (modern Istanbul).
The High Middle Ages of the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries show a rapidly increasing population of Europe, which caused great social and political change from the preceding era. By 1250, the robust population increase greatly benefited the economy, reaching levels it would not see again in some areas until the 19th century.
From about the year 1000 onwards, Western Europe saw the last of the barbarian invasions and became more politically organized. The Vikings had settled in Britain, Ireland, France and elsewhere, whilst Norse Christian kingdoms were developing in their Scandinavian homelands. The Magyars had ceased their expansion in the 10th century, and by the year 1000, the Roman Catholic Apostolic Kingdom of Hungary was recognised in central Europe. With the brief exception of the Mongol invasions, major barbarian incursions ceased.
In the 11th century, populations north of the Alps began to settle new lands, some of which had reverted to wilderness after the end of the Roman Empire. In what is known as the "great clearances '', vast forests and marshes of Europe were cleared and cultivated. At the same time settlements moved beyond the traditional boundaries of the Frankish Empire to new frontiers in Europe, beyond the Elbe river, tripling the size of Germany in the process. Crusaders founded European colonies in the Levant, the majority of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered from the Muslims, and the Normans colonised southern Italy, all part of the major population increase and resettlement pattern.
The High Middle Ages produced many different forms of intellectual, spiritual and artistic works. The most famous are the great cathedrals as expressions of Gothic architecture, which evolved from Romanesque architecture. This age saw the rise of modern nation - states in Western Europe and the ascent of the famous Italian city - states, such as Florence and Venice. The influential popes of the Catholic Church called volunteer armies from across Europe to a series of Crusades against the Seljuq Turks, who occupied the Holy Land. The rediscovery of the works of Aristotle led Thomas Aquinas and other thinkers to develop the philosophy of Scholasticism.
The Great Schism between the Western (Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox) Christian Churches was sparked in 1054 by Pope Leo IX asserting authority over three of the seats in the Pentarchy, in Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria. Since the mid-8th century, the Byzantine Empire 's borders had been shrinking in the face of Islamic expansion. Antioch had been wrested back into Byzantine control by 1045, but the resurgent power of the Roman successors in the West claimed a right and a duty for the lost seats in Asia and Africa. Pope Leo sparked a further dispute by defending the filioque clause in the Nicene Creed which the West had adopted customarily. The Orthodox today state that the XXVIIIth Canon of the Council of Chalcedon explicitly proclaimed the equality of the Bishops of Rome and Constantinople. The Orthodox also state that the Bishop of Rome has authority only over his own diocese and does not have any authority outside his diocese. There were other less significant catalysts for the Schism however, including variance over liturgy. The Schism of Roman Catholic and Orthodox followed centuries of estrangement between the Latin and Greek worlds.
Further changes were set afoot with a redivision of power in Europe. William the Conqueror, a Duke of Normandy, invaded England in 1066. The Norman Conquest was a pivotal event in English history for several reasons. This linked England more closely with continental Europe through the introduction of a Norman aristocracy, thereby lessening Scandinavian influence. It created one of the most powerful monarchies in Europe and engendered a sophisticated governmental system. Being based on an island, moreover, England was to develop a powerful navy and trade relationships that would come to constitute a vast part of the world including India, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and many key naval strategic points like Bermuda, Suez, Hong Kong and especially Gibraltar. These strategic advantages grew and were to prove decisive until after the Second World War.
After the East -- West Schism, Western Christianity was adopted by the newly created kingdoms of Central Europe: Poland, Hungary and Bohemia. The Roman Catholic Church developed as a major power, leading to conflicts between the Pope and Emperor. The geographic reach of the Roman Catholic Church expanded enormously due to the conversions of pagan kings (Scandinavia, Lithuania, Poland, Hungary), the Christian Reconquista of Al - Andalus, and the crusades. Most of Europe was Roman Catholic in the 15th century.
Early signs of the rebirth of civilization in western Europe began to appear in the 11th century as trade started again in Italy, leading to the economic and cultural growth of independent city - states such as Venice and Florence; at the same time, nation - states began to take form in places such as France, England, Spain, and Portugal, although the process of their formation (usually marked by rivalry between the monarchy, the aristocratic feudal lords and the church) actually took several centuries. These new nation - states began writing in their own cultural vernaculars, instead of the traditional Latin. Notable figures of this movement would include Dante Alighieri and Christine de Pizan (born Christina da Pizzano), the former writing in Italian, and the latter, although an Italian (Venice), relocated to France, writing in French. (See Reconquista for the latter two countries.) Elsewhere, the Holy Roman Empire, essentially based in Germany and Italy, further fragmented into a myriad of feudal principalities or small city states, whose subjection to the emperor was only formal.
The 13th and 14th centuries, when the Mongol Empire came to power, is often called the Age of the Mongols. Mongol armies expanded westward under the command of Batu Khan. Their western conquests included almost all of Russia (save Novgorod, which became a vassal), the Kipchak - Cuman Confederation, Hungary, and Poland (which had remained a sovereign state). Mongolian records indicate that Batu Khan was planning a complete conquest of the remaining European powers, beginning with a winter attack on Austria, Italy and Germany, when he was recalled to Mongolia upon the death of Great Khan Ögedei. Most historians believe only his death prevented the complete conquest of Europe. The areas of Eastern Europe and most of Central Asia that were under direct Mongol rule became known as the Golden Horde. Under Uzbeg Khan, Islam became the official religion of the region in the early 14th century. The invading Mongols, together with their mostly Turkic subjects, were known as Tatars. In Russia, the Tatars ruled the various states of the Rus ' through vassalage for over 300 years.
In the Northern Europe, Konrad of Masovia gave Chelmno to the Teutonic Knights in 1226 as a base for a Crusade against the Old Prussians and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Livonian Brothers of the Sword were defeated by the Lithuanians, so in 1237 Gregory IX merged the remainder of the order into the Teutonic Order as the Livonian Order. By the middle of the century, the Teutonic Knights completed their conquest of the Prussians before conquering and converting the Lithuanians in the subsequent decades. The order also came into conflict with the Eastern Orthodox Church of the Pskov and Novgorod Republics. In 1240 the Orthodox Novgorod army defeated the Catholic Swedes in the Battle of the Neva, and, two years later, they defeated the Livonian Order in the Battle on the Ice. The Union of Krewo in 1386, bringing two major changes in the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: conversion to Catholicism and establishment of a dynastic union between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland marked both the greatest territorial expansion of the Grand Duchy and the defeat of the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410.
The Late Middle Ages span the 14th and 15th centuries. Around 1300, centuries of European prosperity and growth came to a halt. A series of famines and plagues, such as the Great Famine of 1315 -- 1317 and the Black Death killed people in a matter of days, reducing the population of some areas by half as many survivors fled. Kishlansky reports:
Depopulation caused labor to become scarcer; the survivors were better paid and peasants could drop some of the burdens of feudalism. There was also social unrest; France and England experienced serious peasant risings including the Jacquerie and the Peasants ' Revolt. At the same time, the unity of the Catholic Church was shattered by the Great Schism. Collectively these events have been called the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages.
Beginning in the 14th century, the Baltic Sea became one of the most important trade routes. The Hanseatic League, an alliance of trading cities, facilitated the absorption of vast areas of Poland, Lithuania and Livonia into trade with other European countries. This fed the growth of powerful states in this part of Europe including Poland - Lithuania, Hungary, Bohemia, and Muscovy later on. The conventional end of the Middle Ages is usually associated with the fall of the city of Constantinople and of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The Turks made the city the capital of their Ottoman Empire, which lasted until 1922 and included Egypt, Syria and most of the Balkans. The Ottoman wars in Europe, also sometimes referred to as the Turkish wars, marked an essential part of the history of the continent as a whole.
The Early Modern period spans the centuries between the Middle Ages and the Industrial Revolution, roughly from 1500 to 1800, or from the discovery of the New World in 1492 to the French Revolution in 1789. The period is characterised by the rise to importance of science and increasingly rapid technological progress, secularised civic politics and the nation state. Capitalist economies began their rise, beginning in northern Italian republics such as Genoa. The early modern period also saw the rise and dominance of the economic theory of mercantilism. As such, the early modern period represents the decline and eventual disappearance, in much of the European sphere, of feudalism, serfdom and the power of the Catholic Church. The period includes the Protestant Reformation, the disastrous Thirty Years ' War, the European colonisation of the Americas and the European witch - hunts.
Despite these crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress within the arts and sciences. A renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman as well as more recent Arabic texts led to what has later been termed the Italian Renaissance.
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the north, west and middle Europe during a cultural lag of some two and a half centuries, its influence affected literature, philosophy, art, politics, science, history, religion, and other aspects of intellectual enquiry.
The Italian Petrarch (Francesco di Petracco), deemed the first full - blooded Humanist, wrote in the 1330s: "I am alive now, yet I would rather have been born in another time. '' He was enthusiastic about Greek and Roman antiquity. In the 15th and 16th centuries the continuing enthusiasm for the ancients was reinforced by the feeling that the inherited culture was dissolving and here was a storehouse of ideas and attitudes with which to rebuild. Matteo Palmieri wrote in the 1430s: "Now indeed may every thoughtful spirit thank god that it has been permitted to him to be born in a new age. '' The renaissance was born: a new age where learning was very important.
The Renaissance was inspired by the growth in study of Latin and Greek texts and the admiration of the Greco - Roman era as a golden age. This prompted many artists and writers to begin drawing from Roman and Greek examples for their works, but there was also much innovation in this period, especially by multi-faceted artists such as Leonardo da Vinci. The Humanists saw their repossession of a great past as a Renaissance -- a rebirth of civilization itself.
Important political precedents were also set in this period. Niccolò Machiavelli 's political writing in The Prince influenced later absolutism and real - politik. Also important were the many patrons who ruled states and used the artistry of the Renaissance as a sign of their power.
In all, the Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and worldly, both through the revival of ideas from antiquity, and through novel approaches to thought -- the immediate past being too "Gothic '' in language, thought and sensibility.
During this period, Spain experienced the greatest epoch of cultural splendor in its history. This epoch is known as the Spanish Golden age and took place between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Toward the end of the period, an era of discovery began. The growth of the Ottoman Empire, culminating in the fall of Constantinople in 1453, cut off trading possibilities with the east. Western Europe was forced to discover new trading routes, as happened with Columbus ' travel to the Americas in 1492, and Vasco da Gama 's circumnavigation of India and Africa in 1498.
The numerous wars did not prevent European states from exploring and conquering wide portions of the world, from Africa to Asia and the newly discovered Americas. In the 15th century, Portugal led the way in geographical exploration along the coast of Africa in search of a maritime route to India, followed by Spain near the close of the 15th century, dividing their exploration of the world according to the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. They were the first states to set up colonies in America and European trading posts (factories) along the shores of Africa and Asia, establishing the first direct European diplomatic contacts with Southeast Asian states in 1511, China in 1513 and Japan in 1542. In 1552, Russian tsar Ivan the Terrible conquered two major Tatar khanates, the Khanate of Kazan and the Astrakhan Khanate. The Yermak 's voyage of 1580 led to the annexation of the Tatar Siberian Khanate into Russia, and the Russians would soon after conquer the rest of Siberia, steadily expanding to the east and south over the next centuries. Oceanic explorations soon followed by France, England and the Netherlands, who explored the Portuguese and Spanish trade routes into the Pacific Ocean, reaching Australia in 1606 and New Zealand in 1642.
With the development of the printing press, new ideas spread throughout Europe and challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology. Simultaneously, the Protestant Reformation under German Martin Luther questioned Papal authority. The most common dating of the Reformation begins in 1517, when Luther published The Ninety - Five Theses, and concludes in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia that ended years of European religious wars.
During this period corruption in the Catholic Church led to a sharp backlash in the Protestant Reformation. It gained many followers especially among princes and kings seeking a stronger state by ending the influence of the Catholic Church. Figures other than Martin Luther began to emerge as well like John Calvin whose Calvinism had influence in many countries and King Henry VIII of England who broke away from the Catholic Church in England and set up the Anglican Church; his daughter Queen Elizabeth finished the organization of the church. These religious divisions brought on a wave of wars inspired and driven by religion but also by the ambitious monarchs in Western Europe who were becoming more centralised and powerful.
The Protestant Reformation also led to a strong reform movement in the Catholic Church called the Counter-Reformation, which aimed to reduce corruption as well as to improve and strengthen Catholic dogma. Two important groups in the Catholic Church who emerged from this movement were the Jesuits, who helped keep Spain, Portugal, Poland and other European countries within the Catholic fold, and the Oratorians of Saint Philip Neri, who ministered to the faithful in Rome, restoring their confidence in the Church of Jesus Christ that subsisted substantially in the Church of Rome. Still, the Catholic Church was somewhat weakened by the Reformation, portions of Europe were no longer under its sway and kings in the remaining Catholic countries began to take control of the church institutions within their kingdoms.
Unlike many European countries, the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth and Hungary were more tolerant. While still enforcing the predominance of Catholicism, they continued to allow the large religious minorities to maintain their faiths, traditions and customs. The Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth became divided among Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox, Jews and a small Muslim population.
Another important development in this period was the growth of pan-European sentiments. Eméric Crucé (1623) came up with the idea of the European Council, intended to end wars in Europe; attempts to create lasting peace were no success, although all European countries (except the Russian and Ottoman Empires, regarded as foreign) agreed to make peace in 1518 at the Treaty of London. Many wars broke out again in a few years. The Reformation also made European peace impossible for many centuries.
Another development was the idea of ' European superiority '. The ideal of civilisation was taken over from the ancient Greeks and Romans: Discipline, education and living in the city were required to make people civilised; Europeans and non-Europeans were judged for their civility, and Europe regarded itself as superior to other continents. There was a movement by some such as Montaigne that regarded the non-Europeans as a better, more natural and primitive people. Post services were founded all over Europe, which allowed a humanistic interconnected network of intellectuals across Europe, despite religious divisions. However, the Roman Catholic Church banned many leading scientific works; this led to an intellectual advantage for Protestant countries, where the banning of books was regionally organised. Francis Bacon and other advocates of science tried to create unity in Europe by focusing on the unity in nature. In the 15th century, at the end of the Middle Ages, powerful sovereign states were appearing, built by the New Monarchs who were centralising power in France, England, and Spain. On the other hand, the Parliament in the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth grew in power, taking legislative rights from the Polish king. The new state power was contested by parliaments in other countries especially England. New kinds of states emerged which were co-operation agreements among territorial rulers, cities, farmer republics and knights.
The Iberian states (Spain and Portugal) were able to dominate New World (American) colonial activity in the 16th century. The Spanish constituted the first global empire and during the 16th century and the first half of the 17th century, Spain was the most powerful nation in the world, but was increasingly challenged by British, French, and the short - lived Dutch and Swedish colonial efforts of the 17th and 18th centuries. New forms of trade and expanding horizons made new forms of government, law and eco nomics necessary.
Colonial expansion continued in the following centuries (with some setbacks, such as successful wars of independence in the British American colonies and then later Haiti, Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, and others amid European turmoil of the Napoleonic Wars; Haiti unique in abolishing slavery). Spain had control of a large part of North America, all of Central America and a great part of South America, the Caribbean and the Philippines; Britain took the whole of Australia and New Zealand, most of India, and large parts of Africa and North America; France held parts of Canada and India (nearly all of which was lost to Britain in 1763), Indochina, large parts of Africa and the Caribbean islands; the Netherlands gained the East Indies (now Indonesia) and islands in the Caribbean; Portugal obtained Brazil and several territories in Africa and Asia; and later, powers such as Germany, Belgium, Italy and Russia acquired further colonies.
This expansion helped the economy of the countries owning them. Trade flourished, because of the minor stability of the empires. By the late 16th century, American silver accounted for one - fifth of Spain 's total budget. The European countries fought wars that were largely paid for by the money coming in from the colonies. Nevertheless, the profits of the slave trade and of plantations of the West Indies, then the most profitable of all the British colonies, amounted to less than 5 % of the British Empire 's economy (but was generally more profitable) at the time of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century.
The 17th century was an era of crisis. Many historians have rejected the idea, while others promote it as an invaluable insight into the warfare, politics, economics, and even art. The Thirty Years ' War (1618 -- 1648) focused attention on the massive horrors that wars could bring to entire populations. The 1640s in particular saw more state breakdowns around the world than any previous or subsequent period. The Polish - Lithuanian Commonwealth, the largest state in Europe, temporarily disappeared. In addition, there were secessions and upheavals in several parts of the Spanish empire, the world 's first global empire. In Britain the entire Stuart monarchy (England, Scotland, Ireland, and its North American colonies) rebelled. Political insurgency and a spate of popular revolts seldom equalled shook the foundations of most states in Europe and Asia. More wars took place around the world in the mid-17th century than in almost any other period of recorded history. The crises spread far beyond Europe -- for example Ming China, the most populous state in the world, collapsed. Across the Northern Hemisphere, the mid-17th century experienced almost unprecedented death rates. Geoffrey Parker, a British historian, suggests that environmental factors may have been in part to blame, especially global cooling.
The "absolute '' rule of powerful monarchs such as Louis XIV (ruled France 1643 -- 1715), Peter the Great (ruled Russia 1682 -- 1725), Maria Theresa (ruled Habsburg lands 1740 -- 1780) and Frederick the Great (ruled Prussia 1740 -- 86), produced powerful centralized states, with strong armies and powerful bureaucracies, all under the control of the king.
Throughout the early part of this period, capitalism (through mercantilism) was replacing feudalism as the principal form of economic organisation, at least in the western half of Europe. The expanding colonial frontiers resulted in a Commercial Revolution. The period is noted for the rise of modern science and the application of its findings to technological improvements, which animated the Industrial Revolution after 1750.
The Reformation had profound effects on the unity of Europe. Not only were nations divided one from another by their religious orientation, but some states were torn apart internally by religious strife, avidly fostered by their external enemies. France suffered this fate in the 16th century in the series of conflicts known as the French Wars of Religion, which ended in the triumph of the Bourbon Dynasty. England avoided this fate for a while and settled down under Elizabeth to a moderate Anglicanism. Much of modern - day Germany was made up of numerous small sovereign states under the theoretical framework of the Holy Roman Empire, which was further divided along internally drawn sectarian lines. The Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth is notable in this time for its religious indifference and a general immunity to the horrors of European religious strife.
The Thirty Years ' War was fought between 1618 and 1648, across Germany and neighboring areas, and involved most of the major European powers except England and Russia. Beginning as a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics in Bohemia, it quickly developed into a general war involving Catholics versus Protestants for the most part. The major impact of the war, in which mercenary armies were extensively used, was the devastation of entire regions scavenged bare by the foraging armies. Episodes of widespread famine and disease, and the breakup of family life, devastated the population of the German states and, to a lesser extent, the Low Countries, Bohemia and Italy, while bankrupting many of the regional powers involved. Between one - fourth and one - third of the German population perished from direct military causes or from disease and starvation, as well as postponed births.
After the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the war in favour of nations deciding their own religious allegiance, absolutism became the norm of the continent, while parts of Europe experimented with constitutions foreshadowed by the English Civil War and particularly the Glorious Revolution. European military conflict did not cease, but had less disruptive effects on the lives of Europeans. In the advanced northwest, the Enlightenment gave a philosophical underpinning to the new outlook, and the continued spread of literacy, made possible by the printing press, created new secular forces in thought.
From the Union of Krewo (1385) central and eastern Europe was dominated by Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the 16th and 17th centuries Central and Eastern Europe was an arena of conflict for domination of the continent between Sweden, the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. The Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth continued dominance central and eastern Europe until series of wars: Khmelnytsky Uprising, Russo - Polish War and the Deluge. This period saw a gradual decline of these three powers which were eventually replaced by new enlightened absolutist monarchies: Russia, Prussia and Austria. By the turn of the 19th century they had become new powers, having divided Poland between themselves, with Sweden and Turkey having experienced substantial territorial losses to Russia and Austria respectively as well as pauperisation.
The War of the Spanish Succession (1701 -- 1715) was a major war with France opposed by a coalition of England, the Netherlands, the Austrian Empire, and Prussia. Duke of Marlborough commander the English and Dutch victory at the Battle Blenheim in 1704. The main issue was whether France under King Louis XIV would take control of Spain 's very extensive possessions and thereby become by far the dominant power, or be forced to share power with other major nations. After initial allied successes, the long war produced a military stalemate and ended with the Treaty of Utrecht, which was based on a balance of power in Europe. Historian Russell Weigley argues that the many wars almost never accomplished more than they cost. British historian G.M. Trevelyan argues:
Frederick the Great, king of Prussia 1740 -- 86, modernized the Prussian army, introduced new tactical and strategic concepts, fought mostly successful wars and doubled the size of Prussia. Frederick had a rationale based on Enlightenment thought: he fought total wars for limited objectives. The goal was to convince rival kings that it was better to negotiate and make peace than to fight him.
Russia with its numerous wars and rapid expansion was in a continuous state of financial crisis, which it covered by borrowing from Amsterdam and issuing paper money that caused inflation. Russia boasted a large and powerful army, a very large and complex internal bureaucracy, and a splendid court that rivaled Paris and London. However the government was living far beyond its means and seized Church lands, leaving organized religion in a weak condition. Throughout the 18th century Russia remained "a poor, backward, overwhelmingly agricultural, and illiterate country. ''
The Enlightenment was a powerful, widespread cultural movement of intellectuals beginning in late 17th - century Europe emphasizing the power of reason rather than tradition; it was especially favourable to science (especially Isaac Newton 's physics) and hostile to religious orthodoxy (especially of the Catholic Church). It sought to analyze and reform society using reason, to challenge ideas grounded in tradition and faith, and to advance knowledge through the scientific method. It promoted scientific thought, skepticism, and intellectual interchange. The Enlightenment was a revolution in human thought. This new way of thinking was that rational thought begins with clearly stated principles, uses correct logic to arrive at conclusions, tests the conclusions against evidence, and then revises the principles in the light of the evidence.
Enlightenment thinkers opposed superstition. Some Enlightenment thinkers collaborated with Enlightened despots, absolutist rulers who attempted to forcibly impose some of the new ideas about government into practice. The ideas of the Enlightenment exerted significant influence on the culture, politics, and governments of Europe.
Originating in the 17th century, it was sparked by philosophers Francis Bacon (1562 -- 1626), Baruch Spinoza (1632 -- 1677), John Locke (1632 -- 1704), Pierre Bayle (1647 -- 1706), Voltaire (1694 -- 1778), Francis Hutcheson, (1694 -- 1746), David Hume (1711 -- 1776) and physicist Isaac Newton (1643 -- 1727). Ruling princes often endorsed and fostered these figures and even attempted to apply their ideas of government in what was known as enlightened absolutism. The Scientific Revolution is closely tied to the Enlightenment, as its discoveries overturned many traditional concepts and introduced new perspectives on nature and man 's place within it. The Enlightenment flourished until about 1790 -- 1800, at which point the Enlightenment, with its emphasis on reason, gave way to Romanticism, which placed a new emphasis on emotion; a Counter-Enlightenment began to increase in prominence. The Romantics argued that the Enlightenment was reductionistic insofar as it had largely ignored the forces of imagination, mystery, and sentiment.
In France, Enlightenment was based in the salons and culminated in the great Encyclopédie (1751 -- 72) edited by Denis Diderot (1713 -- 1784) and (until 1759) Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717 -- 1783) with contributions by hundreds of leading intellectuals who were called philosophes, notably Voltaire (1694 -- 1778), Rousseau (1712 -- 1778) and Montesquieu (1689 -- 1755). Some 25,000 copies of the 35 volume encyclopedia were sold, half of them outside France. These new intellectual strains would spread to urban centres across Europe, notably England, Scotland, the German states, the Netherlands, Poland, Russia, Italy, Austria, and Spain, as well as Britain 's American colonies.
The political ideals of the Enlightenment influenced the American Declaration of Independence, the United States Bill of Rights, the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, and the Polish -- Lithuanian Constitution of 3 May 1791.
Taking a long - term historical perspective, Norman Davies has argued that Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of Liberalism and Enlightenment ideas in Europe, from about 1700 to the 20th century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to royalty, powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists. Its great enemy was the Roman Catholic Church, so that in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Austria, Spain (and Mexico), much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between the Church and Freemasonry. Twentieth century totalitarian movements, especially the Fascists and Communists, crushed the Freemasons.
The "long 19th century '', from 1789 to 1914 saw the drastic social, political and economic changes initiated by the Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. Following the reorganisation of the political map of Europe at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Europe experienced the rise of Nationalism, the rise of the Russian Empire and the peak of the British Empire, which was paralleled by the decline of the Ottoman Empire. Finally, the rise of the German Empire and the Austro - Hungarian Empire initiated the course of events that culminated in the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.
The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th century and early 19th century when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, and transport affected socioeconomic and cultural conditions in Britain and subsequently spread throughout Europe and North America and eventually the world, a process that continues as industrialisation. Technological advancements, most notably the invention of the steam engine by Scottish engineer James Watt, were major catalysts in the industrialisation of Britain and, later, the wider world. It started in England and Scotland in the mid-18th century with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the development of iron - making techniques and the increased use of refined coal. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways. The introduction of steam power (fuelled primarily by coal) and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity. The development of all - metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world. The impact of this change on society was enormous.
Historians R.R. Palmer and Joel Colton argue:
The era of the French Revolution and the subsequent Napoleonic wars was a difficult time for monarchs. Tsar Paul I of Russia was assassinated; King Louis XVI of France was executed, as was his queen Marie Antoinette. Furthermore, kings Charles IV of Spain, Ferdinand VII of Spain and Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden were deposed as were ultimately the Emperor Napoleon and all of the relatives he had installed on various European thrones. King Frederick William III of Prussia and Emperor Francis II of Austria barely clung to their thrones. King George III of England lost the better part of his empire.
The American Revolution (1775 -- 1783) was the first successful revolt of a colony against a European power. It proclaimed, in the words of Thomas Jefferson, that "all men are created equal, '' a position based on the principles of the Enlightenment. It rejected aristocracy and established a republican form of government under George Washington that attracted worldwide attention.
The French Revolution (1789 -- 1804) was a product of the same democratic forces in the Atlantic World and had an even greater impact. French historian François Aulard says:
French intervention in the American Revolutionary War had nearly bankrupted the state. After repeated failed attempts at financial reform, King Louis XVI had to convene the Estates - General, a representative body of the country made up of three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. The third estate, joined by members of the other two, declared itself to be a National Assembly and swore an oath not to dissolve until France had a constitution and created, in July, the National Constituent Assembly. At the same time the people of Paris revolted, famously storming the Bastille prison on 14 July 1789.
At the time the assembly wanted to create a constitutional monarchy, and over the following two years passed various laws including the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the abolition of feudalism, and a fundamental change in the relationship between France and Rome. At first the king agreed with these changes and enjoyed reasonable popularity with the people. As anti-royalism increased along with threat of foreign invasion, the king tried to flee and join France 's enemies. He was captured and on 12 January 1793, having been convicted of treason, he was guillotined.
On 20 September 1792 the National Convention abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. Due to the emergency of war, the National Convention created the Committee of Public Safety, controlled by Maximilien de Robespierre of the Jacobin Club, to act as the country 's executive. Under Robespierre, the committee initiated the Reign of Terror, during which up to 40,000 people were executed in Paris, mainly nobles and those convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal, often on the flimsiest of evidence. Internal tensions at Paris drove the Committee towards increasing assertions of radicalism and increasing suspicions, fueling new terror: A few months into this phase, more and more prominent revolutionaries were being sent to the guillotine by Robespierre and his faction, for example Madame Roland and Georges Danton. Elsewhere in the country, counter-revolutionary insurrections were brutally suppressed. The regime was overthrown in the coup of 9 Thermidor (27 July 1794) and Robespierre was executed. The regime which followed ended the Terror and relaxed Robespierre 's more extreme policies.
Napoleon Bonaparte was one of the world 's most famous soldiers and statesmen, leading France to great victories over numerous European enemies. Despite modest origins he became Emperor and restructured much of European diplomacy, politics and law, until he was forced to abdicate in 1814. His 100 - day comeback in 1815 failed at the Battle of Waterloo, and he died in exile on a remote island, remembered as a great hero by many Frenchmen and as a great villain by British and other enemies.
Napoleon, despite his youth, was France 's most successful general in the Revolutionary wars, having conquered large parts of Italy and forced the Austrians to sue for peace. In 1799 on 18 Brumaire (9 November) he overthrew the feeble government, replacing it with the Consulate, which he dominated. He gained popularity in France by restoring the Church, keeping taxes low, centralizing power in Paris, and winning glory on the battlefield. In 1804 he crowned himself Emperor. In 1805, Napoleon planned to invade Britain, but a renewed British alliance with Russia and Austria (Third Coalition), forced him to turn his attention towards the continent, while at the same time the French fleet was demolished by the British at the Battle of Trafalgar, ending any plan to invade Britain. On 2 December 1805, Napoleon defeated a numerically superior Austro - Russian army at Austerlitz, forcing Austria 's withdrawal from the coalition (see Treaty of Pressburg) and dissolving the Holy Roman Empire. In 1806, a Fourth Coalition was set up. On 14 October Napoleon defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Jena - Auerstedt, marched through Germany and defeated the Russians on 14 June 1807 at Friedland. The Treaties of Tilsit divided Europe between France and Russia and created the Duchy of Warsaw.
On 12 June 1812 Napoleon invaded Russia with a Grande Armée of nearly 700,000 troops. After the measured victories at Smolensk and Borodino Napoleon occupied Moscow, only to find it burned by the retreating Russian army. He was forced to withdraw. On the march back his army was harassed by Cossacks, and suffered disease and starvation. Only 20,000 of his men survived the campaign. By 1813 the tide had begun to turn from Napoleon. Having been defeated by a seven nation army at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, he was forced to abdicate after the Six Days ' Campaign and the occupation of Paris. Under the Treaty of Fontainebleau he was exiled to the island of Elba. He returned to France on 1 March 1815 (see Hundred Days), raised an army, but was finally defeated by a British and Prussian force at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815 and exiled to a small British island in the South Atlantic.
Roberts finds that the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, from 1793 to 1815, caused 4 million deaths (of whom 1 million were civilians); 1.4 million were French deaths.
Outside France the Revolution had a major impact. Its ideas became widespread. Roberts argues that Napoleon was responsible for key ideas of the modern world, so that, "meritocracy, equality before the law, property rights, religious toleration, modern secular education, sound finances, and so on - were protected, consolidated, codified, and geographically extended by Napoleon during his 16 years of power. ''
Furthermore, the French armies in the 1790s and 1800s directly overthrew feudal remains in much of western Europe. They liberalised property laws, ended seigneurial dues, abolished the guild of merchants and craftsmen to facilitate entrepreneurship, legalised of divorce, closed the Jewish ghettos and made Jews equal to everyone else. The Inquisition ended as did the Holy Roman Empire. The power of church courts and religious authority was sharply reduced and equality under the law was proclaimed for all men.
In foreign affairs, the French Army down to 1812 was quite successful. Roberts says that Napoleon fought 60 battles, losing only seven. France conquered Belgium and turned it into another province of France. It conquered the Netherlands, and made it a puppet state. It took control of the German areas on the left bank of the Rhine River and set up a puppet regime. It conquered Switzerland and most of Italy, setting up a series of puppet states. The result was glory for France, and an infusion of much needed money from the conquered lands, which also provided direct support to the French Army. However the enemies of France, led by Britain and funded by the inexhaustible British Treasury, formed a Second Coalition in 1799 (with Britain joined by Russia, the Ottoman Empire and Austria). It scored a series of victories that rolled back French successes, and trapped the French Army in Egypt. Napoleon himself slipped through the British blockade in October 1799, returning to Paris, where he overthrew the government and made himself the ruler.
Napoleon conquered most of Italy in the name of the French Revolution in 1797 -- 99. He consolidated old units and split up Austria 's holdings. He set up a series of new republics, complete with new codes of law and abolition of old feudal privileges. Napoleon 's Cisalpine Republic was centered on Milan; Genoa became a republic; the Roman Republic was formed as well as the small Ligurian Republic around Genoa. The Neapolitan Republic was formed around Naples, but it lasted only five months. He later formed the Kingdom of Italy, with his brother as King. In addition, France turned the Netherlands into the Batavian Republic, and Switzerland into the Helvetic Republic. All these new countries were satellites of France, and had to pay large subsidies to Paris, as well as provide military support for Napoleon 's wars. Their political and administrative systems were modernized, the metric system introduced, and trade barriers reduced. Jewish ghettos were abolished. Belgium and Piedmont became integral parts of France.
Most of the new nations were abolished and returned to prewar owners in 1814. However, Artz emphasizes the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution:
Likewise in Switzerland the long - term impact of the French Revolution has been assessed by Martin:
The greatest impact came of course in France itself. In addition to effects similar to those in Italy and Switzerland, France saw the introduction of the principle of legal equality, and the downgrading of the once powerful and rich Catholic Church to just a bureau controlled by the government. Power became centralized in Paris, with its strong bureaucracy and an army supplied by conscripting all young men. French politics were permanently polarized -- new names were given, "left '' and "right '' for the supporters and opponents of the principles of the Revolution.
British historian Max Hastings says there is no question that as a military genius Napoleon ranks with Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar in greatness. However, in the political realm, historians debate whether Napoleon was "an enlightened despot who laid the foundations of modern Europe or, instead, a megalomaniac who wrought greater misery than any man before the coming of Hitler ''.
Historian Kenneth Scott Latourette argues that the outlook for Protestantism at the start of the 19th century was discouraging. It was a regional religion based in northwestern Europe, with an outpost in the sparsely settled United States. It was closely allied with government, as in Scandinavia, the Netherlands, Prussia, and especially Great Britain. The alliance came at the expense of independence, as the government made the basic policy decisions, down to such details as the salaries of ministers and location of new churches. The dominant intellectual currents of the Enlightenment promoted rationalism, and most Protestant leaders preached a sort of deism. Intellectually, the new methods of historical and anthropological study undermine automatic acceptance of biblical stories, as did the sciences of geology and biology. Industrialization was a strongly negative factor, as workers who moved to the city seldom joined churches. The gap between the church and the unchurched grew rapidly, and secular forces, based both in socialism and liberalism undermine the prestige of religion. Despite the negative forces, Protestantism demonstrated a striking vitality by 1900. Shrugging off Enlightenment rationalism, Protestants embraced romanticism, with the stress on the personal and the invisible. Entirely fresh ideas as expressed by Friedrich Schleiermacher, Soren Kierkegaard, Albrecht Ritschl and Adolf von Harnack restored the intellectual power of theology. There was more attention to historic creeds such as the Augsburg, the Heidelberg, and the Westminster confessions. In England, Anglicans emphasize the historically Catholic components of their heritage, as the High Church element reintroduced vestments and incense into their rituals. The stirrings of pietism on the Continent, and evangelicalism in Britain expanded enormously, leading the devout away from an emphasis on formality and ritual and toward an inner sensibility toward personal relationship to Christ. Social activities, in education and in opposition to social vices such as slavery, alcoholism and poverty provided new opportunities for social service. Above all, worldwide missionary activity became a highly prized goal, proving quite successful in close cooperation with the imperialism of the British, German, and Dutch empires.
The political development of nationalism and the push for popular sovereignty culminated with the ethnic / national revolutions of Europe. During the 19th century nationalism became one of the most significant political and social forces in history; it is typically listed among the top causes of World War I.
Napoleon 's conquests of the German and Italian states around 1800 -- 1806 played a major role in stimulating nationalism and the demands for national unity.
In the German states east of Prussia Napoleon abolished many of the old or medieval relics, such as dissolving the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. He imposed rational legal systems and demonstrated how dramatic changes were possible. For example, his organization of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806 promoted a feeling of nationalism. Nationalists sought to encompass masculinity in their quest for strength and unity. In the 1860s it was Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck who achieved German unification in 1870 after the many smaller states followed Prussia 's leadership in wars against Denmark, Austria and France.
Italian nationalism emerged in the 19th century and was the driving force for Italian unification or the "Risorgimento '' (meaning the Resurgence or revival). It was the political and intellectual movement that consolidated different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of the Kingdom of Italy in 1860. The memory of the Risorgimento is central to both Italian nationalism and Italian historiography.
The Greek drive for independence from the Ottoman Empire inspired supporters across Christian Europe, especially in Britain. France, Russia and Britain intervened to make this nationalist dream become reality.
For centuries the Orthodox Christian Serbs were ruled by the Muslim - controlled Ottoman Empire. The success of the Serbian revolution against Ottoman rule in 1817 marked the foundation of modern Principality of Serbia. It achieved de facto independence in 1867 and finally gained recognition by the Great Powers in the Berlin Congress of 1878. The Serbs developed a larger vision for nationalism in Pan-Slavism and with Russian support sought to pull the other Slavs out of the Austro - Hungarian Empire. Austria, with German backing, tried to crush Serbia in 1914 but Russia intervened, thus igniting the First World War in which Austria dissolved into nation states.
In 1918, the region of Vojvodina proclaimed its secession from Austria - Hungary to unite with the pan-Slavic State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs; the Kingdom of Serbia joined the union on 1 December 1918, and the country was named Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. It was renamed Yugoslavia, which was never able to tame the multiple nationalities and religions and it flew apart in civil war in the 1990s.
The cause of Polish nationalism was repeatedly frustrated before 1918. In the 1790s, Germany, Russia and Austria partitioned Poland. Napoleon set up the Duchy of Warsaw, a new Polish state that ignited a spirit of nationalism. Russia took it over in 1815 as Congress Poland with the tsar as King of Poland. Large - scale nationalist revolts erupted in 1830 and 1863 -- 64 but were harshly crushed by Russia, which tried to Russify the Polish language, culture and religion. The collapse of the Russian Empire in the First World War enabled the major powers to reestablish an independent Poland, which survived until 1939. Meanwhile, Poles in areas controlled by Germany moved into heavy industry but their religion came under attack by Bismarck in the Kulturkampf of the 1870s. The Poles joined German Catholics in a well - organized new Centre Party, and defeated Bismarck politically. He responded by stopping the harassment and cooperating with the Centre Party.
After the defeat of revolutionary France, the other great powers tried to restore the situation which existed before 1789. In 1815 at the Congress of Vienna, the major powers of Europe managed to produce a peaceful balance of power among the various European empires. This was known as the Metternich system. However, their efforts were unable to stop the spread of revolutionary movements: the middle classes had been deeply influenced by the ideals of the French revolution, the Industrial Revolution brought important economical and social changes. The working classes and some intellectuals became a base for socialist, communist and anarchistic ideas (especially those summarised by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in The Communist Manifesto). The middle classes and businessmen promoted liberalism, free trade and capitalism. Aristocratic elements concentrated in government service, the military and the established churches. Nationalist movements (in Germany, Italy, Poland, Hungary, and elsewhere) called upon the "racial '' unity (which usually meant a common language and an imagined common ethnicity) to seek national unification and / or liberation from foreign rule. As a result, the period between 1815 and 1871 saw a large number of revolutionary attempts and independence wars. Greece successfully revolted against Ottoman rule in the 1820s. European diplomats and intellectuals saw the Greek struggle for independence, with its accounts of Turkish atrocities, in a romantic light.
Napoleon III, nephew of Napoleon I, returned to France from exile in 1848, bringing a famous name that promised to stabilize the chaotic political situation. He was elected president and elected himself Emperor, a move approved later by a large majority of the French electorate. He modernized Paris, and build up the economy. He was most famous for his aggressive foreign policy in Europe, Mexico, and worldwide. He helped in the unification of Italy by fighting the Austrian Empire and joined the Crimean War on the side of the United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire against Russia. His empire collapsed after being defeated in the Franco - Prussian War. France gave up monarchs and became the democratic but anti-clerical French Third Republic, which lasted until 1940.
Most European states had become constitutional (rather than absolute) monarchies by 1871, and Germany and Italy merged many small city - states to become united nation - states. Germany in particular increasingly dominated the continent in terms of economics and political power. Meanwhile, on a global scale, Great Britain, with its far - flung British Empire, unmatched Royal Navy, and powerful bankers, became the world 's first global power. The sun never set on its territories, while an informal empire operated through British financiers, entrepreneurs, traders and engineers who established operations in many countries, and largely dominated Latin America. The British were especially famous for financing and constructing railways around the world.
From his base in Prussia, Otto von Bismarck in the 1860s engineered a series of short, decisive wars, that unified most of the German states (excluding Austria) into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. He humiliated France in the process, but kept on good terms with Austria - Hungary. With that accomplished by 1871 he then skillfully used balance of power diplomacy to preserve Germany 's new role and keep Europe at peace. He was removed from office in 1890 by an aggressive young Kaiser Wilhelm II, who pursued a disruptive foreign policy that polarized Europe into rival camps. These rival camps went to war with each other in 1914.
Colonial empires were the product of the European Age of Discovery from the 15th century. The initial impulse behind these dispersed maritime empires and those that followed was trade, driven by the new ideas and the capitalism that grew out of the Renaissance. Both the Portuguese Empire and Spanish Empire quickly grew into the first global political and economic systems with territories spread around the world.
Subsequent major European colonial empires included the French, Dutch, and British empires. The latter, consolidated during the period of British maritime hegemony in the 19th century, became the largest empire in history because of the improved ocean transportation technologies of the time as well as electronic communication through the telegraph, cable, and radio. At its height in 1920, the British Empire covered a quarter of the Earth 's land area and comprised a quarter of its population. Other European countries, such as Belgium, Germany, and Italy, pursued colonial empires as well (mostly in Africa), but they were smaller. Ignoring the oceans, Russia built its Russian Empire through conquest by land in Eastern Europe, and Asia.
By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire had declined enough to become a target for other global powers (see History of the Balkans). This instigated the Crimean War in 1854 and began a tenser period of minor clashes among the globe - spanning empires of Europe that eventually set the stage for the First World War. In the second half of the 19th century, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Kingdom of Prussia carried out a series of wars that resulted in the creation of Italy and Germany as nation - states, significantly changing the balance of power in Europe. From 1870, Otto von Bismarck engineered a German hegemony of Europe that put France in a critical situation. It slowly rebuilt its relationships, seeking alliances with Russia and Britain to control the growing power of Germany. In this way, two opposing sides -- the Triple Alliance of 1882 (Germany, Austria - Hungary and Italy) and the Triple Entente of 1907 (Britain, France and Russia) -- formed in Europe, improving their military forces and alliances year - by - year.
German - American historian Konrad Jarausch, asked if he agreed that "the European record of the past century (was) just one gigantic catastrophe '', argues:
The "short twentieth century '', from 1914 to 1991, included the First World War, the Second World War and the Cold War. The First World War used modern technology to kill millions of soldiers. Victory by Britain, France, the United States and other allies drastically changed the map of Europe, ending four major land empires (the Russian, German, Austro - Hungarian and Ottoman empires) and leading to the creation of nation - states across Central and Eastern Europe. The October Revolution in Russia led to the creation of the Soviet Union (1917 -- 1991) and the rise of the international communist movement. Widespread economic prosperity was typical of the period before 1914, and 1920 -- 1929. After the onset of the Great Depression in 1929, however, democracy collapsed in most of Europe. Fascists took control in Italy, and the even more aggressive Nazi movement led by Adolf Hitler took control of Germany, 1933 -- 45. The Second World War was fought on an even larger scale than the First war, killing many more people, and using even more advanced technology. It ended with the division of Europe between East and West, with the East under the control of the Soviet Union and the West dominated by NATO. The two sides engaged in the Cold War, with actual conflict taking place not in Europe but in Asia in the Korean War and the Vietnam War. The Imperial system collapsed. The remaining colonial empires ended through the decolonisation of European rule in Africa and Asia. The fall of Soviet Communism (1989 -- 1991) left the West dominant and enabled the reunification of Germany. It accelerated the process of a European integration to include Eastern Europe. The European Union continues today, but with German economic dominance. Since the worldwide Great Recession of 2008, European growth has been slow, and financial crises have hit Greece and other countries. Social divisiveness has been caused by large - scale immigration and radical Islamic rejection of European norms. While Russia is a weak version of the old Soviet Union, it has been confronting Europe in Ukraine and other areas.
After the relative peace of most of the 19th century, the rivalry between European powers, compounded by a rising nationalism among ethnic groups, exploded in August 1914, when the First World War started. Over 65 million European soldiers were mobilised from 1914 to 1918; 20 million soldiers and civilians died, and 21 million were seriously wounded. On one side were Germany, Austria - Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria (the Central Powers / Triple Alliance), while on the other side stood Serbia and the Triple Entente -- the coalition of France, Britain and Russia, which were joined by Italy in 1915, Romania in 1916 and by the United States in 1917. The Western Front involved especially brutal combat without any territorial gains by either side. Single battles like Verdun and the Somme killed hundreds of thousands of men while leaving the stalemate unchanged. Heavy artillery and machine guns caused most of the casualties, supplemented by poison gas. Czarist Russia collapsed in the February Revolution of 1917 and Germany claimed victory on the Eastern Front. After eight months of liberal rule, the October Revolution brought Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks to power, leading to the creation of the Soviet Union in place of the disintegrated Russian Empire. With American entry into the war in 1917 on the Allied side, and the failure of Germany 's spring 1918 offensive, Germany had run out of manpower, while an average of 10,000 American troops were arriving in France every day in the summer of 1918. Germany 's allies, Austria - Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, surrendered and dissolved, followed by Germany on 11 November 1918. The victors forced Germany to assume responsibility for the conflict and pay war reparations.
One factor in determining the outcome of the war was that the Allies had significantly more economic resources they could spend on the war. One estimate (using 1913 US dollars) is that the Allies spent $58 billion on the war and the Central Powers only $25 billion. Among the Allies, Britain spent $21 billion and the U.S. $17 billion; among the Central Powers Germany spent $20 billion.
The world war was settled by the victors at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. Two dozen nations sent delegations, and there were many nongovernmental groups, but the defeated powers were not invited.
The "Big Four '' were President Woodrow Wilson of the United States, Prime Minister David Lloyd George of Great Britain, George Clemenceau of France, and, of least importance, Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando. They met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which in turn were ratified by the others.
The major decisions were the creation of the League of Nations; the six peace treaties with defeated enemies, most notable the Treaty of Versailles with Germany; the awarding of German and Ottoman overseas possessions as "mandates '', chiefly to Britain and France; and the drawing of new national boundaries (sometimes with plebiscites) to better reflect the forces of nationalism.
As the conference 's decisions were enacted unilaterally, and largely on the whims of the Big Four, for its duration Paris was effectively the center of a world government, which deliberated over and implemented the sweeping changes to the political geography of Europe. Most famously, the Treaty of Versailles itself weakened Germany 's military and placed full blame for the war and costly reparations on its shoulders -- the humiliation and resentment in Germany is sometimes considered as one of the causes of Nazi success and indirectly a cause of World War II.
At the insistence of President Wilson, the Big Four required Poland to sign a treaty on 28 June 1919 that guaranteed minority rights in the new nation. Poland signed under protest, and made little effort to enforce the specified rights for Germans, Jews, Ukrainians, and other minorities. Similar treaties were signed by Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and later by Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania. Finland and Germany were not asked to sign a minority rights treaty.
In the Treaty of Versailles (1919) the winners imposed relatively hard conditions on Germany and recognised the new states (such as Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Austria, Yugoslavia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) created in central Europe from the defunct German, Austro - Hungarian and Russian empires, based on national (ethnic) self - determination. It was a peaceful era with a few small wars before 1922 such as the Ukrainian -- Soviet War (1917 -- 1921) and the Polish -- Soviet War (1919 -- 1921). Prosperity was widespread, and the major cities sponsored a youth culture called the "Roaring Twenties '' that was often featured in the cinema, which attracted very large audiences.
The Allied victory in the First World War seem to mark the triumph of liberalism, not just in the Allied countries themselves, but also in Germany and in the new states of Eastern Europe, as well as Japan. Authoritarian militarism as typified by Germany had been defeated and discredited. Historian Martin Blinkhorn argues that the liberal themes were ascendant in terms of "cultural pluralism, religious and ethnic toleration, national self - determination, free - market economics, representative and responsible government, free trade, unionism, and the peaceful settlement of international disputes through a new body, the League of Nations. '' However, as early as 1917, the emerging liberal order was being challenged by the new communist movement taking inspiration from the Russian Revolution. Communist revolts were beaten back everywhere else, but they did succeed in Russia.
Italy adopted an authoritarian system known as Fascism in 1922; it became a model for Hitler in Germany and for right wing elements in other countries. Historian Stanley G. Payne says Fascism in Italy was:
Authoritarian regimes were established in the 1930s in Germany, Portugal, Austria, Poland, Greece, the Baltic countries and Spain. By 1940, there were only four liberal democracies left on the European continent: France, Finland, Switzerland and Sweden.
After the Wall Street Crash of 1929, nearly the whole world sank into a Great Depression, as prices fell, profits fell, and unemployment soared. The worst hit sectors included heavy industry, export - oriented agriculture, mining and lumbering, and construction. World trade fell by two thirds.
Liberalism and democracy were discredited. In most of Europe, as well as in Japan and most of Latin America, nation after nation turned to dictators and authoritarian regimes. The most momentous change of government came when Hitler and his Nazis took power in Germany in 1933. A major civil war took place in Spain, with the nationalists winning. The League of Nations was helpless as Italy conquered Ethiopia and Japan seized Manchuria in 1931 and took over most of China starting in 1937.
The Spanish Civil War (1936 -- 1939) was marked by numerous small battles and sieges, and many atrocities, until the rebels (the Nationalists), led by Francisco Franco, won in 1939. There was military intervention as Italy sent land forces, and Germany sent smaller elite air force and armoured units to the Nationalists. The Soviet Union sold armaments to the leftist Republicans on the other side, while the Communist parties in numerous countries sent soldiers to the "International Brigades. '' The civil war did not escalate into a larger conflict, but did become a worldwide ideological battleground that pitted the left, the communist movement and many liberals against Catholics, conservatives, and fascists. Britain, France and the US remained neutral and refused to sell military supplies to either side. Worldwide there was a decline in pacifism and a growing sense that another world war was imminent, and that it would be worth fighting for.
In the Munich Agreement of 1938, Britain and France adopted a policy of appeasement as they gave Hitler what he wanted out of Czechoslovakia in the hope that it would bring peace. It did not. In 1939 Germany took over the rest of Czechoslovakia and appeasement policies gave way to hurried rearmament as Hitler next turned his attention to Poland.
After allying with Japan in the Anti-Comintern Pact and then also with Benito Mussolini 's Italy in the "Pact of Steel '', and finally signing a non-aggression treaty with the Soviet Union in August 1939, Hitler launched the Second World War on 1 September 1939 by attacking Poland. To his surprise Britain and France declared war on Germany, but there was little fighting during the "Phoney War '' period. War began in earnest in spring 1940 with the successful Blitzkrieg conquests of Denmark, Norway, the Low Countries, and France. Britain remained alone but refused to negotiate, and defeated Germany 's air attacks in the Battle of Britain. Hitler 's goal was to control Eastern Europe but because of his failure to defeat Britain and the Italian failures in North Africa and the Balkans, the great attack on the Soviet Union was delayed until June 1941. Despite initial successes, the German army was stopped close to Moscow in December 1941.
Over the next year the tide was turned and the Germans started to suffer a series of defeats, for example in the siege of Stalingrad and at Kursk. Meanwhile, Japan (allied to Germany and Italy since September 1940) attacked Britain and the United States on 7 December 1941; Germany then completed its over-extension by declaring war on the United States. War raged between the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the Allied Forces (British Empire, Soviet Union, and the United States). The Allied Forces won in North Africa, invaded Italy in 1943, and recaptured France in 1944. In the spring of 1945 Germany itself was invaded from the east by the Soviet Union and from the west by the other Allies. As the Red Army conquered the Reichstag in Berlin, Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered in early May. World War II was the deadliest conflict in human history, causing between 50 and 80 million deaths, the majority of whom were civilians (approximately 38 to 55 million).
This period was also marked by systematic genocide. In 1942 -- 45, separately from the war - related deaths, the Nazis killed an additional number of over 11 million civilians identified through IBM - enabled censuses, including the majority of the Jews and Gypsies of Europe, millions of Polish and Soviet Slavs, and also homosexuals, Jehovah 's Witnesses, misfits, disabled, and political enemies. Meanwhile, in the 1930s the Soviet system of forced labour, expulsions and allegedly engineered famine had a similar death toll. During and after the war millions of civilians were affected by forced population transfers.
The world wars ended the pre-eminent position of Britain, France and Germany in the Europe and the world. At the Yalta Conference, Europe was divided into spheres of influence between the victors of World War II, and soon became the principal zone of contention in the Cold War between the two power blocs, the Western countries and the Communist bloc. The United States and the majority of European liberal democracies at the time (United Kingdom, France, Italy, Netherlands, West Germany etc.) established the NATO military alliance. Later, the Soviet Union and its satellites (Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania) in 1955 established the Warsaw Pact as a counterpoint to NATO. The Warsaw Pact had a much larger ground force, but the American - French - British nuclear umbrellas protected NATO.
Communist states were imposed by the Red Army in the East, while parliamentary democracy became the dominant form of government in the West. Most historians point to its success as the product of exhaustion with war and dictatorship, and the promise of continued economic prosperity. Martin Conway also adds that an important impetus came from the anti-Nazi wartime political coalitions.
The United States gave away about $20 billion in Marshall Plan grants and other grants and low - interest long - term loans to Western Europe, 1945 to 1951. Historian Michael J. Hogan argues that American aid was critical in stabilizing the economy and politics of Western Europe. It brought in modern management that dramatically increased productivity, and encouraged cooperation between labor and management, and among the member states. Local Communist parties were opposed, and they lost prestige and influence and a role in government. In strategic terms, says Hogan, the Marshall Plan strengthened the West against The possibility of a Communist invasion or political takeover. However, the Marshall Plan 's role in the rapid recovery has been debated. Most reject the idea that it only miraculously revived Europe, since the evidence shows that a general recovery was already under way thanks to other aid programs from the United States. Economic historians Bradford De Long and Barry Eichengreen conclude it was, "History 's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program. '' They state:
The Soviet Union concentrated on its own recovery. It seized and transferred most of Germany 's industrial plants and it exacted war reparations from East Germany, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria, using Soviet - dominated joint enterprises. It used trading arrangements deliberately designed to favor the Soviet Union. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes:
Western Europe began economic and then political integration, with the aim to unite the region and defend it. This process included organisations such as the European Coal and Steel Community, which grew and evolved into the European Union, and the Council of Europe. The Solidarność movement in the 1980s weakened the Communist government in Poland. At the time the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev initiated perestroika and glasnost, which weakened Soviet influence in Europe, particularly in the USSR. In 1989 the Berlin Wall came down and Communist governments outside the Soviet Union were deposed. In 1990 the Federal Republic of Germany absorbed East Germany, after making large cash payments to the USSR. In 1991 the Communist Party in Moscow collapsed, ending the USSR, which split into fifteen independent states. The largest, Russia, took the Soviet Union 's seat on the United Nations Security Council. The most violent dissolution happened in Yugoslavia, in the Balkans. Four (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia) out of six Yugoslav republics declared independence and for most of them a violent war ensued, in some parts lasting until 1995. In 2006 Montenegro seceded and became an independent state. In the post -- Cold War era, NATO and the EU have been gradually admitting most of the former members of the Warsaw Pact.
Looking at the half century after the war historian Walter Lacquer concluded:
The post-war period also witnessed a significant rise in the standard of living of the Western European working class. As noted by one historical text, "within a single generation, the working classes of Western Europe came to enjoy the multiple pleasures of the consumer society. ''
Western Europe 's industrial nations in the 1970s were hit by a global economic crisis. They had obsolescent heavy industry, and suddenly had to pay very high energy prices which caused sharp inflation. Some of them also had inefficient nationalized railways and heavy industries. In the important field of computer technology, European nations lagged behind the United States. They also faced high government deficits and growing unrest led by militant labour unions. There was an urgent need for new economic directions. Germany and Sweden sought to create a social consensus behind a gradual restructuring. Germany 's efforts proved highly successful. In Britain under the leadership of Margaret Thatcher, the solution was shock therapy, high interest rates, austerity, and selling off inefficient corporations as well as the public housing, which was sold off to the tenants. One result was escalating social tensions in Britain, led by the militant coal miners. Thatcher eventually defeated her opponents and radically changed the British economy, but the controversy never went away as shown by the hostile demonstrations at the time of her death in 2013.
Following the end of the Cold War, the European Economic Community pushed for closer integration, co-operation in foreign and home affairs, and started to increase its membership into the neutral and former communist countries. In 1993, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union, succeeding the EEC and furthering political co-operation. The neutral countries of Austria, Finland and Sweden acceded to the EU, and those that did n't join were tied into the EU 's economic market via the European Economic Area. These countries also entered the Schengen Agreement which lifted border controls between member states.
The Maastricht Treaty created a single currency for most EU members. The euro was created in 1999 and replaced all previous currencies in participating states in 2002. The most notable exception to the currency union, or eurozone, was the United Kingdom, which also did not sign the Schengen Agreement.
EU did not participate in the Yugoslav Wars, and was divided on supporting the United States in the 2003 -- 2011 Iraq War. NATO has been part of the war in Afghanistan, but at a much lower level of involvement than the United States.
In 2004, the EU gained 10 new members. (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, which had been part of the Soviet Union; Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia, five former - communist countries; Malta, and the divided island of Cyprus.) These were followed by Bulgaria and Romania in 2007. Russia 's regime had interpreted these expansions as violations against NATO 's promise to not expand "one inch to the east '' in 1990. Russia engaged in a number of bilateral disputes about gas supplies with Belarus and Ukraine which endangered gas supplies to Europe. Russia also engaged in a minor war with Georgia in 2008.
Supported by the United States and some European countries, Kosovo 's government unilaterally declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008.
Public opinion in the EU turned against enlargement, partially due to what was seen as over-eager expansion including Turkey gaining candidate status. The European Constitution was rejected in France and the Netherlands, and then (as the Treaty of Lisbon) in Ireland, although a second vote passed in Ireland in 2009.
The financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 effected Europe, and government responded with austerity measures. Limited ability of the smaller EU nations (most notably Greece) to handle their debts led to social unrest, government liquidation, and financial insolvency. In May 2010, the German parliament agreed to loan 22.4 billion euros to Greece over three years, with the stipulation that Greece follow strict austerity measures. See European sovereign - debt crisis.
Beginning in 2014, Ukraine has been in a state of revolution and unrest with two breakaway regions (Donetsk and Lugansk) attempting to join Russia as full federal subjects. (See War in Donbass.) On 16 March, a referendum was held in Crimea leading to the de facto secession of Crimea and its largely internationally unrecognized annexation to the Russian Federation as the Republic of Crimea.
The future of the EU was plunged into doubt in June 2016 when a United Kingdom membership referendum resulted in the country 's intended withdrawal. 52 % of the British voters voted to leave the EU, leading into a complex separation process implying political and economic changes for both the UK and the remaining European Union countries.
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how many goals does messi have in all competitions | Lionel Messi - wikipedia
Argentine professional footballer
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Lionel Andrés Messi Cuccittini (Spanish pronunciation: (ljoˈnel anˈdɾez ˈmesi) (listen); born 24 June 1987) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a forward for Spanish club Barcelona and the Argentina national team. Often considered the best player in the world and regarded by many as the greatest of all time, Messi has a record - tying five Ballon d'Or awards, four of which he won consecutively, and a record - tying four European Golden Shoes. He has spent his entire professional career with Barcelona, where he has won 30 trophies, including eight La Liga titles, four UEFA Champions League titles, and five Copas del Rey. Both a prolific goalscorer and a creative playmaker, Messi holds the records for most official goals scored in La Liga (378), a La Liga season (50), a club football season in Europe (73), a calendar year (91), El Clásico (25), as well as those for most assists in La Liga (149) and the Copa América (11). He has scored over 600 senior career goals for club and country.
Born and raised in central Argentina, Messi was diagnosed with a growth hormone deficiency as a child. At age 13, he relocated to Spain to join Barcelona, who agreed to pay for his medical treatment. After a fast progression through Barcelona 's youth academy, Messi made his competitive debut aged 17 in October 2004. Despite being injury - prone during his early career, he established himself as an integral player for the club within the next three years, finishing 2007 as a finalist for both the Ballon d'Or and FIFA World Player of the Year award, a feat he repeated the following year. His first uninterrupted campaign came in the 2008 -- 09 season, during which he helped Barcelona achieve the first treble in Spanish football. At 22 years old, Messi won the Ballon d'Or and FIFA World Player of the Year award by record voting margins.
Three successful seasons followed, with Messi winning three consecutive FIFA Ballon d'Ors, including an unprecedented fourth. His personal best campaign statistically to date was the 2011 -- 12 season, in which he set the La Liga and European records for most goals scored in a single season, while establishing himself as Barcelona 's all - time top scorer in official competitions in March 2012. The following two seasons, Messi finished twice second for the Ballon d'Or behind Cristiano Ronaldo, his perceived career rival. Messi regained his best form during the 2014 -- 15 campaign, breaking the all - time goalscoring records in both La Liga and the Champions League in November 2014, and led Barcelona to a historic second treble.
An Argentine international, Messi is his country 's all - time leading goalscorer. At youth level, he won the 2005 FIFA World Youth Championship, finishing the tournament with both the Golden Ball and Golden Shoe, and an Olympic gold medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics. His style of play as a diminutive, left - footed dribbler drew comparisons with compatriot Diego Maradona, who declared the teenager his successor. After making his senior debut in August 2005, Messi became the youngest Argentine to play and score in a FIFA World Cup during the 2006 edition, and reached the final of the 2007 Copa América, where he was named young player of the tournament. As the squad 's captain from August 2011, he led Argentina to three consecutive finals: the 2014 World Cup, for which he won the Golden Ball, and the 2015 and 2016 Copas América. After announcing his international retirement in 2016, he reversed his decision and led his country to qualification for the 2018 World Cup.
Lionel Andrés Messi was born on 24 June 1987 in Rosario, the third of four children of Jorge Messi, a steel factory manager, and his wife Celia Cuccittini, who worked in a magnet manufacturing workshop. On his father 's side, he is of Italian and Spanish descent, the great - grandson of immigrants from the northcentral Adriatic Marche region of Italy and Catalonia, and on his mother 's side, he has primarily Italian ancestry. Growing up in a tight - knit, football - loving family, "Leo '' developed a passion for the sport from an early age, playing constantly with his older brothers, Rodrigo and Matías, and his cousins, Maximiliano and Emanuel Biancucchi, both of whom became professional footballers. At the age of four he joined local club Grandoli, where he was coached by his father, though his earliest influence as a player came from his maternal grandmother, Celia, who accompanied him to training and matches. He was greatly affected by her death, shortly before his eleventh birthday; since then, as a devout Catholic, he has celebrated his goals by looking up and pointing to the sky in tribute of his grandmother.
-- Newell 's Old Boys youth coach Adrián Coria shares his first impression of the 12 - year - old Messi.
A lifelong supporter of Newell 's Old Boys, Messi joined the Rosario club when he was six years old. During the six years he played for Newell 's, he scored almost 500 goals as a member of "The Machine of ' 87 '', the near - unbeatable youth side named for the year of their birth, and regularly entertained crowds by performing ball tricks during half - time of the first team 's home games. However, his future as a professional player was threatened when, at age 10, he was diagnosed with a growth hormone deficiency. As his father 's health insurance covered only two years of growth hormone treatment, which cost at least $ 1,000 per month, Newell 's agreed to contribute, but later reneged on their promise. He was scouted by Buenos Aires club River Plate, whose playmaker, Pablo Aimar, he idolised, but they were also unable to pay for his treatment due to the country 's economic collapse.
As the Messi family had relatives in Catalonia, they sought to arrange a trial with Barcelona in September 2000. First team director Charly Rexach immediately wanted to sign him, but the board of directors hesitated; at the time it was highly unusual for European clubs to sign foreign players of such a young age. On 14 December, an ultimatum was issued for Barcelona to prove their commitment, and Rexach, with no other paper at hand, offered a contract on a paper napkin. In February 2001, the family relocated to Barcelona, where they moved into an apartment near the club 's stadium, Camp Nou. During his first year in Spain, Messi rarely played with the Infantiles due to a transfer conflict with Newell 's; as a foreigner, he could only be fielded in friendlies and the Catalan league. Without football, he struggled to integrate into the team; already reserved by nature, he was so quiet that his teammates initially believed he was mute. At home, he suffered from homesickness after his mother moved back to Rosario with his brothers and little sister, María Sol, while he stayed in Barcelona with his father.
After a year at Barcelona 's youth academy, La Masia, Messi was finally enrolled in the Royal Spanish Football Federation (RFEF) in February 2002. Now playing in all competitions, he befriended his teammates, among whom were Cesc Fàbregas and Gerard Piqué. After completing his growth hormone treatment aged 14, Messi became an integral part of the "Baby Dream Team '', Barcelona 's greatest - ever youth side. During his first full season (2002 -- 03), he was top scorer with 36 goals in 30 games for the Cadetes A, who won an unprecedented treble of the league and both the Spanish and Catalan cups. The Copa Catalunya final, a 4 -- 1 victory over Espanyol, became known in club lore as the partido de la máscara, the final of the mask. A week after suffering a broken cheekbone during a league match, Messi was allowed to start the game on the condition that he wear a plastic protector; soon hindered by the mask, he took it off and scored two goals in 10 minutes before his substitution. At the close of the season, he received an offer to join Arsenal, his first from a foreign club, but while Fàbregas and Piqué soon left for England, he chose to remain in Barcelona.
-- Barcelona 's then assistant coach Henk Ten Cate on Messi 's first - team debut.
During the 2003 -- 04 season, his fourth with Barcelona, Messi rapidly progressed through the club 's ranks, debuting for a record five teams in a single campaign. After being named player of the tournament in four international pre-season competitions with the Juveniles B, he played only one official match with the team before being promoted to the Juveniles A, where he scored 18 goals in 11 league games. Messi was then one of several youth players called up to strengthen a depleted first team during the international break. French Winger Ludovic Giuly explained how a teenage Leo caught the eye in a training session with Frank Rijkaard 's first team: "He destroyed us all... They were kicking him all over the place to avoid being ridiculed by this kid, he just got up and kept on playing. He would dribble past four players and score a goal. Even the team 's starting centre - backs were nervous. He was an alien. '' At 16 years, four months, and 23 days old, he made his first team debut when he came on in the 75th minute during a friendly against José Mourinho 's Porto on 16 November 2003. His performance, creating two chances and a shot on goal, impressed the technical staff, and he subsequently began training daily with the club 's reserve side, Barcelona B, as well as weekly with the first team. After his first training session with the senior squad, Barça 's new star player, Ronaldinho, told his teammates that he believed the 16 - year - old would become an even better player than himself. Ronaldinho soon befriended Messi, whom he called "little brother '', which greatly eased his transition into the first team.
To gain further match experience, Messi joined Barcelona C in addition to the Juveniles A, playing his first game for the third team on 29 November. He helped save them from the relegation zone of the Tercera División, scoring five goals in ten games, including a hat - trick in eight minutes during a Copa del Rey match while man - marked by Sevilla 's Sergio Ramos. His progress was reflected in his first professional contract, signed on 4 February 2004, which lasted until 2012 and contained an initial buyout clause of € 30 million. A month later, on 6 March, he made his debut for Barcelona B in the Segunda División B, and his buyout clause automatically increased to € 80 million. He played five games with the B team that season but did not score. Physically he was weaker than his opponents, who were often much older and taller, and in training he worked on increasing his muscle mass and overall strength in order to be able to shake off defenders. Towards the end of the season, he returned to both youth teams, helping the Juveniles B win the league. He finished the campaign having scored for four of his five teams with a total of 36 goals in all official competitions.
During the 2004 -- 05 season, Messi was a guaranteed starter for the B team, playing 17 games throughout the campaign and scoring on six occasions. Since his debut the previous November, he had not been called up to the first team again, but in October 2004, the senior players asked manager Frank Rijkaard to promote him. Since Ronaldinho already played on the left wing, Rijkaard moved Messi from his usual position onto the right flank (though initially against the player 's wishes), allowing him to cut into the centre of the pitch and shoot with his dominant left foot. Messi made his league debut during the next match on 16 October, against Espanyol, coming on in the 82nd minute. At 17 years, three months, and 22 days old, he was at the time the youngest player to represent Barcelona in an official competition. As a substitute player, he played only 77 minutes in nine matches for the first team that season, including his debut in the UEFA Champions League against Shakhtar Donetsk. He scored his first senior goal on 1 May 2005, against Albacete, from an assist by Ronaldinho, becoming -- at that time -- the youngest - ever scorer for the club. Barcelona, in their second season under Rijkaard, won the league for the first time in six years.
-- Fabio Capello praises the 18 - year - old Messi following the Joan Gamper trophy in August 2005.
On 24 June 2005, his 18th birthday, Messi signed his first contract as a senior team player. It made him a Barcelona player until 2010, two years less than his previous contract, but his buyout clause increased to € 150 million. His breakthrough came two months later, on 24 August, during the Joan Gamper Trophy, Barcelona 's pre-season competition. A starter for the first time, he gave a well - received performance against Fabio Capello 's Juventus, receiving an ovation from the Camp Nou. While Capello requested to loan Messi, a bid to buy him came from Inter Milan, who were willing to pay his € 150 million buyout clause and triple his wages. According to then - president Joan Laporta, it was the only time the club faced a real risk of losing Messi, but he ultimately decided to stay. On 16 September, his contract was updated for the second time in three months and extended to 2014.
Due to issues regarding his legal status in the Royal Spanish Football Federation, Messi missed the start of La Liga, but on 26 September, he acquired Spanish citizenship and became eligible to play. Wearing the number 19 shirt, he gradually established himself as the first - choice right winger, forming an attacking trio with Ronaldinho and striker Samuel Eto'o. He was in the starting line - up in major matches like his first Clásico against rivals Real Madrid on 19 November, as well as Barcelona 's away victory over Chelsea in the last 16 round of the Champions League, where he played his best match to that point. After he had scored 8 goals in 25 games, including his first in the Champions League, his season ended prematurely during the return leg against Chelsea on 7 March 2006, when he suffered a torn hamstring. Messi worked to regain fitness in time for the Champions League final, but on 17 May, the day of the final, he was eventually ruled out. He was so disappointed that he did not celebrate his team 's victory over Arsenal in Paris, something he later came to regret.
While Barcelona began a gradual decline, the 19 - year - old Messi established himself as one of the best players in the world during the 2006 -- 07 campaign. Already an idol to the culés, the club 's supporters, he scored 17 goals in 36 games across all competitions. However, he continued to be plagued by major injuries; a metatarsal fracture sustained on 12 November 2006 kept him out of action for three months. He recovered in time for the last 16 round of the Champions League against Liverpool, but was effectively marked out of the game; Barcelona, the reigning champions, were out of the competition. In the league, his goal contribution increased towards the end of the season; 11 of his 14 goals came from the last 13 games. On 10 March 2007, he scored his first hat - trick in a Clásico, the first player to do so in 12 years, equalising after each goal by Real Madrid to end the match in a 3 -- 3 draw in extra time. His growing importance to the club was reflected in a new contract, signed that month, which greatly increased his wages.
Already frequently compared to compatriot Diego Maradona, Messi proved their similarity when he nearly replicated Maradona 's two most famous goals in the span of three weeks. During a Copa del Rey semi-final against Getafe on 18 April, he scored a goal remarkably similar to Maradona 's goal in the quarter - finals of the 1986 FIFA World Cup, known as the Goal of the Century. Messi collected the ball on the right side near the halfway line, ran 60 metres (200 ft), and beat five defenders before scoring with an angled finish, just as Maradona had done. A league match against Espanyol on 9 June saw him score by launching himself at the ball and guiding it past the goalkeeper with his hand in similar fashion to Maradona 's Hand of God goal in the same World Cup match. As Messi continued his individual rise, Barcelona faltered; the team failed to reach the Copa del Rey final after Messi was rested during the second leg against Getafe and lost the league to Real Madrid on head - to - head results.
After Ronaldinho lost form, Messi became Barça 's new star player at only 20 years old, receiving the nickname "Messiah '' from the Spanish media. His efforts in 2007 also earned him award recognition; journalists voted him the third - best player of the year for the 2007 Ballon d'Or, behind Kaká and runner - up Cristiano Ronaldo, while international managers and national team captains voted him second for the FIFA World Player of the Year award, again behind Kaká. Although he managed to score 16 goals during the 2007 -- 08 campaign, the second half of his season was again marred by injuries after he suffered a torn hamstring on 15 December. He returned to score twice in their away victory against Celtic in the last 16 round of the Champions League, becoming the competition 's top scorer at that point with six goals, but reinjured himself during the return leg on 4 March 2008. Rijkaard had fielded him despite warning from the medical staff, leading captain Carles Puyol to criticise the Spanish media for pressuring Messi to play every match. Barcelona finished the season without trophies, eliminated in the Champions League semi-finals by the eventual champions, Manchester United, and placed third in the league.
After two unsuccessful seasons, Barcelona were in need of an overhaul, leading to the departure of Rijkaard and Ronaldinho. Upon the latter 's departure, Messi was given the number 10 shirt. He signed a new contract in July 2008 on an annual salary of € 7.8 million, becoming the club 's highest - paid player. Ahead of the new season, a major concern remained his frequent muscular injuries, which had left him side - lined for a total of eight months between 2006 and 2008. To combat the problem, the club implemented new training, nutrition, and lifestyle regimens, and assigned him a personal physiotherapist, who would travel with him during call - ups for the Argentina national team. As a result, Messi remained virtually injury - free during the next four years, allowing him to reach his full potential. Despite his injuries early in the year, his performances in 2008 saw him again voted runner - up for the Ballon d'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award, both times behind Cristiano Ronaldo.
In his first uninterrupted campaign, the 2008 -- 09 season, he scored 38 goals in 51 games, contributing alongside Eto'o and winger Thierry Henry to a total of 100 goals in all competitions, a record at the time for the club.
During his first season under Barcelona 's new manager, former captain Pep Guardiola, Messi played mainly on the right wing, like he had under Rijkaard, though this time as a false winger with the freedom to cut inside and roam the centre. During the Clásico on 2 May 2009, however, he played for the first time as a false nine, positioned as a centre - forward but dropping deep into midfield to link up with Xavi and Andrés Iniesta. He assisted with a chip his side 's first goal and scored twice to end the match in an emphatic 6 -- 2 victory, the team 's greatest - ever score at Real Madrid 's Santiago Bernabéu Stadium. Returning to the wing, he played his first final since breaking into the first team on 13 May, scoring once and assisting a second goal as Barcelona defeated Athletic Bilbao 4 -- 1 to win the Copa del Rey. With 23 league goals from Messi that season, Barcelona became La Liga champions three days later and achieved its fifth double.
As the season 's Champions League top scorer with nine goals, the youngest in the tournament 's history, Messi scored two goals and assisted two more to ensure a 4 -- 0 quarter - final victory over Bayern Munich. He returned as a false nine during the final on 27 May in Rome against Manchester United. Barcelona were crowned champions of Europe by winning the match 2 -- 0, the second goal coming from a Messi header over goalkeeper Edwin van der Sar. Barcelona thus achieved the first treble in the history of Spanish football. This success was reflected in a new contract, signed on 18 September, which committed Messi to the club through 2016 with a new buyout clause of € 250 million, while his salary increased to € 12 million. His team 's prosperity continued into the second half of 2009, as Barcelona became the first club to achieve the sextuple, winning six top - tier trophies in a single year. After victories in the Supercopa de España and UEFA Super Cup in August, Barcelona won the FIFA Club World Cup against Estudiantes de La Plata on 19 December, with Messi scoring the winning 2 -- 1 goal with his chest. At 22 years old, Messi won the Ballon d'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award, both times by the greatest voting margin in each trophy 's history.
-- Arsène Wenger commends Messi for his four -- goal display against Arsenal in April 2010.
Unsatisfied with his position on the right wing, Messi resumed playing as a false nine in early 2010, beginning with a Champions League last 16 - round match against VfB Stuttgart. After a first - leg draw, Barcelona won the second leg 4 -- 0 with two goals and an assist from Messi. At that point, he effectively became the tactical focal point of Guardiola 's team, and his goalscoring rate increased. Messi scored a total of 47 goals in all competitions that season, equaling Ronaldo 's club record from the 1996 -- 97 campaign. He notably scored all of his side 's four goals in the Champions League quarter - final against Arsène Wenger 's Arsenal on 6 April while becoming Barcelona 's all - time top scorer in the competition. Although Barcelona were eliminated in the Champions League semi-finals by the eventual champions, Inter Milan, Messi finished the season as top scorer (with 8 goals) for the second consecutive year. As the league 's top scorer with 34 goals (again tying Ronaldo 's record), he helped Barcelona win a second consecutive La Liga trophy with only a single defeat.
Messi secured Barcelona 's first trophy of the 2010 -- 11 campaign, the Supercopa de España, by scoring a hat - trick in his side 's second - leg 4 -- 0 victory over Sevilla, after a first - leg defeat. Assuming a playmaking role, he was again instrumental in a Clásico on 29 November 2010, the first with José Mourinho in charge of Real Madrid, as Barcelona defeated their rivals 5 -- 0. Messi helped the team achieve 16 consecutive league victories, a record in Spanish football, concluding with another hat - trick against Atlético Madrid on 5 February 2011. His club performances in 2010 earned him the inaugural FIFA Ballon d'Or, an amalgamation of the Ballon d'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award, though his win was met with some criticism due to his lack of success with Argentina at the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Under the award 's old format, he would have placed just outside the top three, owing his win to the votes from the international coaches and captains.
Towards the end of the season, Barcelona played four Clásicos in the span of 18 days. A league match on 16 April ended in a draw after a penalty from Messi. After Barcelona lost the Copa del Rey final four days later, Messi scored both goals in his side 's 2 -- 0 win in the first leg of the Champions League semi-finals, the second of which -- a dribble past three players -- was acclaimed as one of the best ever in the competition. Although he did not score, he was again important in the second - leg draw that sent Barcelona through to the Champions League final, where they faced Manchester United in a repeat of the final two years earlier. As the competition 's top scorer for the third consecutive year, with 12 goals, Messi gave a man - of - the - match performance at Wembley on 28 May, scoring the match - winning goal of Barça 's 3 -- 1 victory. Barcelona won a third consecutive La Liga title. In addition to his 31 goals, Messi was also the league 's top assist provider with 18. He finished the season with 53 goals and 24 assists in all competitions, becoming Barcelona 's all - time single - season top scorer and the first player in Spanish football to reach the 50 - goal benchmark.
As Messi developed into a combination of a number 8 (a creator), a 9 (scorer), and a 10 (assistant), he scored an unprecedented 73 goals and provided 29 assists in all club competitions during the 2011 -- 12 season, producing a hat - trick or more on 10 occasions. He began the campaign by helping Barcelona win both the Spanish and European Super Cups; in the Supercopa de España, he scored three times to achieve a 5 -- 4 aggregate victory over Real Madrid, overtaking Raúl as the competition 's all - time top scorer with eight goals. At the close of the year, on 18 December, he scored twice in the FIFA Club World Cup final, a 4 -- 0 victory over Santos, earning the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament, as he had done two years previously. For his efforts in 2011, he again received the FIFA Ballon d'Or, becoming only the fourth player in history to win the Ballon d'Or three times, after Johan Cruyff, Michel Platini, and Marco van Basten. Additionally, he won the inaugural UEFA Best Player in Europe Award, a revival of the old - style Ballon d'Or. By then, Messi was already widely considered one of the best footballers in history, alongside players like Diego Maradona and Pelé.
-- Pep Guardiola after Messi became Barcelona 's all - time top scorer at age 24 in March 2012
As Messi maintained his goalscoring form into the second half of the season, the year 2012 saw him break several longstanding records. On 7 March, two weeks after scoring four goals in a league fixture against Valencia, he scored five times in a Champions League last 16 - round match against Bayer Leverkusen, an unprecedented achievement in the history of the competition. In addition to being the joint top assist provider with five assists, this feat made him top scorer with 14 goals, tying José Altafini 's record from the 1962 -- 63 season, as well as becoming only the second player after Gerd Müller to be top scorer in four campaigns. Two weeks later, on 20 March, Messi became the top goalscorer in Barcelona 's history at 24 years old, overtaking the 57 - year record of César Rodríguez 's 232 goals with a hat - trick against Granada.
Despite Messi 's individual form, Barcelona 's four - year cycle of success under Guardiola -- one of the greatest eras in the club 's history -- drew to an end. Although Barcelona won the Copa del Rey against Athletic Bilbao on 25 May, its 14th title of that period, the team had lost the league to Real Madrid and was eliminated in the Champions League semi-finals by the eventual champions, Chelsea, with Messi sending a crucial second - leg penalty kick against the crossbar. In Barça 's last home league match on 5 May, against Espanyol, Messi scored all four goals before approaching the bench to embrace Guardiola, who had announced his resignation as manager. He finished the season as league top scorer in Spain and Europe for a second time, with 50 goals, an all - time La Liga record, while his 73 goals in all competitions surpassed Gerd Müller 's 67 goals in the 1972 -- 73 Bundesliga season, making him the single - season top scorer in the history of European club football.
Under manager Tito Vilanova, who had first coached him aged 14 at La Masia, Messi helped the club achieve its best - ever start to a La Liga season during the second half of 2012, amassing 55 points by the competition 's midway point, a record in Spanish football. A double scored on 9 December against Real Betis saw Messi break two longstanding records: he surpassed César Rodríguez 's record of 190 league goals, becoming Barcelona 's all - time top scorer in La Liga, and Gerd Müller 's record of most goals scored in a calendar year, overtaking his 85 goals scored in 1972 for Bayern Munich and Germany. Messi sent Müller a number 10 Barcelona shirt, signed "with respect and admiration '', after breaking his 40 - year record. At the close of the year, Messi had scored a record 91 goals in all competitions for Barcelona and Argentina. Although FIFA did not acknowledge the achievement, citing verifiability issues, he received the Guinness World Records title for most goals scored in a calendar year. As the odds - on favourite, Messi again won the FIFA Ballon d'Or, becoming the only player in history to win the Ballon d'Or four times.
Barcelona had virtually secured their La Liga title by the start of 2013, eventually equalling Real Madrid 's 100 - point record of the previous season. However, their performances deteriorated in the second half of the 2012 -- 13 campaign, concurrently with Vilanova 's absence due to ill health. After losing successive Clásicos, including the Copa del Rey semi-finals, they were nearly eliminated in the first knockout round of the Champions League by Milan, but a revival of form in the second leg led to a 4 -- 0 comeback, with two goals and an assist from Messi. Now in his ninth senior season with Barcelona, Messi signed a new contract on 7 February, committing himself to the club through 2018, while his fixed wage rose to € 13 million. He wore the captain 's armband for the first time a month later, on 17 March, in a league match against Rayo Vallecano; by then, he had become the team 's tactical focal point to a degree that was arguably rivalled only by former Barcelona players Josep Samitier, László Kubala and Johan Cruyff. Since his evolution into a false nine three years earlier, his input into the team 's attack had increased exponentially; from 24 % in their treble - winning campaign, his goal contribution rose to more than 40 % that season.
-- Defender Gerard Piqué explains Barcelona 's reliance on an unfit Messi against Paris Saint - Germain in April 2013.
After four largely injury - free seasons, the muscular injuries that had previously plagued Messi reoccurred. After he suffered a hamstring strain on 2 April, during the first quarter - final against Paris Saint - Germain, his appearances became sporadic. In the second leg against PSG, with an underperforming Barcelona down a goal, Messi came off the bench in the second half and within nine minutes helped create their game - tying goal, which allowed them to progress to the semi-finals. Still unfit, he proved ineffective during the first leg against Bayern Munich and was unable to play at all during the second, as Barcelona were defeated 7 -- 0 on aggregate by the eventual champions. These matches gave credence to the notion of Messidependencia, Barcelona 's perceived tactical and psychological dependence on their star player.
Messi continued to struggle with injury throughout 2013, eventually parting ways with his long - time personal physiotherapist. Further damage to his hamstring sustained on 12 May ended his goalscoring streak of 21 consecutive league games, a worldwide record; he had netted 33 goals during his run, including a four - goal display against Osasuna, while becoming the first player to score consecutively against all 19 opposition teams in La Liga. With 60 goals in all competitions, including 46 goals in La Liga, he finished the campaign as league top scorer in Spain and Europe for the second consecutive year, becoming the first player in history to win the European Golden Shoe three times. Following an irregular start to the new season under manager Gerardo Martino, formerly of his boyhood club Newell 's Old Boys, Messi suffered his fifth injury of 2013 when he tore his hamstring on 10 November, leaving him sidelined for two months. Despite his injuries, he was voted runner - up for the FIFA Ballon d'Or, relinquishing the award after a four - year monopoly to Cristiano Ronaldo.
During the second half of the 2013 -- 14 season, doubts persisted over Messi 's form, leading to a perception among the culés that he was reserving himself for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Statistically, his contribution of goals, shots, and passes had dropped significantly compared to previous seasons. He still managed to break two longstanding records in a span of seven days: a hat - trick on 16 March against Osasuna saw him overtake Paulino Alcántara 's 369 goals to become Barcelona 's top goalscorer in all competitions including friendlies, while another hat - trick against Real Madrid on 23 March made him the all - time top scorer in El Clásico, ahead of the 18 goals scored by former Real Madrid player Alfredo Di Stéfano. Messi finished the campaign with his worst output in five seasons, though he still managed to score 41 goals in all competitions. For the first time in five years, Barcelona ended the season without a major trophy; they were defeated in the Copa del Rey final by Real Madrid and lost the league in the last game to Atlético Madrid, causing Messi to be booed by sections of fans at the Camp Nou. After prolonged speculation over his future with the club, Messi signed a new contract on 19 May 2014, only a year after his last contractual update; his salary increased to € 20 million, or € 36 million before taxes, the highest wage ever in the sport.
-- Juventus captain Gianluigi Buffon ahead of their meeting in the Champions League final in June 2015
Under new manager and former captain Luis Enrique, Messi experienced a largely injury - free start to the 2014 -- 15 season, allowing him to break three more longstanding records towards the end of the year. A hat - trick scored against Sevilla on 22 November made him the all - time top scorer in La Liga, as he surpassed the 59 - year record of 251 league goals held by Telmo Zarra. Three days later, he scored another hat - trick against APOEL, overtaking Raúl 's 71 goals to become top scorer in the history of the Champions League. A third hat - trick, scored against city rivals Espanyol on 7 December, allowed him to surpass César Rodríguez as the all - time top scorer in the Derbi barceloní with 12 goals. Messi again placed second in the FIFA Ballon d'Or behind Cristiano Ronaldo, largely owing to his second - place achievement with Argentina at the World Cup.
At the start of 2015, Barcelona were perceived to be headed for another disappointing end to the season, with renewed speculation in the media that Messi was leaving the club. A turning point came on 11 January during a 3 -- 1 victory over Atlético Madrid, the first time Barça 's attacking trident of Messi, Luis Suárez and Neymar, dubbed "MSN '', each scored in a match, marking the beginning of a highly successful run. After five years of playing in the centre of the pitch, Messi had returned to his old position on the right wing late the previous year, by his own suggestion according to Suárez, their striker. From there, he regained his best -- arguably his best - ever -- form, while Suárez and Neymar ended the team 's attacking dependency on their star player. With 58 goals from Messi, the trio scored a total of 122 goals in all competitions that season, a record in Spanish football.
Towards the end of the campaign, Messi scored in a 1 -- 0 away win over Atlético Madrid on 17 May, securing the La Liga title. Among his 43 league goals that season was a hat - trick scored in 11 minutes against Rayo Vallecano on 8 March, the fastest of his senior career; it was his 32nd hat - trick overall for Barcelona, allowing him to overtake Telmo Zarra as the player with the most hat - tricks ever in Spanish football. Additionally, as the season 's top assist provider with 18 assists, he surpassed Luís Figo as the player with the most assists in La Liga; he made his record 106th assist in a fixture against Levante on 15 February, in which he also scored a hat - trick. Messi then scored twice as Barcelona defeated Athletic Bilbao 3 -- 1 in the Copa del Rey final on 30 May, achieving the sixth double in their history. His opening goal was hailed as one of the greatest in his career; he collected the ball near the halfway line and beat four opposing players, before feinting the goalkeeper to score in a tight space by the near post. The goal was later named one of the three final nominees for the 2015 FIFA Puskás Award.
In the Champions League, Messi scored twice and assisted on another in their 3 -- 0 semi-final victory over Bayern Munich, now under the stewardship of Guardiola. His second goal, which came only three minutes after his first, saw him chip the ball over goalkeeper Manuel Neuer after his dribble past Jérôme Boateng had made the defender drop to the ground; it went viral, becoming the year 's most tweeted about sporting moment, and was named the best goal of the season by UEFA. Despite a second - leg loss, Barcelona progressed to the final on 6 June in Berlin, where they defeated Juventus 3 -- 1 to win their second treble, becoming the first team in history to do so. Although Messi did not score, he participated in each of his side 's goals, particularly the second as he forced a parried save from goalkeeper Gianluigi Buffon from which Suárez scored the match - winning goal on the rebound. In addition to being the top assist provider with six assists, Messi finished the competition as the joint top scorer with ten goals, which earned him the distinction of being the first player ever to achieve the top scoring mark in five Champions League seasons. For his efforts during the season, he received the UEFA Best Player in Europe award for a second time.
Messi opened the 2015 -- 16 season by scoring twice from free kicks in Barcelona 's 5 -- 4 victory (after extra time) over Sevilla in the UEFA Super Cup. A subsequent 5 -- 1 aggregate defeat against Athletic Bilbao in the Supercopa de España ended their expressed hopes of a second sextuple, with Messi scoring his side 's only goal. On 16 September, he became the youngest player to make 100 appearances in the UEFA Champions League in a 1 -- 1 away draw to Roma. On 26 September, Messi sustained an injury in Barcelona 's match against Las Palmas; tests later confirmed that he suffered a tear in the medial collateral ligament of his left knee, ruling him out for six to eight weeks. He finally returned to the pitch on 21 November, making a substitute appearance in Barcelona 's 4 -- 0 away win over rivals Real Madrid in El Clásico. Messi capped off the year by winning the 2015 FIFA Club World Cup Final on 20 December, collecting his fifth club trophy of 2015 as Barcelona went on to defeat River Plate 3 -- 0 in Yokohama. Messi also won the tournament 's Silver Ball, despite missing the semi-final. On 30 December, Messi scored on his 500th appearance for Barcelona, in a 4 -- 0 home win over Real Betis.
On 6 January 2016, recording Barcelona 's first goal of the new year, Messi scored two goals and assisted the other two in a 4 -- 1 derby win over Espanyol at the Camp Nou, in the first leg of the round of 16 of the 2015 -- 16 Copa del Rey. Five days later, Messi won the FIFA Ballon d'Or for a record fifth time in his career. On 3 February, he scored a hat - trick in Barcelona 's 7 -- 0 win against Valenciain the first leg of the Copa del Rey semi-final at the Camp Nou, also scoring his 500th career goal in the process, including youth competitions. With teammate Luis Suárez scoring the other four goals in the same match, this was the first time that two players had scored at least three goals each at Camp Nou, and the first time since Luis Suárez Miramontes and Justo Tejada in 1956. The feat had only occurred three times before in the club 's history, all at Camp de Les Corts. The next league match at Camp Nou, a 6 -- 1 win against Celta de Vigo, Messi assisted Suárez from a penalty kick. Some people saw it as "a touch of genius '', while others criticised it as being disrespectful to the opponent. The Celta players, however, never complained and their coach defended the penalty, stating, "Barca 's forwards are very respectful. '' The penalty routine has been compared to that of Barça icon Johan Cruyff in 1982, who was battling lung cancer, leading many fans to indicate that the penalty was a tribute to him. Cruyff himself was "very happy '' with the play, insisting "it was legal and entertaining ''.
On 17 February, Messi reached his 300th league goal in a 1 -- 3 away win against Sporting de Gijón. A few days later, he scored both goals in Barcelona 's 0 -- 2 win against Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium, in the first leg of the 2015 -- 16 UEFA Champions League round of 16, with the second goal being Barcelona 's 10,000 th in official competitions. On 17 April, Messi ended a five - match scoring drought with his 500th senior career goal for club and country in Barcelona 's 2 -- 1 home loss to Valencia. Messi finished the 2015 -- 16 season by setting up both goals in Barcelona 's 2 -- 0 extra time win over Sevilla in the 2016 Copa del Rey Final, at the Vicente Calderón Stadium, on 22 May 2016, as the club celebrated winning the domestic double for the second consecutive season. In total, Messi scored 41 goals and provided 23 assists, as Barcelona 's attacking trio managed a Spanish record of 131 goals throughout the season, breaking the record they had set the previous season.
-- In an interview with Barcelona 's official magazine, Messi 's compatriot Javier Mascherano points out that Barcelona has continued to enjoy success despite the departures of its key figures.
Messi opened the 2016 -- 17 season by lifting the 2016 Supercopa de España as Barcelona 's captain in the absence of the injured Andrés Iniesta; he set - up Munir 's goal in a 2 -- 0 away win over Sevilla in the first leg on 14 August, and subsequently scored and assisted in a 3 -- 0 win in the return leg on 17 August. Three days later, he scored two goals and provided an assist to lead Barcelona to a 6 -- 2 victory against Real Betis in the opening game of the 2016 -- 17 La Liga season. On 13 September 2016, Messi scored his first hat - trick of the season in the opening game of the 2016 -- 17 UEFA Champions League campaign against Celtic in a 7 -- 0 victory; this was also Messi 's sixth hat - trick in the Champions League, the most by any player. A week later, Messi sustained a groin injury in a 1 -- 1 draw against Atlético Madrid and was ruled out with injury for three weeks. He marked his return with a goal, scoring three minutes after coming off the bench in a 4 -- 0 home win over Deportivo de La Coruña, on 16 October. Three days after this, he netted his thirty - seventh club hat - trick as Barcelona defeated Manchester City 4 -- 0. On 1 November, Messi scored his 54th Champions League group stage goal in Barcelona 's 3 -- 1 away return fixture loss to Manchester City, surpassing the previous record of 53 goals held by Raúl. On 12 November, Messi placed second in the 2016 Ballon d'Or behind Cristiano Ronaldo, who claimed the award for the fourth time. He finished the year with 51 goals, making him Europe 's top scorer, one ahead of Zlatan Ibrahimović.
After placing second in the 2016 Ballon d'Or, on 9 January 2017 Messi also finished in second place -- behind Cristiano Ronaldo once again -- in the 2016 Best FIFA Men 's Player Award. On 11 January, Messi scored from a free - kick in Barcelona 's 3 -- 1 victory against Athletic Bilbao in the second leg of the round of 16 of the Copa del Rey, which enabled Barcelona to advance to the quarter - finals of the competition; with his 26th goal from a free - kick for Barcelona in all competitions, he equalled the club 's all - time record, which had previously been set by Ronald Koeman. In his next league match, on 14 January, Messi scored in a 5 -- 0 win against Las Palmas; with this goal, he equalled Raúl 's record for the most number of teams scored against in La Liga (35). On 4 February, Messi scored his 27th free - kick for Barcelona in a 3 -- 0 home win over Athletic Bilbao in the league, overtaking Koeman as the club 's all - time top - scorer from free - kicks. On 23 April, Messi scored twice in a 3 -- 2 away win over Real Madrid. His game - winning goal in stoppage time was his 500th for Barcelona. On 27 May, Messi scored a goal and set up another for Paco Alcácer in the 2017 Copa del Rey Final, helping Barcelona to a 3 -- 1 victory over Alavés, and was named Man of the Match. In total, Messi finished the 2016 -- 17 season with 54 goals and 16 assists, while his 37 goals in La Liga saw him claim both the Pichichi and European Golden Boot Awards for the fourth time in his career.
Messi opened the 2017 -- 18 season by converting a penalty in Barcelona 's 1 -- 3 first leg home defeat to Real Madrid in Supercopa de España. Thereby, Messi also extended his El Clásico goalscoring record with the goal being his 24th official and 25th overall. On 27 August, Messi scored his first two goals of the 2017 -- 18 La Liga season in a 2 -- 0 away win over Alavés. Messi 's first goal marked his 350th in the fixture, becoming the first player ever to achieve this milestone. On 9 September, Messi scored his first hat - trick of the 2017 -- 18 league campaign, against Espanyol in derbi barceloní, thus helping to secure a 5 -- 0 home victory for Blaugrana over local rivals. Messi netted twice against Gianluigi Buffon, on 12 September, as Barça defeated the last season 's Italian champions Juventus 3 -- 0 at home in the UEFA Champions League. On 19 September, Messi found the net four times in a 6 -- 1 trashing of Eibar at the Camp Nou in La Liga. Three weeks later, on 1 October, Messi surpassed his former teammate Carles Puyol to become the third highest appearance maker in the club 's history, as he helped Barça defeat Las Palmas 3 -- 0 by assisting Sergio Busquets ' opener and later adding two himself in his 594th official game for the club; the league game was played behind closed doors at the Camp Nou due to violence in Catalonia relating to an ongoing independence referendum.
On 18 October, in his 122nd European club appearance, Messi scored his 97th UEFA Champions League goal, and his 100th in all UEFA club competitions, in a 3 -- 1 home victory over Olympiakos; he also set up Lucas Digne 's goal during the same match. Messi became only the second player after Cristiano Ronaldo to reach this century milestone, but accomplished it in 21 fewer appearances than the Portuguese counterpart. On 23 October, Messi finished as the runner - up behind Cristiano Ronaldo in 2017 Best FIFA Men 's Player award for the second consecutive year. On 4 November, he made his 600th appearance for Barcelona in a 2 -- 1 home win over Sevilla in La Liga. Following the reception of his fourth Golden Boot, Messi signed a new deal with Barcelona on 25 November, keeping him with the club through the 2020 -- 21 season. His buyout clause was set at € 700 million. On 7 January 2018, Messi made his 400th La Liga appearance with Barcelona in a 3 -- 0 home win over Levante, marking the occasion with his 144th league assist and 365th league goal for the club, the latter of which saw him equal Gerd Müller 's record for the most league goals scored for the same club in one of Europe 's top five divisions. A week later, he broke the record, scoring his 366th La Liga goal from a free kick in a 4 -- 2 away win against Real Sociedad. On 4 March, he scored his 600th senior career goal from a free kick in a 1 -- 0 home win over Atlético Madrid, in La Liga. On 14 March, Messi scored his 99th and 100th Champions League goals in a 3 -- 0 home win over Chelsea, becoming only the second player after Cristiano Ronaldo to reach this landmark, and achieving it at a younger age, in fewer appearances, having played fewer minutes, and having taken fewer shots than his Portuguese counterpart; his opening goal, which came after only two minutes and eight seconds, was also the fastest of his career. During the same match, he also set up Ousmane Dembélé for his first Barcelona goal; the result saw Barcelona advance to the quarter - finals of the competition for the eleventh consecutive season. On 7 April, he scored a hat - trick in a 3 -- 1 win over Leganés included in which was his sixth goal scored from a free - kick for the season, matching the record set by former teammate, Ronaldinho.
As a dual Argentine - Spanish national, Messi was eligible to play for the national team of both countries. Selectors for Spain 's Under - 17 squad began pursuing him in 2003 after Barcelona 's director of football, Carles Rexach, alerted the Royal Spanish Football Federation to their young player. Messi declined the offer, having aspired to represent La Albiceleste since childhood. To further prevent Spain from taking him, the Argentine Football Association organised two under - 20 friendlies in June 2004, against Paraguay and Uruguay, with the purpose of finalising his status as an Argentina player in FIFA. Five days after his 17th birthday, on 29 June, he made his debut for his country against Paraguay, scoring once and providing two assists in their 8 -- 0 victory. He was subsequently included in the squad for the South American Youth Championship, held in Colombia in February 2005. As he lacked the stamina of his teammates, the result of his former growth hormone deficiency, he was used as a substitute in six of the nine games, proving more effective when coming on in the second half. After being named man of the match against Venezuela, he scored the winning 2 -- 1 goal in the crucial last match against Brazil, thereby securing their third - place qualification for the FIFA World Youth Championship.
Aware of his physical limitations, Messi employed a personal trainer to increase his muscle mass, returning to the squad in an improved condition in time for the World Youth Championship, hosted by the Netherlands in June 2005. After he was left out of the starting line - up in their first match against the United States, a 1 -- 0 defeat, the squad 's senior players asked manager Francisco Ferraro to let Messi start, as they considered him their best player. After helping the team defeat Egypt and Germany to progress past the group stage, Messi proved decisive in the knockout phase as he scored their equaliser against Colombia, provided a goal and an assist against title favourites Spain, and scored their opening goal against reigning champions Brazil. Ahead of the final, he was awarded the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament. He scored two penalties in their 2 -- 1 victory over Nigeria, clinching Argentina 's fifth championship and finishing the tournament as top scorer with 6 goals. His performances drew comparisons with compatriot Diego Maradona, who had led Argentina to the title in 1979.
In recognition of his achievements with the under - 20 side, senior manager José Pékerman gave Messi his first call - up for a friendly against Hungary on 17 August 2005. Aged 18, Messi made his senior debut for Argentina when he came on in the 63rd minute, only to be sent off after two minutes for a perceived foul against Vilmos Vanczák, who had grabbed his shirt; Messi had struck the defender with his arm while trying to shake him off, which the referee interpreted as an intentional elbowing, a contentious decision. Messi was reportedly found weeping in the dressing room after his sending - off. He returned to the team on 3 September in their World Cup qualifier defeat to Paraguay, which he had declared his "re-debut '' ahead of the match. Messi started his first game in the next qualifying match against Peru, in which he was able to win a crucial penalty that secured their victory. After the match, Pékerman described him as "a jewel ''. He subsequently made regular appearances for the team ahead of Argentina 's participation in the 2006 FIFA World Cup, scoring his first goal in a friendly against Croatia on 1 March 2006. A hamstring injury sustained a week later jeopardised his presence in the World Cup, but he was nevertheless selected for Pékerman 's squad and regained fitness in time for the start of the tournament.
During the World Cup in Germany, Messi witnessed their opening match victory against the Ivory Coast from the substitutes ' bench. In the next match, against Serbia and Montenegro, he became the youngest player to represent Argentina at a FIFA World Cup when he came on as a substitute in the 74th minute. He assisted their fourth strike within minutes and scored the final goal in their 6 -- 0 victory, making him the youngest scorer in the tournament and the sixth - youngest goalscorer in the history of the World Cup. As their progression to the knockout phase was secured, several starters were rested during the last group match. Messi consequently started the game against the Netherlands, a 0 -- 0 draw, as they won their group on goal differential. In the round of 16 match against Mexico, played on his 19th birthday, Messi came on in the 84th minute, with the score tied at 1 -- 1. He appeared to score a goal, but it was contentiously ruled offside, with the team needing a late goal in extra time to proceed. He did not play in the quarter - final against Germany, during which Argentina were eliminated 4 -- 2 in a penalty shootout. Back home, Pékerman 's decision to leave him on the bench against Germany led to widespread criticism from those who believed Messi could have changed the outcome of the match in Argentina 's favour.
As Messi evolved into one of the best players in the world, he secured a place in Alfio Basile 's starting line - up, as part of a team considered favourites to win the 2007 Copa América, held in Venezuela. He set up the game - winning goal of their 4 -- 1 victory over the United States in the opening match, before winning a penalty that led to the game - tying first strike of their 4 -- 2 win in the next match against Colombia. As they had secured their place in the knockout phase, Messi started the next game on the bench, coming on in the last 25 minutes with the score at 0 -- 0 to help his team defeat Paraguay by assisting their only goal. At the quarter - final stage, where the group winners faced Peru, he scored the second goal of a 4 -- 0 victory that saw them through to the semi-final, during which he chipped the ball over Mexico 's goalkeeper to ensure another 3 -- 0 win. In a surprise defeat, Argentina lost the final 3 -- 0 to a Brazil squad which lacked several of the nation 's best players. Their unexpected loss was followed by much criticism in Argentina, though Messi was mostly exempt due to his young age and secondary status to star player Juan Román Riquelme. He was named the best young player of the tournament by CONMEBOL.
Ahead of the 2008 Summer Olympics, Barcelona legally barred Messi from representing Argentina at the tournament as it coincided with their Champions League qualifying matches. After interference from newly appointed Barcelona manager Pep Guardiola, who had won the tournament in 1992, Messi was permitted to join Sergio Batista 's under - 23 squad in Beijing. During the first match, he scored the opening goal and assisted another in their 2 -- 1 victory over the Ivory Coast. Following a 1 -- 0 win in the next group match against Australia, ensuring their quarter - final qualification, Messi was rested during the game against Serbia, while his side won the match to finish first in their group. Against the Netherlands, he again scored the first goal and assisted a second strike to help his team to a 2 -- 1 win in extra time. After a 3 -- 0 semi-final victory over Brazil, Messi assisted the only goal in the final as Argentina defeated Nigeria to claim Olympic gold medals. Along with Riquelme, Messi was singled out by FIFA as the stand - out player from the tournament 's best team.
From late 2008, the national team experienced a three - year period marked by poor performances. Under manager Diego Maradona, who had led Argentina to World Cup victory as a player, the team struggled to qualify for the 2010 World Cup, securing their place in the tournament only after defeating Uruguay 1 -- 0 in their last qualifying match. Maradona was criticised for his strategic decisions as he played Messi out of position, positioned too deep for him to be able to contribute to the attack to his full ability. In eight qualifying matches under Maradona 's stewardship, Messi scored only one goal, netting the opening goal in the first such match, a 4 -- 0 victory over Venezuela. During that game, played on 28 March 2009, he wore Argentina 's number 10 shirt for the first time, following the international retirement of Riquelme. Overall, Messi scored four goals in 18 appearances during the qualifying process. Ahead of the tournament, Maradona visited Messi in Barcelona to request his tactical input; Messi then outlined a 4 -- 3 -- 1 -- 2 formation with himself playing behind the two strikers, a playmaking position known as the enganche in Argentine football, which had been his preferred position since childhood.
Despite their poor qualifying campaign, Argentina were considered title contenders at the World Cup in South Africa. At the start of the tournament, the new formation proved effective; Messi managed at least four attempts on goal during their opening match but was repeatedly denied by Nigeria 's goalkeeper, resulting in a 1 -- 0 win. During the next match, against South Korea, he excelled in his playmaking role, participating in all four goals of his side 's 4 -- 1 victory. As their place in the knockout phase was guaranteed, most of the starters were rested during the last group match, but Messi reportedly refused to be benched. He wore the captain 's armband for the first time in their 2 -- 0 win against Greece; as the focal point of their play, he helped create their second goal to see Argentina finish as group winners. In the round of 16, they defeated Mexico 3 -- 1, with Messi assisting their first goal, a controversial strike that stood despite being offside.
Argentina 's unstructured defence had proved a liability throughout the World Cup and finally led to their elimination in the quarter - final against Germany, at the same stage of the tournament and by the same opponent as four years earlier. Their 4 -- 0 loss was their worst margin of defeat since 1974. FIFA subsequently identified Messi as one of the tournament 's 10 best players, citing his "outstanding '' pace and creativity and "spectacular and efficient '' dribbling, shooting and passing. Back home, however, Messi was the subject of far harsher judgement. As the perceived best player in the world, he had been expected to lead an average team to the title, as Maradona arguably did in 1986, but he had failed to replicate his performances at Barcelona with the national team, leading to the accusation that he cared less about his country than his club.
Maradona was replaced by Sergio Batista, who had orchestrated Argentina 's Olympic victory. Batista publicly stated that he intended to build the team around Messi, employing him as a false nine within a 4 -- 3 -- 3 system, as used to much success by Barcelona. Although Messi scored a record 53 goals during the 2010 -- 11 club season, he had not scored for Argentina in an official match since March 2009. Despite the tactical change, his goal drought continued during the 2011 Copa América, hosted by Argentina. Their first two matches, against Bolivia and Colombia, ended in draws, with Messi underperforming by his standards. Media and fans noted that he did not combine well with striker Carlos Tevez, who enjoyed far greater popularity among the Argentine public; Messi was consequently booed by his own team 's supporters for the first time in his career. During the crucial next match, with Tevez on the bench, he gave a well - received performance, assisting two goals in their 3 -- 0 victory over Costa Rica. After the quarter - final against Uruguay ended in a 1 -- 1 draw following extra time, with Messi having assisted their equaliser, Argentina were eliminated 4 -- 5 in the penalty shootout by the eventual champions.
After Argentina 's unsuccessful performance in the Copa América, Batista was replaced by Alejandro Sabella. Upon his appointment in August 2011, Sabella awarded the 24 - year - old Messi the captaincy of the squad, in accord with then - captain Javier Mascherano. Reserved by nature, Messi went on to lead his squad by example as their best player, while Mascherano continued to fulfil the role of the team 's on - field leader and motivator. In a further redesign of the team, Sabella dismissed Tevez and brought in players with whom Messi had won the World Youth Championship and Olympic Games. Now playing in a free role in an improving team, Messi finally ended his goal drought by scoring during their first World Cup qualifying match against Chile on 7 October, his first official goal for Argentina in two - and - a-half years.
Under Sabella, Messi 's goalscoring rate drastically increased; where he had scored only 17 goals in 61 matches under his previous managers, he scored 25 times in 32 appearances during the following three years. He netted a total of 12 goals in 9 games for Argentina in 2012, equalling the record held by Gabriel Batistuta, Argentina 's all - time top scorer, for the most goals scored in a calendar year for their country. His first hat - trick with the Albicelestes came in a friendly against Switzerland on 29 February 2012, followed by two more hat - tricks over the next year - and - a-half in friendlies against Brazil and Guatemala. Messi then helped the team secure their place in the 2014 World Cup with a 5 -- 2 victory over Paraguay on 10 September 2013; in addition to providing an assist, he scored twice from a penalty kick, taking his international tally to 37 goals to become Argentina 's second - highest goalscorer behind only Batistuta. Overall, he had scored a total of 10 goals in 14 matches during the qualifying campaign. Concurrently with his bettered performances, his relationship with his compatriots improved, as he gradually began to be perceived more favourably in Argentina.
Ahead of the World Cup in Brazil, doubts persisted over Messi 's form, as he finished an unsuccessful and injury - plagued season with Barcelona. At the start of the tournament, however, he gave strong performances, being elected man of the match in their first four matches. In his first World Cup match as captain, he led them to a 2 -- 1 victory over Bosnia and Herzegovina; he helped create their early opening goal and scored their second strike after a dribble past three players, his first World Cup goal since his debut in the tournament eight years earlier. During the second match against Iran, he scored an injury - time goal from 23 metres out to end the game in a 1 -- 0 win, securing their qualification for the knockout phase. He scored twice in the last group match, a 3 -- 2 victory over Nigeria, his second goal from a free kick, as they finished first in their group. Messi assisted a late goal in extra time to ensure a 1 -- 0 win against Switzerland in the round of 16, before starting the play that led to their match - winning 1 -- 0 goal in the quarter - final against Belgium, helping Argentina progress to the semi-final of the World Cup for the first time since 1990. Following a 0 -- 0 draw in extra time, they eliminated the Netherlands 4 -- 2 in a penalty shootout to reach the final.
Billed as Messi versus Germany, the world 's best player against the best team, the final was a repeat of the 1990 final featuring Diego Maradona. Within the first half - hour, Messi had started the play that led to a goal, but it was ruled offside. He missed several opportunities to open the scoring throughout the match, in particular at the start of the second half when his breakaway effort went wide of the far post. Substitute Mario Götze finally scored in the 113th minute, followed in the last minute of extra time by a free kick that Messi sent over the net, as Germany won the match 1 -- 0 to claim the World Cup. At the conclusion of the final, Messi was awarded the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament. In addition to being the joint third - highest goalscorer, with four goals and an assist, he created the most chances, completed the most dribbling runs, made the most deliveries into the penalty area and produced the most throughballs in the competition. However, his selection drew criticism due to his lack of goals in the knockout round; FIFA President Sepp Blatter expressed his surprise, while Maradona suggested that Messi had undeservedly been chosen for marketing purposes.
Another final appearance, the third of Messi 's senior international career, followed in the 2015 Copa América, held in Chile. Under the stewardship of former Barcelona manager Gerardo Martino, Argentina entered the tournament as title contenders due to their second - place achievement at the World Cup. During the opening match against Paraguay, they were ahead two goals by half - time but lost their lead to end the match in a 2 -- 2 draw; Messi had scored from a penalty kick, netting his only goal in the tournament. Following a 1 -- 0 win against defending champions Uruguay, Messi earned his 100th cap for his country in the final group match, a 1 -- 0 win over Jamaica, becoming only the fifth Argentine to achieve this milestone. In his 100 appearances, he had scored a total of 46 goals for Argentina, 22 of which came in official competitive matches.
As Messi evolved from the team 's symbolic captain into a genuine leader, he led Argentina to the knockout stage as group winners. In the quarter - final, they created numerous chances, including a rebound header by Messi, but were repeatedly denied by Colombia 's goalkeeper, and ultimately ended the match scoreless, leading to a 5 -- 4 penalty shootout in their favour. At the semi-final stage, Messi excelled as playmaker as he provided three assists and helped create three more goals in his side 's 6 -- 1 victory over Paraguay, receiving applause from the initially hostile crowd. Argentina started the final as the odds - on title favourites, but were defeated by Chile 4 -- 1 in a penalty shootout after an 0 -- 0 extra-time draw. Faced with aggression from opposing players, including taking a boot to the midriff, Messi played below his standards, though he was the only Argentine to successfully convert his penalty. At the close of the tournament, he was reportedly selected to receive the Most Valuable Player award but rejected the honour. As Argentina continued a trophy drought that began in 1993, the World Cup and Copa América defeats again brought intense criticism for Messi from Argentine media and fans.
Messi 's place in Argentina 's Copa América Centenario squad was initially put in jeopardy when he sustained a back injury in a 1 -- 0 friendly win over Honduras in a pre-Copa América warm - up match on 27 May 2016. It was later reported that he had suffered a deep bruise in his lumbar region, but that he would remain in Martino 's squad for the tournament, although he was later left on the bench in Argentina 's 2 -- 1 opening win over defending champions Chile on 6 June due to concerns regarding his fitness. Although Messi was declared match - fit for his nation 's second group match against Panama on 10 June, Martino left him on the bench once again; he replaced Augusto Fernández in the 61st minute and subsequently scored a hat - trick in 19 minutes, also starting the play which led to Sergio Agüero 's goal, as the match ended in a 5 -- 0 victory, sealing Argentina 's place in the quarter - finals of the competition; he was elected man of the match for his performance.
On 18 June 2016, in the quarter - final of the Copa América against Venezuela, Messi produced another man of the match performance, assisting two goals and scoring another in a 4 -- 1 victory, which enabled him to equal Gabriel Batistuta 's national record of 54 goals in official international matches. This record was broken three days later when Messi scored in a 4 -- 0 win in the semi-final of the Copa América against hosts the United States; he also assisted two goals during the match as Argentina sealed a place in the final of the competition for a second consecutive year, and was named man of the match once again.
-- Messi announcing his retirement on 27 June 2016
During a repeat of the previous year 's final on 26 June, Argentina once again lost to Chile on penalties after a 0 -- 0 deadlock, resulting in Messi 's third consecutive defeat in a major tournament final with Argentina, and his fourth overall. After the match, Messi, who had missed his penalty in the shootout, announced his retirement from international football. Sources reported that other Argentine players -- Sergio Agüero, Javier Mascherano, Gonzalo Higuaín, Lucas Biglia, Éver Banega, Ezequiel Lavezzi and Ángel Di María -- could follow their captain in retiring from international football. Chile coach Juan Antonio Pizzi said after the match, "My generation ca n't compare him to Maradona that 's for my generation, because of what Maradona did for Argentine football. But I think the best player ever played today here in the United States. '' Messi finished the tournament as the second highest scorer, behind Eduardo Vargas, with five goals, and was the highest assist provider with four assists, also winning more Man of the Match awards than any other player in the tournament (3); he was named to the team of the tournament for his performances, but missed out on the Golden Ball Award for best player, which went to Alexis Sánchez.
Following his announcement, a campaign began in Argentina for Messi to change his mind about retiring. He was greeted by fans with signs like "Do n't go, Leo '' when the team landed in Buenos Aires. President of Argentina Mauricio Macri urged Messi not to quit, stating, "We are lucky, it is one of life 's pleasures, it is a gift from God to have the best player in the world in a footballing country like ours... Lionel Messi is the greatest thing we have in Argentina and we must take care of him. '' Mayor of Buenos Aires Horacio Rodríguez Larreta unveiled a statue of Messi in the capital to convince him reconsider retirement. On social networks, NoTeVayasLeo became a global trending topic, and even a playlist on Spotify. The campaign also continued in the streets and avenues of the Argentine capital, with about 50,000 supporters going to the Obelisco de Buenos Aires on 2 July, using the same slogan.
-- Messi reversing his decision from retiring on 12 August 2016
Just a week after Messi announced his international retirement, Argentine newspaper La Nación reported that he was reconsidering playing for Argentina at the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifiers in September. On 12 August, it was confirmed that Messi had reversed his decision to retire from international football, and he was included in the squad for the national team 's upcoming 2018 World Cup qualifiers. On 1 September 2016, in his first game back, he scored in a 1 -- 0 home win over Uruguay in a 2018 World Cup qualifier.
On 28 March 2017, Messi was suspended for four international games for insulting an assistant referee in a game against Chile on 23 March 2017. He was also fined CHF 10,000. On 5 May 2017, Messi 's four match ban as well as his 10,000 CHF fine was lifted by FIFA after Argentina Football Association appealed against his suspension, which meant he could now play Argentina 's remaining World Cup Qualifiers. Argentina 's place in the 2018 World Cup was in jeopardy going into their final qualifying match as they were sixth in their group, outside the five possible CONMEBOL World Cup qualifying spots, meaning they risked failing to qualify for the World Cup for the first time since 1970. On 10 October 2017, Messi led his country to World Cup qualification in scoring a hat - trick as Argentina came from behind to defeat Ecuador 3 -- 1 away; Argentina had not defeated Ecuador in Quito since 2001. Messi 's three goals saw him become the joint all - time leading scorer in CONMEBOL World Cup qualifiers with 21 goals, alongside Uruguay 's Luis Suárez, overtaking the previous record which was held by compatriot Hernán Crespo.
-- Messi explains his approach to the game in May 2011.
Due to his short stature, Messi has a lower centre of gravity than taller players, which gives him greater agility, allowing him to change direction more quickly and evade opposing tackles; this has led the Spanish media to dub him La Pulga Atómica ("The Atomic Flea ''). Despite being physically unimposing, he possesses significant upper - body strength, which, combined with his low centre of gravity and resulting balance, aids him in withstanding physical challenges from opponents; he has consequently been noted for his lack of diving in a sport rife with playacting. His short, strong legs allow him to excel in short bursts of acceleration while his quick feet enable him to retain control of the ball when dribbling at speed. His former Barcelona manager Pep Guardiola once stated, "Messi is the only player that runs faster with the ball than he does without it. '' Although he has improved his ability with his weaker foot since his mid-20s, Messi is predominantly a left - footed player; with the outside of his left foot, he usually begins dribbling runs, while he uses the inside of his foot to finish and provide passes and assists.
A prolific goalscorer, Messi is known for his finishing, positioning, quick reactions, and ability to make attacking runs to beat the defensive line. He also functions in a playmaking role, courtesy of his vision and precise passing, and is an accurate free kick and penalty kick taker, though his ability on penalties has somewhat deteriorated in recent seasons. His pace and technical ability enable him to undertake individual dribbling runs towards goal, in particular during counterattacks, usually starting from the halfway line or the right side of the pitch. Widely considered to be the best dribbler in the world, and one of the greatest of all time, with regard to this ability, his former Argentina manager Diego Maradona has said of him, "The ball stays glued to his foot; I 've seen great players in my career, but I 've never seen anyone with Messi 's ball control. '' Beyond his individual qualities, he is also a well - rounded, hard - working team player, known for his creative combinations, in particular with Barcelona midfielders Xavi and Andrés Iniesta.
Tactically, Messi plays in a free attacking role; a versatile player, he is capable of attacking on either wing or through the centre of the pitch. His favoured position in childhood was the playmaker behind two strikers, known as the enganche in Argentine football, but he began his career in Spain as a left - winger or left - sided forward. Upon his first - team debut, he was moved onto the right wing by manager Frank Rijkaard; from this position, he could more easily cut through the defence into the middle of the pitch and curl shots on goal with his left foot, rather than predominantly cross balls for teammates. Under Guardiola and subsequent managers, he most often played in a false nine role; positioned as a centre - forward or lone striker, he would roam the centre, often moving deep into midfield and drawing defenders with him, in order to create and exploit spaces for passes, dribbling runs or combinations with Xavi and Iniesta. Under the stewardship of Luis Enrique, Messi returned to playing in the right - sided position that characterised much of his early career, while also being deployed in a deeper, free role. With the Argentina national team, Messi has similarly played anywhere along the frontline; under various managers, he has been employed on the right wing, as a false nine, or in a deeper, creative role as a classic number 10 or attacking midfielder.
A prodigious talent as a teenager, Messi established himself among the world 's best players before age 20. Diego Maradona considered the 18 - year - old Messi the best player in the world alongside Ronaldinho, while the Brazilian himself, shortly after winning the Ballon d'Or, commented, "I 'm not even the best at Barça, '' in reference to his protégé. Four years later, after Messi had won his first Ballon d'Or by a record margin, the public debate regarding his qualities as a player moved beyond his status in contemporary football to the possibility that he was the greatest player in history. An early proponent was his then - manager Pep Guardiola, who, as early as August 2009, declared Messi to be the best player he had ever seen. In the following years, this opinion gained greater acceptance among pundits, managers, former and current players, and by the end of Barça 's second treble - winning season, Messi 's superiority, ahead of Maradona and Pelé, had become the predominant view among insiders in continental Europe. A frequent dismissal, however, has centred on the fact that Messi has not won the FIFA World Cup with Argentina, leading some in the sport to instead cite him as the best club player in history.
-- Diego Maradona hails the 18 - year - old Messi as his successor in February 2006.
Throughout his career, Messi has been compared with his compatriot Diego Maradona, due to their similar playing styles as diminutive, left - footed dribblers. Initially, he was merely one of many young Argentine players, including his boyhood idol Pablo Aimar, to receive the "New Maradona '' moniker, but as his career progressed, Messi proved his similarity beyond all previous contenders, establishing himself as the greatest player Argentina had produced since Maradona. Jorge Valdano, who won the 1986 World Cup alongside Maradona, said in October 2013, "Messi is Maradona every day. For the last five years, Messi has been the Maradona of the World Cup in Mexico. '' César Menotti, who as manager orchestrated their 1978 World Cup victory, echoed this sentiment when he opined that Messi plays "at the level of the best Maradona ''. Other notable Argentines in the sport, such as Osvaldo Ardiles, Javier Zanetti, and Diego Simeone, have expressed their belief that Messi has overtaken Maradona as the best player in history.
In Argentine society, Messi is generally held in lesser esteem than Maradona, a consequence of not only his uneven performances with the national team, but also of differences in class, personality, and background. Messi is in some ways the antithesis of his predecessor: where Maradona was an extroverted, controversial character who rose to greatness from the slums, Messi is reserved and unassuming, an unremarkable man outside of football. An enduring mark against him is the fact that, although through no fault of his own, he never proved himself in the Argentine Primera División as an upcoming player, achieving stardom overseas from a young age, while his lack of outward passion for the Albiceleste shirt -- he does not sing the national anthem and is disinclined to emotional displays -- have in the past led to the false perception that he felt Catalan rather than truly Argentine. Despite having lived in Spain since age 13, Messi has said: "Argentina is my country, my family, my way of expressing myself. I would change all my records to make the people in my country happy. '' In November 2016, with the Argentine Football Association being run by a FIFA committee for emergency due to an economic crisis, it was reported that three of the national team 's security staff told Messi that they have n't been given their salaries for six months. He stepped in and paid the salaries of the three members.
Among his contemporary peers, Messi is most often compared and contrasted with Portuguese forward Cristiano Ronaldo, as part of an ongoing rivalry that has been compared to past sports rivalries like the Muhammad Ali -- Joe Frazier rivalry in boxing, the Björn Borg -- John McEnroe rivalry in tennis, and the Ayrton Senna -- Alain Prost rivalry from Formula One. Although Messi has at times denied any rivalry, they are widely believed to push one another in their aim to be the best player in the world: since 2008, both players have won five Ballons d'Or and four European Golden Shoes. Pundits and fans regularly argue the individual merits of both players; beyond their playing styles, the debate also revolves around their differing physiques -- Ronaldo is 1.85 m (6 ft 1 in) with a muscular build -- and contrasting public personalities, with Ronaldo 's self - confidence and theatrics a foil to Messi 's humility. Messi faces Ronaldo at least twice every season in El Clásico, which ranks among the world 's most viewed annual sports events. Off the pitch, Ronaldo is his direct competitor in terms of salary, sponsorships, and social media fanbase.
-- US president Barack Obama when given an honorary number 10 jersey at the White House.
According to France Football, Messi was the world 's highest - paid footballer for five years out of six between 2009 and 2014; he was the first player to exceed the € 40 million benchmark, with earnings of € 41 million in 2013, and the € 50 -- € 60 million points, with income of € 65 million in 2014. In 2016, Messi was second on Forbes list of the world 's highest - paid athletes (after Cristiano Ronaldo) with income of $81.4 million from his salary and endorsements in 2015 -- 16. Since 2008, he has been Barcelona 's highest - paid player, receiving a salary that increased incrementally from € 7.8 million to € 13 million over the next five years. Signing a new Barcelona contract in 2017, he earns $667,000 per week in wages, and Barcelona also paid him $59.6 million as a signing on bonus. His new buyout clause is set at $835 million (€ 700 million). In addition to his salary and multimillion - euro bonuses, much of his income derives from endorsements; SportsPro has consequently cited him as one of the world 's most marketable athletes every year since their research began in 2010. His main sponsor since 2006 is the sportswear company Adidas. As Barça 's leading youth prospect, he had been signed with Nike since age 14, but transferred to Adidas after they successfully challenged their rival 's claim to his image rights in court. Over time, Messi established himself as their leading brand endorser; from 2008, he had a long - running signature collection of Adidas F50 boots, and in 2015, he became the first footballer to receive his own sub-brand of Adidas boots, the Adidas Messi.
As a commercial entity, Messi 's marketing brand has been based exclusively on his talents and achievements as a player, in contrast to arguably more glamorous players like Cristiano Ronaldo and David Beckham. At the start of his career, he thus mainly held sponsorship contracts with companies that employ sports - oriented marketing, such as Adidas, Pepsi, and Konami. From 2010 onwards, concurrently with his increased achievements as a player, his marketing appeal widened, leading to long - term endorsement deals with luxury brands Dolce & Gabbana and Audemars Piguet. Messi is also a global brand ambassador for Gillette, Turkish Airlines, Ooredoo, and Tata Motors, among other companies. Additionally, Messi was the face of Konami 's video game series Pro Evolution Soccer, appearing on the covers of PES 2009, PES 2010 and PES 2011. He subsequently signed with rival company EA Sports to become the face of their series FIFA and has since appeared on four consecutive covers from FIFA 13 to FIFA 16.
Messi 's global popularity and influence are well documented. He was among the Time 100, an annual list of the world 's most influential people as published by Time, in 2011 and 2012. His fanbase on the social media website Facebook is among the largest of all public figures: within seven hours of its launch in April 2011, his Facebook page had nearly seven million followers, and by November 2013, he had become only the second sportsperson, after Cristiano Ronaldo, to amass over 50 million followers. According to a 2014 survey by sports research firm Repucom in 15 international markets, Messi was familiar to 87 % of respondents around the world, of whom 78 % perceived him favourably, making him the second-most recognised player globally, behind Ronaldo, and the most likable of all contemporary players.
Other events have illustrated Messi 's presence in popular culture. A solid gold replica of his left foot, weighing 25 kg (55 lb) and valued at $5.25 million, went on sale in Japan in March 2013 to raise funds for victims of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. A 2013 Turkish Airlines advertisement starring Messi, in which he engages in a selfie competition with then - Los Angeles Lakers star Kobe Bryant, was the most - watched ad on YouTube in the year of its release, receiving 137 million views, and was subsequently voted the best advertisement of the 2005 -- 15 decade to commemorate YouTube 's founding. World Press Photo selected "The Final Game '', a photograph of Messi facing the World Cup trophy after Argentina 's final defeat to Germany, as the best sports image of 2014. Messi, a documentary about his life by filmmaker Álex de la Iglesia, premiered at the Venice Film Festival in August 2014.
Since 2008, when he was 20, Messi has been in a relationship with Antonella Roccuzzo, a fellow native of Rosario. He has known Roccuzzo since he was five years old, as she is the cousin of his best friend since childhood, Lucas Scaglia, who is also a football player. After keeping their relationship private for a year, Messi first confirmed their romance in an interview in January 2009, before going public a month later during a carnival in Sitges after the Barcelona -- Espanyol derby.
-- Endocrinologist Dr. Diego Schwarzstein addressed Messi 's growth hormone deficiency from 1997 to 2001. According to Bleacher Report 's Richard Fitzpatrick, "Schwarzstein and Messi built up a close relationship during more than four years of treatment. ''
Messi and Roccuzzo have three sons: Thiago (born 2012), Mateo (born 2015) and Ciro (born 2018). To celebrate his partner 's first pregnancy, Messi placed the ball under his shirt after scoring in Argentina 's 4 -- 0 win against Ecuador on 2 June 2012, before confirming the pregnancy in an interview two weeks later. Thiago was born in Barcelona on 2 November 2012, with Messi attending the birth after being given permission by Barcelona to miss training. He announced his son 's arrival on his Facebook page, writing, "Today I am the happiest man in the world, my son was born and thanks to God for this gift! '' Thiago 's name and handprints are tattooed on his left calf. In April 2015, Messi confirmed on Facebook that they were expecting another child. He missed training ahead of a match against Atlético Madrid to attend the birth of his second son, Mateo, on 11 September 2015 in Barcelona. On 30 June 2017, he married Roccuzzo at a luxury hotel named Hotel City Center in Rosario with about 260 guests attending his wedding. On 15 October 2017, his wife announced they were expecting their third child in an Instagram post, with the words "Family of 5 ''. On 10 March 2018, Messi skipped the match against Málaga after Ciro was born.
Messi enjoys a close relationship with his immediate family members, particularly his mother, Celia, whose face he has tattooed on his left shoulder. His professional affairs are largely run as a family business: his father, Jorge, has been his agent since he was 14, and his oldest brother, Rodrigo, handles his daily schedule and publicity. His mother and other brother, Matías, manage his charitable organisation, the Leo Messi Foundation, and take care of personal and professional matters in Rosario.
Since leaving for Spain at age 13, Messi has maintained close ties to his hometown of Rosario, even preserving his distinct Rosarino accent. He has kept ownership of his family 's old house, although it has long stood empty; he maintains a penthouse apartment in an exclusive residential building for his mother, as well as a family compound just outside the city. Once when he was in training with the national team in Buenos Aires, he made a three - hour trip by car to Rosario immediately after practice to have dinner with his family, spent the night with them, and returned to Buenos Aires the next day in time for practice. Messi keeps in daily contact via phone and text with a small group of confidants in Rosario, most of whom were fellow members of "The Machine of ' 87 '' at Newell 's Old Boys. Although considered a one - club man, he has long planned to return to Rosario to end his playing career at Newell 's. He was on bad terms with the club after his transfer to Barcelona, but by 2012 their public feud had ended, with Newell 's embracing their ties with Messi, even issuing a club membership card to his newborn son.
Throughout his career, Messi has been involved in charitable efforts aimed at vulnerable children, a commitment that stems in part from the medical difficulties he faced in his own childhood. Since 2004, he has contributed his time and finances to the United Nations Children 's Fund (UNICEF), an organisation with which Barcelona also have a strong association. Messi has served as a UNICEF goodwill ambassador since his appointment in March 2010, completing his first field mission for the organisation four months later as he travelled to Haiti to bring public awareness to the plight of the country 's children in the wake of the recent earthquake. He has since participated in UNICEF campaigns targeting HIV prevention, education, and the social inclusion of disabled children. To celebrate his son 's first birthday, in November 2013, Messi and Thiago were part of a publicity campaign to raise awareness of mortality rates among disadvantaged children.
In addition to his work with UNICEF, Messi founded his own charitable organisation, the Leo Messi Foundation, which supports access to health care, education, and sport for children. It was established in 2007 following a visit Messi paid to a hospital for terminally ill children in Boston, an experience that resonated with him to the point that he decided to reinvest part of his earnings into society. Through his foundation, Messi has awarded research grants, financed medical training, and invested in the development of medical centres and projects in Argentina, Spain, and elsewhere in the world. In addition to his own fundraising activities, such as his global "Messi and Friends '' football matches, his foundation receives financial support from various companies to which he has assigned his name in endorsement agreements, with Adidas as their main sponsor.
Messi has also invested in youth football in Argentina: he financially supports Sarmiento, a football club based in the Rosario neighbourhood where he was born, committing in 2013 to the refurbishment of their facilities and the installation of all - weather pitches, and funds the management of several youth players at Newell 's Old Boys and rival club Rosario Central, as well as at River Plate and Boca Juniors in Buenos Aires. At Newell 's Old Boys, his boyhood club, he funded the 2012 construction of a new gymnasium and a dormitory inside the club 's stadium for their youth academy. His former youth coach at Newell 's, Ernesto Vecchio, is employed by the Leo Messi Foundation as a talent scout for young players. On 7 June 2016, Messi won a libel case against La Razón newspaper and was awarded € 65,000 in damages, which he donated to the charity Doctors without Borders.
Messi 's financial affairs came under investigation in 2013 for suspected tax evasion. Offshore companies in tax havens Uruguay and Belize were allegedly used to evade € 4.1 million in taxes related to sponsorship earnings between 2007 and 2009. An unrelated shell company in Panama, set up in 2012, was subsequently identified as belonging to the Messis in the Panama Papers data leak. Messi, who pleaded ignorance of the alleged scheme, voluntarily paid arrears of € 5.1 million in August 2013. He stood trial alongside his father on three counts of tax evasion in May 2016. On 6 July 2016, Messi and his father were both found guilty of tax fraud and were handed suspended 21 - month prison sentences and respectively ordered to pay € 1.7 million and € 1.4 million in fines.
While the District Attorney did not consider there to be motives to accuse Messi, the state lawyer 's office became the only party that requested a punishment for him, despite his declarations that he was not aware of any of the deals that were taking place with his money. Facing the judge, he said, "I just played football. ''
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when does 24 hours of le mans start | 2018 24 Hours of Le Mans - wikipedia
The 86th 24 Hours of Le Mans (French: 86 24 Heures du Mans) was an automobile endurance event that took place on 16 and 17 June 2018, at the Circuit de la Sarthe, Le Mans, France. It was the 86th running of the 24 Hour race organised by the Automobile Club de l'Ouest, and the second round of the 2018 -- 19 FIA World Endurance Championship.
The race was won by the No. 8 Toyota Gazoo Racing driven by Fernando Alonso, Kazuki Nakajima, and Sébastien Buemi, who also started from pole position. Toyota entered the only hybrid LMP1 cars and dominated the race weekend.
The LMP2 class was won by Signatech Alpine, after G - Drive TDS Racing finished first but were subsequently disqualified. The LMGTE Professional class was won by Porsche GT Team, whilst Dempsey - Proton Racing were class winners in LMGTE Amateur.
During the winter following the 2017 24 Hours of Le Mans, modifications were made to the Porsche Curves section of the Circuit de la Sarthe to increase safety. Barriers on the inside of the final right - hand corner were dismantled and relocated further away from the circuit, allowing for the construction of paved run - off area and escape roads. This same alteration had been done on the barriers outside the corner the previous year. This modification re-profiled the corner slightly, shortening the lap distance by 3 metres (9.8 ft). The ACO also constructed a new starting line gantry 145 metres (476 ft) further up the main straight to allow more cars on the straight at the start of the race. The finish line and all timing beacons however remain at the previous starting line at the exit of the Ford Chicane.
Automatic entry invitations are earned by teams that won their class in the previous running of the 24 Hours of Le Mans, or won championships in the European Le Mans Series, Asian Le Mans Series, and the Michelin GT3 Le Mans Cup. The second - place finisher in the European Le Mans Series LMGTE championship also earns an automatic invitation. Two participants from the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship are chosen by the series to be automatic entries by the ACO regardless of their performance or category. As invitations are granted to teams, they were allowed to change their cars from the previous year to the next, but not allowed to change their category. The LMGTE class invitations from the European and Asian Le Mans Series are allowed to choose between the Pro and Am categories. European Le Mans Series ' LMP3 champion is required to field an entry in LMP2 while the Asian Le Mans Series LMP3 champion may choose between LMP2 or LMGTE Am. The Michelin Le Mans Cup LMP3 champion does not receive an automatic entry and the GT3 champion is limited to the LMGTE Am category.
The initial entry list was announced, along with the FIA World Endurance Championship and European Le Mans Series entries, on 9 February.
Coming into the race, Toyota was the heavy favorite for the overall victory due to its hybrid power capabilities in the LMP1 category, amongst its mostly new non-hybrid / privateer rival teams of Rebellion Racing, SMP Racing, DragonSpeed, ByKolles Racing Team, and CEFC TRSM Racing. The recent departure of Porsche from the LMP1 category in 2017 and Audi in 2016, Toyota was the only hybrid prototype, for the 2018 -- 19 FIA World Endurance Championship. Consequently, this merged the hybrids and non-hybrids / privateers together in the LMP1 class. The race featured the debut of Ginetta 's chassis raced by CEFC TRSM Racing with a Mecachrome engine. It joined the Rebellion R13, raced by Rebellion Racing, BR Engineering BR1, raced by SMP Racing and DragonSpeed (making their debut in LMP1), and the CLM P1 / 01, raced by ByKolles Racing. Fernando Alonso also made his first 24 Hours of Le Mans race start, racing with Toyota. Toyota led throughout all the test, practice, and qualifying sessions. Its time in qualifying of a 3: 15.377 was good enough to place first on the grid, well ahead of the other cars in its class. Its sister car took 2nd overall followed by Rebellion Racing on the grid.
LMP2 was the biggest class in the race with 20 entries, IDEC Sport claimed the top spot after claiming the fastest time in qualifying of a 3: 24.842 and 10th overall followed closely behind by the DragonSpeed, G - Drive Racing, and TDS Racing, all in Oreca 07 's in 11th, 12th, and 13th places overall off the grid. Jackie Chan DC Racing, last year 's LMP2 winner started 15th in class, 26th overall starting position. In LMGTE both classes were mainly controlled by Porsche. LMGTE Pro was led by the Porsche GT Team with 3: 42.504 and 31st overall, with another one of its sister cars in second off the grid in the class and 32nd overall. Ford Chip Ganassi Team UK and AF Corse where 3rd, 33rd overall and 4th, 34th overall respectively to start the race. The new BMW M8 GTE was deployed and raced by BMW Team MTEK made its Le Mans debut and started off the grid 12th in class, 42nd overall. The sister car started behind it in 43rd overall. Dempsey - Proton was able to qualify top in the LMGTE Am class, with a time of 3: 50.728 and placed 44th overall, ahead of the second of the LMGTE Pro entries of Corvette and Ferrari. Gulf Racing UK and the sister Dempsey - Proton car rounded out the top 3 in LMGTE Am on the grid.
Provisional pole positions in each class are denoted in bold. The fastest time set by each entry is denoted with a gray background.
Notes
The race began at 15: 00 Central European Summer Time, with tennis champion Rafael Nadal waving the French tricolour at the starting line. Sébastien Buemi led the field from pole position in the No. 8 Toyota.
As had been widely predicted, the two hybrid Toyota cars dominated the race. The lead swapped between the Toyotas several times over the first half of the race, before the # 8 car was assessed a 60 - second penalty when Buemi exceeded the speed limit in a caution zone during the night. This put the # 7 car over two minutes ahead, a lead they maintained until Fernando Alonso closed the gap during a quadruple stint in the dark. After 16 hours, Kazuki Nakajima took the # 8 car into the lead, which they maintained for the rest of the race. During the final hour, Kamui Kobayashi in the # 7 Toyota missed a pit stop, forcing him to complete most of a lap on electrical batteries alone when he ran out of fuel. The car made it back to the pits on the next lap, allowing Toyota to complete a one - two finish, ending with the # 8 car two laps ahead of the # 7 car.
Toyota were the second Japanese manufacturer to win at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, following Mazda 's triumph in 1991. Fernando Alonso, Sébastien Buemi, and Kazuki Nakajima all earned their first wins. Buemi and Nakajima had come close at the 2016 race, when their car broke down whilst leading on the final lap. Alonso 's win meant he had completed two of the three legs of the Triple Crown of Motorsport.
In the LMP2 class, G - Drive TDS Racing finished two laps ahead of their competitors, but were subsequently disqualified when it was discovered that they had made illegal modifications to their pit lane refuelling equipment. Signatech Alpine were therefore promoted to LMP2 class winners.
The LMGTE Professional class was won by Porsche GT Team, whilst Dempsey - Proton Racing were class winners in LMGTE Amateur.
The minimum number of laps for classification (70 % of the overall winning car 's race distance) was 272 laps. Class winners are in bold.
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who plays brian in fast and furious 7 | Paul Walker - Wikipedia
Paul William Walker IV (September 12, 1973 -- November 30, 2013) was an American actor best known for his role as Brian O'Conner in The Fast and the Furious franchise. Walker first gained prominence in 1999 with roles in the teen films She 's All That and Varsity Blues. In 2001, he gained international fame for his performance in the street racing action film The Fast and the Furious (2001), a role he reprised in five of the next six installments, but died in 2013 in the middle of filming Furious 7 (2015).
Walker began his career guest - starring on TV shows such as The Young and the Restless and Touched by an Angel. He later starred in films such as Joy Ride (2001), Timeline (2003), Into the Blue (2005), Eight Below (2006), and Running Scared (2006). He also appeared in the National Geographic series Expedition Great White (2010) and in ads for Davidoff Cool Water cologne. He founded the disaster - relief charity Reach Out Worldwide (ROWW) in response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake.
Walker died on November 30, 2013, at the age of 40 as a passenger in a single - car crash alongside friend and driver Roger Rodas. Walker was working on three films at the time of his death which were released posthumously: Hours (2013), Brick Mansions (2014), and Furious 7 (2015). The Wiz Khalifa song "See You Again '', featuring Charlie Puth, was commissioned for the Furious 7 soundtrack as a tribute to Walker. It was nominated for the Golden Globe for Best Original Song in 2015 and was the number - one song in the United States for 12 weeks.
Walker was born in Glendale, California, and was the son of Cheryl (née Crabtree), a fashion model, and Paul William Walker III, a sewer contractor and boxer who was a two - time Golden Gloves champion. Paul 's paternal grandfather had a boxing career as "' Irish ' Billy Walker ''. Paul 's ancestry was mostly English, with some German, Swiss, and Irish. One of his grandfathers raced factory cars for Ford in the 1960s. The oldest of five siblings, Walker was raised primarily in the Sunland community of Los Angeles and attended high school in the San Fernando Valley, graduating from Sun Valley 's Village Christian School in 1991. He was raised as a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints. After high school, Walker attended several community colleges in Southern California, majoring in marine biology.
Walker began his small screen career as a toddler, when he starred in a television commercial for Pampers. He began modeling at the age of two and began working on television shows in 1985, with roles in shows such as Highway to Heaven, Who 's the Boss?, The Young and the Restless, and Touched by an Angel. That year he starred in a commercial for Showbiz Pizza. Walker 's film career began in 1986, with the horror / comedy film Monster in the Closet. In 1987 he appeared in The Retaliator (aka Programmed to Kill), a low budget cyborg action film, with Robert Ginty. He and his sister Ashlie were contestants on a 1988 episode of the game show I 'm Telling!; they finished in second place. In 1993 he played Brandon Collins on the CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless. He and his co-star Heather Tom, who played Victoria Newman, were nominated for Outstanding Lead Actor and Actress in a soap opera at the Youth in Film Awards. In 1998, Walker made his feature film debut in the comedy Meet the Deedles, which finally gained him fame. This subsequently led to supporting roles in the movies Pleasantville (1998), Varsity Blues (1999), She 's All That (1999), and The Skulls (2000).
In 2001, Walker 's breakthrough role arrived when he starred opposite actor Vin Diesel in the successful action film The Fast and the Furious, the first film in the franchise. The film established Walker as a notable film star and leading man and led to his reprise of the role in the 2003 sequel 2 Fast 2 Furious. He continued his career with leading roles in films such as Joy Ride (2001), Timeline (2003), and Into the Blue (2005). He had a supporting role in Clint Eastwood 's adaptation of Flags of Our Fathers (2006).
Walker then starred in the crime thriller Running Scared and Walt Disney Pictures ' Eight Below, both released in 2006. Eight Below garnered critical - acclaim and opened in first place at the box office, grossing over US $20 million during its first weekend. During the filming of Running Scared, director Wayne Kramer stated that "(Walker) is that guy on some level '' when comparing Walker with his character in the movie, Joey Gazelle. Kramer continued on to say that he "loved working with (Walker) because as a director he 's completely supportive of my vision of what the film is. And even better, he 's completely game for it. ''
Walker starred in the independent film The Lazarus Project, which was released on DVD on October 21, 2008. He subsequently returned to The Fast and the Furious franchise, reprising his role in Fast & Furious, which was released on April 3, 2009. Walker then appeared in the crime drama Takers, which began filming in September 2008 and was released in August 2010.
The Coty Prestige fragrance brand Davidoff Cool Water for Men announced in January 2011 that Walker was going to be the new face of the brand as of July 2011. He reprised his role in the fifth installment of The Fast and the Furious series, Fast Five (2011), and again in Fast & Furious 6 (2013). For this film, he won the 2014 MTV Movie Award as best on - screen duo, with Vin Diesel. He was part of an ensemble cast in Wayne Kramer 's Pawn Shop Chronicles (2013), which was Walker 's last film released before his death.
Shortly after his death, the Hurricane Katrina based film Hours, which he had completed earlier in 2013, was released on December 13, 2013. He had also completed the action film Brick Mansions, a remake of the French film District 13, which was released in April 2014. At the time of his death, Walker had been filming Furious 7, which was slated for release in July 2014. The film was completed by using his brothers Caleb and Cody as his body doubles / stand - ins, and CGI, and was released in April 2015. Walker was also set to play Agent 47 in the video game adaptation Hitman: Agent 47, but died before production began.
Walker lived in Santa Barbara with his dogs. He and Rebecca McBrain, a one - time girlfriend, had a daughter named Meadow Rain Walker, who lived with her mother in Hawaii for 13 years and then moved to California to live with Walker in 2011. Her godfather is Vin Diesel. At the time of his death, Walker was dating Jasmine Pilchard - Gosnell. Walker was raised in a Mormon household, but later became a non-denominational Christian.
He held a brown belt in Brazilian jiu - jitsu under Ricardo "Franjinha '' Miller at Paragon Jiu - Jitsu and was awarded his black belt by Miller posthumously.
Walker held an interest in marine biology; he joined the board of directors of The Billfish Foundation in 2006. He fulfilled a lifelong dream by starring in a National Geographic Channel series Expedition Great White (later retitled Shark Men), which premiered in June 2010. He spent 11 days as part of the crew, catching and tagging seven great white sharks off the coast of Mexico. The expedition, led by Chris Fischer, founder and CEO of Fischer Productions, along with Captain Brett McBride and Dr. Michael Domeier of the Marine Conservation Science Institute, took measurements, gathered DNA samples, and fastened real - time satellite tags to the great white sharks. This allowed Dr. Domeier to study migratory patterns, especially those associated with mating and birthing, over a five - year period.
In March 2010, Walker went to Constitución, Chile, to offer his help and support to the people injured in the 8.8 magnitude earthquake that struck on February 27. He flew with his humanitarian aid team, Reach Out Worldwide, to Haiti to lend a helping hand to the 2010 Haiti earthquake victims.
A car enthusiast, he competed in the Redline Time Attack racing series in which he raced on the AE Performance Team driving a BMW E92 M3. His car was sponsored by Etnies, Brembo Brakes, Öhlins, Volk, OS Giken, Hankook, Gintani, and Reach Out Worldwide. Walker had been preparing for an auto show prior to his death. Walker also had a large car collection of about 30 cars, a portion of which he co-owned along with Roger Rodas. The collection included (but is not limited to) a large number of Saleen Mustangs as well as a BMW M1, Nissan R34 Skyline Spec V, 3x Porsche 911 997 GT3 RS (two orange on black, one green on black), 2x Porsche 930 Turbo (both in Guards Red), 2x BMW E30 M3, 3x BMW E36 M3 Lightweight, Ferrari 360 Challenge Stradale, Saleen S7, Volvo P1800 and a 1965 Shelby Ford Mustang GT350SR continuation car.
Roger Rodas became Walker 's financial adviser in 2007 and helped to establish Reach Out Worldwide. Rodas, a pro-am racer was the CEO of Always Evolving, a Valencia high - end vehicle performance shop owned by Walker. Walker was also a close friend of his 2 Fast 2 Furious co-star Tyrese Gibson. Vin Diesel considered Walker to be like a brother, both on and off screen, and affectionately called him "Pablo ''. Walker 's mother referred to her son as Diesel 's "other half ''.
On November 30, 2013, at about 3: 30 p.m. PST, Walker and Roger Rodas, 38, left an event for Walker 's charity Reach Out Worldwide for victims of Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda), with Rodas driving his Porsche Carrera GT. In a 45 mph (72 km / h) speed zone on Hercules Street near Kelly Johnson Parkway in Valencia, Santa Clarita, California, the car crashed into a concrete lamp post and two trees and caught fire. Rodas died of multiple trauma while Walker died from the combined effects of trauma and burns. Both of their bodies were burned beyond recognition.
The curve where Walker and Rodas were killed is a popular spot for drifting cars. No alcohol or other drugs were found in either man 's system, and neither mechanical failure nor road conditions appeared to play a role. Police found no evidence of drag racing. The investigation concluded that the car 's speed -- between 80 mph (130 km / h) and 93 mph (150 km / h) -- and age of the tires were the primary reasons for the crash.
With Furious 7 in the middle of filming at the time of Walker 's death, Universal announced an indeterminate hiatus on the production, citing a desire to speak with his family before determining what to do with the film.
Numerous friends and movie stars posted tributes to Walker on social media. His body was cremated and his ashes were buried in a non-denominational ceremony at Forest Lawn Memorial Park. His life was later chronicled in the documentary I Am Paul Walker, which was released on August 11, 2018.
In December 2014, Walker 's father, Paul III, filed a wrongful death claim against Rodas 's estate seeking the return of, or "a proportionate share '' of revenue generated by a group of automobiles that were jointly owned by both Walker and Rodas.
In September 2015, Walker 's daughter Meadow filed a wrongful death lawsuit against Porsche for the death of her father, claiming that the Porsche Carrera GT had numerous design defects including a history of instability, and that its seat belt placement can cause harm upon impact. Porsche 's response denied any wrongdoing and blamed Walker himself, stating: "The perils, risk, and danger were open and obvious and known to him, and he chose to conduct himself in a manner so as to expose himself to such perils, dangers, and risks, thus assuming all the risks involved in using the vehicle. '' In April 2016, U.S. District Court Judge Philip S. Gutierrez ruled in favor of Porsche in a separate lawsuit filed by Roger Rodas ' widow, Kristine. The ruling had no bearing on two other cases against Porsche which have been filed by Walker 's father, who is also the executor of the actor 's estate, and his daughter. Walker 's father and daughter both reached an agreement with Porsche.
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state two adaptations of herbivores which enable them to digest cellulose | Herbivore adaptations to plant defense - wikipedia
Herbivores are dependent on plants for food, and have coevolved mechanisms to obtain this food despite the evolution of a diverse arsenal of plant defenses against herbivory. Herbivore adaptations to plant defense have been likened to "offensive traits '' and consist of those traits that allow for increased feeding and use of a host. Plants, on the other hand, protect their resources for use in growth and reproduction, by limiting the ability of herbivores to eat them. Relationships between herbivores and their host plants often results in reciprocal evolutionary change. When a herbivore eats a plant it selects for plants that can mount a defensive response, whether the response is incorporated biochemically or physically, or induced as a counterattack. In cases where this relationship demonstrates "specificity '' (the evolution of each trait is due to the other), and "reciprocity '' (both traits must evolve), the species are thought to have coevolved. The escape and radiation mechanisms for coevolution, presents the idea that adaptations in herbivores and their host plants, has been the driving force behind speciation. The coevolution that occurs between plants and herbivores that ultimately results in the speciation of both can be further explained by the Red Queen hypothesis. This hypothesis states that competitive success and failure evolve back and forth through organizational learning. The act of an organism facing competition with another organism ultimately leads to an increase in the organism 's performance due to selection. This increase in competitive success then forces the competing organism to increase its performance through selection as well, thus creating an "arms race '' between the two species. Herbivores evolve due to plant defenses because plants must increase their competitive performance first due to herbivore competitive success.
Herbivores have developed a diverse range of physical structures to facilitate the consumption of plant material. To break up intact plant tissues, mammals have developed teeth structures that reflect their feeding preferences. For instance, frugivores (animals that feed primarily on fruit) and herbivores that feed on soft foliage have low - crowned teeth specialized for grinding foliage and seeds. Grazing animals that tend to eat hard, silica - rich grasses, have high - crowned teeth, which are capable of grinding tough plant tissues and do not wear down as quickly as low - crowned teeth. Birds grind plant material or crush seeds using their beaks and gizzards.
Insect herbivores have evolved a wide range of tools to facilitate feeding. Often these tools reflect an individual 's feeding strategy and its preferred food type. Within the family Sphingidae (sphinx moths), it has been observed that the caterpillars of species which eat relatively soft leaves are equipped with incisors for tearing and chewing, while the species that feed on mature leaves and grasses cut them with toothless snipping mandibles (the uppermost pair of jaws in insects, used for feeding).
A herbivore 's diet often shapes its feeding adaptations. Grasshopper head size, and thus chewing power, was demonstrated to be greater for individuals raised on rye grass (a relatively hard grass) when compared to individuals raised on red clover (a soft diet). Larval Lepidoptera that feed on plants with high levels of condensed tannins (as in trees) have more alkaline midguts when compared to Lepidoptera that feed on herbs and forbs (pH of 8.67 vs. 8.29 respectively). This morphological difference can be explained by the fact that insoluble tannin - protein complexes can be broken down and absorbed as nutrients at alkaline pH levels.
Herbivores generate enzymes that counter and reduce the effectiveness of numerous toxic secondary metabolic products produced by plants. One such enzyme group, mixed function oxidases (MFOs), detoxify harmful plant compounds by catalyzing oxidative reactions. Cytochrome P450 oxidases (or P - 450), a specific class of MFO, have been specifically connected to detoxification of plant secondary metabolic products. One group linked herbivore feeding on plant material protected by chemical defenses with P - 450 detoxification in larval tobacco hornworms. The induction of P - 450 after initial nicotine ingestion allowed the larval tobacco hornworms to increase feeding on the toxic plant tissues.
An important enzyme produced by herbivorous insects is protease. The protease enzyme is a protein in the gut that helps the insect digest its main source of food: plant tissue. Many types of plants produce protease inhibitors, which inactivate proteases. Protease inactivation can lead to many issues such as reduced feeding, prolonged larval development time, and weight gain. However, many insects, including S. exigua and L. decemlineatu have been selected for mechanisms to avoid the effects of protease inhibitors. Some of these mechanisms include developing protease enzymes that are unaffected by the plant protease inhibitors, gaining the ability to degrade protease inhibitors, and acquiring mutations that allow the digesting of plant tissue without its destructive effects.
Herbivores may also produce salivary enzymes that reduce the degree of defense generated by a host plant. The enzyme glucose oxidase, a component of saliva for the caterpillar Helicoverpa zea, counteracts the production of induced defenses in tobacco. Similarly, aphid saliva reduces its host 's induced response by forming a barrier between the aphid 's stylet and the plant cells.
Herbivores can avoid plant defenses by eating plants selectively in space and time. For the winter moth, feeding on oak leaves early in the season maximized the amount of protein and nutrients available to the moth, while minimizing the amount of tannins produced by the tree. Herbivores can also spatially avoid plant defenses. The piercing mouthparts of species in Hemiptera allow them to feed around areas of high toxin concentration. Several species of caterpillar feed on maple leaves by "window feeding '' on pieces of leaf and avoiding the tough areas, or those with a high lignin concentration. Similarly, the cotton leaf perforator selectively avoids eating the epidermis and pigment glands of their hosts, which contain defensive terpenoid aldehydes. Some plants only produce toxins in small amounts, and rapidly deploy them to the area under attack. Some beetles counter this adaptation by attacking target plants in groups, thereby allowing each individual beetle to avoid ingesting too much toxin. Some animals ingest large amounts of poisons in their food, but then eat clay or other minerals, which neutralize the poisons. This behavior is known as geophagy.
Plant defense may explain, in part, why herbivores employ different life history strategies. Monophagous species (animals that eat plants from a single genus) must produce specialized enzymes to detoxify their food, or develop specialized structures to deal with sequestered chemicals. Polyphagous species (animals that eat plants from many different families), on the other hand, produce more detoxyfying enzymes (specifically MFO) to deal with a range of plant chemical defenses. Polyphagy often develops when a herbivore 's host plants are rare as a necessity to gain enough food. Monophagy is favored when there is interspecific competition for food, where specialization often increases an animals ' competitive ability to use a resource.
One major example of herbivorous behavioral adaptations deals with introduced insecticides and pesticides. The introduction of new herbicides and pesticides only selects for insects that can ultimately avoid or utilize these chemicals over time. Adding toxin free plants to a population of transgenic plants, or genetically modified plants that produce their own insecticides, has been shown to minimize the rate of evolution in insects feeding on crop plants. But even so, the rate of adaptation is only increasing in these insects.
Herbivores are unable to digest complex cellulose and rely on mutualistic, internal symbiotic bacteria, fungi, or protozoa to break down cellulose so it can be used by the herbivore. Microbial symbionts also allow herbivores to eat plants that would otherwise be inedible by detoxifying plant secondary metabolites. For example, fungal symbionts of cigarette beetles (Lasioderma serricorne) use certain plant allelochemicals as their source of carbon, in addition to producing detoxification enzymes (esterases) to get rid of other toxins. Microbial symbionts also assist in the acquisition of plant material by weakening a host plant 's defenses. Some herbivores are more successful at feeding on damaged hosts. As an example, several species of bark beetle introduce blue stain fungi of the genera Ceratocystis and Ophiostoma into trees before feeding. The blue stain fungi cause lesions that reduce the trees ' defensive mechanisms and allow the bark beetles to feed.
Herbivores often manipulate their host plants to use them better as resources. Herbivorous insects favorably alter the microhabitat in which the herbivore feeds to counter existing plant defenses. For example, caterpillars from the families Pyralidae and Ctenuchidae roll mature leaves of the neotropical shrub Psychotria horizontalis around an expanding bud that they consume. By rolling the leaves, the insects reduce the amount of light reaching the bud by 95 %, and this shading prevents leaf toughness and leaf tannin concentrations in the expanding bud, while maintaining the amount of nutritional gain of nitrogen. Lepidoptera larvae also tie leaves together and feed on the inside of the leaves to decrease the effectiveness of the phototoxin hypericin in St. John 's - wort. Herbivores also manipulate their microhabitat by forming galls, plant structures made of plant tissue but controlled by the herbivore. Galls act as both domatia (housing), and food sources for the gall maker. The interior of a gall is composed of edible nutritious tissue. Aphid galls in narrow leaf cottonwood (Populus angustifolia) act as "physiologic sinks, '' concentrating resources in the gall from the surrounding plant parts. Galls may also provide the herbivore protection from predators.
Some herbivores use feeding behaviors that are capable of disarming the defenses of their host plants. One such plant defensive strategy is the use of latex and resin canals that contain sticky toxins and digestibility reducers. These canal systems store fluids under pressure, and when ruptured (i.e. from herbivory) secondary metabolic products flow to the release point. Herbivores can evade this defense, however, by damaging the leaf veins. This technique minimizes the outflow of latex or resin beyond the cut and allows herbivores to freely feed above the damaged section. Several strategies are employed by herbivores to relieve canal pressure, including vein cutting and trenching. The technique used by the herbivore corresponds to the architecture of the canal system. Dussourd and Denno examined the behavior of 33 species of insect herbivores on 10 families of plants with canals and found that herbivores on plants with branching canal systems used vein cutting, while herbivores found on plants with net - like canal systems employed trenching to evade plant defenses.
Plant chemical defenses can be used by herbivores, by storing eaten plant chemicals, and using them in defense against predators. To be effective defensive agents, the sequestered chemicals can not be metabolized into inactive products. Using plant chemicals can be costly to herbivores because it often requires specialized handling, storage, and modification. This cost can be seen when plants that use chemical defenses are compared to those plants that do not, in situations when herbivores are excluded. Several species of insects sequester and deploy plant chemicals for their own defense. Caterpillar and adult monarch butterflies store cardiac glycosides from milkweed, making these organisms distasteful. After eating a monarch caterpillar or butterfly, the bird predator will usually vomit, leading the bird to avoid eating similar looking butterflies in the future. Two different species of milkweed bug in the family Hemiptera, Lygaeus kalmii and large milkweed bug (Oncopeltus fasciatus), are colored with bright orange and black, and are said to be aposematically colored, in that they "advertise '' their distastefulness by being brightly colored.
Secondary metabolic products can also be useful to herbivores due to the antibiotic properties of the toxins, which can protect herbivores against pathogens. Additionally, secondary metabolic products can act as cues to identify a plant for feeding or oviposition (egg laying) by herbivores.
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when does the average american put up their christmas tree | Christmas decoration - wikipedia
A Christmas decoration is any of several types of ornamentation used at Christmastime. The traditional colours of Christmas are pine green (evergreen), snow white, and heart red. Blue and white are often used to represent winter, or sometimes Hanukkah, which occurs around the same time. Gold and silver are also very common, as are other metallic colours. Typical images on Christmas decorations include Baby Jesus, Father Christmas, Santa Claus, and the star of Bethlehem. Typical winter icons include snowflakes, snowmen, icicles, and even penguins and polar bears.
In many countries, such as Sweden, people start to set up their Advent and Christmas decorations on the first day of Advent. Liturgically, this is done in some parishes through a Hanging of the Greens ceremony. In the Western Christian world, the two traditional days when Christmas decorations are removed are Twelfth Night and if they are not taken down on that day, Candlemas, the latter of which ends the Christmas - Epiphany season in some denominations. Leaving the decorations up beyond Candlemas is historically considered to be inauspicious.
The Christmas tree is sometimes explained as a Christianization of pagan tradition and ritual surrounding the winter solstice, which included the use of evergreen boughs, and an adaptation of pagan tree worship. The English - language phrase "Christmas tree '' is first recorded in 1835 and represents an importation from the German language. The modern Christmas tree tradition, though, is believed to have begun in Germany in the 18th century though many argue that Martin Luther began the tradition in the 16th century. From Germany the custom was introduced to England, first via Queen Charlotte, wife of George III, and then more successfully by Prince Albert during the early reign of Queen Victoria. The influential 1840s image of the Queen 's decorated evergreen was republished in the U.S, and as the first widely circulated picture of a decorated Christmas tree in America, the custom there spread. Christmas trees may be decorated with lights and ornaments.
Figural glass Christmas ornaments originated in the small town of Lauscha, Germany in the latter half of the 19th century. The town had long produced fine glassware. The production of Christmas ornaments became a family affair for many people. Some families invested 16 hours a day in production. For some, it was their sole source of income.
Sometimes competitions were held. Prizes were awarded to the family producing the finest examples. Santa Clauses, angels, birds, animals, and other traditional Yuletide subjects were favorites.
F.W. Woolworth discovered these glass ornaments on a toy and doll buying trip to Sonnenburg, Germany in the 1890s. He sold them in his "five and ten cent '' stores in America. The ornaments were said to have contributed to Woolworth 's great business success.
For the American market, figures were blown depicting comic book characters as well as patriotic subjects such as Uncle Sams, eagles, and flags. Glassblowers have held on to the old molds. Glass ornaments are still created from these old molds.
A clear glass tube is heated over an open flame. It is then inserted into a mold. The glassblower then blows into the end of the tube. The glass expands to fill the mold. The glass takes on the shape of the mold. It is cooled. A silver nitrate solution is swirled about inside the ornament. This gives the ornament a silver glow. The outside of the ornament is painted or decorated with metal trims, paper clippings, etc.
Cotton batting Christmas ornaments were popular during the years of the German Christmas toy and decoration boom at the turn of the century. They were exported in large numbers to the United States. These decorations suggested puffs of snow. Fruits and vegetables were popular subjects and often had a realistic appearance. African American and patriotic characters were fashioned for the American market. Some ornaments were used to hide boxes of candy.
Assembling these decorations was a cottage industry. Cotton batting was wound around a wire frame resembling a human or animal. A face was either painted on or a lithograph cut - out was affixed to the batting. Figures were given crepe paper costumes. Some were touched with glue and sprinkled with flakes of mica for a glittering appearance.
Dresdens are three - dimensional ornaments. They are made of paper, card, or cardboard. Dresdens were produced mostly in Dresden and Leipzig, Germany, from the 1860s to WWI. They were originally priced between 1 and 60 cents. Subjects included animals and birds, suns and moons, humans, carriages and ships, etc. Some Dresdens were flat, allowing the buyer to collect them in scrapbooks.
Positive and negative molds were set into a press. A moistened sheet of card was put into the press. The images were pressed. When they had dried, they were sent to cottage workers for the finishing touches. This involved separating the form - halves from the card, trimming ragged edges, and gluing the two halves together. The form was then gilded, silvered, or hand - painted. Sometimes a small gift or sweet was put into the form. Forms were usually no larger than five inches.
Popular Christmas plants include holly, mistletoe, ivy and Christmas trees. The interior of a home may be decorated with these plants, along with garlands and evergreen foliage. These often come with small ornaments tied to the delicate branches, and sometimes with a small light set.
Wreaths are made from real or artificial conifer branches, or sometimes other broadleaf evergreens or holly. Several types of evergreen or even deciduous branches may be used in the same wreath, along with pinecones and sprays of berries, and Christmas ornaments including jingle bells. A bow is usually used at the top or bottom, and an electric or unlit candle may be placed in the middle. Christmas lights are often used, and they may be hung from door or windows, and sometimes walls, lampposts and light fixtures, or even statuary. Since the 19th century, the poinsettia, a native plant from Mexico, has been associated with Christmas.
In North and South America, Australia, and Europe, it is traditional to decorate the outside of houses with lights and sometimes with illuminated sleighs, snowmen, and other Christmas figures. Municipalities often sponsor decorations as well. Christmas banners may be hung from street lights and Christmas trees placed in the town square.
In the Western world, rolls of brightly colored paper with secular or religious Christmas / winter / Hanukkah motifs are manufactured for the purpose of giftwrapping presents. The display of Christmas villages has also become a tradition in many homes during this season. Other traditional decorations include bells, candles, candy canes, garland, stockings, wreaths, snow globes, and angels. Snow sheets are made specifically for simulating snow under a tree or village.
In many countries a representation of the Nativity scene is very popular, and people are encouraged to compete and create the most original or realistic ones. Within some families, the pieces used to make the representation are considered a valuable family heirloom. Some churches also perform a live Nativity with volunteers and even live animals.
One of the most popular items of Christmas decorations are stockings. According to legend, Saint Nicolas would creep in through the chimney and slip gold into stockings hanging by the fireplace. Various forms of stockings are available; from simple velvet ones, to sock - shaped bags to animated ones.
Christmas decorations are typically put up in late November or early December, usually to coincide with the start of Advent. In the UK, Christmas lights on the high street are generally switched on in November. In the U.S., the traditional start of Christmas time is Thanksgiving. Major retailers put their seasonal decorations out for sale after back to school sales, while smaller niche Christmas Stores sell Christmas decorations year round.
In some places Christmas decorations are traditionally taken down on Twelfth Night, the evening of January 5 or January 6. The difference in this date is due to the fact that some count Christmas Day as the first day of Christmas, whereas for others Christmas Day is a feast day in its own right, and the first full day of the Christmas Season is December 26. In Hispanic and other cultures, this is more like Christmas Eve, as the Three Wise Men bring gifts that night, and therefore decorations are left up longer. The same is true in Eastern Churches which often observe Christmas according to the Julian Calendar, thus making it fall 13 days later.
In England, it was customary to burn the decorations in the hearth, however this tradition has fallen out of favour as reusable and imperishable decorations made of plastics, wood, glass and metal became more popular. If a Yule Log has been kept alight since Christmas Day, it is put out and the ashes kept to include in the fire on the following Christmas Day. A superstition exists which suggests that if decorations are kept up after Twelfth Night, they must be kept up until the following Twelfth Night, but also that if the decorations for the current Christmas are taken down before the New Year begins, bad luck shall befall the house for a whole year.
In the United States, most stores immediately remove decorations the day after Christmas, as if the holiday season were over once the gifts are bought. Nearly all Americans leave their home decorations up and lit until at least New Year 's Day, and inside decorations can often be seen in windows for several days afterward.
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who played lava girl in shark boy and lava girl | The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl in 3 - D - wikipedia
The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl (also known simply as Sharkboy and Lavagirl) is a 2005 American adventure film written and directed by Robert Rodriguez and originally released in the United States on June 10, 2005 by Miramax Films, Columbia Pictures and Dimension Films. The film uses the anaglyph 3 - D technology, similar to the one used in Spy Kids 3 - D: Game Over (2003). The film stars Taylor Lautner, Taylor Dooley, Cayden Boyd, David Arquette, Kristin Davis and George Lopez. Many of the concepts and much of the story were conceived by Rodriguez 's children. The special effects were done by Hybride Technologies, CafeFX, The Orphanage, Post Logic, Hydraulx, Industrial Light & Magic, R! ot Pictures, Tippett Studio, Amalgamated Pixels, Intelligent Creatures and Troublemaker Digital. The film received negative reviews from critics with much of the criticism directed at the decision to post-convert the film into 3 - D which damaged the film 's visual look, and earned $69.4 million on a $50 million budget.
Max is a lonely child in the suburbs of Austin who creates an imaginary dreamworld named Planet Drool, where all of his dreams come to life. He creates two characters; Sharkboy, who was raised by sharks after losing his father at sea, and Lavagirl, who can produce fire and lava, but has trouble touching objects without setting them alight. The two left Max to guard Planet Drool. In reality, Max 's parents have little time for him, and their marital relationship is not going well. Max is also bullied by fellow schoolmate Linus. However, he does receive friendship from Marissa, the daughter of his teacher Mr. Electricidad, whose name is Spanish for "electricity ''. After a chase, Linus steals Max 's dream journal (where all of his most precious dreams are kept) and vandalizes it. The next day, as Max attempts to retaliate, twin tornadoes form outside the school. Sharkboy and Lavagirl emerge from the tornadoes and have Max accompany them to Planet Drool, which he learns is turning bad because of Mr. Electric, the dreamworld 's now - corrupt electrician.
They confront Mr. Electric, who drops them in the Dream Graveyard, where some of Max 's dreams have been dumped. They find Tobor, a robot toy that Max never finished building in the real world after being discouraged by his father. Tobor gives them a lift to other parts of the planet. The three form a friendship during their journey, but they face hardships, such as Sharkboy 's anger for the oceans being frozen over, and Lavagirl 's desperation to find her true purpose on Planet Drool. They are pursued by Mr. Electric and his "plughounds '' across the planet. They plan to visit the Ice Princess and obtain the Crystal Heart, which can freeze time, giving them enough time to get to the center of Planet Drool and fix the dreamworld using Max 's daydreaming. However, they are captured by Mr. Electric, and delivered to Linus 's Planet Drool incarnation Minus, who has altered the dreamworld with Max 's own dream journal, and traps the three in a cage. Sharkboy gets annoyed by Minus and has a shark frenzy, destroying the cage. After they escape, Max retrieves the dream journal from Minus while he is sleeping. Max informs Sharkboy that his father is alive in his book, but when Lavagirl wishes to learn what it says about her true identity, she burns the book to ash. In rage, Lavagirl asks Max why she was made out of lava, but Sharkboy tells him to let her cool down.
After an encounter with the Ice Guardian, Max, Sharkboy, and Lavagirl reach the Ice Princess, the Planet Drool incarnation of Marissa Electricidad. She hands over the Crystal Heart, but they are too late to stop the corruption since the ice princess is the only one who can use the Crystal Heart 's power, and she can not leave her home. Mr. Electric fools Sharkboy into jumping into water filled with electric eels, seemingly killing him. Lavagirl also dies after jumping into the water to retrieve Sharkboy. Tobor appears and convinces Max to dream a better and unselfish dream, which in turn revives Sharkboy, who then races Lavagirl to a volcano to revive her. Max concludes that her purpose is as a light against the dark clouds which have engulfed Planet Drool 's skies. Max gains reality warping as the Daydreamer and defeats Minus, then offers to make a better dreamworld between the two of them, to which Minus agrees.
Mr. Electric refuses to accept the new dreamworld, and flies to Earth to kill Max while he is dreaming. Max awakens back in his classroom during the tornado storm. Mr. Electric materializes, and Max 's parents get sucked into the storm, but are saved by Sharkboy and Lavagirl. Max gives the Crystal Heart to Marissa so she can use the Ice Princess 's powers to destroy Mr. Electric. Mr. Electricidad, Linus and Max make peace with one another, and Max reunites with his parents.
Max later informs his class that Planet Drool became a proper dreamworld again, Sharkboy became the King of the Ocean, and Lavagirl became Queen of the Volcanoes, and as the film shows Max finally finishing Tobor, he reminds the class to "dream a better dream, and work to make it real. ''
Robert Rodriguez has an uncredited role voicing a shark. As seen in the credits, two of Robert Rodriguez 's children, Rebel and Racer, portray Sharkboy at age five and age seven respectively. Rico Torres plays Sharkboy 's father. Marc Musso and Shane Graham play children at Max 's school.
Parts of the film were shot on location in Texas, where Max resides and goes to school in the film. Much of the film was shot in a studio against green screen. Most of the ships, landscapes and other effects including some creatures and characters, were accomplished digitally. According to Lautner and Dooley, when filming the scene with the dream train, the front part of the train was an actual physical set piece. "The whole inside was there and when they have all the gadgets you can pull on, that was all there but everything else was a green screen, '' said Dooley. Eleven visual effects companies (Hybride Technologies, CafeFX, The Orphanage, Post Logic, Hydraulx, Industrial Light & Magic, R! ot Pictures, Tippett Studio, Amalgamated Pixels and Intelligent Creatures and Rodriguez 's Texas - based Troublemaker Digital) worked on the film in order to accomplish over 1,000 visual effect shots.
Robert Rodriguez appears in the credits fourteen times, most notably as director, a producer, a screenwriter (along with Marcel Rodriguez), visual effects supervisor, director of photography, editor, a camera operator, and a composer and performer. The story is credited to Racer Max Rodriguez, with additional story elements by Rebecca Rodriguez, who also wrote the lyrics for the main song, "Sharkboy and Lavagirl ''. Other members of the Rodriguez family can be seen in the film or were involved in the production.
Miley Cyrus had auditioned for the film with Lautner, and said it came down to her and another girl who was also auditioning; however, Cyrus began production on Hannah Montana.
The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl received a 20 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes and the consensus: "The decision to turn this kiddie fantasy into a 3 - D film was a miscalculation. '' Roger Ebert gave the film 2 out of 4 stars and agreed with the other criticisms in which the 3 - D process used was distracting and muted the colors, thus, he believes, "spoiling '' much of the film and that the film would look more visually appealing when released in the home media market.
For its opening weekend, the film earned $12.6 million in 2,655 theaters. It also was placed # 5 at the box office, being overshadowed by Mr. & Mrs. Smith, Madagascar, Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith, and The Longest Yard. The film was not very successful in the US, taking in $39,177,541 and was a box office bomb. However, it did manage to gross $30,248,282 overseas, for a total of $69,425,966 worldwide.
The Total Nonstop Action professional wrestler Dean Roll, who trademarked the name "Shark Boy '' in 1999, sued Miramax on June 8, 2005, claiming that his trademark had been infringed and demanding "(any) money, profits and advantages wrongfully gained ''. In April 2007, the suit was settled for a disclosed amount of $200,000.
Director Robert Rodriguez composed parts of the score himself, with contributions by composers John Debney and Graeme Revell. Green Day were reportedly set to contribute "Wake Me Up When September Ends '' to the soundtrack, but Robert Rodriguez declined it.
Around the time of the film 's debut Rodriguez co-wrote a series of children 's novels entitled Sharkboy and Lavagirl Adventures with acclaimed science fiction writer Chris Roberson. They include Book 1, The Day Dreamer, and Book 2, Return to Planet Drool, which announces that it will be continued in a third volume, Deep Sleep, which has yet to appear. They are illustrated throughout by Alex Toader, who designed characters and environments for the film and the previous Spy Kids franchise.
In the first book, the story of the film is told from Lavagirl 's and Sharkboy 's perspective, with at least one new event. In Return to Planet Drool, Sharkboy, remembering his encounter with the Imagineer in the first book, continues the search for his father by seeking to return to the Dream World. He meets a very bored Lavagirl in the underwater city of Vent, where she now reigns as queen, and together they embark on a subterranean journey. They encounter piranhas, a gargantuan red bear, and a city of inhabited by the dreams of bygone eras, where they are held captive by superheroes, pirates, and cowboys. By the end, after learning the city 's secrets, Sharkboy still hopes to find his father, and Lavagirl the secrets of her origin.
Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly praised another book appearing around the time of the film, The Adventures of SharkBoy and LavaGirl: The Movie Storybook (by Racer Max Rodriguez and Robert Rodriguez), as a far cry from the usual movie storybook tie - in, and also praised Alex Toader 's "cartoony yet detailed '' illustrations.
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who are the queen's lady in waiting | Lady - in - waiting - wikipedia
A lady - in - waiting or court lady is a female personal assistant at a court, royal or feudal, attending on a royal woman or a high - ranking noblewoman. Historically, in Europe, a lady - in - waiting was often a noblewoman, but of lower rank than the woman on whom she attended. Although she may either have been a retainer or may not have received compensation for the service she rendered, a lady - in - waiting was considered more of a courtesan or companion to her mistress than a servant.
In other parts of the world outside Europe, the lady - in - waiting, often referred to as palace woman, was often in practice a servant or a slave rather than a high - ranking woman, but still had about the same tasks, functioning as companion and secretary to her mistress. In courts where polygamy was practiced, a court lady was formally available to the monarch for sexual services, and she could become his wife or concubine.
Lady - in - waiting or court lady is often a generic term for women whose relative rank, title, and official functions varied, although such distinctions were also often honorary. A royal woman may or may not be free to select her ladies, and, even when she has such freedom, her choices are usually heavily influenced by the sovereign, her parents, her husband, or the sovereign 's ministers (for example, in the Bedchamber Crisis).
The development of the office of lady - in - waiting in Europe is connected to that of the development of a royal court. During the Carolingian Empire in the 9th century, Hincmar describes the royal household of Charles the Bald in the De Ordine Palatii from 882, in which he states that court officials took orders from the queen as well as the king. Already Merovingian queens are assumed to have had their personal servants, and in the 9th century it is confirmed that Carolingian queens had an entourage of guards from the nobility as a sign of their dignity, and some officials are stated to belong to the queen rather than the king.
In the late 12th century, the queens of France are confirmed to have had their own household, and noblewomen are mentioned as ladies - in - waiting. During the Middle Ages, however, the household of a European queen consort was normally small and the number of actually employed ladies - in - waiting, rather than wives of noblemen accompanying their husbands to court, was very small: in 1286, the queen of France had only five ladies - in - waiting in her employ, and it was not until 1316 that her household was separated from that of the royal children.
The role of ladies - in - waiting in Europe changed dramatically during the age of the Renaissance, when a new ceremonial court life, where women played a significant part, developed as representation of power in the courts of Italy and spread to Burgundy, from Burgundy to France, and to the rest of the courts of Europe. The court of the Duchy of Burgundy was the most elaborate in Europe in the 15th century and became an example to France when the French royal court expanded in the late 15th century and introduced new offices for both men and women to be able to answer to the new renaissance ideal. From small circle of married femmes and unmarried filles, with a relatively humble place in the background during the Middle Ages, the number of French ladies - in - waiting were rapidly expanded, divided into an advanced hierarchy with several offices and given an important and public role to play in the new ceremonial court life in early 16th - century France. This example was followed by other courts in Europe, where courts expanded and became more ceremonial during the 16th century, and the offices, numbers and visibility of women expanded in the early modern age.
During the late 19th century and the early 20th century, however, most European courts started to reduce their court staff, often due to new economic and political circumstances which made court representation more questionable.
The duties of ladies - in - waiting varied from court to court, but functions historically discharged by ladies - in - waiting included proficiency in the etiquette, languages, and dances prevalent at court; secretarial tasks; reading correspondence to her mistress and writing on her behalf; embroidery, painting, horse riding, music making and participation in other queenly pastimes; wardrobe care; supervision of servants; keeping her mistress abreast of activities and personages at court, and discreetly relaying messages upon command.
A number of tribes and cultural areas in the African continent, such as the Lobedu people of Southern Africa, had a similar custom on ladies - in - waiting in historic times.
Within certain traditional states of the Bini and Yoruba peoples in Nigeria, the queen mothers and high priestesses were considered "ritually male '' due to their social eminence. Due to this fact, they were often attended on by women who belonged to their harems in much the same way as their actually male counterparts were served by women who belonged to theirs. Although these women effectively functioned as ladies - in - waiting, were often members of powerful families of the local nobility in their own right, and were not usually used for sexual purposes, they were none - the-less referred to as their principals ' wives.
In the late Middle Ages, when the court of the emperor no longer moved around constantly, the household of the empress, as well as the equivalent household of the German princely consorts, started to develop a less fluid and more strict organisation with set court offices.
The court model of the Duchy of Burgundy, as well as the Spanish court model, came to influence the organisation of the Austrian imperial court during the 16th - century, when the Burgundian Netherlands, Spain and Austria was united through the Habsburg dynasty. In the early and mid 16th - century, the female courtiers kept by female Habsburgs in the Netherlands and Austria was composed of one hofmesterees (' Court mistress ') or dame d'honneur who served as the principal lady in waiting; one hofdame or Mere de filles, who was second in rank and deputy of the hofmesterees as well as being in charge of the eredames (maid of honour), also known as demoiselle d'honneur, fille d'honneur or Junckfrauen depending on language, and finally the chamber maids, kamenisters. During the tenure of Maria of Austria, Holy Roman Empress in the mid 16th - century, however, the court of the empress was organised in accordance with the Spanish court model, and after she left Austria, there was no further household of an empress until the 1610s. This resulted in a mix of Burgundian and Spanish customs when the Austrian court model was created.
In 1619, a set organisation was finally established for the Austrian Imperial court which came to be the characteristic organisation of the Austrian - Habsburg court roughly kept from this point onward. The first rank of the female courtiers was the Obersthofmeisterin (Mistress of the Robes), who was second in rank after the empress herself, and responsible for all the female courtiers. Second rank belonged to the ayas, essentially governesses of the imperial children and heads of the children 's court. Third in rank was the Fräuleinhofmeisterin: she was the replacement of the Obersthofmeisterin when necessary, but otherwise had the responsibility of the unmarried female courtiers, their conduct and service. The rest of the female noble courtiers consisted of the Hoffräulein (maid of honour), unmarried females from the nobility who normally served temporarily until marriage. The Hoffräulein could sometimes be promoted to Kammerfräulein (Maid of honor of the Chamber). The Austrian court model was the role model for the princely courts in Germany. The German court model in turn became the role model of the early modern Scandinavian courts of Denmark and Sweden.
The Kingdom of Belgium was founded in 1830, after which a royal court was founded, and ladies - in - waiting were appointed for Louise of Orléans when she became the first queen of Belgium in 1832. The female office holders of the queen 's household was created from the French model and composed of one dame d'honneur, followed by several ladies - in - waiting named dame du palais, in turn over ranking the premiere femme du chambre and the femme du chambre.
The ladies - in waiting have historically been chosen by the Queen herself from among the Catholic noble houses of Belgium. The chief functions at court were undertaken by members of the higher nobility, involving much contact with the royal ladies. Belgian princesses were assigned a lady upon their 18th birthday. Princess Clementine was given a Dame by her father, a symbolic act of adulthood. When the Queen entertains, the ladies welcome guests and assist the hostess in sustaining conversation.
In the current Royal Household of the United Kingdom, a Lady - in - Waiting is a woman attending a female member of the Royal Family. A woman attending on a Queen Regnant or Queen Consort is often (informally) known by the same title, but is more formally styled either: Woman of the Bedchamber, Lady of the Bedchamber or Mistress of the Robes, depending on which of these offices she holds. The Women are in regular attendance, but the Mistress of the Robes and the Ladies of the Bedchamber are normally required only for ceremonial occasions. The phrase Lady - in - Waiting to The Queen has, however, been used in formal documents to denote which of the Women is actually "on duty '' at any one time.
As of 2016, the Senior Lady - in - Waiting to Queen Elizabeth II is Mistress of the Robes, Fortune FitzRoy, Duchess of Grafton. The other Ladies - in - Waiting are Virginia Ogilvy, Countess of Airlie; Diana, Lady Farnham; The Hon Mary Anne Morrison; The Lady Susan Hussey; The Lady Elton; The Hon Mrs Whitehead, (daughter of Frederick Millar, 1st Baron Inchyra); Jennifer Gibbs (Mrs Michael Gordon Lennox) and Philippa de Pass, wife of Lieutenant Commander Robert de Pass.
In Cambodia, the term "ladies - in - waiting '' refers to high ranking female servants who served food and drink, fanned and massaged, and sometimes provided sexual services to the King. Conventionally, these women could work their way up from maids to ladies - in - waiting, concubines, or even queen consort. Srey Snom (Khmer: ស្រី ស្នំ) is the Cambodian term for the Khmer "lady - in - waiting ''.
The six favorite court ladies of King Sisowath of Cambodia were probably initially drawn from the ranks of classical royal dancers of the lower class. He was noted for having the most classical dancers as concubines. The imperial celestial dancer, Apsara, was one of these. This practice of drawing from the ranks of royal dancers began in the Golden Age of the Khmer Kingdom.
The ladies - in - waiting in China, referred to as palace women, palace ladies or court ladies, were all formally if not always in practice a part of the emperors harem, regardless of their task, and could be promoted by him to the rank of official concubine, consort or even empress. Already the emperors of the Han dynasty in antiquity is reported to have had a harem of thousands of palace women, although the actual numbers is unconfirmed.
At least during the Song dynasty (960 -- 1279), the palace women were divided in three groups: Imperial women, consisting of concubines and consorts; Imperial daughters, consisting of daughters and sisters of the emperor; and the female officials and assistants, who performed a wide range of tasks and could potentially be promoted to that of concubine or consort. Women from official elite families could be chosen to become empress, consort or concubine immediately upon their entrance to the palace, but the emperor could also promote any female court official to that post, as they were officially all members of his harem. The female court officials and attendants were normally selected from trusted families and educated for their task, which could be a wide range from female attendant to an Imperial woman, musician, chamber maid or official with the task to organize court functions.
This system was roughly the same during the Qing dynasty (1644 -- 1912), when there were also a class of Imperial women selected immediately as consorts or concubines, but the class of female court attendants were all available to be promoted to concubines and consorts by the emperor. During the Qing dynasty Imperial women were selected from among the teenage daughters of the Manchu official banner families, who were drafted to an inspection as imperial consorts or concubines before they could marry. Similarly, palace maids were drafted from lower official and banner classes before they could marry. After their selection, palace maids were educated as personal attendants to consorts, female officials within court rituals or other tasks, and were also available for the emperor to promote to consort or concubine. Below the palace maids were the maidservants, who were selected the same way by a draft among the daughters of soldiers.
The early modern Danish court was organized according to the German court model, in turn inspired by the Imperial Austrian court model, from the 16th century onward. The highest rank female courtier to a female royal was the hofmesterinde (Court Mistress) or, from 1694 / 98 onward, Overhofmesterinde (Chief Court Mistres), equivalent to the Mistress of the Robes, normally an elder widow, who supervised the rest of the ladies - in - waiting. The rest of the female courtiers were composed of one Kammerfrøken (Senior Maid of Honour), followed by a group of hofdame (' court lady ') with the title of Hoffrøken (maid of honour). They were followed by the non noble female court employees not ranking as ladies - in - waiting, such as the chamber maids.
This hierarchy was roughly in place from the 16th century until the death of king Christian IX of Denmark in 1906. During the 20th century most of these titles came of use and all ladies - in - waiting at the royal Danish court are now referred to as hofdame (' court lady ').
In the Middle Ages, Margaret of France, Queen of England is noted to have had seven ladies - in - waiting: the three married ones were called Domina and the four unmarried maid of honour, but no principal lady - in - waiting is mentioned, and until the 15th - century, the majority of the office holders of the queen 's household were still male.
As late as in the mid 15th - century, queen Elizabeth Woodville had still only five ladies - in - waiting, but in the late 15th - century and early 16th - century, ladies - in - waiting were given a more dominant place at the English court, in parallel with the development in France and the continental courts. The court life of the Duchy of Burgundy served as an example when Edward IV created the Black Book of the Household in 1478, and the organisation of the English royal household was essentially set from that point onward.
Queen Elizabeth of York had numerous ladies - in - waiting, which was reported by the Spanish ambassador Rodrigo de Puebla as something unusual and astonishing: "the Queen has thirty - two ladies, very magnificent and in splendid style ''. Elizabeth of York reportedly had 36 ladies - in - waiting, eighteen of them noblewomen; in 1502, a more complete account summarized them as sixteen "gentlewomen '', seven maids of honor and three "chamberers -- women '', who attended to her in the bedchamber. Aside from the women formally employed as ladies - in - waiting, the queen 's female retinue in reality also consisted of the daughters and the ladies - in - waiting of her ladies - in - waiting, who also resided in the queen 's household.
The duties of ladies - in - waiting at the Tudor court were to act as companions in public and in private; to accompany her wherever she went; to entertain her with music, dance or singing; and to dress her, bathe her and help her use the lavatory, as a royal person, by the standards of the day, was not supposed to do anything by themselves, but was always to be waited upon in all daily tasks as a sign of their status. Ladies - in - waiting were appointed by recommendation of their social status as members of the nobility, court officials, knights and military officers; and because they were expected to be supporters of the dynasty or the royal woman because of their relatives. When the queen was not a foreigner, her relatives were often appointed as they were presumed to be trustworthy and loyal; Lady Margaret Lee was a Lady of the Privy Chamber to Queen Anne Boleyn, just as Lady Elizabeth Seymour - Cromwell was to Queen Jane Seymour.
The organization of the Queen 's ladies - in - waiting was set in the period of the Tudor court. The ladies - in - waiting were headed by the Mistress of the Robes, followed in rank by the First Lady of the Bedchamber, who supervised the group of Lady of the Bedchamber (typically wives or widows of peers above the rank of earl), in turn followed by the group of Woman of the Bedchamber (usually a daughter of a peer) and finally the group of Maid of honour, whose service entitled them to the style of The Honourable for life. The system has formally remained roughly the same since the Tudor period. However, in practice, many offices have since then been left vacant. For example, in recent times, Maids of Honour have only been appointed for coronations.
The queen of France is confirmed to have had a separate household in the late 12th - century, and an ordinance from 1286 notes that the queen of France, queen Joan I of Navarre, had a group of five ladies (Dames) and maids - in - waiting (Damoiselles): in the 1480s, French ladies - in - waiting were divided into Femmes mariées (married ladies - in - waiting) and Filles d'honneur (maid of honour). However, the queen 's household and the number of female courtiers during the Middle Ages was very small in France, as in most European courts: it was not until the end of the 15th - century and early 16th - century that emulation of the new courts of the Italian Renaissance made ladies - in - waiting fashionable in official court ceremonies and representation, and female court offices became more developed and numerous in the French court as well as in other European courts. The introduction of ladies - in - waiting increased in great numbers at the French court at this time: from a mere five in 1286 and still only 23 in 1490, to 39 in 1498 and circa 54 during the 16th - century. This expansion of female presence at court has been attributed to both Anne of Brittany, who encouraged all male courtiers to send their daughters to her, and to Francis I of France, who was criticized for bringing to court "the constant presence '' of large crowds of women, who gossiped and interfered in state affairs; Francis I once said: ' a court without ladies is a court without a court '.
During the First Empire, the principal lady in waiting of the empress was the dame d'honneur, followed by between 20 and 36 dames du palais. During the Bourbon Restoration, Marie Thérèse of France restored the pre-revolutionary court hierarchy. During the Second Empire, the female courtiers of the empress was composed by the first rank Grand - Maitresse and the second rank dame d'honneur, followed by six (later twelve) dames du palais.
The early modern Princely courts in Germany were modeled after the imperial Austrian court model. This court model divided the ladies - in - waiting in an chief lady - in - waiting named Oberhofmeisterin (a widowed or married elder woman) who supervised the hoffräulein (maids of honour), of which one or two could be promoted to the middle rank of Kammerfräulein (maid of honour of the chamber). The princely German courts in turn became the role model of the Scandinavian courts of Denmark and Sweden in the 16th - century.
After the end of the German Roman Holy Empire in 1806 and the establishment of several minor kingdoms in Germany, the post of Staatsdame (married ladies - in - waiting) were introduced in many German princely and royal courts. At the Imperial German court, the ladies - in - waiting were composed of one Oberhofmeisterin in charge of several Hofstaatsdamen or Palastdamen.
During the Byzantine Empire, the Byzantine empress was attended by a female court (the sekreton tōn gynaikōn), which consisted mostly of the wives of high - ranking male court officials, who simply wore the feminine versions of their husbands ' titles. The only specifically female dignity was that of the Zoste patrikia, the chief lady - in - waiting and female attendant of the empress, who was the head of the women 's court and often a relative of the empress; this title existed at least since the 9th - century.
The Kingdom of Greece was established in 1832 and its first queen Amalia of Oldenburg organized the ladies - in - waiting of its first royal court in one Grande - Maitresse, followed by the second rank dame d'honneur, and the third rank dame de palais.
Prior to unification, the greatest of the Italian states where the Kingdom of Naples, later called Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The ladies - in - waiting of the of queen the Two Sicilies where, in 1842 composed of one Dama di Onore or ' Lady of Honor ', placed in rank as number two after the Cavaliere di Onore, and followed by three Dama di Compagnia or ' Lady Companions ' (number four in rank after the Cavalerizzo) and a large number of Dame di Corte or ' Court Ladies '.
Italy was united in to the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. The ladies - in - waiting of the queen of Italy was headed by the Dama d'Onore, followed by the Dame di Corte, and finally the Dame di Palazzo. The Dama d'Onore was nominally the chief lady - in - waiting, but in practice often limited her service to state occasions; the Dame di Corte was the regular ladies - in - waiting who personally attended to the queen, while the Dame di Palazzo was honorary courtiers attached to the royal palaces in particular cities, such as Florence, Turin and so forth, and only served temporary when the queen visited the city in question: among these, only the Dame di Palazzo attached to the royal palace of the capital of Rome served more than temporary.
In Japan, the imperial court offices was normally reserved for members of the court aristocracy and the ladies - in - waiting or palace attendants were commonly educated members of the nobility.
During the Heian period (794 -- 1185) women could hold court offices of substantial responsibility, managing the affairs of the emperor. Female palace attendants were employed by the imperial Bureau of Palace Attendants from among the court aristocracy, but were required to be of sufficient education in Chinese classics to be accepted.
During the Sengoku period (1467 -- 1603), the highest rank of a lady - in - waiting was "female assistant to the major counselor '', who ran the affairs of the daily life of the imperial household. The second rank was hoto no naishi ("female palace attendant ''), who acted as intermediary between the emperor and those seeking audience and issued his wishes in writing. Ladies - in - waiting acted as imperial secretaries and noted the events at court, visitors and gifts in the official court journals.
In contrast to China, women palace attendants managed the palace of the imperial harem rather than eunuchs, and could hold high court offices in the emperors personal household. Female palace attendants were divided in two classes, which in turn had several ranks, signifying their task. The first class consisted of the nyokan or ladies - in - waiting who held court offices, naishi - kami (shoji) naishi - suke (tenji) and naishi - no - jo (shoji) and the second class was the female palace attendants myobu, osashi, osue, nyoju. The ladies - in - waiting worked as personal assistants, tending the emperors ' wardrobe, assisting the emperors ' baths, serving meals, performing and attending court rituals. Ladies - in - waiting could be appointed concubines, consorts or even empresses by the emperor or the heir to the throne. The function of a lady - in - waiting as potential concubine was abolished in 1924.
Gungnyeo (literally "palace women '') is a Korean term referring to women who wait upon the King and other royalty in traditional Korean society. It is short for gungjung yeogwan, which translates as "a lady officer of the royal court ''.
Gungnyeo includes sanggung (palace matron) and nain (assistant court ladies), both of which hold rank as officers. The term is also used more broadly to encompass women in a lower class without a rank such as musuri (lowest maids in charge of odd chores), gaksimi, sonnim, uinyeo (female physicians) as well as nain and sanggung.
The court of the Duchy of Burgundy, which was situated in the Netherlands in the 15th - century, was famous for its elaborate ceremonial court life and became a role model for several other courts of Europe. The Burgundian court model came to be the role model for the Austrian imperial court during the 16th - century, when the Burgundian Netherlands and Austria was united through the Habsburg dynasty.
In the 16th - century, the ladies - in - waiting in the courts of the Habsburg governors of the Netherlands, Margaret of Austria and Mary of Hungary (governor of the Netherlands), was composed of one hofmeesteres (' Court mistress ') or dame d'honneur who served as the principal lady in waiting; one hofdame or Mere de filles, who was second in rank and deputy of the hofmesterees as well as being in charge of the eredames (maid of honour), also known as demoiselle d'honneur, fille d'honneur or Junckfrauen, and finally the chamber maids, kameniersters, all with different titles depending on language in the multilingual area of the Netherlands.
The Kingdom of the Netherlands was founded in 1815, signifying the organisation of a royal court. In the 19th - century, the ladies - in - waiting of the Dutch court was headed by the Grootmeesteres (' Grand Mistress ', equivalent to Mistress of the Robes), of second rank was the Dames du Palais (married ladies - in - waiting), followed by the third rank Hofdames (' court ladies ', equivalent to maid of honour).
During the union of Denmark - Norway from 1380 until 1814, the Danish royal court in Copenhagen was counted as the Norwegian royal court, and thus there was not royal court present in Norway during this period. During the union between Norway and Sweden from 1814 to 1905, there were Norwegian courtiers appointed who served during the Swedish royal family 's visits to Norway. The female courtiers were appointed according to the Swedish court model, that is to say the class of hovfröken (Maid of honor); kammarfröken (Chief Maid of Honor) and statsfru (Lady of the Bedchamber), all supervised by the overhoffmesterinne (Mistress of the Robes): these posts were first appointed in 1817. When the union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved in 1905, a permanent Norwegian royal court was established.
In the court of Muscovite Russia, the offices of lady - in - waiting to the Tsarina were normally divided among the boyarinas (widows or wives of boyars), often from the family and relatives of the Tsarina. The first rank among the offices of the ladies - in - waiting were the Tsarina 's Treasurer; the second were the group of companions; the third were the royal nurses to the princes and princesses (where the nurses of the male children over ranked); among the nurses, the most significant post was that of the mamok, the head royal governess, who were normally selected from elder widows, often relatives to the Tsar or Tsarina. All offices were appointed by royal decree. The group of ladies - in - waiting were collectively above the rank of the Svetlichnaya, the tsarina 's sewing women; the postelnitsy (the tsarina 's chamber women and washing women) and the officials who handled the affairs of the staff.
In 1722, this system was abolished and the Russian Imperial court was reorganized in accordance with the reforms of Peter the Great to Westernize Russia, and the old court offices of the Tsarina was replaced with court offices inspired by the German model; see Lady - in - waiting of the Imperial Court of Russia.
The royal court of Castile included a group of ladies - in - waiting for the queen named camarera in late 13th - century and early 14th - century, but it was not until the 15th - century that a set organisation of the ladies - in - waiting is confirmed. This characteristic organisation of the Spanish ladies - in - waiting was roughly established already during the reign of Isabella I of Castile (r. 1474 -- 1504), was kept by Empress Isabella during the 16th century, and became the standard Spanish court model for ladies - in - waiting.
The early modern Swedish court, as well as the Danish equivalent, were re-organized in the early 16th century according to the German court model, in turn inspired by the Imperial Austrian court model. This model roughly organized the female noble courtiers in the class of the unmarried hovfröken (maid of honor, until 1719 hovjungfru) which could be promoted to kammarfröken (Chief Maid of Honor: until 1719 kammarjungfru). They were supervised by the hovmästarinna (Court Mistress, equivalent to Mistress of the Robes), normally a married or widowed elder noblewoman. Under this class of female noble courtiers, were the non-noble female servants. They were headed by the normally married kammarfru (Mistress of the Chamber, roughly equivalent to a Ladies Maid), often of burgher background, who supervised the group of kammarpiga (Chamber Maid)
From the reign of Queen Christina, the hovmästarinna was supervised by the överhovmästarinna (Chief Court Mistress). In 1774, the post of statsfru (Mistress of the State) was introduced, which was the title for the group of married ladies - in - waiting with rank between the hovmästarinna and the kammarfröken. The Swedish court staff was reduced in size in 1873. The new court protocols of 1911 and 1954 continued this reduction, and many court posts was abolished or no longer filled.
With the exception of the statsfru and the överhovmästarinna, none of the titles above are longer in use. At the death of Queen Louise in 1965, her överhovmästarinna was employed by the King. From 1994, the överhovmästarinna are the head of the court of the King rather than the Queen, while the court of the Queen is headed by the statsfru. There are now only one statsfru, and the other ladies - in - waiting are simply referred to as hovdam (' Court Lady '). Queen Silvia of Sweden has only three hovdamer (' court ladies '). Her chief lady - in - waiting is the statsfru.
These are a list of particularly well known and famous ladies - in - waiting of each nation listed. More can be found in their respective category.
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when does pokemon movie 20 come out in america | Pokémon the Movie: I Choose You! - Wikipedia
Pokémon the Movie: I Choose You!, known in Japan as Pocket Monsters the Movie: I Choose You! (劇場 版 ポケットモンスター キミ に きめ た!, Gekijō - ban Poketto Monsutā Kimi ni kimeta!) is a 2017 Japanese anime adventure film directed by Kunihiko Yuyama, written by Shoji Yonemura, and produced by OLM. Released as the twentieth Pokémon movie and the first film in the Sun and Moon series, it acts as a loose retelling of the original Indigo League saga of the show, released to commemorate the anime 's twentieth anniversary. It premiered at Japan Expo in France on July 6, 2017 and was released in Japan on July 15, 2017. Fathom Events released the film as a limited theatrical run in the rest of the world on November 5, 2017.
There is a world that is inhabited by mysterious and powerful creatures called Pocket Monsters, or Pokémon for short. For the time eternal, both humans and Pokémon have interacted with each other, befriended each other and fought alongside each other in tournaments. In the small town of Pallet Town in the Kanto region, a brash 10 - year old trainer named Ash Ketchum dreams of becoming a Pokémon Trainer to travel across the world and earn the title of "Pokémon Master ''. But when he is late to picking up his first Pokémon from the town 's local Professor and ends up with an unruly Pikachu, his life as a Pokémon Trainer begins in a rather fun but challenging way as Ash must forge his bond with his new friend as well as discovering the secrets of the world they 're living in.
As Ash begins to earn Pikachu 's trust on the first day of their journey together, they witness the Legendary Pokémon Ho - Oh fly overhead, and pick up one of its feathers. From there, Ash and Pikachu promise to find Ho - Oh again as they travel the Kanto region, meeting up with new friends Sorrel and Verity on Ash 's journey to become a Pokémon Master.
The film was officially revealed during the December 15 broadcast of TV Tokyo 's Oha Suta program, revealing a teaser trailer and poster of the film. This early content revealed Ash and Pikachu alongside the Legendary Pokémon Ho - Oh, showing that the film would act as a retelling of the first season, exploring some of the important plot points of the series. Ho - Oh 's appearance in the film was also detailed to be important to the film 's storyline. A second trailer for the film was revealed at the March 1 broadcast of Oha Suta, revealing remade scenes from the first episode and its official English title. It was then posted on the official YouTube page the next day.
Later on, the film 's second official trailer, which also featured a new version of the original Japanese opening theme, "Mesaze Pokémon Master '', was previewed on April 7, 2017. The next day, the producers announced that the current last Pokémon in the Pokédex, Marshadow, would debut in the film alongside several other brand - new characters. As the film is not a direct remake, it diverts itself from the original season that it is based on, and features an original story. Two days before the film 's release, Yoshitoshi Shinomiya, who draw background art for Kara no Kyoukai: Mirai Fukuin and Fate / stay night: Unlimited Blade Works released a new poster for the film.
With the film confirmed to be initially released at the French Japan Expo 2017, Western fans requested for the film to be released in theaters in the United States. This was eventually confirmed to be released by Fathom Events as a limited release across November 4 and 5, 2017. In Australia, the film was also confirmed to be released by Event Cinemas across November 11 and 12, 2017. Some fans also requested that voice actress Veronica Taylor should reprise her role as the English voice of Ash Ketchum for the film, but it was later confirmed that the current set of voice actors would stay on. The title of the film is also a reference to the first episode of the anime, "Pokémon, I Choose You! ''.
Regular series composer Shinji Miyazaki wrote the film 's score for its original release. The film 's opening song is titled Aim to Be a Pokémon Master - 20th Anniversary - (めざせ ポケモン マスター - 20th Anniversary -, Mezase Pokemon Master - 20th Anniversary -) by Rica Matsumoto while the ending is titled Oración 's Theme ~ Let 's Walk Together ~ (オラシオン の テーマ ~ 共に 歩 こう ~, Orashion no Tēma ~ Tomoni Arukou ~) by Asuca Hayashi.
Ed Goldfarb, the composer for the North American adaptations of the anime beginning with Pokémon: XY, composed a new background score for the film 's North American release.
The movie premiered at Japan Expo in France on July 6, 2017, and officially released in Japanese theaters on July 15, 2017. Advanced pre-orders the movie tickets across limited time periods (from September 19 to October 30, 2017) allowed moviegoers to receive a serial code to obtain one of the six special Pikachu in Pokémon Sun and Moon, each wearing one of Ash 's signature hats from each anime season. These Pikachu were holding an exclusive Pikashunium Z - Crystal. Also, both Marshadow and Ho - Oh were distributed during the film 's release in Japan.
Merchandise coinciding with the film was also released. Bandai will release official Poké Ball Breath Mint Cases in both regular and Premium - Bandai versions to coincide with the film 's release. The first set is released in August 2017, and the second is released in September 2017, with pre-orders started on April 23, 2017. Bandai also released S.H. Figuarts figures of Ash and the Team Rocket trio on July 2017, while Good Smile Company also announced they will release a Nendoroid of Ash in December 2017.
Some older fans of the anime expressed negative criticism over the film on social media due to the exclusion of Misty and Brock in favor of two new companions, with one saying "It 's almost like Brock and Misty never existed ''. As shown at the film 's first screening at the 2017 Japan Expo, most of the main characters from the first six series were relegated to cameos, which also caused some criticism from older fans.
Despite this, reviews of the movie were mostly positive. Callum May of Anime News Network called the film a "Pokémon movie for classic Pokémon fans '' and "While it features new Pokémon from Sun and Moon like Lycanroc and Incineroar, many of the stories and references are from the series 20 years ago, repurposed into far more emotionally moving encounters. '' It was also praised for having a stronger narrative than the other movies in the franchise, but often criticized on Sorrel and Verity 's personalities, calling them "more like bystanders of someone else 's story, and the attempts at creating backstories for them are n't built up at all. ''
The film also topped Japanese box office records, earning first place and grossing more than 516 million yen (US $4.61 million) in the first two days, beating Gintama on its premiere. The movie earned ¥ 2.14 billion ($19.6 million) in its fourth week and remained at the sixth position. In its fifth week it grossed US $22 million and climbed up to the fourth position before being dethroned by Transformers: The Last Knight.
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who did north carolina beat in the final four | North Carolina Tar Heels men 's basketball - wikipedia
The North Carolina Tar Heels men 's basketball program is the intercollegiate men 's basketball team of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. The Tar Heels have won seven men 's college basketball national championships (1924, 1957, 1982, 1993, 2005, 2009, and 2017), with the 1924 team being retroactively named the national champions by the Helms Athletic Foundation and the Premo - Porretta Power Poll for their undefeated 1923 -- 24 season. North Carolina 's six NCAA Tournament Championships are third-most all - time, behind UCLA and Kentucky. They have also won 18 Atlantic Coast Conference tournament titles, 31 Atlantic Coast Conference regular season titles, and an Atlantic Coast Conference record 20 outright Regular Season Championships. The program has produced many notable players who went on to play in the NBA, including three of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History: Billy Cunningham, Michael Jordan and James Worthy. Many Tar Heel assistant coaches have gone on to become head coaches elsewhere.
From the Tar Heels ' first season in 1910 -- 11 through the 2016 -- 17 season, the program has amassed a. 739 all - time winning percentage (second highest all - time), winning 2,206 games and losing 781 games in 107 seasons. The Tar Heels also have the most consecutive 20 - win seasons with 31 seasons from the 1970 -- 71 season through the 2000 -- 2001 season. On March 2, 2010, North Carolina became the second college basketball program to reach 2,000 wins in its history. The Tar Heels are currently ranked 3rd all time in wins trailing Kentucky by 33 games and Kansas by 11 games. The Tar Heels are one of only four Division I Men 's Basketball programs to have ever achieved 2,000 victories. Kentucky, Kansas, and Duke are the other three.
Carolina has played 160 games in the NCAA tournament. The Tar Heels have appeared in the NCAA Tournament Championship Game 11 times, and have been in a record 20 NCAA Tournament Final Fours. The Tar Heels have made it into the NCAA tournament 48 times (second-most all - time), and have amassed 123 victories (second most all - time). North Carolina also won the National Invitation Tournament in 1971, and appeared in two NIT Finals with six appearances in the NIT Tournament. Additionally, the team has been the number one seed in the NCAA Tournament 16 times, the latest being in 2017 (most # 1 seeds all - time).
North Carolina has been ranked in the Top 25 in the AP Poll an all - time record 877 weeks, has beaten # 1 ranked teams a record 12 times, has the most consecutive 20 - win seasons with 31, and the most consecutive top - 3 ACC regular season finishes with 37. North Carolina has ended the season ranked in the Top - 25 of the AP Poll 49 times and in the Top - 25 of the Coaches ' Poll 50 times. Further, the Tar Heels have finished the season ranked # 1 in the AP Poll 5 times and ranked # 1 in Coaches ' Poll 6 times. In 2008, the Tar Heels received the first unanimous preseason # 1 ranking in the history of either the Coaches ' Poll or the AP Poll. In 2012, ESPN ranked North Carolina # 1 on its list of the 50 most successful programs of the past 50 years.
North Carolina played its first basketball game on January 27, 1910, beating Virginia Christian 42 - 21. In 1921, the school joined the Southern Conference. The 1924 Tar Heels squad went 26 -- 0, and was retroactively awarded the national championship by the Helms Athletic Foundation in 1943 and later by the Premo - Porretta Power Poll. Overall, the Tar Heels played 32 seasons in the Southern Conference from 1921 to 1953. During that period they won 304 games and lost 111 for a winning percentage of 73.3 %. The Tar Heels won the Southern Conference regular season 9 times and the Southern Conference Tournament Championship 8 times.
In 1953, North Carolina split from the Southern Conference and became a founding member of the Atlantic Coast Conference. The Tar Heels won their first NCAA Championship in 1957 under fifth year head coach Frank McGuire, who led an undefeated 32 - 0 squad dominated by Lennie Rosenbluth and several other transplants from the New York City area to a 54 - 53 triple overtime victory over Wilt Chamberlain 's Kansas Jayhawks. C.D. Chesley, a Washington, D.C. television producer, piped the 1957 championship game in Kansas City to a hastily created network of five stations across North Carolina -- the ancestor to the current syndicated ACC football and basketball package from Raycom Sports -- which helped prove pivotal in basketball becoming a craze in the state. The title game was the only triple overtime final game in championship history, which followed a triple overtime North Carolina defeat of Michigan State 74 - 70 the previous night.
In 1960, the Tar Heels were placed on NCAA probation for "improper recruiting entertainment '' of basketball prospects. As a result, they were barred from the 1961 NCAA tournament and also withdrew from the 1961 ACC Tournament. Following the season, Chancellor William Aycock forced McGuire to resign. As a replacement, Aycock selected one of McGuire 's assistants, Kansas alumnus Dean Smith.
Smith 's early teams were not nearly as successful as McGuire 's had been. His first team went only 8 -- 9, and his first five teams never won more than 16 games. This grated on a fan base used to winning; in 1965 some of them even hanged him in effigy. However, Smith would go on to take the Tar Heels to a reign of championships and national dominance. When he retired in 1997, Smith 's 879 wins were the most ever for any NCAA Division I men 's basketball coach, and his 77.6 % winning percentage ninth best. During his tenure, North Carolina won the ACC regular season championship 17 times, the ACC tournament 13 times, and the NIT in 1971, went to the NCAA tournament 27 times, appeared in 11 Final Fours, and won NCAA national tournament titles in 1982 and 1993. The 1982 National Championship team was led by James Worthy, Sam Perkins, and a young Michael Jordan. The 1993 National Championship team starred Donald Williams, George Lynch and Eric Montross. While at North Carolina, Smith helped promote desegregation by recruiting the University 's first African American scholarship basketball player Charlie Scott.
Smith unexpectedly retired before the start of practice for the 1997 -- 98 season. He was succeeded by Bill Guthridge, who had been an assistant coach at the school for 30 years, the last 25 as Smith 's top assistant. During Guthridge 's three seasons as head coach he posted an 80 -- 28 record, making him tied for the then - NCAA record for most wins by a coach after three seasons. The Tar Heels reached the NCAA Final Four twice, in the 1998 tournament and again in the 2000 tournament. North Carolina reached the Final Four in 2000 as an 8 - seed, their lowest seeding in a Final Four appearance.
Guthridge retired in 2000 and North Carolina turned to Matt Doherty, the head coach at Notre Dame and a player on the 1982 championship team, to lead the Tar Heels. Doherty had little success while at North Carolina. In his first season, the Heels were ranked # 1 in the polls in the middle of the Atlantic Coast Conference schedule and finished with a 26 -- 7 record. But Doherty 's second season was the worst in recent history as the Tar Heels finished the season with a record of 8 -- 20, missing postseason play entirely for the first time since the 1965 -- 66 season (including a record 27 straight NCAA Tournament appearances) and finishing with a losing record for the first time since 1962 (Dean Smith 's first year as coach). They also finished 4 -- 12 in the ACC -- only the program 's second losing ACC record ever. The 12 losses were six more than the Tar Heels had ever suffered in a single season of ACC play, and placed them in a tie for 7th place -- the program 's first finish below fourth place ever. The season also saw the end of UNC 's run of 31 straight 20 - win seasons and 35 straight seasons of finishing third or higher in the ACC. After bringing in one of the top 5 incoming classes for the 2002 -- 2003 season, the Tar Heels started the season by knocking off a top 5 Kansas team and going on to win the Preseason NIT and returning to the AP top 25. North Carolina went on to finish the season 17 -- 15, missing the NCAA tournament. Matt Doherty led the Tar Heels to the third round of the NIT, where they ended their season with a loss to Georgetown.
Despite the turnaround from the year before and the NIT appearance, at the end of the season Matt Doherty was replaced as head coach by Roy Williams. Williams had served as an assistant to Smith for 11 years before leaving to spend the first 15 years of his Hall of Fame head coaching career leading Kansas to 9 conference regular season championships and four Final Fours before Smith convinced him to return home. It was hoped that Williams would restore a measure of stability to the program. Doherty was UNC 's third coach in six years. The two previous to Guthridge, McGuire and Smith, had covered a 45 - year period.
In Williams ' first season, the Tar Heels finished 19 -- 11 and were ranked in a final media poll for the first time in three years. They returned to the NCAA tournament and were ousted in the second round by Texas. The following year, the Tar Heels won their fourth NCAA title and Williams ' first as a head coach. After winning the championship, Williams lost his top seven scorers, but the 2005 -- 06 season saw the arrival of freshman Tyler Hansbrough and Williams was named Coach of the Year. The Tar Heels swept the ACC regular season and tournament titles in 2007 and 2008. The 2008 ACC Tournament was the first time North Carolina has ever won the ACC Tournament without defeating at least one in - state rival during the tournament. North Carolina lost in the national semifinals of the 2008 NCAA tournament to Williams ' former program Kansas.
In the 2008 -- 09 season, the Tar Heels won their fifth NCAA title by defeating Michigan State in the championship of the 2009 NCAA Men 's Basketball Tournament. The Tar Heels won all six of that year 's tournament games by at least 12 points, for an average victory margin of 20.2 points, and only trailed for a total of 10 minutes out of 240 through the entire tournament. Wayne Ellington was named the tournament 's Most Outstanding Player, the fourth Tar Heel so honored.
The 2009 -- 2010 Tar Heels struggled throughout the regular season finishing with a 16 -- 15 record, and dropped to # 3 in Division I in all - time wins. They later lost in the first round of the ACC Tournament, playing in the first "play - in '' Thursday game for the first time since the ACC grew to 12 teams. The Tar Heels did not receive an NCAA tournament bid, and instead accepted a bid to the NIT. During the season, the Tar Heels reached the 2,000 - win milestone with a home win over Miami on March 2, 2010, becoming the second fastest college team to do so (North Carolina was in its 100th season of basketball at the time of this accomplishment). The Tar Heels were able to make it to the final game of the NIT, losing to Dayton in the final game finishing with a 20 - 17 record.
The 2010 -- 2011 Tar Heels, with the addition of Harrison Barnes, Kendall Marshall, and Reggie Bullock, eighth in the preseason polls, struggled out the gates, starting with a 2 - 2 record, the worst start since the 2001 -- 02 season. After losses to Illinois and Texas, the Tar Heels fell out of the rankings. The losses of senior Will Graves, to dismissal, and Larry Drew II, to transfer and also the unexpected off - season transfers of David and Travis Wear did not help matters. However, the Tar Heels improved greatly during the conference season, finishing first in the ACC regular season with a 14 - 2 record. Williams was named Conference Coach of the Year for his efforts of getting his team to work through the adversity to finish strong in the regular season. Also during the season, the term Tar Heel Blue Steel was coined, referencing the Tar Heel men 's basketball walk - ons. The term was started by one of the players, Stewart Cooper, in hopes that it would be a replacement for "walk - ons '' and other less catchy names and soon enough Roy Williams caught on, as well as the rest of the Tar Heel Nation. North Carolina lost to Duke in the ACC Tournament Finals and made a significant run in the NCAA Tournament until they were eliminated in the Elite Eight by Kentucky, finishing with a 29 - 8 record.
The 2011 -- 2012 Tar Heels finished the regular season with a final record of 32 - 6, including a 14 -- 2 record in ACC regular season play which allowed the team to win the conference regular season championship outright. The team fell to Florida State in the championship game of the 2012 ACC Men 's Basketball Tournament. The team was a # 1 seed in the Midwest Regional of the 2012 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament; the team reached the Elite Eight and was defeated by Kansas 80 - 67. This defeat was the second time UNC lost to Kansas in the NCAA Tournament with Roy Williams as UNC head coach. He previously coached Kansas from 1988 to 2003. The loss to Kansas was also UNC 's second straight loss in the Elite Eight, after losing to Kentucky the year before. Kansas later fell to Kentucky 67 - 59 in the National Championship Game. Before the Kansas game, the Tar Heels won their previous three games in the NCAA Tournament by an average of 13.7 points. In the second - round game versus Creighton, starting UNC point guard Kendall Marshall broke his right wrist with 10: 56 remaining in the second half with UNC leading 66 - 50. Marshall continued to play by dribbling primarily with his left hand, including getting fouled on a drive to the basket with 7: 09 left in the second half. He left the game against Creighton with two minutes left with UNC leading 85 - 69. Williams announced Kendall Marshall 's injury at the Creighton post-game press conference. Kendall Marshall did not play in UNC 's two following games in the NCAA Tournament, a 73 - 65 overtime win over Ohio in the Sweet 16 and the aforementioned 67 - 80 loss to Kansas in the Elite Eight.
In 2013 - 14, the Tar Heels became the only team in men 's college basketball history to beat every team ranked in the top 4 in the preseason.
In 2015 - 2016, led by seniors Marcus Paige and Brice Johnson, the Tar Heels earned their 30th ACC regular season title, 18th ACC tournament title, and 19th Final Four. They also appeared in their 10th NCAA title game, in which they lost on a buzzer beater to Villanova, despite Marcus Paige 's dramatic three - pointer to tie the game with 4.7 seconds left. The Tar Heels finished with a 33 - 7 overall record and a 14 - 4 ACC record.
The following year, the Tar Heels were ranked # 6 in the AP preseason poll, having lost Paige and Johnson but retaining 2016 ACC Tournament MVP Joel Berry II as well as forwards Kennedy Meeks and Isaiah Hicks. After preseason losses to Indiana and Kentucky, the Tar Heels won their 31st ACC regular season title. Despite never being ranked # 1 in the AP Poll and losing to Duke in the semifinals of the ACC tournament, the Heels earned a # 1 seed in the NCAA tournament, where they advanced to their record 20th Final Four and 11th NCAA tournament title game. They beat Gonzaga 71 - 65 to give Williams his 3rd national championship, surpassing mentor Dean Smith for most NCAA tournament championships at Carolina, and behind only John Wooden, Mike Krzyewski, and Adolph Rupp for most NCAA tournament championships overall. Just as in the previous year, the Tar Heels finished with a 33 - 7 overall record and a 14 - 4 ACC record.
Dean Smith was widely known for his idea of "The Carolina Way, '' in which he challenged his players to, "Play hard, play smart, play together. '' "The Carolina Way '' was an idea of excellence in the classroom, as well as on the court. In Coach Smith 's book, The Carolina Way, former player Scott Williams said, regarding Dean Smith, "Winning was very important at Carolina, and there was much pressure to win, but Coach cared more about our getting a sound education and turning into good citizens than he did about winning. ``
On June 6, 2014, the ESPN program Outside the Lines aired an interview with Rashad McCants, a starter on the NCAA championship - winning 2004 -- 05 team, in which he claimed to have taken phony classes and had tutors write his classwork to stay academically eligible. Coach Roy Williams, separately interviewed by ESPN, as well as McCants 's teammates, disputed McCants 's claims.
In October 2014, Kenneth L. Wainstein, a former federal prosecutor hired by the university to investigate academic fraud reported by the media, issued a 131 - page report showing at least 3,100 students took "paper '' classes with artificially high grades over an 18 - year period, and athletes were funneled to these classes by academic advisers. Wainstein reported that varsity athletes made up 1,871, or roughly half, of the enrollment, with the men 's basketball team accounting for 12.1 percent (226) the athletes. Although two former UNC football coaches admitted knowing that a lot of students took the classes, there is no evidence the coaches knew the classes were irregular, and Williams denied knowledge (Dean Smith and Bill Guthridge, Williams ' predecessors, were not interviewed because of poor health).
On May 22, 2015, UNC received a Notice of Allegations from the NCAA, which begins the formal investigation process. The notice made five allegations against the university, including providing impermissible academic benefits to athletes and what the NCAA terms "lack of institutional control ''. The university would meet with the NCAA in three months and receive a ruling within six to nine months. Neither Williams nor any member of his staff was specifically accused of violating NCAA rules, but the notice included 15 email exchanges between Wayne Walden, the team 's academic advisor, and Debby Crowder, the African and Afro - American Studies Department office manager accused of orchestrating the paper class scheme.
The Tar Heels own several notable streaks in the history of college basketball. They appeared in either the NCAA Tournament or National Invitation Tournament (NIT) every year from 1967 to 2001. This includes 27 straight appearances in the NCAA tourney from 1975 (the first year that competition allowed more than one team from a conference to get a guaranteed bid) to 2001 -- the longest such streak in tournament history until it was broken by Kansas in March 2017. The Tar Heels also notched 37 straight winning seasons from 1964 to 2001, the third - longest such streak in NCAA history, behind UCLA 's streak of 54 consecutive winning seasons from 1948 to 2001, and Syracuse 's currently active streak of 42 seasons from 1971 to date. They also finished. 500 or better for 39 years in a row from 1962 (Dean Smith 's second year) to 2001, the third - longest such streak in NCAA history, behind Kentucky 's streak of 61 consecutive seasons from 1926 to 1988 (the Wildcats were barred from playing in 1952 -- 53 due to NCAA violations) and UCLA 's 54 - season streak.
From the ACC 's inception in 1953 to 2001, the Tar Heels did not finish worse than a tie for fourth place in ACC play. By comparison, all of the ACC 's other charter members finished last at least once in that time. From 1965 to 2001, they did not finish worse than a tie for third, and for the first 21 of those years they did not finish worse than a tie for second.
All of these streaks ended in the 2001 -- 02 season, when the Tar Heels finished 8 -- 20 on the season under coach Matt Doherty. They also finished tied for 7th in conference play, behind Florida State and Clemson -- only their second losing conference record ever (the first being in the ACC 's inaugural season).
Additionally, the Tar Heels are 58 - 0 all - time in home games played against the Clemson Tigers (the NCAA record for the longest home winning streak against a single opponent). Until the 2010 ACC Tournament, North Carolina was the only program to have never played a Thursday game in the ACC Tournament since it expanded to a four - day format.
North Carolina has thirteen victories over the AP number one ranked team.
To have his number retired, a player must win one of the following six widely recognized player of the year awards:
Eight players (including Jack Cobb, whose jersey did not have a number) have had their numbers retired. Tyler Hansbrough 's number 50 is the eighth to be retired, after he won all six major player of the year awards during the 2007 -- 08 season.
49 former North Carolina men 's basketball players are honored in the Smith Center with banners representing their numbers hung from the rafters. Of the 49 honored jerseys, eight are retired.
In addition to the 8 retired jerseys, an additional 41 jerseys are honored. An additional 2 players, Joel Berry II and Justin Jackson, have qualified to have their jerseys honored during the 2017 - 2018 basketball season.
To have his jersey honored, a player must have met one of the following criteria:
To date nine Tar Heels have been inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame.
The following 70 McDonald 's All - Americans have played for North Carolina:
The following players won their state 's Mr. Basketball award in high school.
The Carolina Basketball Museum is located in the Ernie Williamson Athletics Center and contains 8,000 square feet. It was built to replace the old memorabilia room in the Dean Smith Center. Designed by Gallagher & Associates, the cost of construction was $3.4 million. The museum opened in January 2008.
The UNC junior varsity basketball team was originally used at North Carolina as freshmen teams because freshmen were not allowed to play on the varsity team until the NCAA granted freshmen eligibility in the Fall of 1972.
After most schools decided to disband their J.V. squads, North Carolina 's athletic department opted to keep the team so that non-scholarship students were given the chance to play basketball for UNC. North Carolina also uses their J.V. team as a way for varsity assistant coaches to gain experience as head coaches. Roy Williams was a J.V. coach for eight years before he was hired at Kansas.
Students at UNC are only allowed to play on the team for two years, and then they are given a chance to try out for the varsity. The J.V. team also serves as a way for coaches to evaluate players for two years on the J.V. so they will better know what to expect when they try out for varsity later in their careers.
UNC 's J.V. team plays a combination of teams from Division II and III schools, some community colleges, and a few prep schools from around the North Carolina area.
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what have they done to my song melanie | What Have they done to My song Ma - wikipedia
"What Have They Done to My Song Ma '' is a song by Melanie. It was released in 1970 as the B - side of her "Ruby Tuesday '' single and included on the album Candles in the Rain. The single reached the number nine on the UK singles charts for three weeks.
Daliah Lavi recorded a successful German version of the song in 1971 and Ray Charles released a cover (as "Look What They 've Done to My Song, Ma '') in 1972. The song has also been covered by many other artists, including Nina Simone, the New Seekers, Dalida, and Billie Jo Spears. Czechoslovak singer Helena Vondráčková recorded it in 1971 as "Kam zmizel ten starý song '' with Czech lyrics by Zdeněk Borovec. Yugoslav rock band Bajaga i Instruktori released a cover of it with lyrics in Serbian, called "Vidi šta sam ti uradio od pesme, mama '', in 1985.
It was used in the 1970s as a commercial for Lifebuoy soap ("Look what they 've done to my Lifebuoy ''), and in the 1980s as a commercial jingle for Ramada Inn (as "Look what they 've done to Ramada '') and for Oatmeal Crisp cereal (as "Look what they 've done to my oatmeal ''). In October 2012, Miley Cyrus released a video of her own acoustic version of the song as part of her Backyard Sessions series. In 2015, Melanie joined her to duet on the song in addition to "Peace Will Come (According to Plan) ''.
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where is the redwood national park located in california | Redwood National and State Parks - wikipedia
The Redwood National and State Parks (RNSP) are a complex of several state and national parks located in the United States, along the coast of northern California. Comprising Redwood National Park (established 1968) and California 's Del Norte Coast, Jedediah Smith, and Prairie Creek Redwoods State Parks (dating from the 1920s), the combined RNSP contain 139,000 acres (560 km), and feature old - growth temperate rainforests. Located entirely within Del Norte and Humboldt Counties, the four parks, together, protect 45 % of all remaining coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) old - growth forests, totaling at least 38,982 acres (157.75 km). These trees are the tallest and one of the most massive tree species on Earth. In addition to the redwood forests, the parks preserve other indigenous flora, fauna, grassland prairie, cultural resources, portions of rivers and other streams, and 37 miles (60 km) of pristine coastline.
In 1850, old - growth redwood forest covered more than 2,000,000 acres (8,100 km) of the California coast. The northern portion of that area, originally inhabited by Native Americans, attracted many lumbermen and others turned gold miners when a minor gold rush brought them to the region. Failing in efforts to strike it rich in gold, these men turned toward harvesting the giant trees for booming development in San Francisco and other places on the West Coast. After many decades of unrestricted clear - cut logging, serious efforts toward conservation began. By the 1920s the work of the Save - the - Redwoods League, founded in 1918 to preserve remaining old - growth redwoods, resulted in the establishment of Prairie Creek, Del Norte Coast, and Jedediah Smith Redwoods State Parks among others. Redwood National Park was created in 1968, by which time nearly 90 % of the original redwood trees had been logged. The National Park Service (NPS) and the California Department of Parks and Recreation (CDPR) administratively combined Redwood National Park with the three abutting Redwood State Parks in 1994 for the purpose of cooperative forest management and stabilization of forests and watersheds as a single unit.
The ecosystem of the RNSP preserves a number of threatened animal species such as the tidewater goby, Chinook salmon, northern spotted owl, and Steller 's sea lion. In recognition of the rare ecosystem and cultural history found in the parks, the United Nations designated them a World Heritage Site on September 5, 1980 and part of the California Coast Ranges International Biosphere Reserve on June 30, 1983.
Modern day native groups such as the Yurok, Tolowa, Karok, Chilula, and Wiyot all have historical ties to the region, and some Native American groups still live in the park area today. Archaeological study shows they arrived in the area as far back as 3,000 years ago. An 1852 census determined that the Yurok were the most numerous, with 55 villages and an estimated population of 2,500. They used the abundant redwood, which with its linear grain was easily split into planks, as a building material for boats, houses, and small villages. For buildings, the planks would be erected side by side in a narrow trench, with the upper portions bound with leather strapping and held by notches cut into the supporting roof beams. Redwood boards were used to form a shallow sloping roof.
Previous to Jedediah Smith in 1828, no other explorer of European descent is known to have thoroughly investigated the inland region away from the immediate coast. The discovery of gold along the Trinity River in 1850 led to a minor secondary rush in California. This brought miners into the area and many stayed on at the coast after failing to strike it rich. This quickly led to conflicts wherein native peoples were placed under great strain, if not forcibly removed or massacred. By 1895, only one third of the Yurok in one group of villages remained; by 1919, virtually all members of the Chilula tribe had either died or been assimilated into other tribes. The miners logged redwoods for building; when this minor gold rush ended, some of them turned again to logging, cutting down the giant redwood trees. Initially, over 2,000,000 acres (8,100 km) of the California and southwestern coast of Oregon were old - growth redwood forest, but by 1910, extensive logging led conservationists and concerned citizens to begin seeking ways to preserve the remaining trees, which they saw being logged at an alarming rate. In 1911, U.S. Representative John E. Raker, of California, became the first politician to introduce legislation for the creation of a redwood national park. However, no further action was taken by Congress at that time.
Preservation of the redwood stands in California is considered one of the most substantial conservation contributions of the Boone and Crockett Club. The Save - the - Redwoods League was founded in 1918 by Boone and Crockett Club members Madison Grant, John C. Merriam, Henry Fairfield Osborn, and future member, Frederick Russell Burnham. The initial purchases of land were made by club member Stephen Mather and William Kent. In 1921, Boone and Crockett Club member John C. Phillips donated $32,000 to purchase land and create the Raynal Bolling Memorial Grove in the Humboldt Redwoods State Park. This was timely as U.S. Route 101, which would soon provide nearly unfettered access to the trees, was under construction. Using matching funds provided initially by the County of Humboldt and later by the State of California, the Save - the - Redwoods League managed to protect areas of concentrated or multiple redwood groves and a few entire forests in the 1920s. As California created a state park system, beginning in 1927, three of the preserved redwood areas became Prairie Creek Redwoods, Del Norte Coast Redwoods, and Jedediah Smith Redwoods State Parks. A fourth became Humboldt Redwoods State Park, by far the largest of the individual Redwood State Parks, but not in the Redwood National and State Park system. Because of the high demand for lumber during World War II and the construction boom that followed in the 1950s, the creation of a national park was delayed. Efforts by the Save - the - Redwoods League, the Sierra Club, and the National Geographic Society to create a national park began in the early 1960s. After intense lobbying of Congress, the bill creating Redwood National Park was signed by President Lyndon Johnson on October 2, 1968. The Save - the - Redwoods League and other entities purchased over 100,000 acres (400 km), which were added to existing state parks. Amidst both local support of environmentalists and opposition from local loggers and logging companies, 48,000 acres (190 km) were added to Redwood National Park in a major expansion in 1978. However, only a fifth of that land was old - growth forest, the rest having been logged. This expansion protected the watershed along Redwood Creek from being adversely affected by logging operations outside the park. The federal and state parks were administratively combined in 1994.
The United Nations designated Redwood National and State Parks a World Heritage Site on September 5, 1980. The evaluation committee noted 50 prehistoric archaeological sites, spanning 4,500 years. It also cited ongoing research in the park by Humboldt State University researchers, among others. The park is part of a much larger region designated the California Coast Ranges International Biosphere Reserve on June 30, 1983. The California Coast Ranges biosphere is overseen by the University of California Natural Reserve System.
The park has served as a filming location for numerous films. Scenes set on the forest moon Endor in Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi were filmed in the Tall Trees Redwood Grove in the northern part of Humboldt County, though the majority of filming was in private and public forests near the town of Smith River, California. Scenes for The Lost World: Jurassic Park as well as the movie Outbreak were filmed at the nearby Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park and at Patrick 's Point State Park.
Redwood National Park headquarters is located in Crescent City, California, with a service office located in Arcata and an operations center located in Orick, California.
Lack of money has precluded major improvements, however, and timber companies have replanted much of the logged area with non-native tree species. Coastline areas, including dunes and coastal prairie, have been invaded by exotic species, partly due to the suppression of forest fires until the 1980s. A fire management plan now allows controlled burning as one method to return the parkland to its original state. Since the redwoods were logged on the basis of accessibility, with inaccessible areas being cut last, large old - growth forest sections were isolated from one another, sometimes by many miles. In these cases it will be decades more before mature forest can return, regardless of the amount of money used to rehabilitate the ecosystem.
The park has transformed a few logging roads into scenic public drives. These do not meet current safety standards, but funding to improve them is not available at present. Park structures such as visitor centers and employee housing also need updating to meet increasing demands. Park employees perform air and water quality surveys, monitor endangered and threatened species, and work closely with the California Coastal National Monument, which is managed by the U.S. Bureau of Land Management. In 2005, the parks were authorized to expand another 25,000 acres (100 km) to include the Mill Creek watershed.
The Redwood National and State Parks form one of the most significant protected areas of the Northern California coastal forests ecoregion.
It is estimated that old - growth redwood forest once covered close to 2,000,000 acres (8,100 km) of coastal northern California. 96 % of all old - growth redwoods have been logged, and almost half (45 %) of the redwoods remaining are found in Redwood National and State Parks. The parks protect 38,982 acres (157.75 km) of old - growth forest almost equally divided between federal 19,640 acres (79.5 km) and state 19,342 acres (78.27 km) management. Redwoods have existed along the coast of northern California for at least 20 million years and are related to tree species that existed 160 million years ago.
The native range of coast redwood is from the northern California coast north to the southern Oregon Coast. The tree is closely related to the giant sequoia of central California, and more distantly to the dawn redwood which is indigenous to the Sichuan -- Hubei region of China. Coast redwoods are the tallest trees on Earth; as of September 2006, the tallest tree in the park was Hyperion at 379.1 feet (115.5 m), followed by Helios and Icarus which were 376.3 feet (114.7 m) and 371.2 feet (113.1 m) respectively.
Before September 2006, the tallest living specimen known was the Stratosphere Giant, outside the park in Humboldt Redwoods State Park, which was 370 feet (110 m) in 2004. For many years, one specimen simply named Tall Tree in Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park and within the RNSP was measured at 367.8 feet (112.1 m), but the top 10 feet (3.0 m) of the tree was reported to have died in the 1990s. One tree that fell in 1991 was reported to be 372.04 feet (113.40 m). Only the giant sequoia has more mass. The largest redwood by volume is the 42,500 cubic foot (1,205 m3) Lost Monarch, located in Jedediah Smith Redwoods State Park. Mature Coast redwoods live an average of 500 -- 700 years and a few are documented to be 2,000 years old, making them some of the longest - living organisms on earth. They are highly resistant to disease, due to a thick protective bark and high tannin content. Redwoods prefer sheltered slopes, slightly inland and near water sources such as rivers and streams.
Redwood trees develop enormous limbs that accumulate deep organic soils and can support tree - sized trunks growing on them. This typically occurs above 150 feet (46 m). Scientists have recently discovered that plants which normally grow on the forest floor also grow in these soils, well above ground. The soil mats provide homes to invertebrates, mollusks, earthworms, and salamanders. During drought seasons, some treetops die back, but the trees do not die outright. Instead, redwoods have developed mechanisms to regrow new trunks from other limbs. These secondary trunks, called reiterations, also develop root systems in the accumulated soils at their bases. This helps transport water to the highest reaches of the trees. Coastal fog also provides up to one - third of their annual water needs.
Another large tree commonly found in the forest is the coast Douglas - fir, which has been measured at heights of over 300 feet (91 m). Sitka spruce are plentiful along the coast and are better adapted to salty air than other species. The evergreen hardwood tanoak produces a nut similar to the acorns produced by the related genus Quercus (oak). Both tanoaks and oaks are members of the beech family. Trees such as the Pacific madrone, bigleaf maple, California laurel, and red alder are also widespread throughout the parks.
Huckleberry, blackberry, and salmonberry are part of the forest understory and provide food for many animal species. The California rhododendron and azalea are flowering shrubs common in the park, especially in old - growth forest. Plants such as the sword fern are prolific, particularly near ample water sources. In Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park, Fern Canyon is a well - known ravine 30 to 50 feet (9.1 to 15.2 m) deep, with walls completely covered in ferns.
The ecosystems of RNSP preserve a number of rare animal species. Numerous ecosystems exist, with seacoast, river, prairie, and densely forested zones all within the park. The tidewater goby is a federally listed endangered species that live near the Pacific coastline. The bald eagle, which usually nests near a water source, is listed as a state of California endangered species. The Chinook salmon, northern spotted owl, and Steller 's sea lion are a few of the other animal species that are threatened.
Over 40 species of mammals have been documented, including the black bear, coyote, cougar, bobcat, beaver, river otter, black - tailed deer, and elk. Along the coastline, California sea lions, Steller sea lions and harbor seals live near the shore and on seastacks, rocky outcroppings forming small islands just off the coast. Dolphins and Pacific gray whales are occasionally seen offshore. Roosevelt elk are the most readily observed of the large mammals in the park. Successful herds, brought back from the verge of extinction in the region, are now common in park areas south of the Klamath River. Many smaller mammals live in the high forest canopy. Different species of bats, such as the big brown bat, and other smaller mammals including the red squirrel and northern flying squirrel spend most of their lives well above the forest floor.
Brown pelicans and double - crested cormorants are mainly found on cliffs along the coast and on seastacks, while sandpipers and gulls inhabit the seacoast and inland areas. Inland, freshwater - dependent birds such as the common merganser, osprey, red - shouldered hawk, great blue heron, and Steller 's jay are a few of the bird species that have been documented. At least 400 bird species have been documented in the forestlands.
Reptiles and amphibians can also be found in the parks, with the northwestern ringneck snake, northern red - legged frog, Pacific giant salamander, and the rough - skinned newt most commonly seen.
Currently, there are over 200 exotic species known to live in Redwood National and State Parks. Of these thirty have been identified as invasive species, ten of these are considered threats to local species and ecosystems. Exotic species currently account for about a quarter of the total flora in the parks. Only about one percent of plant growth in old - growth areas are of exotic species, while areas such as the Bald Hills prairies have a relative cover of fifty to seventy - five percent exotic. The type of foreign vegetation also varies, with plants such as the English Ivy (Hedera helix), Spotted Knapweed (Centaurea maculosa), and the Poison Hemlock (Conium maculatum). The spotted knapweed and poison hemlock are both under consideration for addition to a high priority watch list maintained by the park system.
The northern coastal region of California, which includes RNSP and the adjacent offshore area, is the most seismically active in the U.S. Frequent minor earthquakes in the park and offshore under the Pacific Ocean have resulted in shifting river channels, landslides, and erosion of seaside cliffs. The North American, Pacific, and Gorda Plates are tectonic plates that all meet at the Mendocino Triple Junction, only 100 miles (160 km) southwest of the parks. During the 1990s, more than nine magnitude 6.0 earthquakes occurred along this fault zone resulting in 1 death and major financial loss, and there is always potential for a major earthquake. The park ensures that visitors are aware of the potential for a major earthquake through the use of pamphlets and information posted throughout the parks. The threat of a tsunami is of particular concern, and visitors to the seacoast are told to seek higher ground immediately after any significant earthquake.
Both coastline and the Coast Ranges can be found within park boundaries. The majority of the rocks in the parks are part of the Franciscan Assemblage, uplifted from the ocean floor millions of years ago. These sedimentary rocks are primarily sandstone, siltstone, shale, and chert, with lesser amounts of metamorphic rocks such as greenstone. For the most part, these rocks are easily eroded, and can be viewed along the seacoast and where rivers and streams have cut small gorges. Formed during the Cretaceous Period, they are highly deformed from uplift and folding processes. In some areas, river systems have created fluvial deposits of sand, mud, and gravel, which are transported into the park from upstream. Redwood Creek follows the Grogan Fault; along the west bank of the creek, schist and other metamorphic rocks can be found, while sedimentary rocks of the Franciscan Assemblage are located on the east bank.
The Redwood National and State Parks have an oceanic temperate rainforest climate, with cool - summer Mediterranean characteristics. Weather in RNSP is greatly influenced by the Pacific Ocean. Coastal temperatures generally range between 40 and 60 degrees Fahrenheit (4 -- 15 ° C) all year round, while further from the coast summers are hotter and drier, and winters are colder. Redwoods mostly grow a mile or two (1.5 -- 3 km) from the coast, and never more than 50 miles (80 km) from it. In this temperate but humid coastal zone, the trees receive moisture from both heavy winter rains and persistent summer fog. The presence and consistency of the summer fog is actually more important to overall health of the trees than heavy precipitation. This fact is born out in annual precipitation totals, which range between 25 and 122 inches (64 and 310 cm) annually, with healthy redwood forests throughout the areas of less precipitation because excessive needs for water are mitigated by the ever - present summer fog and the cooler temperatures it ensures. Snow is uncommon even on peaks above 1,500 feet (460 m), further exemplifying the mild, temperate nature of this northern latitude; however, light snow mixed with rain is common during the winter months.
Wildfires are a natural part of most terrestrial ecosystems. In many ways nature has adapted to fire, and the absence of fire can often be disadvantageous. Wildfire eliminates dead and decayed plant and tree matter, enriching the soil and ensuring that healthier trees have less competition for limited nutrients. Prescribed fire is currently part of the fire management plan and helps to eliminate exotic species of plants and allows a more fertile and natural ecosystem. Fire is also used to protect prairie grasslands and to keep out forest encroachment, ensuring sufficient rangeland for elk and deer. The oak forest regions also benefit from controlled burns, as Douglas fir would otherwise eventually take over and decrease biodiversity. The use of fire in old - growth redwood zones reduces dead and decaying material, and lessens the mortality of larger redwoods by eliminating competing vegetation. In the park, a fire management plan monitors all fires, weather patterns and the fuel load (dead and decaying plant material). This fuel load is removed from areas near structures and where fire poses high risk to the public, and controlled burns are used elsewhere. The National Interagency Fire Center provides additional firefighters and equipment in the event of a large fire.
The DeMartin Redwood Youth Hostel, a low - amenities shared lodging facility (near Klamath), has now closed. There are no hotels or motels within the parks boundaries. However, nearby towns such as Klamath, Requa, and Orick provide small hotels and inns, with extensive lodging options available in the regional trading centers of Crescent City on the northern end of the park and Arcata and Eureka located to the south. The park is about 260 miles (420 km) north of San Francisco, and 300 miles (480 km) south of Portland, Oregon; U.S. Route 101 passes through it from north to south. The Smith River National Recreation Area, part of the Six Rivers National Forest, is adjacent to the north end of RNSP.
While the state parks have front country campsites that can be driven to, the federal sections of the park do not, and hiking is the only way to reach back country campsites. These are at Mill Creek campground in Del Norte Coast Redwoods State Park and Jedediah Smith campground in Jedediah Smith Redwoods State Park, which together have 251 campsites; the Elk Prairie campground in Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park which has 75; and the Gold Bluffs Beach campground which has 25 campsites. Other nearby state parks have additional front country camping.
Back country camping is by permit only and is only allowed in designated sites, except on gravel bars along Redwood Creek. Access to the back country is highly regulated to prevent overuse while permitting as many groups as possible to explore the forest. Camping in the back country is therefore limited to five consecutive nights, and 15 nights in any one year. Proper food storage to minimize encounters with bears is strongly enforced, and hikers and backpackers are required to take out any trash they generate.
Almost 200 miles (320 km) of hiking trails exist in the parks, but during the rainy season some temporary footbridges are removed, as they would be destroyed by high streams. Throughout the year, trails are often wet and hikers need to be well prepared for rainy weather and consult information centers for updates on trail conditions.
Horseback riding and mountain biking are popular but are only allowed on certain trails. Kayaking is popular along the seacoast and in the various rivers and streams. Kayakers and canoeists frequently travel the Smith River, which is the longest un dammed river remaining in California. Fishing for salmon and steelhead, a highly prized anadromous form of rainbow trout over 16 inches (41 cm), is best in the Smith and Klamath rivers. A California sport fishing license is required to fish any of the rivers and streams. Hunting is not permitted anywhere in the parks, but is allowed in nearby National Forests.
The park has three visitor centers, where guided nature walks and general information are available, along with two additional information points. Each campground offers campfire talks during the summer months as well as guided tours. The parks have many picnic areas, which are all easily accessed by vehicle.
The following three California State Parks are the only State Parks co-managed within the RNSP system:
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when was the last time rangers won stanley cup | List of New York Rangers seasons - wikipedia
The New York Rangers are an American ice hockey franchise that compete in the National Hockey League (NHL). One of the NHL 's "Original Six '' teams, the Rangers play in the Metropolitan Division of the Eastern Conference. Since 1968, the team has played its home games in Madison Square Garden. In 91 completed seasons, the team has won four Stanley Cup championships and has qualified for the playoffs fifty - nine times. As of the end of the 2017 -- 18 season, New York has won more than 2,700 regular - season games, the fifth - highest victory total among NHL teams.
The Rangers were founded in 1926, and won their first Stanley Cup title in 1928, making them the first U.S. - based NHL franchise to win the Cup. Over the next 12 seasons, New York reached the Stanley Cup Finals five times and won twice, in 1933 and 1940. The Rangers then entered a period of decline; from 1943 to 1966, New York missed the playoffs 18 times. During that time, the Rangers reached the 1950 Stanley Cup Finals, where they lost to the Detroit Red Wings. In the 1970s, the Rangers made the Stanley Cup Finals twice, but were defeated by the Boston Bruins in 1972 and by the Montreal Canadiens in 1979. Thirteen years later, in the 1991 -- 92 season, New York won the Presidents ' Trophy by leading the NHL in regular - season points with 105. The team, however, was eliminated in the second round of the playoffs.
After missing the playoffs in the 1992 -- 93 season, the Rangers accumulated 112 points in the 1993 -- 94 season and won their second Presidents ' Trophy. With a seven - game victory against the Vancouver Canucks in the 1994 Stanley Cup Finals, the Rangers ended a 54 - year Stanley Cup drought. After reaching the Eastern Conference Finals in 1997, the Rangers did not return to the playoffs until 2006. In the 2013 -- 14 season, the Rangers reached the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time in 20 years, defeating the Canadiens in the Eastern Conference Finals in six games before losing to the Los Angeles Kings in the championship series. New York earned its third Presidents ' Trophy with a team record 113 points in 2014 -- 15, but was eliminated in the Conference Finals by the Tampa Bay Lightning. In the most recent season, 2017 -- 18, the Rangers finished last in the Metropolitan Division with 77 points and failed to reach the playoffs for the first time since the 2009 -- 10 season.
As of April 7, 2018
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what mars volta get him to the greek | Scabdates - wikipedia
Scabdates is the second official live recording from the band The Mars Volta. It was released on November 8, 2005 and features music recorded between May 2004 and May 2005 during the tours in support of De-Loused in the Comatorium and Frances the Mute. In 2011, NME magazine named it one of the 50 greatest live albums of all time. The "And Ghosted Pouts '' section of "Take the Veil Cerpin Taxt '' was used in the film Get Him to the Greek.
Only three of the band 's songs are represented on Scabdates, which mainly comprises expansions on musical themes which appear elsewhere in their work, or entirely new segments altogether, such as the lengthy exposition on "Cicatriz ''; which, when combined with its introduction "Haruspex '', accounts for over 48 minutes of the album. Its lengthy jam incorporates themes which would later be used in "Cassandra Gemini '' almost a year later on Frances the Mute. By contrast, the Scabdates version of "Concertina '' is shorter than its studio counterpart released on the Tremulant EP. The album ends with Cedric thanking the audience by telling them to "go home and take a bath. ''
Portions of the album include overdubbing and tape effects that were not part of the original live recordings. "Abrasions Mount the Timpani '' features field recordings of mewling babies and airliner announcements that Omar recorded on the road, while "Cicatriz '' incorporates an eight - minute psychedelic sound collage of other Mars Volta live performances (notably performances of "Eunuch Provocateur '' and "Cassandra Gemini ''), alongside field recordings of the band and others talking and laughing. The album, like many live albums before it, was also mixed to sound as if it came from one performance.
Rodriguez subsequently commented on the compilation of the album that:
I listened to my favorite live records, and said, "Okay, that 's nice. What would I want as a fan? '' When I was a kid, I always wanted little moments about the band on tour, so I could imagine them in my head. You hear our live record, and it starts with sound check and our technicians speaking about what 's wrong with the microphone. And then there 's us backstage, and then it goes into the concert, and then in the middle of a song, I put in some conversations we had on the tour bus. All these things are really appealing to me. A lot of people who were upset said, "This is not a live album. It includes all this other bullshit. And it has overdubs! '' It has no overdubs, it was just mixed in a creative way.
The Mars Volta have freely encouraged the trading of bootlegged live performances, but Scabdates was lauded by many fans for its superior sound quality and for being the first official recording that captured the Volta 's lengthy experimental workouts during live performances. Some critics were not impressed with the band 's jam sessions, with IGN describing the album as "sonic meandering which some regard as genius and others find to be a futile exercise in pretentious instrumental masturbation. ''
The album scored a 58 / 100 on Metacritic based on "mixed or average reviews ''. Some reviews are positive: Under the Radar gave it a score of seven stars out of ten and called it "One of those rare live offerings: a document that actually complements the band 's catalog. '' NME gave it a score of seven out of ten and called it "marvelous ''.
Other reviews were pretty average, mixed or negative: The Austin Chronicle gave it three stars out of five and said: "Seventy - three crack - in - the - earth 's - crust minutes liquefy into the same basic miasma as the sophomore LP that inspired them, yet more streamlined, less apt to wander into the ambient dead zones like ' Caviglia, ' a problematic disconnection of the disc 's overall forward thrust. '' Uncut also gave it three stars and said, "Your appreciation of Scab Dates will be predicated on a high tolerance to long bongo solos and songs called things like ' Abrasions Mount The Timpani '. '' Prefix Magazine gave it an average review and said the album "does an adequate job of capturing what is best experienced in the flesh. '' Blender gave it two stars out of five and said, "The songs get lost in waves of wah - wah long before a long, slow fade into random - noise oblivion. '' Pitchfork Media gave it a score of 3.5 out of ten and said it was "neither a concession nor a step forward, revealing inclinations that feel half as indulgent as they should when following a record like Frances the Mute, and about half as interesting to listen to. ''
As of February 2007 it has sold 64,000 copies in United States.
Like Frances the Mute, portions of Scabdates were arbitrarily cut into separate sections for the CD pressing. "Take the Veil Cerpin Taxt '' was spread along three tracks, while "Cicatriz '' was spread across five; the fifth section, "Part IV '', begins with the sound collage mentioned above. On vinyl, "Cicatriz '' was split along the third and fourth sides, with "Part IV '' taking up the entirety of the latter side.
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who led troops to remove the french from ft. duquesne | Battle of Fort Duquesne - wikipedia
France
Great Britain
The Battle of Fort Duquesne was a British assault on the eponymous French fort (later the site of Pittsburgh) that was repulsed with heavy losses on 14 September 1758, during the French and Indian War.
The attack on Fort Duquesne was part of a large - scale British expedition with 6,000 troops led by General John Forbes to drive the French out of the contested Ohio Country (the upper Ohio River Valley) and clear the way for an invasion of Canada. Forbes ordered Major James Grant of the 1st Highland Regiment to reconnoiter the area with 850 men. When Grant proceeded to attack the French position, his force was out maneuvered, surrounded, and largely destroyed by the French and their native allies led by François - Marie Le Marchand de Lignery. Major Grant was taken prisoner and the British survivors retreated fitfully to Fort Ligonier.
After repulsing this advance party the French, deserted by some of their native allies and vastly outnumbered by the approaching Forbes, blew up their magazines and burnt Fort Duquesne. In November the French withdrew from the Ohio Valley and British colonists erected Fort Pitt on the site.
Forbes commanded between 5,000 and 7,000 men, including a contingent of Virginians led by George Washington. Forbes, very ill, did not keep up with the advance of his army, but entrusted it to his second in command, Lt. Col. Henry Bouquet, a Swiss officer commanding a battalion of the Royal American Regiment. Bouquet sanctioned a reconnaissance of Fort Duquesne by Major James Grant of Ballindalloch,
On September 11, 1758, Grant led over 800 men to scout the environs of Fort Duquesne ahead of Forbes ' main column. Bouquet believed the fort to be held by 500 French and 300 Indians, a force too strong to be attacked by Grant 's detachment. Grant, who arrived in the vicinity of the fort on September 13, believed there were only 200 enemy within, and sent a small party of 50 men forward to scout. These saw no enemy outside the fort; they burned a storehouse and returned to Grant 's main position, two miles (3 km) from the fort.
The next morning, Grant divided his force into several parts. A company of the 77th, under a Capt. McDonald, approached the fort with drums beating and pipes playing as a decoy. A force of 400 men lay in wait to ambush the enemy when they went out to attack McDonald, and several hundred more under the Virginian Maj. Andrew Lewis were concealed near the force 's baggage train in the hope of surprising an enemy attack there...
The French and Indian force was in fact much larger than anticipated, and moved swiftly. They overwhelmed McDonald 's decoy force and overran the party that had been meant to ambush them. Lewis 's force left its ambush positions and went to the aid of the rest of the force but the French and Indians had by then gained a point of high ground above them and forced them to retire. The Indians used the forest to their advantage; "concealed by a thick foliage, their heavy and destructive fire could not be returned with any effect ''. In the one - sided battle in the woods, the British and American force suffered 342 casualties, of whom 232 were from the 77th Regiment, including Grant, who was taken prisoner. Out of the eight officers in Andrew Lewis 's Virginian contingent, 5 were killed, 1 was wounded and Lewis himself was captured. Nevertheless, most of Grant 's force escaped to rejoin the main army under Forbes and Bouquet. The Franco - Indian force suffered only 8 killed and 8 wounded.
James Smith wrote "Notwithstanding their (the Indians ') vigilence, colonel Grant with his Highlanders stole a march upon them, and in the night took possession of a hill about eighty rod from Fort DuQuesne - -- this hill is on that account called Grant 's hill to this day. French and Indians knew not that Grant and his men were there until they beat the drum and played upon the bag - pipes, just at day - light. They then flew to arms, and the Indians ran up under covert of the banks of Allegheny and Monongahela, for some distance, and then sallied out from the banks of the rivers, and took possession of the hill above Grant; and as he was on the point of it in sight of the fort, they immediately surrounded him, and as he had his Highlanders in ranks, and very close order, and the Indians scattered, and concealed behind trees, they defeated him with the loss only of a few warriors - -- most of the Highlanders were killed or taken prisoners. ''
A plaque on the Allegheny County Courthouse, erected in 1901 commemorates the site of the battle, and the hill where the battle was fought is today called Grant Street, in Pittsburgh.
Though the French had beaten off the initial British attack, Lignery understood that his force of about 600 could not hold Fort Duquesne against the main British force of more than ten times that number. The French continued to occupy Fort Duquesne until November 26, when the garrison set fire to the fort and left under the cover of darkness. As the British marched up to the smoldering remains, they were confronted with an appalling sight. The Indians had decapitated many of the dead Highlanders and impaled their heads on the sharp stakes on top of the fort walls, with their kilts displayed below. The British and Americans rebuilt Fort Duquesne, naming it Fort Pitt after the British prime minister William Pitt, who had ordered the capture of that strategic location.
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meaning of the poem the hero by rabindranath tagore | Birpurush (poem) - Wikipedia
"Birpurush '' (Bengali: বীরপুরুষ) (The Hero) is a Bengali poem written by Rabindranath Tagore. The poem depicts a child fantasising that he saves his mother from dacoits.
In the evening when the sun is set they reach a barren place. There is not a single soul there. Even the cattle have returned home. Plodding silence reigns there. The mother is a bit afraid and wonders where they have arrived! The child assures her and tells there is a small river ahead. The mother sees a shimmering light and asks her son about it. Suddenly they hear the cry "Ha re, re re, re re '' as a band of dacoits attacks their caravan. The mother shivers inside the palanquin; the palanquin - bearers hide in the bush. The son assures the mother, and confronts the dacoits courageously. A fight follows in which the son emerges victorious. The son returns to mother who kisses his forehead and thanks him.
The imagination now turns from this event as the poet wonders why some exciting thing like this does not actually happen in the mundane way of real life! It would be like an adventure story that would fascinate everybody.
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who played wednesday addams in the tv series | The Addams Family (1964 TV series) - wikipedia
The Addams Family is an American television series based on the characters from Charles Addams ' New Yorker cartoons. The 30 - minute series was created by David Levy and shot in black - and - white, airing for two seasons on ABC from September 18, 1964, to April 8, 1966 for a total of 64 episodes. It is often compared to its CBS rival, The Munsters, which ran for the same two seasons and achieved somewhat higher Nielsen ratings. The show is also notable for its opening theme that was composed by Vic Mizzy.
The show was originally produced by head writer Nat Perrin for Filmways, Inc. at General Service Studios in Hollywood, California. Successor company MGM Television (via The Program Exchange for broadcast syndication and 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment for home video / DVD) now owns the rights to the show.
The Addamses are a close - knit extended family with decidedly macabre interests and supernatural abilities, though no explanation for their powers is explicitly given in the series. The wealthy, endlessly enthusiastic Gomez Addams (John Astin) is madly in love with his refined wife, Morticia (Carolyn Jones). Along with their daughter Wednesday (Lisa Loring), their son Pugsley (Ken Weatherwax), Uncle Fester (Jackie Coogan), and Grandmama (Blossom Rock), they reside at 0001 Cemetery Lane in an ornate, gloomy, Second Empire - style mansion, attended by their servants: Lurch (Ted Cassidy), the towering butler, and Thing, a disembodied hand that appears from within a small wooden box. Other relatives who made recurring appearances included Cousin Itt (Felix Silla), Morticia 's older sister Ophelia (also portrayed by Jones), and Morticia 's mother Grandma Frump (Margaret Hamilton).
Much of the humor derives from the Addamses ' culture clash with the rest of the world. They invariably treat normal visitors with great warmth and courtesy, unaware that some of their guests often have bad intentions. They are puzzled by the horrified reactions to their own good - natured and normal behavior, since the family is under the impression that their tastes are shared by most of society. Accordingly, they view "conventional '' tastes with generally tolerant suspicion. Invariably, as a result of their visit to the Addamses, a visitor would be institutionalized, change professions, move out of the country or suffer some other negative life - changing event.
Series creator David Levy explained the premise of the show to syndicated columnist Erskine Johnson in August 1964: "We have made (the family) full - bodied people, not monsters... They are not grotesque and hideous manifestations. At the same time we are protecting the images of (Charles) Addams ' ' children ', as he refers to them. We are living up to the spirit of his cartoons. He is more than just a cartoonist. He 's a social commentator and a great wit. '' The tone was set by series producer Nat Perrin, who was a close friend of Groucho Marx and writer of several Marx Brothers films. Perrin created story ideas, directed one episode and rewrote every script. The series often employed the same type of zany satire and screwball humor seen in the Marx Brothers films. It lampooned politics ("Gomez, The Politician '' and "Gomez, The People 's Choice ''), the legal system ("The Addams Family in Court ''), rock n ' roll and Beatlemania ("Lurch, The Teenage Idol '') and Hollywood ("My Fair Cousin Itt '').
The show 's memorable theme, written and arranged by longtime Hollywood composer Vic Mizzy, was dominated by a harpsichord with finger snaps as percussive accompaniment. Ted Cassidy punctuated the lyrics with the words "neat '', "sweet '' and "petite ''. Mizzy 's theme was popular enough to enjoy a release as a 45 - rpm single, though it failed to make the U.S. charts. The song was revived for the 1992 animated series, as well as in 2007 for a series of Addams Family television commercials for M&M 's chocolates.
For both seasons, episodes aired Friday nights at 8: 30 p.m.
The show has been aired worldwide. In the United Kingdom, it first aired on ITV in 1965 -- 1966, and then it appeared on Sky 1 in 1991 and ran until 1992. and then it was aired on BBC Two from 6 p.m. on Monday nights starting in February 1992 until the end of 1993 and then moved to Saturdays in 1994 and later in school summer holidays before it vanished at the end of August 1996.
Since October 2011, the series was picked up by Cartoon Network 's sister channel Boomerang and runs through the entire month of October for Halloween alongside The Munsters.
The series airs on select local stations, and as of November 2013 airs weekends on the national movie / classic TV network Antenna TV
A reunion TV film, Halloween with the New Addams Family, aired on NBC in October 1977 and starred most of the original cast, except for Blossom Rock, who was very ill at the time and was replaced as Grandmama by Phyllis actress Jane Rose. Elvia Allman portrayed Mother Frump, whom Margaret Hamilton had played in the original series. Veteran character actors Parley Baer and Vito Scotti, who both had recurring roles in the original series, also appeared in the movie. The film also included extended family members created specifically for this production, such as Gomez 's brother Pancho (played by Henry Darrow) and two additional children, Wednesday Jr. and Pugsley Jr. The latter two were portrayed as near copies of the original children, now known as Wednesday Sr. and Pugsley Sr., who were once again played respectively by Lisa Loring and Ken Weatherwax, the original Wednesday and Pugsley in the series. Vic Mizzy rewrote and conducted the series theme as an instrumental.
Astin reprised his role as Gomez Addams for the 1992 animated adaptation of the series. No other members of the original cast were involved.
In 1998, a standalone film, Addams Family Reunion, aired on the Fox Family Channel, followed by the series The New Addams Family that ran from 1998 to 2000. Astin appeared in the series as Grandpapa Addams. John Astin and Lisa Loring are the only living cast members from the TV show.
As of May 2009, the show can be purchased on iTunes, and can be streamed in the US on Netflix, IMDb, YouTube and Hulu, and minisodes are available on Crackle. MGM Home Entertainment has released The Addams Family on DVD in Region 1, 2 and 4 in three - volume sets.
A successful film, The Addams Family, was released by Paramount Pictures in 1991, starring Raúl Juliá as Gomez, Anjelica Huston as Morticia, Christopher Lloyd as an amnesiac Uncle Fester and Christina Ricci as Wednesday. After the film 's release, series creator David Levy filed a lawsuit against Paramount Pictures; the suit was settled out of court. A sequel, Addams Family Values, followed in 1993, to greater critical success than the first film, though it earned less at the box office.
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water that falls into a terrestrial habitat becomes groundwater | Groundwater - wikipedia
Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth 's surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table. Groundwater is recharged from and eventually flows to the surface naturally; natural discharge often occurs at springs and seeps, and can form oases or wetlands. Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal, and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, also called groundwater hydrology.
Typically, groundwater is thought of as water flowing through shallow aquifers, but, in the technical sense, it can also contain soil moisture, permafrost (frozen soil), immobile water in very low permeability bedrock, and deep geothermal or oil formation water. Groundwater is hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly influence the movement of faults. It is likely that much of Earth 's subsurface contains some water, which may be mixed with other fluids in some instances. Groundwater may not be confined only to Earth. The formation of some of the landforms observed on Mars may have been influenced by groundwater. There is also evidence that liquid water may also exist in the subsurface of Jupiter 's moon Europa.
Groundwater is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than surface water. Therefore, it is commonly used for public water supplies. For example, groundwater provides the largest source of usable water storage in the United States, and California annually withdraws the largest amount of groundwater of all the states. Underground reservoirs contain far more water than the capacity of all surface reservoirs and lakes in the US, including the Great Lakes. Many municipal water supplies are derived solely from groundwater.
Polluted groundwater is less visible, but more difficult to clean up, than pollution in rivers and lakes. Groundwater pollution most often results from improper disposal of wastes on land. Major sources include industrial and household chemicals and garbage landfills, excessive fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture, industrial waste lagoons, tailings and process wastewater from mines, industrial fracking, oil field brine pits, leaking underground oil storage tanks and pipelines, sewage sludge and septic systems.
An aquifer is a layer of porous substrate that contains and transmits groundwater. When water can flow directly between the surface and the saturated zone of an aquifer, the aquifer is unconfined. The deeper parts of unconfined aquifers are usually more saturated since gravity causes water to flow downward.
The upper level of this saturated layer of an unconfined aquifer is called the water table or phreatic surface. Below the water table, where in general all pore spaces are saturated with water, is the phreatic zone.
Substrate with low porosity that permits limited transmission of groundwater is known as an aquitard. An aquiclude is a substrate with porosity that is so low it is virtually impermeable to groundwater.
A confined aquifer is an aquifer that is overlain by a relatively impermeable layer of rock or substrate such as an aquiclude or aquitard. If a confined aquifer follows a downward grade from its recharge zone, groundwater can become pressurized as it flows. This can create artesian wells that flow freely without the need of a pump and rise to a higher elevation than the static water table at the above, unconfined, aquifer.
The characteristics of aquifers vary with the geology and structure of the substrate and topography in which they occur. In general, the more productive aquifers occur in sedimentary geologic formations. By comparison, weathered and fractured crystalline rocks yield smaller quantities of groundwater in many environments. Unconsolidated to poorly cemented alluvial materials that have accumulated as valley - filling sediments in major river valleys and geologically subsiding structural basins are included among the most productive sources of groundwater.
The high specific heat capacity of water and the insulating effect of soil and rock can mitigate the effects of climate and maintain groundwater at a relatively steady temperature. In some places where groundwater temperatures are maintained by this effect at about 10 ° C (50 ° F), groundwater can be used for controlling the temperature inside structures at the surface. For example, during hot weather relatively cool groundwater can be pumped through radiators in a home and then returned to the ground in another well. During cold seasons, because it is relatively warm, the water can be used in the same way as a source of heat for heat pumps that is much more efficient than using air.
The volume of groundwater in an aquifer can be estimated by measuring water levels in local wells and by examining geologic records from well - drilling to determine the extent, depth and thickness of water - bearing sediments and rocks. Before an investment is made in production wells, test wells may be drilled to measure the depths at which water is encountered and collect samples of soils, rock and water for laboratory analyses. Pumping tests can be performed in test wells to determine flow characteristics of the aquifer.
Groundwater makes up about twenty percent of the world 's fresh water supply, which is about 0.61 % of the entire world 's water, including oceans and permanent ice. Global groundwater storage is roughly equal to the total amount of freshwater stored in the snow and ice pack, including the north and south poles. This makes it an important resource that can act as a natural storage that can buffer against shortages of surface water, as in during times of drought.
Groundwater is naturally replenished by surface water from precipitation, streams, and rivers when this recharge reaches the water table.
Groundwater can be a long - term ' reservoir ' of the natural water cycle (with residence times from days to millennia), as opposed to short - term water reservoirs like the atmosphere and fresh surface water (which have residence times from minutes to years). The figure shows how deep groundwater (which is quite distant from the surface recharge) can take a very long time to complete its natural cycle.
The Great Artesian Basin in central and eastern Australia is one of the largest confined aquifer systems in the world, extending for almost 2 million km. By analysing the trace elements in water sourced from deep underground, hydrogeologists have been able to determine that water extracted from these aquifers can be more than 1 million years old.
By comparing the age of groundwater obtained from different parts of the Great Artesian Basin, hydrogeologists have found it increases in age across the basin. Where water recharges the aquifers along the Eastern Divide, ages are young. As groundwater flows westward across the continent, it increases in age, with the oldest groundwater occurring in the western parts. This means that in order to have travelled almost 1000 km from the source of recharge in 1 million years, the groundwater flowing through the Great Artesian Basin travels at an average rate of about 1 metre per year.
Recent research has demonstrated that evaporation of groundwater can play a significant role in the local water cycle, especially in arid regions. Scientists in Saudi Arabia have proposed plans to recapture and recycle this evaporative moisture for crop irrigation. In the opposite photo, a 50 - centimeter - square reflective carpet, made of small adjacent plastic cones, was placed in a plant - free dry desert area for five months, without rain or irrigation. It managed to capture and condense enough ground vapor to bring to life naturally buried seeds underneath it, with a green area of about 10 % of the carpet area. It is expected that, if seeds were put down before placing this carpet, a much wider area would become green.
Certain problems have beset the use of groundwater around the world. Just as river waters have been over-used and polluted in many parts of the world, so too have aquifers. The big difference is that aquifers are out of sight. The other major problem is that water management agencies, when calculating the "sustainable yield '' of aquifer and river water, have often counted the same water twice, once in the aquifer, and once in its connected river. This problem, although understood for centuries, has persisted, partly through inertia within government agencies. In Australia, for example, prior to the statutory reforms initiated by the Council of Australian Governments water reform framework in the 1990s, many Australian states managed groundwater and surface water through separate government agencies, an approach beset by rivalry and poor communication.
In general, the time lags inherent in the dynamic response of groundwater to development have been ignored by water management agencies, decades after scientific understanding of the issue was consolidated. In brief, the effects of groundwater overdraft (although undeniably real) may take decades or centuries to manifest themselves. In a classic study in 1982, Bredehoeft and colleagues modeled a situation where groundwater extraction in an intermontane basin withdrew the entire annual recharge, leaving ' nothing ' for the natural groundwater - dependent vegetation community. Even when the borefield was situated close to the vegetation, 30 % of the original vegetation demand could still be met by the lag inherent in the system after 100 years. By year 500, this had reduced to 0 %, signalling complete death of the groundwater - dependent vegetation. The science has been available to make these calculations for decades; however, in general water management agencies have ignored effects that will appear outside the rough timeframe of political elections (3 to 5 years). Marios Sophocleous argued strongly that management agencies must define and use appropriate timeframes in groundwater planning. This will mean calculating groundwater withdrawal permits based on predicted effects decades, sometimes centuries in the future.
As water moves through the landscape, it collects soluble salts, mainly sodium chloride. Where such water enters the atmosphere through evapotranspiration, these salts are left behind. In irrigation districts, poor drainage of soils and surface aquifers can result in water tables ' coming to the surface in low - lying areas. Major land degradation problems of soil salinity and waterlogging result, combined with increasing levels of salt in surface waters. As a consequence, major damage has occurred to local economies and environments.
Four important effects are worthy of brief mention. First, flood mitigation schemes, intended to protect infrastructure built on floodplains, have had the unintended consequence of reducing aquifer recharge associated with natural flooding. Second, prolonged depletion of groundwater in extensive aquifers can result in land subsidence, with associated infrastructure damage -- as well as, third, saline intrusion. Fourth, draining acid sulphate soils, often found in low - lying coastal plains, can result in acidification and pollution of formerly freshwater and estuarine streams.
Another cause for concern is that groundwater drawdown from over-allocated aquifers has the potential to cause severe damage to both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems -- in some cases very conspicuously but in others quite imperceptibly because of the extended period over which the damage occurs.
Groundwater is a highly useful and often abundant resource. However, over-use, over-abstraction or overdraft, can cause major problems to human users and to the environment. The most evident problem (as far as human groundwater use is concerned) is a lowering of the water table beyond the reach of existing wells. As a consequence, wells must be drilled deeper to reach the groundwater; in some places (e.g., California, Texas, and India) the water table has dropped hundreds of feet because of extensive well pumping. In the Punjab region of India, for example, groundwater levels have dropped 10 meters since 1979, and the rate of depletion is accelerating. A lowered water table may, in turn, cause other problems such as groundwater - related subsidence and saltwater intrusion.
Groundwater is also ecologically important. The importance of groundwater to ecosystems is often overlooked, even by freshwater biologists and ecologists. Groundwaters sustain rivers, wetlands, and lakes, as well as subterranean ecosystems within karst or alluvial aquifers.
Not all ecosystems need groundwater, of course. Some terrestrial ecosystems -- for example, those of the open deserts and similar arid environments -- exist on irregular rainfall and the moisture it delivers to the soil, supplemented by moisture in the air. While there are other terrestrial ecosystems in more hospitable environments where groundwater plays no central role, groundwater is in fact fundamental to many of the world 's major ecosystems. Water flows between groundwaters and surface waters. Most rivers, lakes, and wetlands are fed by, and (at other places or times) feed groundwater, to varying degrees. Groundwater feeds soil moisture through percolation, and many terrestrial vegetation communities depend directly on either groundwater or the percolated soil moisture above the aquifer for at least part of each year. Hyporheic zones (the mixing zone of streamwater and groundwater) and riparian zones are examples of ecotones largely or totally dependent on groundwater.
Subsidence occurs when too much water is pumped out from underground, deflating the space below the above - surface, and thus causing the ground to collapse. The result can look like craters on plots of land. This occurs because, in its natural equilibrium state, the hydraulic pressure of groundwater in the pore spaces of the aquifer and the aquitard supports some of the weight of the overlying sediments. When groundwater is removed from aquifers by excessive pumping, pore pressures in the aquifer drop and compression of the aquifer may occur. This compression may be partially recoverable if pressures rebound, but much of it is not. When the aquifer gets compressed, it may cause land subsidence, a drop in the ground surface. The city of New Orleans, Louisiana is actually below sea level today, and its subsidence is partly caused by removal of groundwater from the various aquifer / aquitard systems beneath it. In the first half of the 20th century, the San Joaquin Valley experienced significant subsidence, in some places up to 8.5 metres (28 feet) due to groundwater removal. Cities on river deltas, including Venice in Italy, and Bangkok in Thailand, have experienced surface subsidence; Mexico City, built on a former lake bed, has experienced rates of subsidence of up to 40 cm (1'3 ") per year.
In general, in very humid or undeveloped regions, the shape of the water table mimics the slope of the surface. The recharge zone of an aquifer near the seacoast is likely to be inland, often at considerable distance. In these coastal areas, a lowered water table may induce sea water to reverse the flow toward the land. Sea water moving inland is called a saltwater intrusion. In alternative fashion, salt from mineral beds may leach into the groundwater of its own accord.
Polluted groundwater is less visible, but more difficult to clean up, than pollution in rivers and lakes. Groundwater pollution most often results from improper disposal of wastes on land. Major sources include industrial and household chemicals and garbage landfills, industrial waste lagoons, tailings and process wastewater from mines, oil field brine pits, leaking underground oil storage tanks and pipelines, sewage sludge and septic systems. Polluted groundwater is mapped by sampling soils and groundwater near suspected or known sources of pollution, to determine the extent of the pollution, and to aid in the design of groundwater remediation systems. Preventing groundwater pollution near potential sources such as landfills requires lining the bottom of a landfill with watertight materials, collecting any leachate with drains, and keeping rainwater off any potential contaminants, along with regular monitoring of nearby groundwater to verify that contaminants have not leaked into the groundwater.
Groundwater pollution, from pollutants released to the ground that can work their way down into groundwater, can create a contaminant plume within an aquifer. Pollution can occur from landfills, naturally occurring arsenic, on - site sanitation systems or other point sources, such as petrol stations or leaking sewers.
Movement of water and dispersion within the aquifer spreads the pollutant over a wider area, its advancing boundary often called a plume edge, which can then intersect with groundwater wells or daylight into surface water such as seeps and springs, making the water supplies unsafe for humans and wildlife. Different mechanism have influence on the transport of pollutants, e.g. diffusion, adsorption, precipitation, decay, in the groundwater. The interaction of groundwater contamination with surface waters is analyzed by use of hydrology transport models.
The danger of pollution of municipal supplies is minimized by locating wells in areas of deep groundwater and impermeable soils, and careful testing and monitoring of the aquifer and nearby potential pollution sources.
Around one - third of the world 's population drinks water from groundwater resources. Of this, about 10 percent, approximately 300 million people, obtains water from groundwater resources that are heavily polluted with arsenic or fluoride. These trace elements derive mainly from natural sources by leaching from rock and sediments.
In 2008, the Swiss Aquatic Research Institute, Eawag, presented a new method by which hazard maps could be produced for geogenic toxic substances in groundwater. This provides an efficient way of determining which wells should be tested.
In 2016, the research group made its knowledge freely available on the Groundwater Assessment Platform GAP. This offers specialists worldwide the possibility of uploading their own measurement data, visually displaying them and producing risk maps for areas of their choice. GAP also serves as a knowledge - sharing forum for enabling further development of methods for removing toxic substances from water.
In the United States, laws regarding ownership and use of groundwater are generally state laws; however, regulation of groundwater to minimize pollution of groundwater is by both states and the federal - level Environmental Protection Agency. Ownership and use rights to groundwater typically follow one of three main systems:
Other rules in the United States include:
In India, groundwater regulation is controlled and maintained by the central government and four organizations; 1) Central Water Commission, 2) Central Ground Water, 3) Central Ground Water Authority, 4) Central Pollution Control Board.
Laws and Regulations regarding India 's Groundwater:
A significant portion of Canada 's population relies on the use of groundwater. In Canada, roughly 8.9 million people or 30 % of Canada 's population, rely on groundwater for domestic use and approximately two thirds of these users live in rural areas.
A large federal government groundwater initiative, is the development of the multi-barrier approach. The multi-barrier approach is a system of processes to prevent the deterioration of drinking water from the source. The multi-barrier consists of three key elements:
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does john redcorn know joseph is his son | John Redcorn - wikipedia
John Redcorn III (voiced by Victor Aaron Season 1, Jonathan Joss Season 2 -- 13) is a character in the Fox animated series King of the Hill. He is addressed or referred to as "John Redcorn '' or "Mr. Redcorn '' by every character in the series, and very rarely just "John '' or "Johnny ''.
A former roadie for Winger and "Licensed New Age Healer '', John is Nancy Gribble 's Native American masseur, her lover of 14 years (the two split up during the show 's fourth season) and the biological father of Joseph Gribble. Both Dale Gribble and Joseph are completely unaware of this, although it is obvious to everyone else in the neighborhood due to the close resemblance between Joseph and John. John has a sister, who Nancy seems to assume told everyone about their affair. A recurring gag is that whenever Dale makes a comment about being Joseph 's father, John shows up. It is mentioned in season 5, episode 4 that John is a member of the Anasazi tribe.
In episode 38 (season 3, episode 3), Peggy Hill, still oblivious to the relationship between John and Nancy, goes to him for help with a real headache. When Hank confronts John, John says he would never "heal '' Peggy the way he heals "other women '', implying that he is somewhat known as a womanizer.
John drives a tan Jeep Wrangler and becomes the lead singer of the band Big Mountain Fudgecake, for which Lucky Kleinschmidt plays guitar and Dale is briefly the manager. Following the breakup of the band, John begins singing toned - down solo acoustic children 's versions of his songs at the Strickland company barbecue and becomes instantly popular. It was revealed that Big Mountain Fudgecake got back together near the end of the episode "Earthly Girls are Easy ''. When driving, he is often heard playing Pat Benatar songs, including the hits "Hit Me With Your Best Shot '' and "Heartbreaker ''. He is also notable for playing music from the band Foreigner, such as "Hot Blooded '' and "Double Vision ''.
John is often seen reading a book about Native American rights in North America, entitled This Land is Our Land. A recurring gag is that when he begins speaking about matters related to Native traditions and their spiritual meanings, his long black hair is dramatically whisked up in a breeze. Despite his dedication to his heritage, it has sometimes backfired on him. When Bobby Hill becomes interested in Native American rights, John seems pleased (although his original intention was to get Joseph interested in his heritage). However, Bobby discovers that John 's tribe engaged in cannibalism, which then causes a mortified John to have to explain to everyone how that practice was discontinued centuries ago.
As a recurring gag, Dale sees several signs of the affair, but always draws the wrong conclusions. On one occasion, he finds him trying to sneak inside to have sex with Nancy, but thinks he is trying to steal his mower; when Dale reports having a vision of a Native American making love with his wife and Joseph (in full Native American ceremonial garb) being handed to him, he then assumes that means he is part Native American himself; when John Redcorn says straight to a TV camera that "I slept with Hank 's best friend 's wife for thirteen years '' with Dale inches away, Dale thinks he means Bill 's wife and not his. John 's access to Nancy is caused primarily by Dale ignorantly allowing him to be her masseur and often trusting her to him to keep her away from other men who may have affairs with her. It is revealed in Season 6 that Dale believes John to be gay, which partially explains his contentment with letting him be alone with his wife so often.
John has a predictably difficult relationship with Dale; though he considers him a good man, he is jealous of his relationship with Nancy and Joseph, and exasperated by how Dale 's eccentricities influence Joseph. He seems depressed that he was not more a father to Joseph, which is later partially resolved when Nancy reveals to Joseph that since they all are "from the Earth '', John and Joseph are in fact related. In "Nancy Boys '', after Dale helps him with a lawsuit against the Federal government, John calls Dale "a true friend '' and cites this as a reason for agreeing to split up with Nancy; he made a similar comment to Hank regarding Peggy in an earlier episode. However, later in the series, he would (unsuccessfully) attempt to get back together with Nancy.
In the season 12 episode "Three Men and a Bastard '', John finds out he had a daughter, named Kate, by a woman named Charlene (who had a son three years after the affair with John; the father of her son is not talked about) during the same period that he was having an affair with Nancy. John had forgotten about it since, and Nancy was not happy when she learned about his double affair. Charlene then falls for Bill Dauterive and had moved her family in with him; likewise, Kate and Joseph fell for each other, which disturbed all the characters aware of the children 's shared parentage. At the end of the episode, Charlene and her two kids leave Bill and move in with John, although they are never seen or mentioned for the rest of the series.
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what side was demeter on in the trojan war | List of Trojan War characters - wikipedia
This is a list of mythological characters who appear in narratives concerning the Trojan War.
* See Catalogue of Ships
This table lists characters killed during the war, and who was responsible for their deaths.
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when will love yourself answer be released on itunes | Love Yourself: Answer - wikipedia
Love Yourself 結 ' Answer ' (stylized as LOVE YOURSELF 結 ' Answer ') is the third Korean - language compilation album by South Korean boy band BTS. The album was released on August 24, 2018 by Big Hit Entertainment and is available in 4 different versions: S, E, L, and F. The album contains twenty - five tracks (twenty - six for digital version), including seven new songs, with the track "Idol '' serving as the lead single. Most tracks are from Love Yourself: Her, and Love Yourself: Tear, including some remixes. The album debuted at number one in South Korea, Canada and the United States, becoming BTS ' second chart - topping album in the US market.
Answer was first announced on July 16, 2018, with the announcement of the album containing seven new tracks coming the following day. The album was designed as the finale of the Love Yourself series, which connected the story plot of short film Love Yourself 起 Wonder, EP Love Yourself 承 ' Her ', and studio album Love Yourself 轉 ' Tear ', forming the "起 承 轉 結 (Kishōtenketsu) '' storytelling composition.
On August 6, Big Hit Entertainment released a Most Beautiful Moment in Life note, part of a series of fictional notes pertaining to the concept of BTS ' albums, starting with their 2015 EP The Most Beautiful Moment in Life, Part 1. The note, written by BTS member Jin, spoke about him finding a notebook written by his father in the story. The book discussed the father 's failures. Three days later, on August 9, the trailer for the album, featuring a new song entitled "Epiphany '', was released. The solo, described by Billboard magazine as a "building pop - rock melody '', was performed by Jin, and speaks about finding self - love. The song serves as one of the tracks for the album. The trailer was directed by Yong - seok Choi (Lumpens), and portrays multiple versions of Jin in a room, telling the story of a personal journey. Philip Merrill of the Recording Academy described the video as having a "sense of going backward and forward, through time and through different versions of one 's self ''. Discussing Jin 's performance of the video, Hong Hye - min of The Korea Times stated that it was as well - acted and emotional, with Jin 's "sorrowful, free voice stand (ing) out ''.
Promotional concept photos presenting four different themes were released on August 13 for the "S '' and "E '' versions, and August 16 for the "L '' and "F '' versions. Version "S '' contained elements inspired by New Romanticism, with BTS in bright red boxes surrounded by cameras, eyes, hands, and amplifiers. Concept version "E '' contained bright pastels, with BTS members in bubbles filled with fantastical nature elements. The second set of teasers, versions "L '' and "F '', were brighter, with BTS members wearing a mix of retro streetwear and formal blazers and suits. In addition, version "L '' contained black - and - white images, collaged with the contrasting bright photographs. The official tracklist was released on August 20, revealing that it would be a compilation album containing songs from Love Yourself: Her and Love Yourself: Tear, with a total of twenty - five tracks. The tracklist also announced remixed version of BTS ' previous singles "DNA '', "Mic Drop '' and "Fake Love ''. On August 22, 2018, the teaser for "Idol '' was released. On August 24, two hours before the release of Love Yourself: Answer, Big Hit Entertainment announced that an alternative version of "Idol '' featuring Nicki Minaj will be included in the digital version of the album. Afterwards, the album was released, along with the music video for "Idol ''. A music video for the Nicki Minaj version of "Idol '' was later released on September 6, 2018.
Some of the albums themes include empowerment, youth, love, and reflection while the moods exhibited through the album are cathartic, lively, confidence, passion, and yearning among many other things. The genre of the album showcases various types of pop.
On August 26, 2018, BTS held a press conference discussing the album, as well as the BTS World Tour: Love Yourself, which began the previous day. They performed "Idol '' and "I 'm Fine '' on various South Korean music shows for the week of August 26 with prerecorded performances airing the following week, including M Countdown, Music Bank, Show! Music Core, and Inkigayo. A shortened version of "Save Me '' from The Most Beautiful Moment in Life: Young Forever served as an intro track during the "I 'm Fine '' performance on M Countdown. BTS performed "Idol '' at the second Soribada Best K - Music Awards on August 30, with "Fake Love '' sung as an encore performance.
While in the United States for the North American leg of their Love Yourself tour, BTS performed "Idol '' on the second semifinal episode of America 's Got Talent season thirteen, which aired on September 12. The band sang "Idol '' on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon and Good Morning America on September 25 and 26 respectively, in addition to a sit - down interview on both shows. A bonus performance of "I 'm Fine '' was also released on The Tonight Show 's YouTube channel.
On October 1, 2018, news surfaced that BTS were scheduled to appear on the BBC 's The Graham Norton Show on October 12, which was later confirmed by Big Hit Entertainment five days later.
Love Yourself: Answer received positive reviews from critics. Nemo Kim from the South China Morning Post gave the album four stars out of five and said, "(BTS) rappers show (s) their chops on solo tracks, band send (s) a message to Korean youth about self - love, and single Idol sees them don traditional garb and blend pop with ancient percussion as Minaj joins in, '' praising this album "cements BTS ' place as kings of the genre ''. In a positive review, Taylor Glasby of Clash magazine described the narrative of the album as a "portray (al) of the fears, mistakes and thoughts we inflict on ourselves '' which remain "poignantly relatable ''. In addition, she said that the narrative serves "to remind us that each person must make their own path, and there 's no one size fits all answer to achieving self - acceptance ''. However, for "Answer: Love Myself '', the track concluding the narrative on the album, Glasby felt that it "lyrically exceeds although plays the instrumental a little too safe ''. Tamar Herman of Billboard praised the album, calling it a "masterful culmination of years of work and rife with meaning, Answer is undeniably a magnum opus from BTS that that few other artists, boy bands or otherwise, ever can hope to achieve. ''
During the period of July 18 to 24, the first six days of the pre-order period for Love Yourself: Answer, IRIVER reported that the album had sold more than 1.51 million copies, surpassing its predecessor Love Yourself: Tear as the most pre-ordered album in South Korea. It subsequently debuted at number one on the Gaon Album Chart, selling 1,933,450 copies during the last eight days of the month of August. The album broke the record for the most monthly sales in the history of the Gaon Chart since its inception in 2010. The record was also previously held by BTS ' own Love Yourself: Tear.
In October 2018, Love Yourself: Answer earned the "Double Million Seller '' certification from the Korea Music Content Association, for selling over 2 million copies. They are the first music act first to do so since the Gaon Chart began music certifications earlier that year.
Love Yourself: Answer debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, becoming BTS ' second number - one album -- their second of 2018 -- and their highest sales week in the country to date. It earned 185,000 album - equivalent units, including 141,000 in pure album sales.
"Idol '' became BTS ' first - ever song, as well as the first - ever Korean - language song, to reach the top 40 of the UK 's Official Singles chart, ranking at number 21. In Ireland, the song reached number 33. Love Yourself: Answer also became BTS ' third top - 20 album in the United Kingdom, hitting number fourteen on the Official Albums chart.
Credits adapted from Spotify and Apple Music.
shipments figures based on certification alone
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good morning starshine the earth says hello oliver | Good Morning Starshine - wikipedia
"Good Morning Starshine '' is a pop song from the musical Hair (1967). It was a No. 3 hit in the United States in July 1969 and a No. 6 hit in the United Kingdom in October 1969, for the singer Oliver.
The chorus makes extensive use of apparent nonsense words: "Glibby gloop gloopy, Nibby Nabby Noopy, La La La Lo Lo. Sabba Sibby Sabba, Nooby abba Nabba Le Le Lo Lo. Tooby ooby walla, nooby abba nabba, Early mornin ' singin ' song. ''
"Good Morning Starshine '' is a song from the second act of the musical, Hair (1967). The song is performed by the character Sheila, played Off - Broadway in 1967 by Jill O'Hara and by Lynn Kellogg in the original 1968 Broadway production. In the 1979 film version of the musical, Sheila is portrayed by Beverly D'Angelo.
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rock never really did influence country music hits coming from nashville | Keith Whitley - wikipedia
Jackie Keith Whitley (July 1, 1954 -- May 9, 1989) was an American country music singer. During his career, Whitley only recorded two albums but charted 12 singles on the Billboard country charts, and 7 more after his death.
Born in Ashland, Kentucky, Whitley grew up in nearby Sandy Hook, Kentucky. Whitley began his career there in 1970, performing in Ralph Stanley 's band. Establishing himself as a lead singer in bluegrass music, Whitley moved to Nashville, Tennessee, in 1983 and began his recording career there. His first Top 20 Country Hit single, "Miami, My Amy '', was released in 1986. While touring for his album L.A. to Miami, he married country singer Lorrie Morgan. In 1988, his first three singles from his studio album Do n't Close Your Eyes, the title song, "When You Say Nothing at All '' and "I 'm No Stranger to the Rain '' were number - one hits. On May 9, 1989, he suffered alcohol poisoning at his home in Nashville, and died as a result. His death came in the wake of several years of alcoholism. His later two singles, "I Wonder Do You Think of Me '' and "It Ai n't Nothin ' '', were released after his death.
Whitley was born to Faye (editor of The Elliott County News) and Elmer Whitley (an electrician) in Ashland, Kentucky, but was raised 46 miles away in Sandy Hook, and attended Sandy Hook High School. He had two brothers, Randy and Dwight, and a sister, Mary. The Whitley family has lived in the Elliot County area since the 1840s.
As a teenager in Sandy Hook, Whitley and his friends would pass the time drinking bootleg bourbon and racing their cars down mountain roads at dangerous speeds. Whitley was once in a car whose driver attempted to round a curve at 120 mph. The car wrecked, killing his friend and almost breaking Whitley 's neck. In another incident, he drove his car off a 120 - foot cliff into a frozen river, escaping with only a broken collar bone.
Whitley is known for his neotraditional brand of country popularized by hit artists such as George Strait and Randy Travis.
In 1969 he performed in a musical contest in Ezel, Kentucky, with brother Dwight on five - string banjo. Ricky Skaggs was also in the contest. Skaggs and Whitley hit it off right away and quickly befriended each other.
Fifteen - year - old Whitley and 16 - year - old Skaggs were discovered in Ft. Gay, West Virginia by Ralph Stanley who was 45 minutes late for a show due to a flat tire. Stanley opened the door of the club and heard what he thought were the Stanley Brothers playing on a jukebox. However it was Whitley and Skaggs, who "sounded just like me and Carter in the early days ''. The two soon joined Ralph 's band. Whitley became lead singer for Stanley in 1974. Whitley also played with J.D. Crowe & the New South in the mid-1970s. During this period, he established himself as one of the most versatile and talented lead singers in bluegrass. His singing was heavily influenced by Carter Stanley and Lefty Frizzell. He moved to Nashville in 1983 to pursue a country music career and soon signed a record deal with RCA Records.
Whitley 's first solo album, A Hard Act to Follow, was released in 1984, and featured a more mainstream country style. While Whitley was working hard to achieve his own style, the songs he produced were inconsistent. Critics regarded the album as too erratic. Whitley honed his sound within the next few years for his next album, L.A. to Miami.
L.A. to Miami, released in 1986, would give him his first Top 20 country hit single, "Miami, My Amy ''. The song was followed by three more hit songs: "Ten Feet Away '', "Homecoming ' 63 '', and "Hard Livin ' '', The album also included "On the Other Hand '' and "Nobody in His Right Mind Would 've Left Her ''. "On the Other Hand '' was pitched to Whitley before Randy Travis released the song as a single and when Whitley 's version was n't released as a single, Travis released his in 1986, as did George Strait with "Nobody in His Right Mind Would 've Left Her ''.
During his tour to promote L.A. to Miami, he met and began a romantic relationship with country singer Lorrie Morgan. The pair were married in November 1986, and they had their only child, a son, Jesse Keith Whitley, in June 1987. Whitley also adopted Lorrie 's daughter, Morgan, from her first marriage.
During the new recording sessions in 1987, Whitley started feeling that the songs he was doing were not up to his standards, so he approached RCA and asked if the project of 15 songs could be shelved. He asked if he could assert himself more with the songs and production. The new album, titled Do n't Close Your Eyes, was released in 1988, and the album sold extremely well. The album contained one of the many songs that Whitley had a hand in writing in his years at Tree Publishing, "It 's All Coming Back to Me Now ''. Also on the album was a remake of Lefty Frizzell 's classic standard "I Never Go Around Mirrors, '' and the song became a huge hit at Whitley 's concerts. The first three singles from the album -- "When You Say Nothing at All, '' "I 'm No Stranger to the Rain, '' and the title cut -- all reached number one on Billboard Magazine 's country charts during the fall of 1988 and the winter of 1989, with the title track "Do n't Close Your Eyes '' being ranked as Billboard 's No. 1 Country song of 1988. Shortly thereafter, "I 'm No Stranger to the Rain '' also earned Whitley his first and only Country Music Association award as a solo artist and a Grammy nomination for Best Country Vocal Performance, Male.
In early 1989, Whitley approached Sony Music Nashville chairman Joe Galante with the intention of releasing "I Never Go Around Mirrors '' as a single. Galante approved of the musical flexibility that Whitley achieved with the song; however, he suggested that Whitley record something new and more upbeat. The result was a song Whitley had optioned for his previous album called I Wonder Do You Think of Me, and was to result in his next album release.
Whitley was a longtime alcoholic, who began drinking early in his career at bluegrass gigs, long before he was legally allowed to drink alcohol. Many times, he had attempted to overcome his alcoholism, but failed; and his pre-existing depression made it more challenging for him to quit. Moreover, Whitley preferred to drink alone, making it difficult for anyone to detect that he had a problem. According to Lorrie Morgan, she tried to conceal all alcoholic beverages from him at the home they shared, even going to the extent of binding their legs together before going to bed to make it impossible for Whitley to awaken in the middle of the night to consume a drink without her knowledge - only to discover that he would drink various items such as perfume and nail polish remover to get intoxicated.
Whitley had lost his brother Randy in an October 1983 motorcycle accident, and his father Elmer in 1987.
On the morning of May 9, 1989, Whitley awoke and spoke with his mother briefly on the phone. He was then visited by his brother - in - law Lane Palmer, and the two had coffee and they were planning a day of golf and having lunch, after which Whitley had planned to start writing songs for Lorrie Morgan and himself to record when she returned from her concert tour. Palmer departed at approximately 8: 30 a.m., informing Whitley to be ready to leave within an hour. Upon returning, Palmer found Whitley face down on his bed, fully clothed.
The official cause of death was determined to be acute ethanolism (alcohol poisoning), and Davidson County Medical Examiner Charles Harlan stated that his blood alcohol level was. 47 (the equivalent of 20 1 - ounce shots of 100 - proof whiskey and almost five times the then Tennessee level of. 10 legal intoxication limit, and nearly six times the current. 08 legal limit to drive). Whitley was 34 years of age.
The day after his death, Music Row was lined with black ribbons in memory of Whitley. He is buried in the Spring Hill Cemetery outside Nashville, Tennessee. His gravestone reads, "Forever yours faithfully '' (part one) and "His beng was my reason '' (part two). The "yours '' in part one means Whitley, and the "my '' in part two means Morgan, who has a future burial spot next to him.
It has long been speculated that Whitley 's death may not have been directly caused by his recklessness or alcoholism, but that he may have been a victim of foul play due to the fact that Keith Whitley became sober in 1987. In 2009, forensic pathologist and then - chief medical examiner Charles W. Harlan stood trial for several cases of forensic fraud which led to the misdiagnoses of several deceased patients, and possibly the conviction of innocent people under suspicion of murder. Subsequently, the man who originally laid claim that Whitley 's death was solely caused by alcohol poisoning has been relieved of his license to practice pathology. Whitley 's death certificate and autopsy results had once been sealed from public access, but have since been made public record.
Despite Whitley 's death, his influence on country music has persisted. At the time of his death, he had just finished work on his fourth and final studio album, I Wonder Do You Think of Me. The album was released three months after his death, on August 1, 1989. The album produced two more No. 1 hits, with the title track and "It Ai n't Nothin '. '' "I 'm Over You '' also saw the Top 5 in early 1990, reaching No. 3.
Two new songs were added to "Greatest Hits '': The first, "Tell Lorrie I Love Her '' was written and recorded at home by Whitley for Morgan, originally intended as a work tape for Whitley 's friend Curtis ' Mr. Harmony ' Young to sing at Whitley 's wedding. The second was "' Til a Tear Becomes a Rose '', a 1987 demo taken from Tree that originally featured harmony vocals by childhood friend Ricky Skaggs. Lorrie Morgan, with creative control and license to Whitley 's namesake, recorded her voice alongside Whitley 's, and released it as a single, which rose to No. 13 and won them 1990 's CMA award for Best Vocal Collaboration as well as a Grammy nomination for Best Country Vocal Collaboration.
RCA also released a compilation of performance clips (from his days in the Ralph Stanley - Fronted Clinch Mountain Boys), interviews, and some previously unreleased material under the title "Kentucky Bluebird ''. The album produced hits for Whitley as well, including a duet with Earl Thomas Conley, named "Brotherly Love, '' which peaked at No. 2 in late 1991 and gave Whitley his second consecutive posthumous Grammy nomination for Best Country Vocal Collaboration.
In 1994, Whitley 's widow, Lorrie Morgan, organized several of Whitley 's friends in bluegrass and some of the big names in country at the time to record a tribute album to Whitley. The album, Keith Whitley: A Tribute Album, was released in September 1994 via BNA. It included covers of Whitley 's songs from artists such as Alan Jackson, Diamond Rio, and Ricky Skaggs. The album also included four previously unreleased tracks recorded by Whitley in 1987, one of which had Morgan dubbed in as a duet partner. The album also included two original songs: "Little Boy Lost '', co-written and sung by Daron Norwood, and "A Voice Still Rings True '', a multi-artist song. Alison Krauss 's rendition of "When You Say Nothing at All '' was released as a single from the album, reaching number 3 on the country charts in 1995, while Irish pop singer Ronan Keating recorded the song as his debut single, which was released in July 1999, and it met with great success, reaching Number 1 in the United Kingdom, Ireland and New Zealand and Number 3 in Australia.
In 1995, the album Wherever You Are Tonight was released, produced by Lorrie Morgan, featuring restored demos of 1986 - 1988, with crisper 1990s recording techniques and a full orchestra. The album and single of the same name both did very well on the Billboard and R&R charts and brought "Super Hits '' and "The Essential Keith Whitley '' in 1996. "The Essential '' contained the remastered and long since unavailable LP and Whitley 's debut, the 6 - Track "A Hard Act to Follow '', and a scrapped song from 1986 's "LA to Miami '', "I Wonder Where You Are Tonight ''.
In 2004, songwriter Jeff Swope began writing a film treatment for a biopic concerning Whitley 's life and death that was shelved in 2006. On April 13, 2010, he announced that pre-production was set to begin again, pending investors.
In the last 10 years, several film projects depicting Whitley 's life were slated. One idea was a film version of the George Vescey - Lorrie Morgan - penned "Forever Yours, Faithfully ''. While Morgan 's book was a benchmark in piecing together Whitley 's final moments, perhaps the most research went into a project titled "Kentucky Bluebird '', which was to star writer / actor / director David Keith. This project has been in development hell for several years, and was halted in late 2006 also, after difficulties with casting and funding.
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fascism in europe during the 1920's and 1930's is best described as a | Fascism in Europe - wikipedia
Fascism in Europe was composed of numerous ideologies present during the 20th century which all developed their own differences from each other. Fascism was born in Italy, but subsequently several movements across Europe which took influence from the Italian faction emerged. Purists assert that the term "fascism '' should only be used to mean the ideology of the National Fascist Party under Benito Mussolini in Italy, which ruled from 1922 to 1943. However, commonly the following European regimes are also described as fascist, or strongly related to fascism:
The most striking difference is the racialist and antisemitic ideology present in Nazism, but not the other ideologies. Fascism was founded on the principle of nationalist unity and against the divisionist class war ideology of socialism and communism, therefore the majority of the regimes viewed racialism as counterproductive to unity, with Mussolini asserting: "National pride has no need of the delirium of race ''.
Italian Fascism was expansionist in its desires, looking to create a New Roman Empire. Nazi Germany also looked to expand its borders. The same can not be said for the other ideologies, which focused almost exclusively on internal matters. This led to some countries, such as Spain or Portugal, remaining neutral in World War II rather than being Axis powers while Metaxas 's Greece fought against the Axis due to Italy 's invasion. It is widely accepted that the Nazis murdered the Austrofascist dictator Dollfuss, causing an uneasy relationship in Austria between fascism and Nazism at an early stage.
The question of religion also poses considerable conflicting differences as some forms of fascism, particularly the Falange and Estado Novo, were devoutly Christian. The occultist and pagan elements of Nazi ideology were very different to the Christian element found in the vast majority of fascist movements of the 20th century.
Mussolini and Adolf Hitler were not always allies. While Mussolini wanted the expansion of fascist ideology throughout the world, he did not initially appreciate Hitler and the Nazi Party. Hitler was an early admirer of Mussolini and asked for Mussolini 's guidance on how the Nazis could pull off their own March on Rome. Mussolini did not respond to Hitler 's requests as he did not have much interest in Hitler 's movement and regarded Hitler to be somewhat crazy. Mussolini did attempt to read Mein Kampf to find out what Hitler 's Nazism was, but he was immediately disappointed, saying that Mein Kampf was "a boring tome that I have never been able to read '' and claimed that Hitler 's beliefs were "little more than commonplace clichés ''.
Hitler and the Nazi Party in 1922 had praised the rise to power of Mussolini and sought a German - Italian alliance. Upon Mussolini 's rise to power, the Nazis declared their admiration and emulation of the Italian Fascists, with Nazi member Hermann Esser in November 1922 saying that "what a group of brave men in Italy have done, we can also do in Bavaria. We 've also got Italy 's Mussolini: his name is Adolf Hitler ''.
The second part of Hitler 's Mein Kampf ("The National Socialist Movement '', 1926) contains this passage:
I conceived the profoundest admiration for the great man south of the Alps, who, full of ardent love for his people, made no pacts with the enemies of Italy, but strove for their annihilation by all ways and means. What will rank Mussolini among the great men of this earth is his determination not to share Italy with the Marxists, but to destroy internationalism and save the fatherland from it.
In an 1931 interview, Hitler spoke admirably about Mussolini, commending Mussolini 's racial origins as being the same as that of Germans and claimed at the time that Mussolini was capable of building an Italian Empire that would outdo the Roman Empire and that he supported Mussolini 's endeavors, saying:
They know that Benito Mussolini is constructing a colossal empire which will put the Roman Empire in the shade. We shall put up... for his victories. Mussolini is a typical representative of our Alpine race...
Mussolini had personal reasons to oppose antisemitism as his longtime mistress and Fascist propaganda director Margherita Sarfatti was Jewish. She had played an important role in the foundation of the fascist movement in Italy and promoting it to Italians and the world through supporting the arts. However, within the Italian fascist movement there were a minority who endorsed Hitler 's antisemitism as Roberto Farinacci, who was part of the far - right wing of the party.
There were also nationalist reasons why Germany and Italy were not immediate allies. Habsburg Austria (Hitler 's birthplace) had an antagonistic relationship with Italy since it was formed, largely because Austria - Hungary had seized most of the territories once belonging to Italian states such as Venice. Italian irredentist claims sought the return of these lands to Italian rule (Italia irredenta). Although initially neutral, Italy entered World War I on the side of the Allies against Germany and Austria - Hungary when promised several territories (Trentino - Alto Adige / Südtirol, Trieste, Istria and Dalmatia). After the war had ended, Italy was rewarded with these territories under the terms of the 1919 Treaty of Saint - Germain - en - Laye.
In Germany and Austria, the annexation of Alto Adige / South Tyrol was controversial as the province was made up of a large majority of German speakers. While Hitler did not pursue this claim, many in the Nazi Party felt differently. In 1939, Mussolini and Hitler agreed on the South Tyrol Option Agreement. When Mussolini 's government collapsed in 1943 and the Italian Social Republic was created, Alto Adige / South Tyrol was annexed to Nazi Greater Germany, but was restored to Italy after the war.
Nazism differed from Italian fascism in that it had a stronger emphasis on race in terms of social and economic policies. Though both ideologies denied the significance of the individual, Italian fascism saw the individual as subservient to the state whereas Nazism saw the individual as well as the state as ultimately subservient to the race. However, subservience to the Nazi state was also a requirement on the population. Mussolini 's fascism held that cultural factors existed to serve the state and that it was not necessarily in the state 's interest to interfere in cultural aspects of society. The only purpose of government in Mussolini 's fascism was to uphold the state as supreme above all else, a concept which can be described as statolatry.
Unlike Hitler, Mussolini repeatedly changed his views on the issue of race according to the circumstances of the time. In 1921, Mussolini promoted the development of the Italian race such as when he said this:
The nation is not simply the sum of living individuals, nor the instrument of parties for their own ends, but an organism comprisedof the infinite series of generations of which the individuals are only transient elements; it is the supreme synthesis of all the material and immaterial values of the race.
Like Hitler, Mussolini publicly declared his support of a eugenics policy to improve the status of Italians in 1926 to the people of Reggio Emilia:
We need to create ourselves; we of this epoch and this generation, because it is up to us, I tell you, to make the face of this country unrecognizable in the next ten years. In ten years comrades, Italy will be unrecognizable! We will create a new Italian, an Italian that does not recognize the Italian of yesterday... we will create them according to our own imagination and likeness.
In a 1921 speech in Bologna, Mussolini stated the following: "Fascism was born (...) out of a profound, perennial need of this our Aryan and Mediterranean race ''. In this speech, Mussolini was referring to Italians as being the Mediterranean branch of the Aryan race, Aryan in the meaning of people of an Indo - European language and culture. However, Italian fascism initially strongly rejected the common Nordicist conception of the Aryan race that idealized "pure '' Aryans as having certain physical traits that were defined as Nordic such as blond hair and blue eyes. The antipathy by Mussolini and other Italian fascists to Nordicism was over the existence of the Mediterranean inferiority complex that had been instilled into Mediterraneans by the propagation of such theories by German and Anglo - Saxon Nordicists that viewed Mediterranean peoples as racially degenerate and thus in their view inferior. Mussolini refused to allow Italy to return again to this inferiority complex.
In a private conversation with Emil Ludwig in 1932, Mussolini derided the concept of a biologically superior race and denounced racism as being a foolish concept. Mussolini did not believe that race alone was that significant. Mussolini viewed himself as a modern - day Roman Emperor, a cultural elite and wished to "Italianise '' the parts of the Italian Empire he had desired to build. A cultural superiority of Italians, rather than a view of racialism. Mussolini believed that the development of a race was insignificant in comparison to the development of culture, but he did believe that a race could be improved through moral development, though he does not say that this will make a superior race:
Race! It is a feeling, not a reality: ninety - five percent, at least, is a feeling. Nothing will ever make me believe that biologically pure races can be shown to exist today. (...) National pride has no need of the delirium of race. Only a revolution and a decisive leader can improve a race, even if this is more a sentiment than a reality. But I repeat that a race can change itself and improve itself. I say that it is possible to change not only the somatic lines, the height, but really also the character. Influence of moral pressure can act deterministically also in the biological sense.
Mussolini believed that a biologically superior race was not possible, but that a more developed culture 's superiority over the less developed ones warrants the destruction of the latter, such as Ethiopian and the neighboring Slavic, such as Slovene and Croatian. He took advantage of the fact that no undertaking about the rights of minorities in either the Treaty of Rapallo or the Treaty of Rome was given in Istria and Trieste 's surroundings and after 1924 Treaty of Rome in Rijeka. Croatian, Slovene, German and French toponyms were systematically Italianized.
Against ethnic Slovenes, he ran an especially violent kind of fascist Italianization policy. To Italianize ethnic Slovene and Croatian children, Fascist Italy brought Italian teachers from Southern Italy to the ex Austro - Hungarian territories given to Italy in exchange for joining Great Britain in the World War I such as Slovene Littoral and a big part of western Slovenia while the Slovene and Croatian teachers, poets, writers, artists and clergy were exiled to Sardinia and elsewhere to Southern Italy. Acts of fascist violence were not hampered by the authorities, such as the burning down of the Narodni dom (Community Hall of ethnic Slovenes in Trieste) in Trieste, carried out at night by fascists with the connivance of the police on 13 July 1920.
After the complete destruction of all Slovene minority cultural, financial and other organizations and the continuation of violent fascist Italianization policies of ethnic cleansing, one of the first anti-fascist organizations in Europe, TIGR, emerged in 1927, co-ordinating the Slovene resistance against Fascist Italy until its dismantlement by the fascist secret police in 1941, after which some of TIGR ex members joined Slovene Partisans.
For Mussolini, inclusion of people in a fascist society depended on their loyalty to the state. Meetings between Mussolini and Arab dignitaries from the colony of Libya convinced Mussolini that the Arab population was worthy to be given extensive civil rights and allowed Muslims to join a Muslim section of the Fascist Party, namely the Muslim Association of the Lictor. However under pressure from Nazi Germany the fascist regime eventually did take on racist ideology, such as promoting the concept of Italy settling Africa to create a white civilization in Africa and handing out five - year criminal sentences for Italians caught in a sexual or marital relationship with native Africans. For those colonial peoples who were not loyal, vicious repression was used such as in Ethiopia, where in 1937 native Ethiopian settlements were burned to the ground by Italian armed forces. Under fascism, native Africans were allowed to join the Italian armed forces as colonial forces and appeared in fascist propaganda.
At least in its overt ideology, the Nazi movement spoke of class - based society as the enemy and wanted to unify the racial element above established classes, but the Italian fascist movement sought to preserve the class system and uphold it as the foundation of established and desirable culture. Nevertheless, the Italian fascists did not reject the concept of social mobility and a central tenet of the fascist state was meritocracy, yet fascism also heavily based itself on corporatism, which was supposed to supersede class conflicts. Despite these differences, Kevin Passmore (2002 p. 62) observes:
There are sufficient similarities between Fascism and Nazism to make it worthwhile applying the concept of fascism to both. In Italy and Germany a movement came to power that sought to create national unity through the repression of national enemies and the incorporation of all classes and both genders into a permanently mobilized nation.
Nazi ideologues such as Alfred Rosenburg were highly skeptical about the Italian race and fascism, but he saw an improvement of the Italian race as possible if major changes were made to convert it into an acceptable "Aryan '' race and said that the Italian fascist movement would only succeed if it purified the Italian race into an Aryan one. Nazi theorists believed that the downfall of the Roman Empire was due to interbreeding of different races which created a "polluted '' Italian race which was inferior.
Hitler believed this and saw Mussolini as representing the attempt to revive the pure elements of the former Roman civilization, such as the desire to create a strong and aggressive Italian people. However, Hitler was still audacious enough when meeting Mussolini for the first time in 1934 to tell him that all Mediterranean peoples were "tainted '' by "Negro blood '' and thus in his racist view they were degenerate.
As relations were initially poor, things grew worse after the assassination of Austria 's fascist chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss by Austrian Nazis in 1934. Austria under Dollfuss was a key ally to Mussolini and Mussolini was deeply angered by Hitler 's attempt to take over Austria and he angrily mocked Hitler 's earlier remark on the impurity of the Italian race by declaring that a "Germanic '' race did not exist and notes how Hitler 's society 's repression of Jews indicates that Germany did not have a pure race:
But which race? Does there exist a German race. Has it ever existed? Will it ever exist? Reality, myth, or hoax of theorists? (Another parenthesis: the theoretician of racism is a 100 percent Frenchman: Gobineau) Ah well, we respond, a Germanic race does not exist. Various movements. Curiosity. Stupor. We repeat. Does not exist. We do n't say so. Scientists say so. Hitler says so.
Italian nationalist and pan-German claims clashed over the issue of Tyrol. The region had been administered along with Italy (as the province of Italia) by the Roman Empire, but it had been populated primarily by ethnic Germans and was a part of the Austrian Empire and then Austria - Hungary for centuries afterwards. With the collapse of Austria in World War I, an independent Austria was no longer a serious threat to Italy, but the popularity of pan-German nationalism in both Germany and Austria remained. The fascist regime opposed the Nazis expansionist efforts towards Austria and supported Austria 's sovereignty and promoted the adoption of fascism in the country.
In the 1920s, Hitler wanted to form an alliance between the Nazi movement and Mussolini 's regime as he recognized that his pan-German nationalism was seen as a threat by Italy. In Hitler 's unpublished sequel to Mein Kampf, he attempts to address concerns among Italian fascists about Nazism. In the book, Hitler puts aside the issue of Germans in Tyrol by explaining that overall Germany and Italy have more in common than not and that the Tyrol Germans must accept that it is in Germany 's interests to be allied with Italy. Hitler claims that Germany, like Italy, was subjected to oppression by its neighbours and he denounces the Austrian Empire as having oppressed Italy from completing national unification just as France oppressed Germany from completing its national unification. Hitler 's denunciation of Austria in the book is important because Italian fascists were skeptical about him due to the fact that he was born in Austria which Italy had considered to be its primary enemy for centuries and Italy saw Germany as an ally of Austria. By declaring that the Nazi movement was not interested in the territorial legacy of the Austrian Empire, this is a way to assure the Italian fascists that Hitler, the Nazi movement and Germany were not enemies of Italy.
Despite public attempts of goodwill by Hitler towards Mussolini, Germany and Italy came into conflict in 1934 when Engelbert Dollfuss, the Austrofascist leader of Italy 's ally Austria, was assassinated by Austrian Nazis on Hitler 's orders in preparation for a planned Anschluss (annexation of Austria). Mussolini ordered troops to the Austrian - Italian border in readiness for war against Germany. Hitler backed down and defer plans to annex Austria.
When Hitler and Mussolini first met, Mussolini referred to Hitler as "a silly little monkey '' before the Allies forced Mussolini into an agreement with Hitler. Mussolini also reportedly asked Pope Pius XII to excommunicate Hitler. From 1934 to 1936, Hitler continually attempted to win the support of Italy and the Nazi regime endorsed the Italian invasion of Ethiopia (leading to Ethiopia 's annexation as Italian East Africa) while the League of Nations condemned Italian aggression. With other countries opposing Italy, the fascist regime had no choice but to draw closer to Nazi Germany. Germany joined Italy in supporting the Falange fascist Nationalists under Francisco Franco with forces and supplies in the Spanish Civil War.
Later, Germany and Italy signed the Anti-Comintern Pact committing the two regimes to oppose the Comintern and Soviet communism. By 1938, Mussolini allowed Hitler to carry out Anschluss in exchange for official German renunciation of claims to Tyrol. Mussolini supported the annexation of the Sudetenland during the Munich Agreement talks later the same year.
In 1939, the Pact of Steel was signed, officially creating an alliance of Germany and Italy. The Nazi official newspaper Völkischer Beobachter published articles extolling the mutually benefit of the alliance:
Firmly bound together through the inner unity of their ideologies and the comprehensive solidarity of their interests, the German and the Italian people are determined also in future to stand side by side and to strive with united effort for the securing of their Lebensraum (living space) and the maintenance of peace.
Hitler and Mussolini recognized commonalities in their politics and the second part of Hitler 's Mein Kampf ("The National Socialist Movement '', 1926) contains this passage:
I conceived the profoundest admiration for the great man south of the Alps, who, full of ardent love for his people, made no pacts with the enemies of Italy, but strove for their annihilation by all ways and means. What will rank Mussolini among the great men of this earth is his determination not to share Italy with the Marxists, but to destroy internationalism and save the fatherland from it.
Both regimes despised France (seen as an enemy which held territories claimed by both Germany and Italy) and Yugoslavia (seen by the Nazis as a racially degenerate Slavic state and holding lands such as Dalmatia claimed by the Italian fascists). Fascist territorial claims on Yugoslav territory meant that Mussolini saw the destruction of Yugoslavia as essential for Italian expansion. Hitler viewed Slavs as racially inferior, but he did not see importance in an immediate invasion of Yugoslavia, instead focusing on the threat from the Soviet Union.
Mussolini favored using the extremist Croatian nationalist Ustaše as a useful tool to tear down Yugoslavia, led by the Serbs and with a Serbian dynasty, the House of Karađorđević. In 1941, the Italian military campaign in Greece (the Greco - Italian War, called the Battle of Greece for the period after the German intervention) was failing. Hitler reluctantly began the Balkan Campaign with the invasion of Yugoslavia. German, Italian, Bulgarian, Hungarian and Croatian insurgents (under the Axis puppet Independent State of Croatia) decisively defeated Yugoslavia.
In the aftermath, with the exception of Serbia and Vardar Macedonia, most of Yugoslavia was reshaped based on Italian fascist foreign policy objectives. Mussolini demanded and received much of Dalmatia from the Croats in exchange for supporting the independence of Croatia. Mussolini 's policy of creating an independent Croatia prevailed over Hitler 's anti-Slavism and eventually the Nazis and the Ustashe regime of Croatia would develop closer bonds due to the Ustashe 's brutal effectiveness at suppressing Serb dissidents.
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who ordered to build the great wall of china | History of the Great Wall of China - Wikipedia
The history of the Great Wall of China began when fortifications built by various states during the Spring and Autumn (771 -- 476 BC) and Warring States periods (475 -- 221 BC) were connected by the first emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang, to protect his newly founded Qin dynasty (221 -- 206 BC) against incursions by nomads from Inner Asia. The walls were built of rammed earth, constructed using forced labour, and by 212 BC ran from Gansu to the coast of southern Manchuria.
Later dynasties adopted different policies towards northern frontier defense. The Han (202 BC -- 220 AD), the Northern Qi (550 -- 574), the Sui (589 -- 618), and particularly the Ming (1369 -- 1644) were among those that rebuilt, re-manned, and expanded the Walls, although they rarely followed Qin 's routes. The Han extended the fortifications furthest to the west, the Qi built about 1,600 kilometres (990 mi) of new walls, while the Sui mobilised over a million men in their wall - building efforts. Conversely, the Tang (618 -- 907), the Song (960 -- 1279), the Yuan (1271 -- 1368), and the Qing (1644 -- 1911) mostly did not build frontier walls, instead opting for other solutions to the Inner Asian threat like military campaigning and diplomacy.
Although a useful deterrent against raids, at several points throughout its history the Great Wall failed to stop enemies, including in 1644 when the Manchu Qing marched through the gates of Shanhai Pass and replaced the most ardent of the wall - building dynasties, the Ming, as rulers of China.
The Great Wall of China visible today largely dates from the Ming dynasty, as they rebuilt much of the wall in stone and brick, often extending its line through challenging terrain. Some sections remain in relatively good condition or have been renovated, while others have been damaged or destroyed for ideological reasons, deconstructed for their building materials, or lost due to the ravages of time. For long an object of fascination for foreigners, the wall is now a revered national symbol and a popular tourist destination.
The conflict between the Chinese and the nomads, from which the need for the Great Wall arose, stemmed from differences in geography. The 15 '' isohyet marks the extent of settled agriculture, dividing the fertile fields of China to the south and the semi-arid grasslands of Inner Asia to the north. The climates and the topography of the two regions led to distinct modes of societal development.
According to the model by sinologist Karl August Wittfogel, the loess soils of Shaanxi made it possible for the Chinese to develop irrigated agriculture early on. Although this allowed them to expand into the lower reaches of the Yellow River valley, such extensive waterworks on an ever - increasing scale required collective labour, something that could only be managed by some form of bureaucracy. Thus the scholar - bureaucrats came to the fore to keep track of the income and expenses of the granaries. Walled cities grew up around the granaries for reasons of defence along with ease of administration; they kept invaders out and ensured that citizens remained within. These cities combined to become feudal states, which eventually united to become an empire. Likewise, according to this model, walls not only enveloped cities as time went by, but also lined the borders of the feudal states and eventually the whole Chinese empire to provide protection against raids from the agrarian northern steppes.
The steppe societies of Inner Asia, whose climate favoured a pastoral economy, stood in stark contrast to the Chinese mode of development. As animal herds are migratory by nature, communities could not afford to be stationary and therefore evolved as nomads. According to the influential Mongolist Owen Lattimore this lifestyle proved to be incompatible with the Chinese economic model. As the steppe population grew, pastoral agriculture alone could not support the population, and tribal alliances needed to be maintained by material rewards. For these needs, the nomads had to turn to the settled societies to get grains, metal tools, and luxury goods, which they could not produce by themselves. If denied trade by the settled peoples, the nomads would resort to raiding or even conquest.
Potential nomadic incursion from three main areas of Inner Asia caused concern to northern China: Mongolia to the north, Manchuria to the northeast, and Xinjiang to the northwest. Of the three, China 's chief concern since the earliest times had been Mongolia -- the home of many of the country 's fiercest enemies including the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Khitans, and the Mongols. The Gobi Desert, which accounts for two - thirds of Mongolia 's area, divided the main northern and southern grazing lands and pushed the pastoral nomads to the fringes of the steppe. On the southern side (Inner Mongolia), this pressure brought the nomads into contact with China.
For the most part, barring intermittent passes and valleys (the major one being the corridor through Zhangjiakou and the Juyong Pass), the North China Plain remained shielded from the Mongolian steppe by the Yin Mountains. However, if this defence were breached, China 's flat terrain offered no protection to the cities on the plain, including the imperial capitals of Beijing, Kaifeng, and Luoyang. Heading west along the Yin Mountains, the range ends where the Yellow River circles northwards upstream in the area known as the Ordos Loop -- technically part of the steppe, but capable of irrigated agriculture. Although the Yellow River formed a theoretical natural boundary with the north, such a border so far into the steppe was difficult to maintain. The lands south of the Yellow River -- the Hetao, the Ordos Desert, and the Loess Plateau -- provided no natural barriers on the approach to the Wei River valley, the oft - called cradle of Chinese civilization where the ancient capital Xi'an lay. As such, control of the Ordos remained extremely important for the rulers of China: not only for potential influence over the steppe, but also for the security of China proper. The region 's strategic importance combined with its untenability led many dynasties to place their first walls here.
Although Manchuria is home to the agricultural lands of the Liao River valley, its location beyond the northern mountains relegated it to the relative periphery of Chinese concern. When Chinese state control became weak, at various points in history Manchuria fell under the control of the forest peoples of the area, including the Jurchens and the Manchus. The most crucial route that links Manchuria and the North China Plain is a narrow coastal strip of land, wedged between the Bohai Sea and the Yan Mountains, called the Shanhai Pass (literally the "mountain and sea pass ''). The pass gained much importance during the later dynasties, when the capital was set in Beijing, a mere 300 kilometres (190 miles) away. In addition to the Shanhai Pass, a handful of mountain passes also provide access from Manchuria into China through the Yan Mountains, chief among them the Gubeikou and Xifengkou (Chinese: 喜 峰 口).
Xinjiang, considered part of the Turkestan region, consists of an amalgamation of deserts, oases, and dry steppe barely suitable for agriculture. When influence from the steppe powers of Mongolia waned, the various Central Asian oasis kingdoms and nomadic clans like the Göktürks and Uyghurs were able to form their own states and confederations that threatened China at times. China proper is connected to this area by the Hexi Corridor, a narrow string of oases bounded by the Gobi Desert to the north and the high Tibetan Plateau to the south. In addition to considerations of frontier defence, the Hexi Corridor also formed an important part of the Silk Road trade route. Thus it was also in China 's economic interest to control this stretch of land, and hence the Great Wall 's western terminus is in this corridor -- the Yumen Pass during Han times and the Jiayu Pass during the Ming dynasty and thereafter.
One of the first mentions of a wall built against northern invaders is found in a poem, dated from the seventh century BC, recorded in the Classic of Poetry. The poem tells of a king, now identified as King Xuan (r. 827 -- 782 BC) of the Western Zhou dynasty (1046 -- 771 BC), who commanded General Nan Zhong (南仲) to build a wall in the northern regions to fend off the Xianyun. The Xianyun, whose base of power was in the Ordos region, were regarded as part of the charioteering Rong tribes, and their attacks aimed at the early Zhou capital region of Haojing were probably the reason for King Xuan 's response. Nan Zhong 's campaign was recorded as a great victory. However, only a few years later in 771 BC another branch of the Rong people, the Quanrong, responded to a summons by the renegade Marquess of Shen by over-running the Zhou defences and laying waste to the capital. The cataclysmic event killed King Xuan 's successor King You (795 -- 771 BC), forced the court to move the capital east to Chengzhou (成 周, later known as Luoyang) a year later, and thus ushered in the Eastern Zhou dynasty (770 -- 256 BC). Most importantly, the fall of Western Zhou redistributed power to the states that had acknowledged Zhou 's nominal rulership. The rule of the Eastern Zhou dynasty was marked by bloody interstate anarchy. With smaller states being annexed and larger states waging constant war upon one another, many rulers came to feel the need to erect walls to protect their borders. Of the earliest textual reference to such a wall was the State of Chu 's wall of 656 BC, 1,400 metres (4,600 feet) of which were excavated in southern Henan province in the modern era. However the Chu border fortifications consisted of many individual mountain fortresses; they do not constitute to a lengthy, single wall. The State of Qi also had fortified borders up by the 7th century BC, and the extant portions in Shandong province had been christened the Great Wall of Qi. The State of Wei built two walls, the western one completed in 361 BC and the eastern in 356 BC, with the extant western wall found in Hancheng, Shaanxi. Even non-Chinese peoples built walls, such as the Di state of Zhongshan and the Yiqu Rong, whose walls were intended to defend against the State of Qin.
Of these walls, those of the northern states Yan, Zhao, and Qin were connected by Qin Shi Huang when he united the Chinese states in 221 BC.
The State of Yan, the easternmost of the three northern states, began to erect walls after the general Qin Kai drove the Donghu people back "a thousand li '' during the reign of King Zhao (燕 昭王; r. 311 -- 279 BC). The Yan wall stretched from the Liaodong peninsula, through Chifeng, and into northern Hebei, possibly bringing its western terminus near the Zhao walls. Another Yan wall was erected to the south to defend against the Zhao; it was southwest of present - day Beijing and ran parallel to the Juma River for several dozen miles.
The Zhao walls to the north were built under King Wuling of Zhao (r. 325 -- 299 BC), whose groundbreaking introduction of nomadic cavalry into his army reshaped Chinese warfare and gave Zhao an initial advantage over his opponents. He attacked the Xiongnu tribes of Linhu (林 胡) and Loufan (樓 煩) to the north, then waged war on the state of Zhongshan until it was annexed in 296 BC. In the process, he constructed the northernmost fortified frontier deep in nomadic territory. The Zhao walls were dated in the 1960s to be from King Wuling 's reign: a southern long wall in northern Henan encompassing the Yanmen Pass; a second line of barricades encircling the Ordos Loop, extending from Zhangjiakou in the east to the ancient fortress of Gaoque (高 闕) in the Urad Front Banner; and a third, northernmost line along the southern slopes of the Yin Mountains, extending from Qinghe in the east, passing north of Hohhot, and into Baotou.
Qin was originally a state on the western fringe of the Chinese political sphere, but it grew into a formidable power in the later parts of the Warring States period when it aggressively expanded in all directions. In the north, the state of Wei and the Yiqu built walls to protect themselves from Qin aggression, but were still unable to stop Qin from eating into their territories. The Qin reformist Shang Yang forced the Wei out of their walled area west of the Yellow River in 340 BC, and King Huiwen of Qin (r. 338 -- 311 BC) took 25 Yiqu forts in a northern offensive. When King Huiwen died, his widow the Queen Dowager Xuan acted as regent because the succeeding sons were deemed too young to govern. During the reign of King Zhaoxiang (r. 306 -- 251 BC), the queen dowager apparently entered illicit relations with the Yiqu king and gave birth to two of his sons, but later tricked and killed the Yiqu king. Following that coup, the Qin army marched into Yiqu territory at the queen dowager 's orders; the Qin annihilated the Yiqu remnants and thus came to possess the Ordos region. At this point the Qin built a wall around their new territories to defend against the true nomads even further north, incorporating the Wei walls. As a result, an estimated total of 1,775 kilometres (1,103 mi) of Qin walls (including spurts) extended from southern Gansu to the bank of the Yellow River in the Jungar Banner, close to the border with Zhao at the time.
The walls, known as Changcheng (長城) -- literally "long walls '', but often translated as "Great Wall '' -- were mostly constructed of tamped earth, with some parts built with stones. Where natural barriers like ravines and rivers sufficed for defence, the walls were erected sparingly, but long fortified lines were laid where such advantageous terrains did not exist. Often in addition to the wall, the defensive system included garrisons and beacon towers inside the wall, and watchtowers outside at regular intervals. In terms of defence, the walls were generally effective at countering cavalry shock tactics, but there are doubts as to whether these early walls were actually defensive in nature. Nicola Di Cosmo points out that the northern frontier walls were built far to the north and included traditionally nomadic lands, and so rather than being defensive, the walls indicate the northward expansions of the three northern states and their desire to safeguard their recent territorial acquisitions. This theory is supported by the archeological discovery of nomadic artifacts within the walls, suggesting the presence of pre-existing or conquered barbarian societies. It is entirely possible, as Western scholars like di Cosmo and Lattimore suggest, that nomadic aggression against the Chinese in the coming centuries was partly caused by Chinese expansionism during this period.
In 221 BC, the state of Qin completed its conquest over the other Warring States and united China under Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China. These conquests, combined with the Legalist reforms started by Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, transformed China from a loose confederation of feudal states to an authoritarian empire. With the transformation, Qin became able to command a far greater assembly of labourers to be used in public works than the prior feudal kingdoms. Also, once unification was achieved, Qin found itself in possession of a large professional army with no more internal enemies to fight and thus had to find a new use for them. Soon after the conquests, in the year 215 BC, the emperor sent the famed general Meng Tian to the Ordos region to drive out the Xiongnu nomads settled there, who had risen from beyond the fallen marginal states along the northern frontier. Qin 's campaign against the Xiongnu was preemptive in nature, since there was no pressing nomadic menace to be faced at the time; its aim was to annexe the ambiguous territories of the Ordos and to clearly define the Qin 's northern borders. Once the Xiongnu were chased away, Meng Tian introduced 30,000 settler families to colonize the newly conquered territories.
Wall configurations were changed to reflect the new borders under the Qin. General Meng Tian erected walls beyond the northern loop of the Yellow River, effectively linking the border walls of Qin, Zhao, and Yan. Concurrent to the building of the frontier wall was the destruction of the walls within China that used to divide one warring state from another -- contrary to the outer walls, which were built to stabilize the newly united China, the inner walls threatened the unity of the empire. In the following year, 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang ordered new fortifications to be built along the Yellow River to the west of the Ordos while work continued in the north. This work was completed probably by 212 BC, signalled by Qin Shi Huang 's imperial tour of inspection and the construction of the Direct Road (直道) connecting the capital Xianyang with the Ordos. The result was a series of long walls running from Gansu to the seacoast in Manchuria.
Details of the construction were not found in the official histories, but it could be inferred that the construction conditions were made especially difficult by the long stretches of mountains and semi-desert that the Great Wall traversed, the sparse populations of these areas, and the frigid winter climate. Although the walls were rammed earth, so the bulk of the building material could be found in situ, transportation of additional supplies and labour remained difficult for the reasons named above. The sinologist Derk Bodde posits in The Cambridge History of China that "for every man whom Meng Tian could put to work at the scene of actual construction, dozens must have been needed to build approaching roads and to transport supplies. '' This is supported by the Han dynasty statesman Zhufu Yan 's description of Qin Shi Huang 's Ordos project in 128 BC:
... the land was brackish and arid, crops could not be grown on them... At the time, the young men being drafted were forced to haul boats and barges loaded with baggage trains upstream to sustain a steady supply of food and fodder to the front... Commencing at the departure point a man and his animal could carry thirty zhong (about 176 kilograms (388 lb)) of food supply, by the time they arrived at the destination, they merely delivered one dan (about 29 kilograms (64 lb)) of supply... When the populace had become tired and weary they started to dissipate and abscond. The orphans, the frail, the widowed and the seniors were desperately trying to escape from their appallingly derelict state and died on the wayside as they wandered away from their home. People started to revolt.
The settlement of the north continued up to Qin Shi Huang 's death in 210 BC, upon which Meng Tian was ordered to commit suicide in a succession conspiracy. Before killing himself, Meng Tian expressed regret for his walls: "Beginning at Lintao and reaching to Liaodong, I built walls and dug moats for more than ten thousand li; was it not inevitable that I broke the earth 's veins along the way? This then was my offense. ''
Meng Tian 's settlements in the north were abandoned, and the Xiongnu nomads moved back into the Ordos Loop as the Qin empire became consumed by widespread rebellion due to public discontent. Owen Lattimore concluded that the whole project relied upon military power to enforce agriculture on a land more suited for herding, resulting in "the anti-historical paradox of attempting two mutually exclusive forms of development simultaneously '' that was doomed to fail.
In 202 BC, the former peasant Liu Bang emerged victorious from the Chu -- Han Contention that followed the rebellion that toppled the Qin dynasty, and proclaimed himself Emperor of the Han dynasty, becoming known as Emperor Gaozu of Han (r. 202 -- 195 BC) to posterity. Unable to address the problem of the resurgent Xiongnu in the Ordos region through military means, Emperor Gaozu was forced to appease the Xiongnu. In exchange for peace, the Han offered tributes along with princesses to marry off to the Xiongnu chiefs. These diplomatic marriages would become known as heqin, and the terms specified that the Great Wall (determined to be either the Warring States period Qin state wall or a short stretch of wall south of Yanmen Pass) was to serve as the line across which neither party would venture. In 162 BC, Gaozu 's son Emperor Wen clarified the agreement, suggesting the Xiongnu chanyu held authority north of the Wall and the Han emperor held authority south of it. Sima Qian, the author of the Records of the Grand Historian, describes the result of this agreement as one of peace and friendship: "from the chanyu downwards, all the Xiongnu grew friendly with the Han, coming and going along the Long Wall ''. However, Chinese records show that the Xiongnu often did not respect the agreement, as the Xiongnu cavalry numbering up to 100,000 made several intrusions into Han territory despite the intermarriage.
To Chinese minds, the heqin policy was humiliating and ran contrary to the Sinocentric world order like "a person hanging upside down '', as the statesman Jia Yi (d. 169 BC) puts it. These sentiments manifested themselves in the Han court in the form of the pro-war faction, who advocated the reversal of Han 's policy of appeasement. By the reign of Emperor Wu (r. 141 -- 87 BC), the Han felt comfortable enough to go to war with the Xiongnu. After a botched attempt at luring the Xiongnu army into an ambush at the Battle of Mayi in 133 BC, the era of heqin - style appeasement was broken and the Han -- Xiongnu War went into full swing.
As the Han -- Xiongnu War progressed in favour of the Han, the Wall became maintained and extended beyond Qin lines. In 127 BC, General Wei Qing invaded the much - contested Ordos region as far as the Qin fortifications set up by Meng Tian. In this way, Wei Qing reconquered the irrigable lands north of the Ordos and restored the spur of defences protecting that territory from the steppe. In addition to rebuilding the walls, archeologists believe that the Han also erected thousands of kilometres of walls from Hebei to Inner Mongolia during Emperor Wu 's reign. The fortifications here include embankments, beacon stations, and forts, all constructed with a combination of tamped - earth cores and stone frontages. From the Ordos Loop, the sporadic and non-continuous Han Great Wall followed the northern edge of the Hexi Corridor through the cities of Wuwei, Zhangye, and Jiuquan, leading into the Juyan Lake Basin, and terminating in two places: the Yumen Pass in the north, or the Yang Pass to the south, both in the vicinity of Dunhuang. Yumen Pass was the most westerly of all Han Chinese fortifications -- further west than the western terminus of the Ming Great Wall at Jiayu Pass, about 460 kilometres (290 mi) to the east. The garrisons of the watchtowers on the wall were supported by civilian farming and by military agricultural colonies known as tuntian. Behind this line of fortifications, the Han government was able to maintain its settlements and its communications to the Western Regions in central Asia, generally secure from attacks from the north.
The campaigns against the Xiongnu and other nomadic peoples of the west exhausted the imperial treasury, and the expansionist policies were reverted in favour of peace under Emperor Wu 's successors. The peace was largely respected even when the Han throne was usurped by the minister Wang Mang in 9 AD, beginning a brief 15 - year interregnum known as the Xin dynasty (9 -- 23). Despite high tensions between the Xin and the Xiongnu resulting in the deployment of 300,000 men on the Great Wall, no major fighting broke out beyond minor raids. Instead, popular discontent led to banditry and, ultimately, full - scale rebellion. The civil war ended with the Liu clan on the throne again, beginning the Eastern Han dynasty (25 -- 220).
The restorer Emperor Guangwu (r. 25 -- 57 AD) initiated several projects to consolidate his control within the frontier regions. Defense works were established to the east of the Yanmen Pass, with a line of fortifications and beacon fires stretching from Pingcheng County (present - day Datong) through the valley of the Sanggan River to Dai County, Shanxi. By 38 AD, as a result of raids by the Xiongnu further to the west against the Wei River valley, orders were given for a series of walls to be constructed as defences for the Fen River, the southward course of the Yellow River, and the region of the former imperial capital, Chang'an. These constructions were defensive in nature, which marked a shift from the offensive walls of the preceding Emperor Wu and the rulers of the Warring States. By the early 40s AD the northern frontiers of China had undergone drastic change: the line of the imperial frontier followed not the advanced positions conquered by Emperor Wu but the rear defences indicated roughly by the modern (Ming dynasty) Great Wall. The Ordos region, northern Shanxi, and the upper Luan River basin around Chengde were abandoned and left to the control of the Xiongnu. The rest of the frontier remained somewhat intact until the end of the Han dynasty, with the Dunhuang manuscripts (discovered in 1900) indicating that the military establishment in the northwest was maintained for most of the Eastern Han period.
Following the end of the Han dynasty in 220, China disintegrated into warlord states, which in 280 were briefly reunited under the Western Jin dynasty (265 -- 316). There are ambiguous accounts of the Jin rebuilding the Qin wall, but these walls apparently offered no resistance during the Wu Hu uprising, when the nomadic tribes of the steppe evicted the Chinese court from northern China. What followed was a succession of short - lived states in northern China known as the Sixteen Kingdoms, until they were all consolidated by the Xianbei - led Northern Wei dynasty (386 -- 535).
As Northern Wei became more economically dependent on agriculture, the Xianbei emperors made a conscious decision to adopt Chinese customs, including passive methods of frontier defence. In 423, a defence line over 2,000 li (1,080 kilometres (670 mi)) long was built to resist the Rouran; its path roughly followed the old Zhao wall from Chicheng County in Hebei Province to Wuyuan County, Inner Mongolia. In 446, 100,000 men were put to work building an inner wall from Yanqing, passing south of the Wei capital Pingcheng, and ending up near Pingguan on the eastern bank of the Yellow River. The two walls formed the basis of the double - layered Xuanfu -- Datong wall system that protected Beijing a thousand years later during the Ming dynasty.
The Northern Wei collapsed in 535 due to civil insurrection to be eventually succeeded by the Northern Qi (550 -- 575) and Northern Zhou (557 -- 580). Faced with the threat of the Göktürks from the north, from 552 to 556 the Qi built up to 3,000 li (about 1,600 kilometres (990 mi)) of wall from Shanxi to the sea at Shanhai Pass. Over the course of the year 555 alone, 1.8 million men were mobilized to build the Juyong Pass and extend its wall by 450 kilometres (280 mi) through Datong to the eastern banks of the Yellow River. In 557 a secondary wall was built inside the main one. These walls were built quickly from local earth and stones or formed by natural barriers. Two stretches of the stone - and - earth Qi wall still stand in Shanxi today, measuring 3.3 metres (11 ft) wide at their bases and 3.5 metres (11 ft) high on average. In 577 the Northern Zhou conquered the Northern Qi and in 580 made repairs to the existing Qi walls. The route of the Qi and Zhou walls would be mostly followed by the later Ming wall west of Gubeikou, which includes reconstructed walls from Qi and Zhou. In more recent times, the reddish remnants of the Zhou ramparts in Hebei gave rise to the nickname "Red Wall ''.
The Sui took power from the Northern Zhou in 581 before reuniting China in 589. Sui 's founding emperor, Emperor Wen of Sui (r. 581 -- 604), carried out considerable wall construction in 581 in Hebei and Shanxi to defend against Ishbara Qaghan of the Göktürks. The new walls proved insufficient in 582 when Ishbara Qaghan avoided them by riding west to raid Gansu and Shaanxi with 400,000 archers. Between 585 and 588 Emperor Wen sought to close this gap by putting walls up in the Ordos Mountains (between Suide and Lingwu) and Inner Mongolia. In 586 as many as 150,000 men are recorded as involved in the construction. Emperor Wen 's son Emperor Yang (r. 604 -- 618) continued to build walls. In 607 -- 608 he sent over a million men to build a wall from Yulin to near Huhhot to protect the newly refurbished eastern capital Luoyang. Part of the Sui wall survives to this day in Inner Mongolia as earthen ramparts some 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) high with towers rising to double that. The dynastic history of Sui estimates that 500,000 people died building the wall, adding to the number of casualties caused by Emperor Yang 's projects including the aforementioned redesign of Luoyang, the Grand Canal, and two ill - fated campaigns against Goguryeo. With the economy strained and the populace resentful, the Sui dynasty erupted in rebellion and ended with the assassination of Emperor Yang in 618.
Frontier policy under the Tang dynasty reversed the wall - building activities of most previous dynasties that had occupied northern China since the third century BC, and no extensive wall building took place for the next several hundred years.
Soon after the establishment of the Tang dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Taizong (r. 626 -- 649), the threat of Göktürk tribesmen from the north prompted some court officials to suggest drafting corvée labourers to repair the aging Great Wall. Taizong scoffed at the suggestion, alluding to the Sui walls built in vain: "The Emperor Yang of Sui made the people labor to construct the Great Wall in order to defend against the Turks, but in the end this was of no use. '' Instead of building walls, Taizong claimed he "need merely to establish Li Shiji in Jinyang for the dust on the border to settle. '' Accordingly, Taizong sent talented generals like Li Shiji with mobile armies to the frontier, while fortifications were mostly limited to a series of walled garrisons, such as the euphemistically - named "cities for accepting surrender '' (受降 城, shòuxiáng chéng) that were actually bases from which to launch attacks. As a result of this military strategy, the Tang grew to become one of the largest of all the Chinese empires, destroying the Göktürks of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and acquiring territory stretching all the way to Kazakhstan.
Nevertheless, records show that in the Kaiyuan era (713 -- 742) of Emperor Xuanzong 's reign, the general Zhang Yue built a wall 90 li (48 kilometres (30 mi)) to the north of Huairong (懷 戎; present - day Huailai County, Hebei), although it remains unclear whether he erected new walls or only reinforced the existing Northern Qi walls.
The Great Wall, or the ruins of it, features prominently in the subset of Tang poetry known as biansai shi (邊塞 詩, "frontier verse '') written by scholar - officials assigned along the frontier. Emphasizing the poets ' loneliness and longing for home while hinting at the pointlessness of their posts, these frontier verses are characterized by imagery of desolate landscapes, including the ruins of the now - neglected Great Wall -- a direct product of Tang 's frontier policy.
Han Chinese power during the tumultuous post-Tang era was represented by the Song dynasty (960 -- 1279), which completed its unification of the Chinese states with the conquest of Wuyue in 971. Turning to the north after this victory, in 979 the Song eliminated the Northern Han, ultimate successors to the Later Jin, but were unable to take the Sixteen Prefectures from the Liao dynasty. As a result of Song 's military aggression, relations between the Song and Liao remained tense and hostile. One of the battlegrounds in the Song -- Liao War was the Great Wall Gap (長城 口), so named because the southern Yan wall of the Warring States period crossed the Juma River here into Liao territory. The Great Wall Gap saw action in 979, 988 -- 989, and 1004, and a Song fortress was built there in 980. Intermittent wars between the Song and the Liao lasted until January 1005, when a truce was called and led to the Treaty of Chanyuan. This agreement, among other things, required the Song to pay tribute to the Liao, recognized the Song and Liao as equals, and demarcated the Song -- Liao border, the course of which became more clearly defined in a series of subsequent bilateral agreements. Several stretches of the old Great Walls, including the Northern Qi Inner Wall near the Hengshan mountain range, became the border between the Song and the Liao.
In the northwest, the Song were in conflict with the Western Xia, since they occupied what the Song considered as Chinese land lost during the Tang dynasty. The Song utilized the walls built during the reign of Qin 's King Zhaoxiang of the Warring States period, making it the Song -- Western Xia border, but the topography of the area was not as sharp and distinct as the Song -- Liao defences to the east. The border general Cao Wei (曹 瑋; 973 -- 1030) deemed the Old Wall itself insufficient to slow a Tangut cavalry attack, and had a deep trench dug alongside. This trench, between 15 and 20 metres (49 and 66 feet) in width and depth, proved an effective defence, but in 1002 the Tanguts caught the Song patrollers off guard and filled the trench to cross the Old Wall. Later, in 1042, the Tanguts turned the trench against the Song by removing the bridges over it, thereby trapping the retreating army of Ge Huaimin (葛懷敏) before annihilating it at the Battle of Dingchuan Fortress (定 川 寨).
Despite the war with the Western Xia, the Song also settled land disputes with them by referring to prior agreements, as with the Liao. However, soon after the Jin dynasty overthrew the Liao dynasty, the Jurchens sacked the Song capital in 1127 during the Jin -- Song wars, causing the Song court to flee south of the Yangtze River. For the next two and a half centuries, the Great Wall played no role in Han Chinese geopolitics.
After the Tang dynasty ended in 907, the northern frontier area remained out of Han Chinese hands until the establishment of the Ming dynasty in 1368. During this period, non-Han "conquest dynasties '' ruled the north: the Khitan Liao dynasty (907 -- 1125) and the succeeding Jurchen Jin dynasty (1115 -- 1234) in the east and the Tangut Western Xia (1038 -- 1227) in the west, all of which had built walls against the north.
In 907, the Khitan chieftain Abaoji succeeded in getting himself appointed khaghan of all Khitan tribes in the north, laying the foundations to what would officially become the Liao dynasty. In 936, the Khitan supported the Shanxi rebel Shi Jingtang in his revolt against the Shatuo Turkic Later Tang, which had destroyed the usurpers of the Tang in 923. The Khitan leader, Abaoji 's second son Yelü Deguang, convinced Shi to found a new dynasty (the Later Jin, 936 -- 946), and received the crucial border region known as the Sixteen Prefectures in return. With the Sixteen Prefectures, the Khitan now possessed all the passes and fortifications that controlled access to the plains of northern China, including the main Great Wall line.
Settling in the transitional area between agricultural lands and the steppe, the Khitans became semi-sedentary like their Xianbei predecessors of the Northern Wei, and started to use Chinese methods of defence. In 1026 walls were built through central Manchuria north of Nong'an County to the banks of the Songhua River.
When the Jurchens, once Liao vassals, rose up to overthrow their masters and established the Jin dynasty, they continued Liao 's wall - building activities with extensive work begun before 1138. Further wall construction took place in 1165 and 1181 under the Jin Emperor Shizhong, and later from 1192 to 1203 during the reign of his successor Emperor Zhangzong.
This long period of wall - building burdened the populace and provoked controversy. Sometime between 1190 and 1196, during Zhangzong 's reign, the high official Zhang Wangong (張萬公) and the Censorate recommended that work on the wall be indefinitely suspended due to a recent drought, noting: "What has been begun is already being flattened by sandstorms, and bullying the people into defence works will simply exhaust them. '' However, Chancellor Wanyan Xiang (完 顏 襄) convinced the emperor of the walls ' merits based on an optimistic cost estimate -- "Although the initial outlay for the walls will be one million strings of cash, when the work is done the frontier will be secure with only half the present number of soldiers needed to defend it, which means that every year you will save three million strings of cash... The benefits will be everlasting '' -- and so construction continued unabated. All this work created an extensive systems of walls, which consisted of a 700 kilometres (430 mi) "outer wall '' from Heilongjiang to Mongolia and a 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) network of "inner walls '' north and northeast of Beijing. Together, they formed a roughly elliptical web of fortifications 1,400 kilometres (870 mi) in length and 440 kilometres (270 mi) in diameter. Some of these walls had inner moats (from 10 to 60 metres (33 to 197 feet) in width), beacon towers, battlements, parapets, and outward - facing semicircular platforms protruding from the wall -- features that set the Jin walls apart from their predecessors.
In the west, the Tanguts took control of the Ordos region, where they established the Western Xia dynasty. Although the Tanguts were not traditionally known for building walls, in 2011 archeologists uncovered 100 kilometres (62 mi) of walls at Ömnögovi Province in Mongolia in what had been Western Xia territory. Radiocarbon analysis showed that they were constructed from 1040 to 1160. The walls were as tall as 2.75 metres (9 ft 0 in) at places when they were discovered, and may have been around 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) taller originally. They were built with mud and saxaul (a desert shrub) in one section, and dark basalt blocks in another, suggesting that the rocks may have been quarried from nearby extinct volcanoes and transported to the construction site. Archaeologists have not yet found traces of human activity around this stretch of wall, which suggests that the Western Xia wall in this location may have been incomplete and not ready for use.
In the 13th century, the Mongol leader Genghis Khan, once a vassal of the Jurchens, rose up against the Jin dynasty. In the ensuing Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty, the nomadic invaders avoided direct attacks on the Jin fortifications. Instead, when they could, the Mongols simply rode around the walls; an effective example of this tactic is in 1211, when they circumvented the substantial fortress in Zhangjiakou and inflicted a terrible defeat upon the Jin armies at the Battle of Yehuling. The Mongols also took advantage of lingering Liao resentment against the Jin; the Khitan defenders of the garrisons along the Jin walls, such as those in Gubeikou, often preferred to surrender to the Mongols rather than fight them. The only major engagement of note along the main Great Wall line was at the heavily defended Juyong Pass: instead of laying siege, the Mongol general Jebe lured the defenders out into an ambush and charged in through the opened gates. In 1215, Genghis Khan besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing (modern - day Beijing). The Jin dynasty eventually collapsed following the siege of Caizhou in 1234. Western Xia had already fallen in 1227, and the Southern Song resisted the Mongols until 1279.
With that, the Yuan dynasty, established by Genghis Khan 's grandson Khublai Khan, became the first foreign dynasty to rule all of China. Despite being the head of the Mongol Empire, Khublai Khan 's rule over China was not free from the threat of the steppe nomads. The Yuan dynasty faced challenges from rival claimants to the title of Great Khan and from rebellious Mongols in the north. Khublai Khan dealt with such threats by using both military blockades and economic sanctions. Although he established garrisons along the steppe frontier from the Juyan Lake Basin in the far west to Yingchang in the east, Khublai Khan and the Yuan emperors after him did not add to the Great Wall (except for the ornate Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass). When the Venetian traveller Marco Polo wrote of his experiences in China during the reign of Khublai Khan, he did not mention a Great Wall.
In 1368, the Hongwu Emperor (Zhu Yuanzhang, r. 1368 -- 98) ousted the Mongol - led Yuan dynasty from China to inaugurate the Ming dynasty. The Mongols fled back to Mongolia, but even after numerous campaigns, the Mongol problem remained.
During his early reign, Hongwu set up the "eight outer garrisons '' close to the steppe and an inner line of forts more suitable for defence. The inner line was the forerunner to the Ming Great Wall. In 1373, as Ming forces encountered setbacks, Hongwu put more emphasis on defence and adopted Hua Yunlong 's (華 雲龍) suggestion to establish garrisons at 130 passes and other strategic points in the Beijing area. More positions were set up in the years up Hongwu 's death in 1398, and watchtowers were manned from the Bohai Sea to Beijing and further onto the Mongolian steppes. These positions, however, were not for a linear defence but rather a regional one in which walls did not feature heavily, and offensive tactics remained the overarching policy at the time. In 1421, the Ming capital was relocated from Nanjing in the south to Beijing in the north, partly to better manage the Mongol situation. Thus defenses were concentrated around Beijing, where stone and earth began to replace rammed earth in strategic passes. A wall was erected by the Ming in Liaodong to protect Han settlers from a possible threat from the Jurched - Mongol Oriyanghan around 1442. In 1467 -- 68, expansion of the wall provided further protection for the region from against attacks by the Jianzhou Jurchens in the northeast.
Meanwhile, the outer defenses were gradually moved inward, thereby sacrificing a vital foothold in the steppe transitional zone. Despite the withdrawal from the steppe, the Ming military remained in a strong position against the nomads until the Tumu Crisis in 1449, which caused the collapse of the early Ming security system. Over half of the campaigning Chinese army perished in the conflict, while the Mongols captured the Zhengtong Emperor. This military debacle shattered the Chinese military might that had so impressed and given pause to the Mongols since the beginning of the dynasty, and caused the Ming to be on the defensive ever after.
The deterioration of the Ming military position in the steppe transitional zone gave rise to nomadic raids into Ming territory, including the crucial Ordos region, on a level unprecedented since the dynasty 's founding. After decades of deliberation between an offensive strategy and an accommodative policy, the decision to build the first major Ming walls in the Ordos was agreed upon as an acceptable compromise the 1470s.
Yu Zijun (余子 俊; 1429 -- 1489) first proposed constructing a wall in the Ordos region in August 1471, but not until 20 December 1472 did the court and emperor approve the plan. The 1473 victory in the Battle of Red Salt Lake (紅 鹽池) by Wang Yue (王 越) deterred Mongol invasions long enough for Yu Zijun to complete his wall project in 1474. This wall, a combined effort between Yu Zijun and Wang Yue, stretched from present day Hengcheng (橫 城) in Lingwu (northwestern Ningxia province) to Huamachi town (花 馬 池 鎮) in Yanchi County, and from there to Qingshuiying (清水 營) in northeastern Shaanxi, a total of more than 2000 li (about 1,100 kilometres (680 mi)) long. Along its length were 800 strong points, sentry posts, beacon - fire towers, and assorted defences. 40,000 men were enlisted for this effort, which was completed in several months at a cost of over one million silver taels. This defence system proved its initial worth in 1482, when a large group of Mongol raiders were trapped within the double lines of fortifications and suffered a defeat by the Ming generals. This was seen as a vindication of Yu Zijun 's strategy of wall - building by the people of the border areas. By the mid-16th century, Yu 's wall in the Ordos had seen expansion into an extensive defence system. It contained two defence lines: Yu 's wall, called the "great border '' (大 邊, dàbiān), and a "secondary border '' (二 邊, èrbiān) built by Yang Yiqing (楊一清; 1454 -- 1530) behind it.
Following the success of the Ordos walls, Yu Zijun proposed construction of a further wall that would extend from the Yellow River bend in the Ordos to the Sihaiye Pass (四海 冶 口; in present - day Yanqing County) near the capital Beijing, running a distance of more than 1300 li (about 700 kilometres (430 mi)). The project received approval in 1485, but Yu 's political enemies harped on the cost overruns and forced Yu to scrap the project and retire the same year. For more than 50 years after Yu 's resignation, political struggle prevented major wall constructions on a scale comparable to Yu 's Ordos project.
However, wall construction continued regardless of court politics during this time. The Ordos walls underwent extension, elaboration, and repair well into the 16th century. Brick and stone started to replace tamped earth as the wall building material, because they offered better protection and durability. This change in material gave rise to a number of necessary accommodations with regard to logistics, and inevitably a drastic increase in costs. Instead of being able to draw on local resources, building projects now required brick - kilns, quarries, and transportation routes to deliver bricks to the work site. Also, masons had to be hired since the local peasantry proved inadequate for the level of sophistication that brick constructions required. Work that originally could be done by one man in a month with earth now required 100 men to do in stone.
With the Ordos now adequately fortified, the Mongols avoided its walls by riding east to invade Datong and Xuanfu (宣 府; present - day Xuanhua, Hebei Province), which were two major garrisons guarding the corridor to Beijing where no walls had been built. The two defence lines of Xuanfu and Datong (abbreviated as "Xuan -- Da '') left by the Northern Qi and the early Ming had deteriorated by this point, and for all intents and purposes the inner line was the capital 's main line of defence.
From 1544 to 1549, Weng Wanda (翁 萬達; 1498 -- 1552) embarked on a defensive building program on a scale unprecedented in Chinese history. Troops were re-deployed along the outer line, new walls and beacon towers were constructed, and fortifications were restored and extended along both lines. Firearms and artillery were mounted on the walls and towers during this time, for both defence and signalling purposes. The project 's completion was announced in the sixth month of 1548. At its height, the Xuan -- Da portion of the Great Wall totalled about 850 kilometres (530 miles) of wall, with some sections being doubled - up with two lines of wall, some tripled or even quadrupled. The outer frontier was now protected by a wall called the "outer border '' (外邊, wàibiān) that extended 380 kilometres (240 mi) from the Yellow River 's edge at the Piantou Pass (偏 頭 關) along the Inner Mongolia border with Shanxi into Hebei province; the "inner border '' wall (內 邊, nèibiān) ran southeast from Piantou Pass for some 400 kilometres (250 mi), ending at the Pingxing Pass; a "river wall '' (河 邊, hébiān) also ran from the Piantou Pass and followed the Yellow River southwards for about 70 kilometres (43 mi).
As with Yu Zijun 's wall in the Ordos, the Mongols shifted their attacks away from the newly strengthened Xuan -- Da sector to less well - protected areas. In the west, Shaanxi province became the target of nomads riding west from the Yellow River loop. The westernmost fortress of Ming China, the Jiayu Pass, saw substantial enhancement with walls starting in 1539, and from there border walls were built discontinuously down the Hexi Corridor to Wuwei, where the low earthen wall split into two. The northern section passed through Zhongwei and Yinchuan, where it met the western edge of the Yellow River loop before connecting with the Ordos walls, while the southern section passed through Lanzhou and continued northeast to Dingbian. The origins and the exact route of this so - called "Tibetan loop '' are still not clear.
In 1550, having once more been refused a request for trade, the Tümed Mongols under Altan Khan invaded the Xuan -- Da region. However, despite several attempts, he could not take Xuanfu due to Weng Wanda 's double fortified line while the garrison at Datong bribed him to not attack there. Instead of continuing to operate in the area, he circled around Weng Wanda 's wall to the relatively lightly defended Gubeikou, northeast of Beijing. From there Altan Khan passed through the defences and raided the suburbs of Beijing. According to one contemporary source, the raid took more than 60,000 lives and an additional 40,000 people became prisoners. As a response to this raid, the focus of the Ming 's northern defences shifted from the Xuan -- Da region to the Jizhou (薊 州 鎮) and Changping Defence Commands (昌平 鎮) where the breach took place. Later in the same year, the dry - stone walls of the Jizhou -- Changping area (abbreviated as "Ji -- Chang '') were replaced by stone and mortar. These allowed the Chinese to build on steeper, more easily defended slopes and facilitated construction of features such as ramparts, crenelations, and peepholes. The effectiveness of the new walls was demonstrated in the failed Mongol raid of 1554, where raiders expecting a repeat of the events of 1550 were surprised by the higher wall and stiff Chinese resistance.
In 1567 Qi Jiguang and Tan Lun, successful generals who fended off the coastal pirates, were reassigned to manage the Ji -- Chang Defense Commands and step up the defences of the capital region. Under their ambitious and energetic management, 1200 brick watchtowers were built along the Great Wall from 1569 to 1571. These included the first large - scale use of hollow watchtowers on the Wall: up until this point, most previous towers along the Great Wall had been solid, with a small hut on top for a sentry to take shelter from the elements and Mongol arrows; the Ji -- Chang towers built from 1569 onwards were hollow brick structures, allowing soldiers interior space to live, store food and water, stockpile weapons, and take shelter from Mongol arrows.
Altan Khan eventually made peace with China when it opened border cities for trade in 1571, alleviating the Mongol need to raid. This, coupled with Qi and Tan 's efforts to secure the frontier, brought a period of relative peace along the border. However, minor raids still happened from time to time when the profits of plunder outweighed those of trade, prompting the Ming to close all gaps along the frontier around Beijing. Areas of difficult terrain once considered impassable were also walled off, leading to the well - known vistas of a stone - faced Great Wall snaking over dramatic landscapes that tourists still see today.
Wall construction continued until the demise of the Ming dynasty in 1644. In the decades that led to the fall of the Ming dynasty, the Ming court and the Great Wall itself had to deal with simultaneous internal rebellions and the Manchu invasions. In addition to their conquest of Liaodong, the Manchus had raided across the Great Wall for the first time in 1629, and again in 1634, 1638, and 1642. Meanwhile, the rebels led by warlord Li Zicheng had been gathering strength. In the early months of 1644, Li Zicheng declared himself the founder of the Shun and marched towards the Ming capital from Shaanxi. His route roughly followed the line of the Great Wall, in order to neutralize its heavily fortified garrisons. The crucial defences of Datong, Xuanfu, and Juyong Pass all surrendered without a fight, and the Chongzhen Emperor hanged himself on 25 April as the Shun army entered Beijing. At this point, the largest remaining Ming fighting force in North China was in Shanhai Pass, where the Great Wall meets the Bohai Sea. Its defender Wu Sangui, wedged between the Shun army within and the Manchus without, decided to surrender to the Manchus and opened the gates for them. The Manchus, having thus entered through the Great Wall, defeated Li Zicheng at the Battle of Shanhai Pass and seized Beijing on June 5. They eventually defeated both the rebel - founded Shun dynasty and the remaining Ming resistance, establishing their rule over all of China as the Qing dynasty.
Opinions about the Wall 's role in the Ming dynasty 's downfall are mixed. Historians such as Arthur Waldron and Julia Lovell are critical of the whole wall - building exercise in light of its ultimate failure in protecting China; the former compared the Great Wall with the failed Maginot Line of the French in World War II. However, independent scholar David Spindler notes that the Wall, being only part of a complex foreign policy, received "disproportionate blame '' because it was the most obvious relic of that policy.
The usefulness of the Great Wall as a defence line against northern nomads became questionable under the Qing dynasty, since their territory encompassed vast areas inside and outside the wall: China proper, Manchuria, and Mongolia were all under Qing control. So instead, the Great Wall became the means to limit Han Chinese movement into the steppes. In the case of Manchuria, considered to be the sacred homeland by the ruling Manchu elites, some parts of the Ming Liaodong Wall were repaired so it could serve to control Han Chinese movement into Manchuria alongside the newly erected Willow Palisade.
Culturally, the wall 's symbolic role as a line between civilized society and barbarism was suppressed by the Qing, who were keen to weaken the Han culturalism that had been propagated by the Ming. As a result, no special attention was paid to the Great Wall until the mid-Qing dynasty, when Westerners started to show interest in the structure.
The existence of a colossal wall in Asia had circulated in the Middle East and the West even before the first Europeans arrived in China by sea. The late antiquity historian Ammianus Marcellinus (330? -- 395?) mentioned "summits of lofty walls '' enclosing the land of Seres, the country that the Romans believed to be at the eastern end of the Silk Road. In legend, the tribes of Gog and Magog were said to have been locked out by Alexander the Great with walls of steel. Later Arab writers and travellers, such as Rashid - al - Din Hamadani (1248 -- 1318) and Ibn Battuta (1304 -- 1377), would erroneously identify the Great Wall in China with the walls of the Alexander romances. Soon after Europeans reached Ming China in the early 16th century, accounts of the Great Wall started to circulate in Europe, even though no European would see it with their own eyes for another century. The work A Treatise of China and the Adjoyning Regions by Gaspar da Cruz (c. 1520 -- 70) offered an early discussion of the Great Wall in which he noted, "a Wall of an hundred leagues in length. And some will affirme to bee more than a hundred leagues. '' Another early account written by Bishop Juan González de Mendoza (1550 -- 1620) reported a wall five hundred leagues long, but suggested that only one hundred leagues were man - made, with the rest natural rock formations. The Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci (1552 -- 1610) mentioned the Great Wall once in his diary, noting the existence of "a tremendous wall four hundred and five miles long '' that formed part of the northern defences of the Ming Empire.
Europeans first witnessed the Great Wall in the early 1600s. Perhaps the first recorded instance of a European actually entering China via the Great Wall came in 1605, when the Portuguese Jesuit brother Bento de Góis reached the northwestern Jiayu Pass from India. Ivan Petlin 's 1619 deposition for his Russian embassy mission offers an early account based on a first - hand encounter with the Great Wall, and mentions that in the course of the journey his embassy travelled alongside the Great Wall for ten days.
Early European accounts were mostly modest and empirical, closely mirroring contemporary Chinese understanding of the Wall. However, when the Ming Great Wall began to take on a shape recognizable today, foreign accounts of the Wall slid into hyperbole. In the Atlas Sinensis published in 1665, the Jesuit Martino Martini described elaborate but atypical stretches of the Great Wall and generalized such fortifications across the whole northern frontier. Furthermore, Martini erroneously identified the Ming Wall as the same wall built by Qin Shi Huang in the 3rd century BC, thereby exaggerating both the Wall 's antiquity and its size. This misconception was compounded by the China Illustrata of Father Athanasius Kircher (1602 -- 80), which provided pictures of the Great Wall as imagined by a European illustrator. All these and other accounts from missionaries in China contributed to the Orientalism of the eighteenth century, in which a mythical China and its exaggerated Great Wall feature prominently. The French philosopher Voltaire (1694 -- 1774), for example, frequently wrote about the Great Wall, although his feelings towards it oscillate between unreserved admiration and condemnation of it as a "monument to fear ''. The Macartney Embassy of 1793 passed through the Great Wall at Gubeikou on the way to see the Qianlong Emperor in Chengde, who was there for the annual imperial hunt. One of the embassy 's members, John Barrow, later founder of the Royal Geographical Society, spuriously calculated that the amount of stone in the Wall was equivalent to "all the dwelling houses of England and Scotland '' and would suffice to encircle the Earth at the equator twice. The illustrations of the Great Wall by Lieutenant Henry William Parish during this mission would be reproduced in influential works such as Thomas Allom 's 1845 China, in a series of views.
Exposure to such works brought many foreign visitors to the Great Wall after China opened its borders as a result of the nation 's defeat in the Opium Wars of the mid-19th century at the hands of Britain and the other Western powers. The Juyong Pass near Beijing and the "Old Dragon Head, '' where the Great Wall meets the sea at the Shanhai Pass, proved popular destinations for these wall watchers.
The travelogues of the later 19th century in turn further contributed to the elaboration and propagation of the Great Wall myth. Examples of this myth 's growth are the false but widespread belief that the Great Wall of China is visible from the Moon or Mars.
The Xinhai Revolution in 1911 forced the abdication of the last Qing Emperor Puyi and ended China 's last imperial dynasty. The revolutionaries, headed by Sun Yat - sen, were concerned with creating a modern sense of national identity in the chaotic post-imperial era. In contrast to Chinese academics such as Liang Qichao, who tried to counter the West 's fantastic version of the Great Wall, Sun Yat - sen held the view that Qin Shi Huang 's wall preserved the Chinese race, and without it Chinese culture would not have developed enough to expand to the south and assimilate foreign conquerors. Such an endorsement from the "Father of Modern China '' started to transform the Great Wall into a national symbol in the Chinese consciousness, though this transformation was hampered by conflicting views of nationalism with regard to the nascent "new China. ''
The failure of the new Republic of China fanned disillusionment with traditional Chinese culture and ushered in the New Culture Movement and the May Fourth Movement of the mid-1910s and 1920s that aimed to dislodge China 's future trajectory from its past. Naturally, the Great Wall of China came under attack as a symbol of the past. For example, an influential writer of this period, Lu Xun, harshly criticized the "mighty and accursed Great Wall '' in a short essay: "In reality, it has never served any purpose than to make countless workers labour to death in vain... (It) surrounds everyone. ''
The Sino - Japanese conflict (1931 -- 45) gave the Great Wall a new lease of life in the eyes of the Chinese. During the 1933 defence of the Great Wall, inadequately - equipped Chinese soldiers held off double their number of Japanese troops for several months. Using the cover of the Great Wall, the Chinese -- who were at times only armed with broadswords -- were able to beat off a Japanese advance that had the support of aerial bombardment. With the Chinese forces eventually overrun, the subsequent Tanggu Truce stipulated that the Great Wall was to become a demilitarized zone separating China and the newly created Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo. Even so, the determined defence of the Great Wall made it a symbol of Chinese patriotism and the resoluteness of the Chinese people. The Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong picked up this symbol in his poetry during his "Long March '' escaping from Kuomintang prosecution. Near the end of the trek in 1935, Mao wrote the poem "Mount Liupan '' that contains the well - known line that would be carved in stone along the Great Wall in the present day: "Those who fail to reach the Great Wall are not true men '' (不 到 长城 非 好汉). Another noteworthy reference to the Great Wall is in the song "The March of the Volunteers '', whose words came from a stanza in Tian Han 's 1934 poem entitled "The Great Wall ''. The song, originally from the anti-Japanese movie Children of Troubled Times, enjoyed continued popularity in China and was selected as the provisional national anthem of the People 's Republic of China (PRC) at its establishment in 1949.
In 1952, the scholar - turned - bureaucrat Guo Moruo laid out the first modern proposal to repair the Great Wall. Five years later, the renovated Badaling became the first section to be opened to the public since the establishment of the PRC. The Badaling Great Wall has since become a staple stop for foreign dignitaries who come to China, beginning with Nepali prime minister Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala in 1960, and most notably the American president Richard Nixon in his historic 1972 visit to China. To date, Badaling is still the most visited stretch of the Great Wall.
Other stretches did not fare so well. During the Cultural Revolution (1966 -- 76), hundreds of kilometres of the Great Wall -- already damaged in the wars of the last century and eroded by wind and rain -- were deliberately destroyed by fervent Red Guards who regarded it as part of the "Four Olds '' to be eradicated in the new China. Quarrying machines and even dynamite were used to dismantle the Wall, and the pilfered materials were used for construction.
As China opened up in the 1980s, reformist leader Deng Xiaoping initiated the "Love our China and restore our Great Wall '' campaign (爱 我 中华, 修 我 长城) to repair and preserve the Great Wall. The Great Wall was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. However, while tourism boomed over the years, slipshod restoration methods have left sections of the Great Wall near Beijing "looking like a Hollywood set '' in the words of the National Geographic News. The less prominent stretches of the Great Wall did not get as much attention. In 2002 the New York - based World Monuments Fund put the Great Wall on its list of the World 's 100 Most Endangered Sites. In 2003 the Chinese government began to enact laws to protect the Great Wall.
In China, one of the first individuals to attempt a multi-dynastic history of the Great Wall was the 17th - century scholar Gu Yanwu. More recently, in the 1930s and 1940s, Wang Guoliang (王國良) and Shou Pengfei (壽 鵬 飛) produced exhaustive studies that culled extant literary records to date and mapped the courses of early border walls. However, these efforts were based solely on written records that contain obscure place names and elusive literary references.
The rise of modern archeology has contributed much to the study of the Great Wall, either in corroborating existing research or in refuting it. However these efforts do not yet give a full picture of the Great Wall 's history, as many wall sites dating to the Period of Disunity (220 -- 589) had been overlaid by the extant Ming Great Wall.
Western scholarship of the Great Wall was, until recently, affected by misconceptions derived from traditional accounts of the Wall. When the Jesuits brought back the first reports of the Wall to the West, European scholars were puzzled that Marco Polo had not mentioned the presumably perennial "Great Wall '' in his Travels. Some 17th - century scholars reasoned that the Wall must have been built in the Ming dynasty, after Marco Polo 's departure. This view was soon replaced by another that argued, against Polo 's own account, that the Venetian merchant had come to China from the south and so did not come into contact with the Wall. Thus, Father Martino Martini 's mistaken claim that the Wall had "lasted right up to the present time without injury or destruction '' since the time of Qin was accepted as fact by the 18th - century philosophes.
Since then, many scholars have operated under the belief that the Great Wall continually defended China 's border against the steppe nomads for two thousand years. For example, the 18th - century sinologist Joseph de Guignes assigned macrohistorical importance to such walls when he advanced the theory that the Qin construction forced the Xiongnu to migrate west to Europe and, becoming known as the Huns, ultimately contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire. Some have attempted to make general statements regarding Chinese society and foreign policy based on the conception of a perennial Great Wall: Karl Marx took the Wall to represent the stagnation of the Chinese society and economy, Owen Lattimore supposed that the Great Wall demonstrated a need to divide the nomadic way of life from the agricultural communities of China, and John K. Fairbank posited that the Wall played a part in upholding the Sinocentric world order.
Despite the significance that the Great Wall seemed to have, scholarly treatment of the Wall itself remained scant during the 20th century. Joseph Needham bemoaned this dearth when he was compiling the section on walls for his Science and Civilisation in China: "There is no lack of travelers ' description of the Great Wall, but studies based on modern scholarship are few and far between, whether in Chinese or Western languages. '' In 1990, Arthur Waldron published the influential The Great Wall: From History to Myth, where he challenged the notion of a unitary Great Wall maintained since antiquity, dismissing it as a modern myth. Waldron 's approach prompted a re-examination of the Wall in Western scholarship. Still, as of 2008, there is not yet a full authoritative text in any language that is devoted to the Great Wall. The reason for this, according to The New Yorker journalist Peter Hessler, is that the Great Wall fits into neither the study of political institutions (favoured by Chinese historians) nor the excavation of tombs (favoured by Chinese archeologists). Some of the void left by academia is being filled by independent research from Great Wall enthusiasts such as ex-Xinhua reporter Cheng Dalin (成 大林) and self - funded scholar David Spindler.
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who sings the song love lift us up where we belong | Up Where We Belong - wikipedia
"Up Where We Belong '' is a Platinum - certified, Grammy Award - winning hit song written by Jack Nitzsche, Buffy Sainte - Marie, and Will Jennings. It was recorded by Joe Cocker (lead vocals) and Jennifer Warnes (lead and background vocals) for the 1982 film An Officer and a Gentleman.
Richard Gere balked at shooting the ending of the film, in which Zack arrives at Paula 's factory wearing his naval dress whites and carries her off the factory floor; he thought that would n't work because it was too sentimental. Director Taylor Hackford agreed with Gere until, during a rehearsal, the extras playing the workers began to cheer and cry. When Gere saw the scene later, with the song added, he said it gave him chills. Gere was later convinced Hackford made the right decision.
Producer Don Simpson unsuccessfully demanded "Up Where We Belong '' be cut from An Officer and a Gentleman, saying, "The song is no good. It is n't a hit. '' He reportedly said of Warnes, "She has a sweet voice, but she 'll never have a hit song, and this definitely is n't it. '' (This overlooked the fact that Warnes already had a hit in 1977 with "Right Time of the Night '' and had another modest hit in 1979 with the song "It Goes Like It Goes '' in the film Norma Rae, which won an Oscar. It was proven even more wrong when Warnes recorded the huge hit "(I 've Had) The Time of My Life '' only a few years later with Bill Medley for the 1987 film Dirty Dancing.) Simpson even made a bet with the film 's soundtrack supervisor that the song would flop and paid off his loss after the Oscars, where he still insisted the song was rotten and that it should never have become successful.
However, the American Top 40 radio stations disagreed with Simpson 's comments, as the single, released by Island Records in 1982, hit # 1 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 on November 6, 1982 and held the top chart position for three consecutive weeks, also reaching number 7 in the UK Singles Chart. It was certified Platinum by the RIAA for sales of over two million copies in the United States.
"Up Where We Belong '' won the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song and the Academy Award for Best Original Song in 1983. It also won the BAFTA Film Awards for Best Original Song in 1984. Cocker and Warnes also won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal in 1983 for their rendition of this song. In 2004 it finished at # 75 in AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs survey of top tunes in American cinema.
shipments figures based on certification alone
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who was not allowed in the knights of labor | Knights of Labor - wikipedia
Knights of labor (K of L), officially Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor, was the largest and one of the most important American labor organizations of the 1880s. Its most important leaders were Terence V. Powderly and step - brother Joseph Bath. The Knights promoted the social and cultural uplift of the workingman, rejected socialism and anarchism, demanded the eight - hour day, and promoted the producers ethic of republicanism. In some cases it acted as a labor union, negotiating with employers, but it was never well organized, and after a rapid expansion in the mid-1880s, it suddenly lost its new members and became a small operation again.
It was founded by Uriah Stephens on December 28, 1869, reached 28,000 members in 1880, then jumped to 100,000 in 1884. By 1886 20 % of all workers were affiliated with the KOL, ballooning to nearly 800,000 members. Its frail organizational structure could not cope as it was battered by charges of failure and violence and calumnies of the association with the Haymarket Square riot. Most members abandoned the movement in 1886 - 87, leaving at most 100,000 in 1890. Many of them chose to join groups that helped to identify their specific need, instead of the KOL that addressed many different types of issues. Furthermore, the Panic of 1893 terminated the Knights of Labor 's importance. Remnants of the Knights of Labor continued in existence until 1949, when the group 's last 50 - member local dropped its affiliation.
In 1869, Uriah Smith Stephens, James L. Wright, and a small group of Philadelphia tailors founded a secret organization known as the Noble Order of the Knights of Labor. The collapse of the National Labor Union in 1873 left a vacuum for workers looking for organization. The Knights became better organized with a national vision when they replaced Stephens with Terence V. Powderly. The body became popular with Pennsylvania coal miners during the economic depression of the mid-1870s, then it grew rapidly. The KOL was a diverse industrial union open to all workers. The leaders felt that it was best to have a versatile population in order to get points of view from all aspects. The Knights of Labor barred membership from five groups: bankers, land speculators, lawyers, liquor dealers and gamblers. Its members included low skilled workers, railroad workers, immigrants, and steel workers.
As membership expanded, the Knights began to function more as a labor union and less of a secret organization. During the 1880 's, the Knights of Labor played a huge role in independent and third - party movements. Local assemblies began not only to emphasize cooperative enterprises, but to initiate strikes to win concessions from employers. The Knights of Labor brought together workers of different religion, race and gender and helped them all create a bond and unify all for the same cause. The new leader Powderly, opposed strikes as a "relic of barbarism, '' but the size and the diversity of the Knights afforded local assemblies a great deal of autonomy.
In 1882, the Knights ended their membership rituals and removed the words "Noble Order '' from their name. This was to mollify the concerns of Catholic members and the bishops who wanted to avoid any resemblance to freemasonry. Though initially averse to strikes as a method to advance their goals, the Knights aided various strikes and boycotts. The Wabash Railroad strike in 1885 was also a significant success, as Powderly finally supported what became a successful strike on Jay Gould 's Wabash Line. Gould met with Powderly and agreed to call off his campaign against the Knights of Labor, which had caused the turmoil originally. These positive developments gave momentum and a surge of members, so by 1886, the Knights had over 700,000 members.
The Knights ' primary demand was for an eight - hour day; they also called for legislation to end child and convict labor, as well as a graduated income tax. They were eager supporters of cooperatives. The only woman to hold office in the Knights of Labor, Leonora Barry worked as an investigator and described the horrific conditions in factories, conditions tantamount to the abuse of women and children. These reports made Barry the first person to collect national statistics on the American working woman.
Powderly and the Organization tried to avoid divisive political issues, but in the early 1880s, many Knights had become followers of Henry George 's radical ideology known now as georgism. In 1883, Powderly officially recommended George 's book and announced his support of "single tax '' on land values. During the New York mayoral election of 1886, Powderly was able to successfully push the organization towards the favor of Henry George.
The Knights of Labor was an organization that helped to join together many different types of people from all different walks of life; for example Catholic and Protestant Irish - born workers. The KOL was appealing to them because they worked very closely with the Irish Land League. The Knights of Labor had a mixed history of inclusiveness and exclusiveness, accepting women and blacks (after 1878) and their employers as members, and advocating the admission of blacks into local assemblies, but tolerating the segregation of assemblies in the South. Bankers, doctors, lawyers, stockholders, and liquor manufacturers were excluded because they were considered unproductive members of society. Asians were also excluded, and in November 1885, a branch of the Knights in Tacoma, Washington worked to expel the city 's Chinese, who amounted to nearly a tenth of the overall city population at the time. The Union Pacific Railroad came into conflict with the Knights. When the Knights in Wyoming refused to work more hours in 1885, the railroad hired Chinese workers. The result was the Rock Springs massacre, that killed scores of Chinese, and drove all the rest out of Wyoming. About 50 African - American sugar - cane laborers organized by the Knights went on strike and were murdered by strikebreaking thugs in the 1887 Thibodaux massacre in Louisiana. The Knights strongly supported the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the Contract Labor Law of 1885, as did many other labor groups. But they were not against immigration, the Knights of Labor wanted more regulations, not restrictions.
The Knights of Labor attracted many Catholics, who were a large part of the membership, perhaps a majority. Powderly was also a Catholic. However, the Knights 's use of secrecy, similar to the Masons, during its early years concerned many bishops of the church. The Knights used secrecy and deception to help prevent employers from firing members. After the Archbishop of Quebec condemned the Knights in 1884, twelve American archbishops voted 10 to 2 against doing likewise in the United States. Furthermore, Cardinals James Gibbons and John Ireland defended the Knights. Gibbons went to the Vatican to talk to the hierarchy. In 1886, right after the peak of the Knights of Labor, they started to lose more members to the American Federation of Labor. It has been believed that the fall of the Knights of Labor was due to their lack of adaptability and beliefs in the old - style industrial capitalism.
Though often overlooked, the Knights of Labor contributed to the tradition of labor protest songs in America. The Knights frequently included music in their regular meetings, and encouraged local members to write and perform their work. In Chicago, James and Emily Talmadge, printers and supporters of the Knights of Labor, published the songbook "Labor Songs Dedicated to the Knights of Labor '' (1885). The song "Hold the Fort '' (also "Storm the Fort ''), a Knights of Labor pro-labor revision of the hymn by the same name, became the most popular labor song prior to Ralph Chaplin 's IWW (Industrial Workers of the World) anthem "Solidarity Forever ''. Pete Seeger often performed this song and it appears on a number of his recordings. Songwriter and labor singer Bucky Halker includes the Talmadge version, entitled "Labor 's Battle Song, '' on his CD Do n't Want Your Millions (Revolting Records 2000). Halker also draws heavily on the Knights songs and poems in his book on labor song and poetry, For Democracy, Workers and God: Labor Song - Poems and Labor Protest, 1865 - 1895 (University of Illinois Press, 1991).
The Knights of Labor, supported the Chinese Exclusion Act because it believed that industrialists were using Chinese workers as a wedge to keep wages low.
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who were the apostles of the slavs and what were their backgrounds | Byzantine Greeks - wikipedia
The Byzantine Greeks (or Byzantines) were the Greek - speaking Christian people of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. They spoke medieval Greek and were the main inhabitants of the lands of the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire), of Constantinople and Asia Minor (modern Turkey), the Greek islands, Cyprus, and portions of the southern Balkans, and formed large minorities, or pluralities, in the coastal urban centres of the Levant and northern Egypt. Throughout their history, the Byzantine Greeks self - identified as Romans (Greek: Ῥωμαῖοι Rhōmaîoi), but are referred to as "Byzantines '' and "Byzantine Greeks '' in modern historiography.
The social structure of the Byzantine Greeks was primarily supported by a rural, agrarian base that consisted of the peasantry, and a small fraction of the poor. These peasants lived within three kinds of settlements: the chorion or village, the agridion or hamlet, and the proasteion or estate. Many civil disturbances that occurred during the time of the Byzantine Empire were attributed to political factions within the Empire rather than to this large popular base. Soldiers among the Byzantine Greeks were at first conscripted amongst the rural peasants and trained on an annual basis. As the Byzantine Empire entered the 11th century, more of the soldiers within the army were either professional men - at - arms or mercenaries.
Until the twelfth century, education within the Byzantine Greek population was more advanced than in the West, particularly at primary school level, resulting in comparatively high literacy rates. Success came easily to Byzantine Greek merchants, who enjoyed a very strong position in international trade. Despite the challenges posed by rival Italian merchants, they held their own throughout the latter half of the Byzantine Empire 's existence. The clergy also held a special place, not only having more freedom than their Western counterparts, but also maintaining a patriarch in Constantinople who was considered the equal of the pope. This position of strength had built up over time, for at the beginning of the Byzantine Empire, under Emperor Constantine the Great (r. 306 -- 337), only a small part, about 10 %, of the population was Christian.
Use of the Greek language was already widespread in the eastern parts of the Roman empire when Constantine moved its capital to Constantinople, although Latin was the language of the imperial administration. From the reign of Emperor Heraclius (reigned 610 -- 641), Greek was the predominant language amongst the populace and also replaced Latin in administration. At first, the Byzantine Empire had a multi-ethnic character, but following the loss of the non-Greek speaking provinces with the 7th century Muslim conquests it came to be dominated by the Byzantine Greeks, who inhabited the heartland of the later empire: modern Cyprus, Greece, Turkey, and Sicily, and portions of southern Bulgaria, Crimea, and Albania. Over time, the relationship between them and the West, particularly with Latin Europe, deteriorated.
Relations were further damaged by a schism between the Catholic West and Orthodox East that led to the Byzantine Greeks being labeled as heretics in the West. Throughout the later centuries of the Byzantine Empire and particularly following the coronation of Charlemagne (reigned as king of the Franks 768 -- 814) in Rome in 800, the Byzantines were not considered by Western Europeans as heirs of the Roman Empire, but rather as part of an Eastern kingdom made up of Greek peoples.
As the Byzantine Empire declined, the Byzantines and their lands came under foreign domination, mostly Ottoman rule. The designation "Rum millet '' ("Roman nation '') for all the Eastern Orthodox populations was kept both by Ottoman Greeks and their Ottoman overlords and lived on until the 20th century.
During most of the Middle Ages, the Byzantine Greeks self - identified as Rhōmaîoi (Ῥωμαῖοι, "Romans '', meaning citizens of the Roman Empire), a term which in the Greek language had become synonymous with Christian Greeks. The Latinizing term Graikoí (Γραικοί, "Greeks '') was also used, though its use was less common, and nonexistent in official Byzantine political correspondence, prior to the Fourth Crusade of 1204. While this Latin term for the ancient Hellenes could be used neutrally, its use by Westerners from the 9th century onwards in order to challenge Byzantine claims to ancient Roman heritage rendered it a derogatory exonym for the Byzantines who barely used it, mostly in contexts relating to the West, such as texts relating to the Council of Florence, to present the Western viewpoint. The ancient name Hellenes was synonymous to "pagan '' in popular use, but was revived as an ethnonym in the Middle Byzantine period (11th century).
While in the West the term "Roman '' acquired a new meaning in connection with the Catholic Church and the Bishop of Rome, the Greek form "Romaioi '' remained attached to the Greeks of the Eastern Roman Empire. The term "Byzantines '' or "Byzantine Greeks '' is an exonym applied by later historians like Hieronymus Wolf; the "Byzantines '' continued to call themselves Romaioi (Romans) in their language. Despite the shift in terminology in the West, the Byzantines Greeks ' eastern neighbors, such as the Arabs, continued to refer to the Byzantines as "Romans '', as for instance in the 30th Surah of the Quran (Ar - Rum). The signifier "Roman '' (Rum millet, "Roman nation '') was also used by the Byzantine Greeks ' later Ottoman rivals, and its Turkish equivalent Rûm, "Roman '', continues to be used officially by the government of Turkey to denote the Greek Orthodox natives (Rumlar) of Istanbul, as well as the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (Turkish: Rum Ortodoks Patrikhanesi, "Roman Orthodox Patriarchate '').
While social mobility was not unknown in Byzantium the order of society was thought of as more enduring, with the average man regarding the court of Heaven to be the archetype of the imperial court in Constantinople. This society included various classes of people that were neither exclusive nor immutable. The most characteristic were the poor, the peasants, the soldiers, the teachers, entrepreneurs, and clergy.
According to a text dated to AD 533, a man was termed "poor '' if he did not have 50 gold coins (aurei), which was a modest though not negligible sum. The Byzantines were heirs to the Greek concepts of charity for the sake of the polis; nevertheless it was the Christian concepts attested in the Bible that animated their giving habits, and specifically the examples of Basil of Caesarea (who is the Greek equivalent of Santa Claus), Gregory of Nyssa, and John Chrysostom. The number of the poor fluctuated in the many centuries of Byzantium 's existence, but they provided a constant supply of muscle power for the building projects and rural work. Their numbers apparently increased in the late fourth and early fifth centuries as barbarian raids and a desire to avoid taxation pushed rural populations into cities.
Since Homeric times, there were several categories of poverty: the ptochos (πτωχός, "passive poor '') was lower than the penes (πένης, "active poor ''). They formed the majority of the infamous Constantinopolitan mob whose function was similar to the mob of the First Rome. However, while there are instances of riots attributed to the poor, the majority of civil disturbances were specifically attributable to the various factions of the Hippodrome like the Greens and Blues. The poor made up a non-negligible percentage of the population, but they influenced the Christian society of Byzantium to create a large network of hospitals (iatreia, ιατρεία) and almshouses, and a religious and social model largely justified by the existence of the poor and born out of the Christian transformation of classical society.
There are no reliable figures as to the numbers of the peasantry, yet it is widely assumed that the vast majority of Byzantines lived in rural and agrarian areas. In the Taktika of Emperor Leo VI the Wise (r. 886 -- 912), the two professions defined as the backbone of the state are the peasantry (geōrgikē, γεωργική, "farmers '') and the soldiers (stratiōtikē, στρατιωτική). The reason for this was that besides producing most of the Empire 's food the peasants also produced most of its taxes.
Peasants lived mostly in villages, whose name changed slowly from the classical kome (κώμη) to the modern chorio (χωριό). While agriculture and herding were the dominant occupations of villagers they were not the only ones. There are records for the small town of Lampsakos, situated on the eastern shore of the Hellespont, which out of 173 households classifies 113 as peasant and 60 as urban, which indicate other kinds of ancillary activities.
The Treatise on Taxation, preserved in the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice, distinguishes between three types of rural settlements, the chorion (Greek: χωρίον) or village, the agridion (Greek: αγρίδιον) or hamlet, and the proasteion (Greek: προάστειον) or estate. According to a 14th - century survey of the village of Aphetos, donated to the monastery of Chilandar, the average size of a landholding is only 3.5 modioi (0.08 ha). Taxes placed on rural populations included the kapnikon (Greek: καπνικόν) or hearth tax, the synone (Greek: συνονή) or cash payment frequently affiliated with the kapnikon, the ennomion (Greek: εννόμιον) or pasture tax, and the aerikon (Greek: αέρικον, meaning "of the air '') which depended on the village 's population and ranged between 4 and 20 gold coins annually.
Their diet consisted of mainly grains and beans and in fishing communities fish was usually substituted for meat. Bread, wine, and olives were important staples of Byzantine diet with soldiers on campaign eating double - baked and dried bread called paximadion (Greek: παξιμάδιον). As in antiquity and modern times, the most common cultivations in the choraphia (Greek: χωράφια) were olive groves and vineyards. While Liutprand of Cremona, a visitor from Italy, found Greek wine irritating as it was often flavoured with resin (retsina) most other Westerners admired Greek wines, Cretan in particular being famous.
While both hunting and fishing were common, the peasants mostly hunted to protect their herds and crops. Apiculture, the keeping of bees, was as highly developed in Byzantium as it had been in Ancient Greece. Aside from agriculture, the peasants also laboured in the crafts, fiscal inventories mentioning smiths (Greek: χαλκεύς, chalkeus), tailors (Greek: ράπτης, rhaptes), and cobblers (Greek: τζαγγάριος, tzangarios).
During the Byzantine millennium, hardly a year passed without a military campaign. Soldiers were a normal part of everyday life, much more so than in modern Western societies. While it is difficult to draw a distinction between Roman and Byzantine soldiers from an organizational aspect, it is easier to do so in terms of their social profile. The military handbooks known as the Taktika continued a Hellenistic and Roman tradition, and contain a wealth of information about the appearance, customs, habits, and life of the soldiers.
As with the peasantry, many soldiers performed ancillary activities, like medics and technicians. Selection for military duty was annual with yearly call - ups and great stock was placed on military exercises, during the winter months, which formed a large part of a soldier 's life.
Until the 11th century, the majority of the conscripts were from rural areas, while the conscription of craftsmen and merchants is still an open question. From then on, professional recruiting replaced conscription, and the increasing use of mercenaries in the army was ruinous for the treasury. From the 10th century onwards, there were laws connecting land ownership and military service. While the state never allotted land for obligatory service, soldiers could and did use their pay to buy landed estates, and taxes would be decreased or waived in some cases. What the state did allocate to soldiers, however, from the 12th century onwards, were the tax revenues from some estates called pronoiai (πρόνοιαι). As in antiquity, the basic food of the soldier remained the dried biscuit bread, though its name had changed from boukelaton (βουκελάτον) to paximadion.
Byzantine education was the product of an ancient Greek educational tradition that stretched back to the 5th century BC. It comprised a tripartite system of education that, taking shape during the Hellenistic era, was maintained, with inevitable changes, up until the fall of Constantinople. The stages of education were the elementary school, where pupils ranged from six to ten years, secondary school, where pupils ranged from ten to sixteen, and higher education.
Elementary education was widely available throughout most of the Byzantine Empire 's existence, in towns and occasionally in the countryside. This, in turn, ensured that literacy was much more widespread than in Western Europe, at least until the twelfth century. Secondary education was confined to the larger cities while higher education was the exclusive provenance of Constantinople.
Though not a society of mass literacy like modern societies, Byzantine society was a profoundly literate one. Based on information from an extensive array of Byzantine documents from different periods (i.e. homilies, Ecloga, etc.), Robert Browning concluded that, while books were luxury items and functional literacy (reading and writing) was widespread, but largely confined to cities and monasteries, access to elementary education was provided in most cities for much of the time and sometimes in villages. Nikolaos Oikonomides, focusing on 13th - century Byzantine literacy in Western Asia Minor, states that Byzantine society had "a completely literate church, an almost completely literate aristocracy, some literate horsemen, rare literate peasants and almost completely illiterate women. '' Ioannis Stouraitis estimates that the percentage of the Empire 's population with some degree of literacy was at most 15 -- 20 % based primarily on the mention of illiterate Byzantine tourmarchai in the Tactica of Emperor Leo VI the Wise (r. 886 -- 912).
In Byzantium, the elementary school teacher occupied a low social position and taught mainly from simple fairy tale books (Aesop 's Fables were often used). However, the grammarian and rhetorician, teachers responsible for the following two phases of education, were more respected. These used classical Greek texts like Homer 's Iliad or Odyssey and much of their time was taken with detailed word - for - word explication. Books were rare and very expensive and likely only possessed by teachers who dictated passages to students.
Women have tended to be overlooked in Byzantine studies as Byzantine society left few records about them. Women were disadvantaged in some aspects of their legal status and in their access to education, and limited in their freedom of movement. The life of a Byzantine Greek woman could be divided into three phases: girlhood, motherhood, and widowhood.
Childhood was brief and perilous, even more so for girls than boys. Parents would celebrate the birth of a boy twice as much and there is some evidence of female infanticide (i.e. roadside abandonment and suffocation), though it was contrary to both civil and canon law. Educational opportunities for girls were few: they did not attend regular schools but were taught in groups at home by tutors. With few exceptions, education was limited to literacy and the Bible; a famous exception is the princess Anna Komnene (1083 -- 1153), whose Alexiad displays a great depth of erudition, and the renowned 9th century Byzantine poet and composer Kassiani. The majority of a young girl 's daily life would be spent in household and agrarian chores, preparing herself for marriage.
For most girls, childhood came to an end with the onset of puberty, which was followed shortly after by betrothal and marriage. Although marriage arranged by the family was the norm, romantic love was not unknown. Most women bore many children but few survived infancy, and grief for the loss of a loved one was an inalienable part of life. The main form of birth control was abstinence, and while there is evidence of contraception it seems to have been mainly used by prostitutes.
Due to prevailing norms of modesty, women would wear clothing that covered the whole of their body except their hands. While women among the poor sometimes wore sleeveless tunics, most women were obliged to cover even their hair with the long maphorion (μαφόριον) veil. Women of means, however, spared no expense in adorning their clothes with exquisite jewelry and fine silk fabrics. Divorces were hard to obtain even though there were laws permitting them. Husbands would often beat their wives, though the reverse was not unknown, as in Theodore Prodromos 's description of a battered husband in the Ptochoprodromos poems.
Although female life expectancy in Byzantium was lower than that of men, due to death in childbirth, wars and the fact that men married younger, female widowhood was still fairly common. Still, some women were able to circumvent societal strictures and work as traders, artisans, abbots, entertainers, and scholars.
The traditional image of Byzantine Greek merchants as unenterprising benefactors of state aid is beginning to change for that of mobile, pro-active agents. The merchant class, particularly that of Constantinople, became a force of its own that could, at times, even threaten the Emperor as it did in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. This was achieved through efficient use of credit and other monetary innovations. Merchants invested surplus funds in financial products called chreokoinonia (χρεοκοινωνία), the equivalent and perhaps ancestor of the later Italian commenda.
Eventually, the purchasing power of Byzantine merchants became such that it could influence prices in markets as far afield as Cairo and Alexandria. In reflection of their success, emperors gave merchants the right to become members of the Senate, that is to integrate themselves with the ruling elite. This had an end by the end of the eleventh century when political machinations allowed the landed aristocracy to secure the throne for a century and more. Following that phase, however, the enterprising merchants bounced back and wielded real clout during the time of the Third Crusade.
The reason Byzantine Greek merchants have often been neglected in historiography is not that they were any less able than their ancient or modern Greek colleagues in matters of trade. It rather originated with the way history was written in Byzantium, which was often under the patronage of their competitors, the court, and land aristocracy. The fact that they were eventually surpassed by their Italian rivals is attributable to the privileges sought and acquired by the Crusader States within the Levant and the dominant maritime violence of the Italians.
Unlike in Western Europe where priests were clearly demarcated from the laymen, the clergy of the Eastern Roman Empire remained in close contact with the rest of society. Readers and subdeacons were drawn from the laity and expected to be at least twenty years of age while priests and bishops had to be at least 30. Unlike the Latin church, the Byzantine church allowed married priests and deacons, as long as they were married before ordination. Bishops, however, were required to be unmarried.
While the religious hierarchy mirrored the Empire 's administrative divisions, the clergy were more ubiquitous than the emperor 's servants. The issue of caesaropapism, while usually associated with the Byzantine Empire, is now understood to be an oversimplification of actual conditions in the Empire. By the fifth century, the Patriarch of Constantinople was recognized as first among equals of the four eastern Patriarchs and as of equal status with the Pope in Rome.
The ecclesiastical provinces were called eparchies and were headed by archbishops or metropolitans who supervised their subordinate bishops or episkopoi. For most people, however, it was their parish priest or papas (from the Greek word for "father '') that was the most recognizable face of the clergy.
The Eastern Roman Empire was in language and civilization a Greek society. Linguistically, Byzantine or medieval Greek is situated between the Hellenistic (Koine) and modern phases of the language. Since as early as the Hellenistic era, Greek had been the lingua franca of the educated elites of the Eastern Mediterranean, spoken natively in the southern Balkans, the Greek islands, Asia Minor, and the ancient and Hellenistic Greek colonies of Southern Italy, the Black Sea, Western Asia and North Africa. At the beginning of the Byzantine millennium, the koine (Greek: κοινή) remained the basis for spoken Greek and Christian writings, while Attic Greek was the language of the philosophers and orators.
As Christianity became the dominant religion, Attic began to be used in Christian writings in addition to and often interspersed with koine Greek. Nonetheless, from the 6th at least until the 12th century, Attic remained entrenched in the educational system; while further changes to the spoken language can be postulated for the early and middle Byzantine periods.
The population of the Byzantine Empire, at least in its early stages, had a variety of mother tongues including Greek. These included Latin, Aramaic, Coptic, and Caucasian languages, while Cyril Mango also cites evidence for bilingualism in the south and southeast. These influences, as well as an influx of people of Arabic, Celtic, Germanic, Turkic, and Slavic backgrounds, supplied medieval Greek with many loanwords that have survived in the modern Greek language. From the 11th century onward, there was also a steady rise in the literary use of the vernacular.
Following the Fourth Crusade, there was increased contact with the West; and the lingua franca of commerce became Italian. In the areas of the Crusader kingdoms a classical education (Greek: παιδεία, paideia) ceased to be a sine qua non of social status, leading to the rise of the vernacular. From this era many beautiful works in the vernacular, often written by people deeply steeped in classical education, are attested. A famous example is the four Ptochoprodromic poems attributed to Theodoros Prodromos. From the 13th to the 15th centuries, the last centuries of the Empire, there arose several works, including laments, fables, romances, and chronicles, written outside Constantinople, which until then had been the seat of most literature, in an idiom termed by scholars as "Byzantine Koine ''.
However, the diglossia of the Greek - speaking world, which had already started in ancient Greece, continued under Ottoman rule and persisted in the modern Greek state until 1976, although Koine Greek remains the official language of the Greek Orthodox Church. As shown in the poems of Ptochoprodromos, an early stage of modern Greek had already been shaped by the 12th century and possibly earlier. Vernacular Greek continued to be known as "Romaic '' ("Roman '') until the 20th century.
At the time of Constantine the Great (r. 306 -- 337), barely 10 % of the Roman Empire 's population were Christians, with most of them being urban population and generally found in the eastern part of the Roman Empire. The majority of people still honoured the old gods in the public Roman way of religio. As Christianity became a complete philosophical system, whose theory and apologetics were heavily indebted to the Classic word, this changed. In addition, Constantine, as Pontifex Maximus, was responsible for the correct cultus or veneratio of the deity which was in accordance with former Roman practice. The move from the old religion to the new entailed some elements of continuity as well as break with the past, though the artistic heritage of paganism was literally broken by Christian zeal.
Christianity led to the development of a few phenomena characteristic of Byzantium. Namely, the intimate connection between Church and State, a legacy of Roman cultus. Also, the creation of a Christian philosophy that guided Byzantine Greeks in their everyday lives. And finally, the dichotomy between the Christian ideals of the Bible and classical Greek paideia which could not be left out, however, since so much of Christian scholarship and philosophy depended on it. These shaped Byzantine Greek character and the perceptions of themselves and others.
Christians at the time of Constantine 's conversion made up only 10 % of the population. This would rise to 50 % by the end of the fourth century and 90 % by the end of the fifth century. Emperor Justinian I (r. 527 -- 565) then brutally mopped up the rest of the pagans, highly literate academics on one end of the scale and illiterate peasants on the other. A conversion so rapid seems to have been rather the result of expediency than of conviction.
The survival of the Empire in the East assured an active role of the emperor in the affairs of the Church. The Byzantine state inherited from pagan times the administrative and financial routine of organising religious affairs, and this routine was applied to the Christian Church. Following the pattern set by Eusebius of Caesarea, the Byzantines viewed the emperor as a representative or messenger of Christ, responsible particularly for the propagation of Christianity among pagans, and for the "externals '' of the religion, such as administration and finances. The imperial role in the affairs of the Church never developed into a fixed, legally defined system, however.
With the decline of Rome, and internal dissension in the other Eastern patriarchates, the church of Constantinople became, between the 6th and 11th centuries, the richest and most influential centre of Christendom. Even when the Byzantine Empire was reduced to only a shadow of its former self, the Church, as an institution, exercised so much influence both inside and outside the imperial frontiers as never before. As George Ostrogorsky points out:
"The Patriarchate of Constantinople remained the center of the Orthodox world, with subordinate metropolitan sees and archbishoprics in the territory of Asia Minor and the Balkans, now lost to Byzantium, as well as in Caucasus, Russia and Lithuania. The Church remained the most stable element in the Byzantine Empire. ''
In terms of religion, Byzantine Greek Macedonia is also significant as being the home of Saints Cyril and Methodius, two Greek brothers from Thessaloniki (Salonika) who were sent on state - sponsored missions to proselytize among the Slavs of the Balkans and east - central Europe. This involved Cyril and Methodius having to translate the Christian Bible into the Slavs ' own language, for which they invented an alphabet that became known as Old Church Slavonic. In the process, this cemented the Greek brothers ' status as the pioneers of Slavic literature and those who first introduced Byzantine civilization and Orthodox Christianity to the hitherto illiterate and pagan Slavs.
In modern Byzantine scholarship, there are currently three main schools of thought on medieval eastern Roman identity.
The defining traits of being considered one of the Rhomaioi were being an Orthodox Christian and more importantly speaking Greek, characteristics which had to be acquired by birth if one was not to be considered an allogenes or even a barbarian. The term mostly used to describe someone who was a foreigner to both the Byzantines and their state was ethnikós (Greek: ἐθνικός), a term which originally described non-Jews or non-Christians, but had lost its religious meaning. In a classicizing vein usually applied to other peoples, Byzantine authors regularly referred to themselves as "Ausones '', an ancient name for the original inhabitants of Italy. Most historians agree that the defining features of their civilization were: 1) Greek language, culture, literature, and science, 2) Roman law and tradition, 3) Christian faith. The Byzantine Greeks were, and perceived themselves as, heirs to the culture of ancient Greece, the political heirs of imperial Rome, and followers of the Apostles. Thus, their sense of "Romanity '' was different from that of their contemporaries in the West. "Romaic '' was the name of the vulgar Greek language, as opposed to "Hellenic '' which was its literary or doctrinal form. Byzantine elites and common people nurtured a high self - esteem based on their perceived cultural superiority towards foreigners, whom they viewed with contempt, despite the frequent occurrence of compliments to an individual foreigner as an andreîos Rhōmaióphrōn (ἀνδρεῖος Ῥωμαιόφρων, roughly "a brave Roman - minded fellow ''). There was always an element of indifference or neglect of everything non-Greek, which was therefore "barbarian ''.
In official discourse, "all inhabitants of the empire were subjects of the emperor, and therefore Romans. '' Thus the primary definition of Rhōmaios was "political or statist. '' In order to succeed in being a full - blown and unquestioned "Roman '' it was best to be a Greek Orthodox Christian and a Greek - speaker, at least in one 's public persona. Yet, the cultural uniformity which the Byzantine church and the state pursued through Orthodoxy and the Greek language was not sufficient to erase distinct identities, nor did it aim to.
Often one 's local (geographic) identity could outweigh one 's identity as a Rhōmaios. The terms xénos (Greek: ξένος) and exōtikós (Greek: ἐξωτικός) denoted "people foreign to the local population, '' regardless of whether they were from abroad or from elsewhere within the Byzantine Empire. "When a person was away from home he was a stranger and was often treated with suspicion. A monk from western Asia Minor who joined a monastery in Pontus was ' disparaged and mistreated by everyone as a stranger '. The corollary to regional solidarity was regional hostility. ''
From an evolutionary standpoint, Byzantium was a multi-ethnic empire that emerged as a Christian empire, soon comprised the Hellenised empire of the East, and ended its thousand - year history, in 1453, as a Greek Orthodox state: an empire that became a nation, almost by the modern meaning of the word. The presence of a distinctive and historically rich literary culture was also very important in the division between "Greek '' East and "Latin '' West and thus the formation of both. It was a multi-ethnic empire where the Hellenic element was predominant, especially in the later period.
Spoken language and state, the markers of identity that were to become a fundamental tenet of nineteenth - century nationalism throughout Europe became, by accident, a reality during a formative period of medieval Greek history. After the Empire lost non-Greek speaking territories in the 7th and 8th centuries, "Greek '' (Ἕλλην), when not used to signify "pagan '', became synonymous with "Roman '' (Ῥωμαῖος) and "Christian '' (Χριστιανός) to mean a Christian Greek citizen of the (Eastern) Roman Empire.
In the context of increasing Venetian and Genoese power in the eastern Mediterranean, association with Hellenism took deeper root among the Byzantine elite, on account of a desire to distinguish themselves from the Latin West and to lay legitimate claims to Greek - speaking lands. From the 12th century onwards, Byzantine Roman writers started to disassociate themselves from the Empire 's pre-Constantinenan Latin past, regarding henceforth the transfer of the Roman capital to Constantinople by Constantine as their founding moment and reappraised the normative value of the pagan Hellenes, even though the latter were still viewed as a group distinct from the Byzantines. Beginning in the twelfth century and especially after 1204, certain Byzantine Greek intellectuals began to use the ancient Greek ethnonym Héllēn (Greek: Ἕλλην) in order to describe Byzantine civilisation. After the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders in 1204, a small circle of the elite of the Empire of Nicaea used the term Hellene as a term of self - identification. For example, in a letter to Pope Gregory IX, the Nicaean emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes (r. 1221 -- 1254) claimed to have received the gift of royalty from Constantine the Great, and put emphasis on his "Hellenic '' descent, exalting the wisdom of the Greek people. He was presenting Hellenic culture as an integral part of the Byzantine polity in defiance of Latin claims. Emperor Theodore II Laskaris (r. 1254 - 1258), the only one during this period to systematically employ the term Hellene as a term of self - identification, tried to revive Hellenic tradition by fostering the study of philosophy, for in his opinion there was a danger that philosophy "might abandon the Greeks and seek refuge among the Latins ''. For historians of the court of Nikaia, however, such as George Akropolites and George Pachymeres, Rhomaios remained the only significant term of self - identification, despite traces of influence of the policy of the Emperors of Nikaia in their writings.
During the Palaiologan dynasty, after the Byzantines recaptured Constantinople, Rhomaioi became again dominant as a term for self - description and there are few traces of Hellene, such as in the writings of George Gemistos Plethon; the neo-platonic philosopher boasted "We are Hellenes by race and culture, '' and proposed a reborn Byzantine Empire following a utopian Hellenic system of government centered in Mystras. Under the influence of Plethon, John Argyropoulos, addressed Emperor John VIII Palaiologos (r. 1425 -- 1448) as "Sun King of Hellas '' and urged the last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos (r. 1449 -- 1453), to proclaim himself "King of the Hellenes ''. These largely rhetorical expressions of Hellenic identity were confined in a very small circle and had no impact on the people. They were however continued by Byzantine intellectuals who participated in the Italian Renaissance.
In the eyes of the West, after the coronation of Charlemagne, the Byzantines were not acknowledged as the inheritors of the Roman Empire. Byzantium was rather perceived to be a corrupted continuation of ancient Greece, and was often derided as the "Empire of the Greeks '' or "Kingdom of Greece ''. Such denials of Byzantium 's Roman heritage and ecumenical rights would instigate the first resentments between Greeks and "Latins '' (for the Latin liturgical rite) or "Franks '' (for Charlemegne 's ethnicity), as they were called by the Greeks.
Popular Western opinion is reflected in the Translatio militiae, whose anonymous Latin author states that the Greeks had lost their courage and their learning, and therefore did not join in the war against the infidels. In another passage, the ancient Greeks are praised for their military skill and their learning, by which means the author draws a contrast with contemporary Byzantine Greeks, who were generally viewed as a non-warlike and schismatic people. While this reputation seems strange to modern eyes given the unceasing military operations of the Byzantines and their eight century struggle against Islam and Islamic states, it reflects the realpolitik sophistication of the Byzantines, who employed diplomacy and trade as well as armed force in foreign policy, and the high - level of their culture in contrast to the zeal of the Crusaders and the ignorance and superstition of the medieval West. As historian Steven Runciman has put it:
A turning point in how both sides viewed each other is probably the massacre of Latins in Constantinople in 1182. The massacre followed the deposition of Maria of Antioch, a Norman - Frankish (therefore "Latin '') princess who was ruling as regent to her infant son Emperor Alexios II Komnenos. Maria was deeply unpopular due to the heavy - handed favoritism that had been shown the Italian merchants during the regency and popular celebrations of her downfall by the citizenry of Constantinople quickly turned to rioting and massacre. The event and the horrific reports of survivors inflamed religious tensions in the West, leading to the retaliatory sacking of Thessalonica, the empire 's second largest city, by William II of Sicily. An example of Western opinion at the time is the writings of William of Tyre, who described the "Greek nation '' as "a brood of vipers, like a serpent in the bosom or a mouse in the wardrobe evilly requite their guests ''.
In the East, the Persians and Arabs continued to regard the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Greeks as "Romans '' (Arabic: ar - Rūm) after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, for instance, the 30th surah of the Quran (Ar - Rum) refers to the defeat of the Byzantines ("Rum '' or "Romans '') under Heraclius by the Persians at the Battle of Antioch (613), and promises an eventual Byzantine ("Roman '') victory. This traditional designation of the Byzantines as (Eastern) Romans in the Muslim world continued through the Middle Ages, leading to names such as the Sultanate of Rum ("Sultanate over the Romans '') in conquered Anatolia and personal names such as Rumi, the mystical Persian poet who lived in formerly Byzantine Konya in the 1200s. Late medieval Arab geographers still saw the Byzantines as Rum (Romans) not as Greeks, for instance Ibn Battuta saw the, then collapsing, Rum as "pale continuators and successors of the ancient Greeks (Yunani) in matters of culture. ''
The Muslim Ottomans also referred to their Byzantine Greek rivals as Rûm, "Romans '', and that term is still in official use in Turkey for the Greek - speaking natives (Rumlar) of Istanbul cf. Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (Turkish: Rum Ortodoks Patrikhanesi, "Roman Orthodox Patriarchate ''). Many place - names in Anatolia derive from this Turkish word (Rûm, "Romans '') for the Byzantines: Erzurum ("Arzan of the Romans ''), Rumelia ("Land of the Romans ''), and Rumiye - i Suğra ("Little Rome '', the region of Amasya and Sivas).
Byzantine Greeks, forming the majority of the Byzantine Empire proper at the height of its power, gradually came under the dominance of foreign powers with the decline of the Empire during the Middle Ages. Those who came under Arab Muslim rule, either fled their former lands or submitted to the new Muslim rulers, receiving the status of Dhimmi. Over the centuries these surviving Christian societies of former Byzantine Greeks in Arab realms evolved into Antiochian Greeks, Melchites or merged into the societies of Arab Christians, existing to this day.
The majority of Byzantine Greeks lived in Asia Minor, the southern Balkans, and Aegean islands. Nearly all of these Byzantine Greeks fell under Turkish Muslim rule by the 16th century. Many retained their identities, eventually comprising the modern Greek and Cypriot states as well as the Cappadocian Greek and Pontic Greek minorities in Asia Minor. Other Byzantine Greeks, particularly in Anatolia, converted to Islam and underwent Turkification over time.
Other than the Western term "Graikoi '' ("Greeks ''), which was not in common use, but used as a term of self - designation up to the 19th century by scholars and small numbers of people related to the West, the modern Greek people still use the Byzantine term "Romaioi, '' or "Romioi, '' ("Romans '') to refer to themselves, as well as the term "Romaic '' ("Roman '') to refer to their Modern Greek language.
Many Greek Orthodox populations, particularly those outside the newly independent modern Greek state, continued to refer to themselves as Romioi (i.e. Romans, Byzantines) well into the 20th century. Peter Charanis, born on the island of Lemnos in 1908 and later became a professor of Byzantine history at Rutgers University, recounts that when the island was taken from the Ottomans by Greece in 1912, Greek soldiers were sent to each village and stationed themselves in the public squares. Some of the island children ran to see what Greek soldiers looked like. ' ' What are you looking at? ' ' one of the soldiers asked. ' ' At Hellenes, ' ' the children replied. ' ' Are you not Hellenes yourselves? ' ' the soldier retorted. ' ' No, we are Romans, ' ' the children replied.
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life is stange before the storm bonus episode | Life is Strange: Before the Storm - Wikipedia
Life Is Strange: Before the Storm is an episodic graphic adventure video game developed by Deck Nine and published by Square Enix. The three episodes were released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One in late 2017. It is the second entry in the Life Is Strange series, set as a prequel to the first game, focusing on sixteen - year - old Chloe Price and her relationship with schoolmate Rachel Amber. Gameplay concerns itself mostly with the use of branching dialogues.
Deck Nine began developing the game in 2016, using the Unity game engine. Ashly Burch from the original game did not voice Chloe Price in Before the Storm because of the SAG - AFTRA strike, but reprised her role in a bonus episode once the strike was resolved. British rock band Daughter wrote and performed the score. Life Is Strange: Before the Storm received mixed to generally favourable reviews, praising characters, themes, and story, and criticising aspects like plotholes, the main relationship, and player agency near the end of the game.
Life Is Strange: Before the Storm is a graphic adventure played from a third - person view. The player assumes control of sixteen - year - old Chloe Price, three years before Life Is Strange. Unlike its predecessor, the game does not include time travel. Instead, Before the Storm features the ability "Backtalk '', which the player can use to call upon Chloe to get out of certain precarious situations; "Backtalk '' may also make a situation worse. A dialogue tree is used when a conversation or commentary is prompted. Occasional decisions will temporarily or permanently change outcomes. The environment can be interacted with and altered, including marking walls with graffiti.
In her Oregon hometown of Arcadia Bay, sixteen - year - old Chloe Price sneaks into a house concert at an old mill. Conflict arises with two men inside, but she evades them when schoolmate Rachel Amber causes a distraction. The next day, Chloe and Rachel reunite at Blackwell Academy and decide to ditch class, stowing away on a cargo train and ending up at a lookout point. They people - watch through a viewfinder and see a man and woman kiss in the park, which upsets Rachel. They steal wine from local campers and take a walk to a scrapyard. Chloe confronts Rachel about her change in mood, but she refuses to answer. When Chloe meets Rachel later, she discloses that she witnessed her father, James, through the viewfinder, cheating on her mother. Rachel destroys a family photo in a burning trash bin, and in a fit of rage kicks it over, igniting a wildfire.
The next day, Chloe and Rachel are reprimanded by Principal Wells for ditching school. Chloe hides out at the scrapyard where she finds an old truck in need of repair. She then receives a call from local drug dealer Frank Bowers, who arranges a meeting to discuss settling her debt with him. Chloe agrees to repay him by helping him steal money from her classmate Drew, who owes Frank a large sum. However, Chloe learns that Drew is being violently extorted by another drug dealer, Damon Merrick, and she must decide whether to pay off the dealer with the stolen money to protect Drew or keep it. Later, when a student is unable to participate in the school 's theater production of The Tempest due to road closures caused by the wildfire, Chloe reluctantly takes on the role opposite Rachel. After the play, they decide to leave Arcadia Bay with the truck from the scrapyard, and return to Rachel 's house to pack. There, following a confrontation, James reveals that the woman they saw him kissing was Rachel 's biological mother.
Rachel is told that her biological mother, Sera, is a drug addict, and that on the day her father kissed her, he had rejected Sera 's plea to reunite with Rachel, after she adopted her away years before. Chloe vows to find Sera, against James ' wishes. Chloe contacts Frank, who agrees to meet her at the scrapyard. She repairs the truck there before Rachel arrives. They are ambushed by Frank and Damon, who stabs Rachel after he realises she is the district attorney 's daughter. Surviving the wound, Rachel recovers at the hospital. Chloe continues the search by investigating James ' office for clues about Sera, instead revealing that James has been in contact with Damon; Chloe uses James ' phone to convince Damon to disclose where Sera is located, and finds out that Damon has kidnapped her for ransom. She races to Damon to pay him off, but learns, when she reaches him, that James wanted him to kill Sera. Frank appears and fights Damon, after which Sera entreats Chloe to never tell Rachel about James ' actions. Back at the hospital, Chloe is faced with a choice: tell Rachel everything or protect her from the truth.
Publisher Square Enix chose Deck Nine to develop the prequel to Life Is Strange after the developer 's proprietary StoryForge tools, made up of a screenwriting software and cinematic engine, had made an impression. Development began in 2016 with assistance from Square Enix London Studios, employing the Unity game engine. Rhianna DeVries, who initially did the game 's motion capture for Chloe Price, voiced the character, while the original voice actress Ashly Burch served as writing consultant. Burch did not reprise her role due to the SAG - AFTRA strike. With the strike over, Burch and Hannah Telle, who voiced Max Caulfield in Life Is Strange, returned for a bonus episode. The game went under different working titles during casting, according to Kylie Brown, who was cast as Rachel Amber (then codenamed Rebecca) in February 2017. The music was written and performed by the British indie folk band Daughter, and released as an official soundtrack by Glassnote Records on 1 September 2017. Instrumentation was employed to represent different sides of the lead character: piano for isolation, electric guitar for rebelliousness, and layered vocals for friendship. Daughter took the script and concept artwork as inspiration. The writers researched memoirs and psychology to understand Chloe 's grieving process.
Prior to its official announcement, images had leaked online indicating that a prequel to Life Is Strange was in development. Square Enix revealed Life Is Strange: Before the Storm on 11 June during E3 2017, saying it would be released over three chapters starting on 31 August for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One. The Deluxe Edition includes the bonus chapter "Farewell '' -- featuring Max Caulfield of the original game as a playable character -- three additional outfits, and Mixtape Mode, allowing players to customise playlists using the game 's soundtrack. The bonus episode will launch on 6 March 2018, the same day as the physical releases of the Limited and Vinyl Edition; the Limited Edition contains an art book and the soundtrack on CD, while the Vinyl Edition includes the latter on phonograph record, and if pre-ordered, figures of Chloe and Rachel -- both have content found in the Deluxe Edition, but add episode 1 of Life Is Strange.
Following E3 2017, Life Is Strange: Before the Storm received one of GamesRadar 's Best of E3 awards and was nominated for Hardcore Gamer 's Adventure Game award. It was also nominated for "Best Simulation Game '' and "Best Family Game '' at the Gamescom 2017 Awards. The game was met with generally favourable reviews for the PC and "mixed or average '' for PlayStation 4, according to Metacritic. Critics praised the characters, themes, and story, but criticised plotholes, the main relationship, and player agency near the end of the game. It was nominated in the Games for Impact category at The Game Awards 2017. At the 2017 Golden Joystick Awards, it was nominated for Best Audio and Best Performer for Kylie Brown. It took first place for "Best Adventure '' at the Global Game Awards 2017, and won the award for Best Soundtrack and Most Touching Moment (The Tempest school play with Chloe and Rachel) in Game Informer 's 2017 Adventure Game of the Year Awards, while it took the lead for Best Adventure Game in their Reader 's Choice Best of 2017 Awards. Eurogamer ranked the game 16th on their list of the Top 50 Games of 2017. It was also nominated for the "Matthew Crump Cultural Innovation Award '' at the upcoming 2018 SXSW Gaming Awards.
Critics mostly praised Episode 1: Awake for the character development of Chloe Price and Rachel Amber. Jeremy Peeples of Hardcore Gamer found Chloe 's behaviour "endearing '' and noted that her personality was portrayed with multiple layers. Sam Loveridge at GamesRadar wrote that Rachel was the more authentic character because of her more "grounded '' dialogue. Despite disparaging Chloe for being "her same tiresomely combative self '' early on, Metro saw her fleshed out by enduring the loss of her father. Game Informer 's Kimberley Wallace thought the younger version of Chloe brought a "naivety and vulnerability '' worthy of sympathy. Conversely, the relationship between the leads was said to have formed "at unnatural speed. '' Peeples and Loveridge favoured the "Backtalk '' gameplay feature, while Metro and Wallace cared little for it. Reviewers found Episode 2: Brave New World to either be better than the first instalment or one of the series ' greatest. Metro praised how choices made a difference with a "profound effect '' on character arc, while Ozzie Mejia of Shacknews relished in Chloe 's "genuine growth '' contrasting her "fiery spirit ''. Similarly, Game Informer 's Joe Juba appreciated the continued comprehension of the character, declaring this "its biggest strength ''. However, Juba 's biggest complaint echoed that of Wallace, in reference to the "forced '' manner with which Chloe and Rachel become friends. Brett Makedonski, writing for Destructoid, thought that the character exposition was done "to great effect. '' Most noted was The Tempest school play sequence, which Metro said was their favorite, Mejia called "one of the funniest '' in Before the Storm, and Juba observed as the culmination of all past choices. Metro criticised the script for being "uneven '' and disapproved of the voice acting. Mejia felt the ending could have been done away with, saying it was "a bit drawn out, '' though he was impressed with "Backtalk ''.
Metro and Peeples agreed that Episode 3: Hell Is Empty was the most emotional of the season. The writing was lauded as authentic and genuine, with Wallace noting that it showed new sides to minor characters; conversely, Makedonski criticised that an ancillary character with little development became a primary antagonist. Although Metro observed some inconsistent dialogue and voice acting, Peeples said the cast showed "incredible chemistry ''. Metro saw the relationship between Rachel and Chloe as "the least compelling '' aspect, Wallace thought their "tender moments '' were the best parts of the episode, and Makedonski said "their struggles, their mutual escapism, and their sacrifices '' provided more than enough investment. Reviewers generally approved of how the game concluded. Wallace declared it "gripping and satisfying '' and Metro called it "every bit as earth - shattering as the first game. ''
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who plays phil dunphy father on modern family | Fred Willard - Wikipedia
Frederick Charles "Fred '' Willard (born September 18, 1939) is an American actor, comedian, voice actor and writer, best known for his improvisational comedy. He is known for his roles in the Rob Reiner mockumentary film This Is Spinal Tap, the Christopher Guest mockumentary films Waiting for Guffman, Best in Show, A Mighty Wind, For Your Consideration, and Mascots, and the Anchorman films. He is an alumnus of The Second City. He received three Emmy nominations for his recurring role on the TV series Everybody Loves Raymond as Robert Barone 's father - in - law, Hank MacDougall. In 2010 he received an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for his role on the ABC TV series Modern Family as Phil Dunphy 's father, Frank Dunphy.
He also received a Daytime Emmy Nomination for Outstanding Talk Show Host for What 's Hot, What 's Not. One of his earliest jobs was at The Second City, Chicago, where he shared the stage with Robert Klein and David Steinberg. He was a founding member of the improvisational comedy group Ace Trucking Company. Fellow members of Ace included Michael Mislove and Bill Saluga. They performed sketches on The Tonight Show With Johnny Carson more than 50 times and appeared regularly on This is Tom Jones.
Willard was born in 1939 and raised in Shaker Heights, Ohio. His father, also named Fred Willard, worked at the financial department of a bank. His father died in 1951. Willard is a former U.S. soldier, having graduated from the Kentucky Military Institute and the Virginia Military Institute. After his tour in the Army, in 1962, Willard and pal Vic Greco formed a comedy act that was funny and successful enough to earn them an appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show. The duo appeared at the hungry i in San Francisco. Willard auditioned alongside Robert Klein for The Second City, portraying a nightclub manager and his employee. The audition helped the two secure the job. He starred off - Broadway in Jules Feiffer 's Little Murders, directed by Alan Arkin. He was a founding member of the improvisational comedy group Ace Trucking Company. Fellow members of Ace included Michael Mislove, Bill Saluga, George Memmoli, and Patti Deutsch. They appeared regularly on This is Tom Jones.
Willard 's film debut was in the 1967 exploitation film Teenage Mother. In a brief interview on the DVD extras of the 2007 documentary film Heckler, Willard reports that the audience at one screening of the film booed when his character interrupted an attempted sexual assault of the female lead character.
Willard achieved wider fame in 1977 and ' 78 as Martin Mull 's sidekick and announcer, "Jerry Hubbard '', on the Mary Hartman, Mary Hartman spinoffs Fernwood 2 Night, Forever Fernwood, and America 2 - Night, which parodied the nighttime talk shows of the day. He was an original cast member of the NBC series Real People in 1979 and again from 1981 to 1983. He played Tom Osbourne in the 1987 Academy Award -- winning short film, Ray 's Male Heterosexual Dance Hall. From 1987 to 1989, he starred as a bartender / straightman in Sid and Marty Krofft 's D.C. Follies, and was host to the Krofft puppets portraying political figures of the time. In 1990 Willard hosted the cable TV show Access America on the Ha! Comedy Network. As part of that show, he appeared September 21, 1990, on Episode # 7 of the cult public - access television show Decoupage with Summer Caprice. In 1995 Willard reunited with his Fernwood co-star playing Scott, the romantic partner of Mull 's character Leon Carp, on Roseanne. The couple married in the episode "December Bride, '' and Scott became a recurring character during the series ' final two seasons. That same year, Willard guest - starred in three episodes of Sister, Sister, starring Tia and Tamera Mowry; Willard played Carl Mitushka, a teacher at Roosevelt High who often spoke popular teenage slang terms in order to sound cool to his students. Willard guest - voiced a 1999 episode of The Simpsons titled "Sunday, Cruddy Sunday '' as Wally Kogen, a travel agent. From 2001 to 2002, he played the father of five children on Maybe It 's Me. He has also guest - starred in an episode of The Weird Al Show. He and Mull joined up again for the mockumentary The History of White People in America. He played Mayor Deebs in Roxanne, starring Steve Martin; his character 's line "I would rather be with the people of this town than with the finest people in the world '' has been widely quoted.
His most recent notable work has been in Christopher Guest films, such as A Mighty Wind, in which he played "Mike LaFontaine, '' a character known for his catchphrase, "Eh? Wha ' happened? ''; Best in Show, in which he portrayed "Buck Laughlin, '' a dog show announcer who offered up an unending stream of bad jokes and off - color comments; Waiting for Guffman, in which he played "Ron Albertson, '' a travel agent who performs in amateur stage productions with his wife; This Is Spinal Tap, in which he played a lieutenant on the military base where Spinal Tap play; and For Your Consideration as an obnoxious entertainment television show anchor. For his performance in Waiting for Guffman he received an American Comedy Award nomination and a Screen Actors Guild nomination for Funniest Supporting Actor. He received the Boston Film Critics Award, an American Comedy Award, a Sierra Award and a tribute from AFI for his portrayal as Buck Laughlin in Best in Show. He also appeared in American Wedding, and as KVWN news director Ed Harken in Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy.
Willard had a recurring role as "Hank MacDougall '' on the later seasons of CBS 's Everybody Loves Raymond. He was nominated for an Emmy Award for this role in 2003, 2004, and 2005. Willard was also the host of a VH1 documentary series called Totally Obsessed about people obsessed with their hobbies. He appears as "Captain Ribmanman '' in Episode 21 of Channel Frederator, a podcast from Kansas. Willard also landed a role on Family Guy as Dave Campbell, the father of a nudist family (first appearing in "From Method to Madness ''). It is unclear whether the role will be reprised. Willard also voiced "Officer Brown '' in King of the Hill and made an appearance on That ' 70s Show. Willard appeared in 100 sketches on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, as a government official, businessman, or other authority figure named Willard J. Fredericks, who is always drinking. In 2006 he voiced Dad in the Academy Award - nominated animated film Monster House. He also hosted Saturday Night Live in 1978 (musical guest: Devo) and appeared twice on MADtv. Two years before this, he made a minor appearance in the movie Silver Streak as a bemused railroad train master.
He was the voice of a clueless companion to a lazy robot (Martin Mull) in one episode of the series Dexter 's Laboratory and guest - starred on the Adult Swim cartoon Tom Goes to the Mayor. He acted in the Cartoon Network movie Re-Animated and played Vala Mal Doran 's "father '' in an episode of Stargate SG - 1 in 2007. He appeared in an episode of the Adult Swim program Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!. He has also starred as the "Boogie Man '' in an episode of The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy and reprised his role in the movie Billy & Mandy 's Big Boogey Adventure. His final appearance as "Boogey '' occurred in Billy & Mandy: Wrath of the Spider Queen. In 2007 he made a guest appearance on the children 's TV series Come on Over. He has also guest - starred on an episode of The Boondocks, providing the voice of "Joe Petto. '' In 2008 he guest starred on Transformers Animated as the Decepticon arms dealer Swindle.
Willard was cast as a sportscaster in the television series Back to You, which premiered on the Fox Network on September 19, 2007. He also made an appearance in the 2007 sci - fi comedy I 'll Believe You, and he plays Shelby Forthright, the CEO of the Buy ' n ' Large Corporation, in the first ever live - action speaking segments by Pixar in the animated film WALL - E.
Willard completed a sold - out run of Fred Willard: Alone At Last!, advertised as a "one - man show '' but actually featuring a cast of ten, and received Los Angeles Artistic Director Awards for Best Comedy and Best Production. Willard has several stage roles to his credit, including Off - Broadway performances in Little Murders, directed by Alan Arkin, and Arf, directed by Richard Benjamin. His regional roles include Call Me Madam in Chicago and the musicals Promises, Promises, with Jason Alexander, and Anything Goes with Rachel York, both in Los Angeles. He starred in Wendy Wasserstein 's Is n't It Romantic and off Broadway in Elvis and Juliet. He has completed a RiffTrax with Michael J. Nelson for the movie Missile to the Moon.
He was seen roasting William Shatner in the Comedy Central special The Comedy Central Roast of William Shatner on August 12, 2006. Also at the roast was George Takei, with whom Willard performed in the improv show Thank God You 're Here.
Willard is the voice of the character "Ed Warmer '' in the PlayStation Portable game Hot Brain.
In 2007 Willard took the role of "Aslo '' in Epic Movie.
Willard was part of the one - night celebrity - performed staging of Howard Ashman 's unproduced musical Dreamstuff. The musical was reimagined by Ashman 's partners Marsha Malamet and Dennis Green and performed one night only at Los Angeles 's Hayworth Theatre as part of the Bruno Kirby celebrity reading series, directed by Ugly Betty 's Michael Urie. Willard starred in the show alongside Eden Espinosa, Vicki Lewis, David Blue, and Luke Macfarlane.
On October 5, 2008, he hosted the Nickelodeon Fido Awards.
In 2009 he played Mr Ferguson in Youth in Revolt starring Michael Cera.
Willard played Frank Dunphy, father of Phil (Ty Burrell), in several episodes of the show Modern Family. For his performance, he was nominated at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series.
On September 16, 2011, Willard was honored as Pioneer in Comedy at Burbank International Film Festival. Willard was also hired as the LaQuinta spokesperson for a series of commercials airing in 2012.
In 2011 Willard appeared in a movie called 12 Wishes of Christmas with Elisa Donovan, Gabrielle Carteris, and Sarah Thompson.
In 2012 he played Al Kaiser in the Rob Reiner film The Magic of Belle Isle starring Morgan Freeman and Virginia Madsen.
In July 2012 Willard served as host for the PBS series Market Warriors, described as a nationwide treasure hunt along the lines of American Pickers, but was dropped after his 2012 arrest for indecent exposure.
He completed The Birder starring Tom Cavanagh, opening in 2013. A mild - mannered birder seeks revenge on a younger rival, after losing the highly coveted Head of Ornithology position at the National Park.
Willard joined Ed Begley Jr. and Michael McKean for the HBO documentary - style comedy Family Tree from Christopher Guest.
In 2013 he played the role of "Alter Pierce '' in one of Abed 's happy places on the season - four premiere episode "History 101 '' of Community.
Willard made an appearance on the second season of Celebrity Family Feud playing against actor Kevin McHale.
Pacific Pioneer Broadcasters presented Willard with the Art Gilmore Career Achievement Award at their celebrity luncheon on June 19, 2015.
Willard introduced Danny Kaye 's movie The Court Jester at the TCM Festival in 2017. He expressed his lifelong admiration for Danny Kaye.
For his considerable, ongoing dedication to charity works with various nonprofits Big Brothers / Big Sisters, Fred and his wife, Mary, were honored in 2010 with the Golden Star Award. Fred was also honored by Actors and Others for Animals with the Man of The Year Award in 2008, and the couple also works with City of Hope, John Wayne Cancer Society, PETA and dozens more, Fred received a commendation from the City of Los Angeles and Mayor Antonio Villaraigarosa for "outstanding humanitarian and philanthropic work helps to further the goal of making the City of Los Angeles a better place. ''
Willard married his wife, Mary in 1968. They have one daughter: Hope (b. 1969) and a grandson Freddie (b. 1997).
On July 18, 2012, Willard was arrested in Hollywood for "engaging in a lewd act '' in an adult movie theater. PBS fired Willard from Market Warriors immediately following his arrest, and Mark L. Walberg replaced him on the show. In an appearance on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon shortly thereafter, Willard stated that the incident was "very painful '' and "very embarrassing, '' but that he "did nothing wrong. '' Willard was ultimately not charged, but was required to take a $380 sex education diversion program.
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who has the most ranking titles in snooker | List of Snooker Players by number of ranking titles - wikipedia
This is a list of professional snooker players ordered by the number of "ranking titles '' they have won. A ranking title is a tournament which counts towards the snooker world rankings. World rankings were introduced in 1976 / 77, initially based on the results from the previous three World Championships. The first ranking event was thus the 1974 World Championship, won by Ray Reardon.
In 1992 / 93 and from the 2010 / 11 to the 2015 / 16 season there were a number of tournaments which contribute to the world rankings but at a lower rate than standard ranking tournaments. Wins in these tournaments are referred to as "minor - ranking titles ''. All the minor - ranking tournaments from 2010 to 2016 were part of the Players Tour Championship.
Stephen Hendry holds the record for the most ranking titles with 36.
As of the end of the 2017 / 18 there had been a total of 324 ranking events and a further 69 minor - ranking events.
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color me bad i wanna sext you up | I Wanna Sex you up - wikipedia
"I Wanna Sex You Up '' is a song recorded by American group Color Me Badd. The song was released in March 1991 as the lead single from their debut album C.M.B. (1991). The song was produced by Dr. Freeze and was also featured on the soundtrack to the 1991 film New Jack City.
The single achieved commercial success in the United States, United Kingdom and New Zealand, where it reached number one on the charts. It spent four weeks at position number two on the US Billboard Hot 100, but topped both the Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs and Dance Club Songs charts.
The song spent three weeks at number one on the UK Singles Chart and reached number two on the Billboard Hot 100, behind both "More Than Words '' by Extreme and "Rush Rush '' by Paula Abdul. It was the 10th best - selling single of 1991 in the UK and the Number 2 song of the year in the US, and in 1992 the song won the group a Soul Train Music Award for Best R&B / Soul Single, Group, Band or Duo and Soul Train Music Award for Best R&B / Soul Song of the Year. It was ranked # 40 on Blender 's list of the "50 Worst Songs Ever '' and VH1 's "100 Greatest Songs of the 90s ''.
The "to the tick tock ya do n't stop '' soundbite is sampled from Doug E. Fresh 's "La Di Da Di. '' The bassline and the "I know you not gon na sing that song! '' soundbite are sampled from Betty Wright 's "Tonight is the Night. '' The chorus melody is from the Shuggie Otis song "Strawberry Letter 23 ''.
A sample of "I Wanna Sex You Up '' has been used in the Kardinal Beats remix of "Tick Tock '' by Lemar.
The song has been used in The Fresh Prince of Bel - Air, Two Guys, a Girl and a Pizza Place, and a 1991 episode of the daytime soap opera Days of Our Lives.
The music video played on an episode of Beavis & Butt - Head, in which Beavis calls Color Me Badd a "Super Suck Group '', referring to group members Sam Watters, Mark Calderon, and Bryan Abrams as Kenny G, George Michael, and Snow respectively. Butt - Head also commented that if he "sang like a wuss '' that he would get chicks.
It was performed by members of the Glee cast in the episode "Acafellas '', and subsequently released as a bonus track on Glee: The Music, Volume 1, which was sold at Target.
Jimmy Fallon 's The Ragtime Gals did a barbershop quarter rendition of the song for Late Night (NBC).
Gabriel "Fluffy '' Iglesias did the song during an episode of Lip Sync Battle.
The alternate hit version also appeared on the New Jack City soundtrack.
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when do they stop selling beer in michigan | List of alcohol laws of the United states - wikipedia
The following table of alcohol laws of the United States provides an overview of alcohol - related laws by first level jurisdictions throughout the US. This list is not intended to provide a breakdown of such laws by local jurisdiction within a state; see that state 's alcohol laws page for more detailed information.
On July 17, 1984, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act. The bill would force all states to raise their drinking age from 18, 19, or 20 to 21. States that did not choose to raise their drinking age to 21 would risk losing 8 % (10 % before 2012) of federal highway funding as a penalty. As of July 1988, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had a minimum purchase age of 21, with some grandfather clauses, and with the exception of Louisiana 's complicated legal situation that was not resolved until July 2, 1996. Prior to 1988, the minimum purchase age varied by jurisdiction. After Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act in July 1984, states not in compliance had a portion of their federal highway budget withheld. South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply, in mid-1988. However, most states continue to allow those under 21 to drink in certain circumstances. Examples are some states like Tennessee and Washington, which allow those under 21 to drink for religious purposes. States including Oregon and New York allow those under 21 to drink on private non-alcohol selling premises.
Unlike on the mainland, the U.S. territories of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands have a minimum purchase and drinking age of 18. The minimum purchase age is 21 in the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and US Minor Outlying Islands.
U.S. military reservations are exempt under federal law from state, county, and locally enacted alcohol beverage laws. Class Six stores in a base exchange facility, officers ' or NCO clubs, as well as other military commissaries which are located on a military reservation, may sell and serve alcohol beverages at any time during their prescribed hours of operation to authorized patrons. While the installation commander is free to set the drinking age, with some exceptions, most stateside military bases have a drinking age that mirrors the local community.
Individual states remain free to restrict or prohibit the manufacture of beer, mead, hard cider, wine, and other fermented alcoholic beverages at home. Homebrewing beer became legal in all 50 states in 2013 as the governor of Mississippi signed a bill legalizing homebrewing on March 19, 2013 and as the governor of Alabama signed a bill legalizing homebrewing of beer and wine which came into effect on May 9, 2013. The Mississippi bill went into effect July 1, 2013. Most states allow brewing 100 US gallons (380 L) of beer per adult per year and up to a maximum of 200 US gallons (760 L) per household annually when there are two or more adults residing in the household. Because alcohol is taxed by the federal government via excise taxes, homebrewers are prohibited from selling any beer they brew. This similarly applies in most Western countries. In 1979, President Jimmy Carter signed into law a bill allowing home beers, which was at the time not permitted without paying the excise taxes as a holdover from the prohibition of alcoholic beverages (repealed in 1933). This change also exempted home brewers from posting a "penal bond '' (which is currently $1000.00).
Production of distilled alcohols is regulated at the National level under USC Title 26 subtitle E Ch51. Numerous requirements must be met to do so and production carries an excise tax. Owning or operating a distillation apparatus without filing the proper paperwork and paying the taxes carries federal criminal penalties.
In land or property that is being rented or owned by the federal government, state, territory, and federal district alcohol laws do not apply. Instead, only laws made by the federal government apply.
Distilled spirits (liquor) are purchasable in either state - owned retail liquor stores, known as ABC Stores, or privately - owned retail liquor stores. Privately - owned retail liquor stores tend to be open on Sundays, public (federal & state) holidays, and later hours than state - owned liquor stores.
3.2 beer: 5 a.m. - midnight
Beer can be purchased at grocery / convenience stores. Spirits and wine can be purchased only at liquor stores.
No off - premises alcohol sales on Thanksgiving, Christmas Day, and New Year 's Day.
Open container law applies only to drivers, not passengers.
8 a.m. -- 3 a.m. Fri. -- Sat.
9 a.m. -- midnight daily * Grocery Stores: 9 a.m. - 12 a.m. daily
No singles sold, but stores in some areas may apply for an exemption. Certain wards may be made dry by the decision of the local ANC, but as of 2005 none are The day before a federal or district holiday, on - premises retailers may sell / serve from 8 a.m. - 3 a.m. On New Yer 's Eve, on - premises retailers may sell / serve until 4 a.m. on January 1.
No retail sale of wine in containers larger than 1 gallon. FS 564.05 Supermarkets and other licensed business establishments may sell beer, low - alcohol liquors, and wine. Liquor must be sold in dedicated liquor stores which may be in a separate part of a grocery or a drug store. As of July 1, 2015, the restriction on 64 ounce refillable containers, or growlers, has been lifted and beer may be sold in quantities of 64 ounces, in addition to the previously legal 32 and 128 ounce sizes.
Sunday off - premises sales from 12: 30 p.m. to 11: 30 p.m. allowed only by local referendum. In general, one may not be drunk in public. Though there is no state law prohibiting drinking in public, most municipal corporations and political subdivisions limit the possession of open containers of alcohol to private property, with notable exceptions being Savannah and Roswell. A charge of public drunkenness is only warranted when one is drunk in public and his acts are either loud or disorderly.
Minors, including babies, are not allowed to enter a liquor store.
Indiana has a photo identification requirement for all off - premises transactions to anyone who is or reasonably appears to be less than forty (40) years of age. (See IC 7.1 - 5 - 10 - 23).
Public intoxication is a class B misdemeanor. (IC 7.1 - 5 - 1 - 3)
Alcohol sale restriction and wet / dry (both by drink and package) allowed by both county and city local option. Approximately 39 counties in the state (mostly eastern and southern counties) are dry, all alcohol sale and possession prohibited; 22 "moist '' counties (with "wet '' cities allowing package liquor sales in counties otherwise dry); 29 counties that are otherwise dry but have communities with local option that allow sales of liquor by the drink or under special exemptions allowing sales at wineries. Majority of wet counties are around major metropolitan areas (Louisville, Lexington, Covington, Bowling Green). Note: Beginning in 2013 Liquor by the drink and beer by the drink are available on Sundays in Louisville, KY beginning at 10: 00 am. Bowling Green, KY recently began allowing Sunday sales in December 2013 for carry - out beer, wine, and liquor. Prohibition on liquor sales on Election Day was repealed effective June 24, 2013. Kentucky was one of only two states to still have Election Day prohibition, the other being South Carolina.
For an established religious purpose; When a person under twenty - one years of age is accompanied by a parent, spouse, or legal guardian twenty - one years of age or older; For medical purposes when purchased as an over the counter medication, or when prescribed or administered by a licensed physician, pharmacist, dentist, nurse, hospital, or medical institution; In a private residence, which shall include a residential dwelling and up to twenty contiguous acres, on which the dwelling is located, owned by the same person who owns the dwelling; The sale, handling, transport, or service in dispensing of any alcoholic beverage pursuant to lawful ownership of an establishment or to lawful employment of a person under twenty - one years of age by a duly licensed manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer of beverage alcohol.
Alcohol can be consumed in the streets of New Orleans as long as it is in an "unbreakable container '' (no glass) and may be taken from club to club if both establishments allow it. Otherwise, it depends on the locality. Most parishes other than Orleans Parish do not permit alcoholic beverages served on premises to be carried out. However, many parishes and municipalities permit consumption of packaged beverages (for example, cans of beer) on the street. Glass bottles on the streets are prohibited. One can enter most bars at 18 years of age but must be 21 years old to purchase or consume alcohol. Also, it is legal in the state of Louisiana for a legal parent or guardian to purchase alcoholic beverages for their underaged child.
Drive - thru frozen daiquiri stands are legal and common, but the police can arrest you for driving with an open container, if you have put the straw in the cup
noon - 2 a.m. (Sunday) * sales may begin at 7 a.m. with special license extension
noon - 2 a.m. (Sunday) * sales may begin at 7 a.m. with special license extension,
11: 00 a.m. - 6: 00 p.m. (Sun)
No sales on Christmas Day. No state open container laws. Complimentary alcohol all day and night in coastal casinos. In most counties, alcohol can not be sold on Sundays. There are many dry counties in which it is illegal to possess alcoholic beverages, though some cities within dry counties have voted in beer sales.
(Mon -- Sat) 6: 00am -- 1: 30am
(Sunday) 9: 00am -- 12: 00pm
Special licenses in Kansas City and St. Louis:
(Daily) 6: 00am -- 3: 00am
(Sunday) 9: 00am -- 12: 00am
Sales permitted until 3: 00 am in those Kansas City and St. Louis bars grandfathered into the ability to double as liquor stores.
Missouri law recognizes two types of alcoholic beverage: liquor, which is any beverage containing more than 0.5 % alcohol except "non-intoxicating beer ''; and "non-intoxicating beer, '' which is beer containing between 0.5 % and 3.2 % alcohol. Liquor laws apply to all liquor, and special laws apply to "non-intoxicating beer. ''
State law also renders public intoxication legal, and explicitly prohibits any local or state law from making it a public offence. Alcohol purchase is only controlled in Panaca.
Though there is not a ban on selling alcoholic beverages at grocery stores, New Jersey limits each chain to two licenses, so with only a few exceptions, most supermarkets / convenience stores / gas stations / pharmacies do not sell alcoholic beverages. In addition, liquor sales are only permitted in a separate department or attached sister store. Bars are allowed to off - sale packaged goods. With the exception of Jersey City and Newark, all municipalities MUST allow off - sales of beer and wine at any time on - sales are permitted. However, since alcoholic beverages are generally only found in package stores, this right is rarely exercised. Alcoholic beverages by the drink as well as off - sales of beer and wine are permitted 24 hours a day in Atlantic City and Brigantine.
7 a.m. -- 11 p.m., except Sundays, for restaurants with beer and wine license.
Some counties may retain the Sunday morning beer prohibition which the state discontinued as of July 30, 2006. Twelve dry towns, mostly in western region of state. Many counties have more restrictive off - premises hours, such as bans on beer sales overnight (hours vary). All liquor stores must be owned by a single owner, who owns that store and lives within a certain distance of it -- effectively banning chain liquor stores from the state. New York City law does not allow open containers of alcohol in public.
Beverages with less than 0.5 % ABV can be sold / given to people under the age of eighteen if given by a physician in the regular line of his practice or given for established religious purposes, or the underage person is accompanied by a parent, spouse who is not an underage person, or legal guardian.
9 a.m. -- 10 p.m. (Mon -- Sat) Noon -- 5 p.m. (Sun)
Grocery Stores:
7 a.m. - 10 p.m. (Mon -
Sat)
9 a.m. - 10pm
(Sun)
Beer (but not wine) to go can be purchased at beverage outlets in any quantity. Prior to 2015 beverage centers could only sell 24 pack cases or greater. The rules were relaxed to permit sales of beer in any quantity in 2016.
* Beer and wine to go can be purchased in restaurants and grocery stores (at a separate point of purchase for alcohol and prepared foods sales in grocery stores) (six and 12 packs / 192oz max. purchase (two six packs)) with Liquor Control Board -- issued licenses
Sunday sales were prohibited in LCB stores until 2003 (selected locations) and beverage outlets (owner 's option) until 2005.
Special permits may be purchased for certain organizations for fundraisers once per calendar year, and are valid for a total of six days under the same rules governing restaurants. Grain alcohol prohibited as a beverage.
Liquor: Mon - Sat: 8 am - Midnight, Sun: Prohibited
Nonalcoholic beer is not regulated by state law.
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a written statement of ethical values embraced by an organization is often known as what | Business ethics - wikipedia
Business ethics (also known as corporate ethics) is a form of applied ethics or professional ethics, that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that can arise in a business environment. It applies to all aspects of business conduct and is relevant to the conduct of individuals and entire organizations. These ethics originate from individuals, organizational statements or from the legal system. These norms, values, ethical, and unethical practices are what is used to guide business. They help those businesses maintain a better connection with their stakeholders.
Business ethics refers to contemporary organizational standards, principles, sets of values and norms that govern the actions and behavior of an individual in the business organization. Business ethics have two dimensions, normative business ethics or descriptive business ethics. As a corporate practice and a career specialization, the field is primarily normative. Academics attempting to understand business behavior employ descriptive methods. The range and quantity of business ethical issues reflects the interaction of profit - maximizing behavior with non-economic concerns.
Interest in business ethics accelerated dramatically during the 1980s and 1990s, both within major corporations and within academia. For example, most major corporations today promote their commitment to non-economic values under headings such as ethics codes and social responsibility charters.
Adam Smith said, "People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices. '' Governments use laws and regulations to point business behavior in what they perceive to be beneficial directions. Ethics implicitly regulates areas and details of behavior that lie beyond governmental control. The emergence of large corporations with limited relationships and sensitivity to the communities in which they operate accelerated the development of formal ethics regimes.
Maintaining an ethical status is the responsibility of the manager of the business. According to the Journal of Business Ethics "Managing ethical behavior is one of the most pervasive and complex problems facing business organizations today ''
Business ethics reflect the norms of each historical period. As time passes, norms evolve, causing accepted behaviors to become objectionable. Business ethics and the resulting behavior evolved as well. Business was involved in slavery, colonialism, and the cold war.
The term ' business ethics ' came into common use in the United States in the early 1970s. By the mid-1980s at least 500 courses in business ethics reached 40,000 students, using some twenty textbooks and at least ten casebooks supported by professional societies, centers and journals of business ethics. The Society for Business Ethics was founded in 1980. European business schools adopted business ethics after 1987 commencing with the European Business Ethics Network. In 1982 the first single - authored books in the field appeared.
Firms began highlighting their ethical stature in the late 1980s and early 1990s, possibly in an attempt to distance themselves from the business scandals of the day, such as the savings and loan crisis. The concept of business ethics caught the attention of academics, media and business firms by the end of the Cold War. However, criticism of business practices was attacked for infringing the freedom of entrepreneurs and critics were accused of supporting communists. This scuttled the discourse of business ethics both in media and academia. The Defense Industry Initiative on Business Ethics and Conduct (DII) was created to support corporate ethical conduct. This era began the belief and support of self - regulation and free trade, which lifted tariffs and barriers and allowed businesses to merge and divest in an increasing global atmosphere.
One of the earliest written treatments of business ethics is found in the Tirukkuṛaḷ, a Tamil book dated variously from 300 BCE to 7th century CE and attributed to Thiruvalluvar. Many verses discuss business ethics, in particular verse 113, adapting to a changing environment in verses 474, 426, and 140, learning the intricacies of different tasks in verses 462 and 677.
Business ethics reflects the philosophy of business, of which one aim is to determine the fundamental purposes of a company. If a company 's purpose is to maximize shareholder returns, then sacrificing profits for other concerns is a violation of its fiduciary responsibility. Corporate entities are legally considered as persons in the United States and in most nations. The ' corporate persons ' are legally entitled to the rights and liabilities due to citizens as persons.
Ethics are the rules or standards that govern our decisions on a daily basis. Many consider "ethics '' with conscience or a simplistic sense of "right '' and "wrong. '' Others would say that ethics is an internal code that governs an individual 's conduct, ingrained into each person by family, faith, tradition, community, laws, and personal mores. Corporations and professional organizations, particularly licensing boards, generally will have a written "Code of Ethics '' that governs standards of professional conduct expected of all in the field. It is important to note that "law '' and "ethics '' are not synonymous, nor are the "legal '' and "ethical '' courses of action in a given situation necessarily the same. Statutes and regulations passed by legislative bodies and administrative boards set forth the "law. '' Slavery once was legal in the US, but one certainly would n't say enslaving another was an "ethical '' act.
Economist Milton Friedman writes that corporate executives ' "responsibility... generally will be to make as much money as possible while conforming to their basic rules of the society, both those embodied in law and those embodied in ethical custom ''. Friedman also said, "the only entities who can have responsibilities are individuals... A business can not have responsibilities. So the question is, do corporate executives, provided they stay within the law, have responsibilities in their business activities other than to make as much money for their stockholders as possible? And my answer to that is, no, they do not. '' A multi-country 2011 survey found support for this view among the "informed public '' ranging from 30 to 80 %. Ronald Duska views Friedman 's argument as consequentialist rather than pragmatic, implying that unrestrained corporate freedom would benefit the most in long term. Similarly author business consultant Peter Drucker observed, "There is neither a separate ethics of business nor is one needed '', implying that standards of personal ethics cover all business situations. However, Peter Drucker in another instance observed that the ultimate responsibility of company directors is not to harm -- primum non nocere. Another view of business is that it must exhibit corporate social responsibility (CSR): an umbrella term indicating that an ethical business must act as a responsible citizen of the communities in which it operates even at the cost of profits or other goals. In the US and most other nations corporate entities are legally treated as persons in some respects. For example, they can hold title to property, sue and be sued and are subject to taxation, although their free speech rights are limited. This can be interpreted to imply that they have independent ethical responsibilities. Duska argues that stakeholders have the right to expect a business to be ethical; if business has no ethical obligations, other institutions could make the same claim which would be counterproductive to the corporation.
Ethical issues include the rights and duties between a company and its employees, suppliers, customers and neighbors, its fiduciary responsibility to its shareholders. Issues concerning relations between different companies include hostile take - overs and industrial espionage. Related issues include corporate governance; corporate social entrepreneurship; political contributions; legal issues such as the ethical debate over introducing a crime of corporate manslaughter; and the marketing of corporations ' ethics policies. According to IBE / Ipsos MORI research published in late 2012, the three major areas of public concern regarding business ethics in Britain are executive pay, corporate tax avoidance and bribery and corruption.
Ethical standards of an entire organization can be damaged if a corporate psychopath is in charge. This will not only affect the company and its outcome but the employees who work under a corporate psychopath. The way a corporate psychopath can rise in a company is by their manipulation, scheming, and bullying. They do this in a way that can hide their true character and intentions within a company.
Fundamentally, finance is a social science discipline. The discipline borders behavioral economics, sociology, economics, accounting and management. It concerns technical issues such as the mix of debt and equity, dividend policy, the evaluation of alternative investment projects, options, futures, swaps, and other derivatives, portfolio diversification and many others. Finance is often mistaken by the people to be a discipline free from ethical burdens. The 2008 financial crisis caused critics to challenge the ethics of the executives in charge of U.S. and European financial institutions and financial regulatory bodies. Finance ethics is overlooked for another reason -- issues in finance are often addressed as matters of law rather than ethics.
Aristotle said, "the end and purpose of the polis is the good life ''. Adam Smith characterized the good life in terms of material goods and intellectual and moral excellences of character. Smith in his The Wealth of Nations commented, "All for ourselves, and nothing for other people, seems, in every age of the world, to have been the vile maxim of the masters of mankind. ''
However, a section of economists influenced by the ideology of neoliberalism, interpreted the objective of economics to be maximization of economic growth through accelerated consumption and production of goods and services. Neoliberal ideology promoted finance from its position as a component of economics to its core. Proponents of the ideology hold that unrestricted financial flows, if redeemed from the shackles of "financial repressions '', best help impoverished nations to grow. The theory holds that open financial systems accelerate economic growth by encouraging foreign capital inflows, thereby enabling higher levels of savings, investment, employment, productivity and "welfare '', along with containing corruption. Neoliberals recommended that governments open their financial systems to the global market with minimal regulation over capital flows. The recommendations however, met with criticisms from various schools of ethical philosophy. Some pragmatic ethicists, found these claims to be unfalsifiable and a priori, although neither of these makes the recommendations false or unethical per se. Raising economic growth to the highest value necessarily means that welfare is subordinate, although advocates dispute this saying that economic growth provides more welfare than known alternatives. Since history shows that neither regulated nor unregulated firms always behave ethically, neither regime offers an ethical panacea.
Neoliberal recommendations to developing countries to unconditionally open up their economies to transnational finance corporations was fiercely contested by some ethicists. The claim that deregulation and the opening up of economies would reduce corruption was also contested.
Dobson observes, "a rational agent is simply one who pursues personal material advantage ad infinitum. In essence, to be rational in finance is to be individualistic, materialistic, and competitive. Business is a game played by individuals, as with all games the object is to win, and winning is measured in terms solely of material wealth. Within the discipline this rationality concept is never questioned, and has indeed become the theory - of - the - firm 's sine qua non ''. Financial ethics is in this view a mathematical function of shareholder wealth. Such simplifying assumptions were once necessary for the construction of mathematically robust models. However, signalling theory and agency theory extended the paradigm to greater realism.
Fairness in trading practices, trading conditions, financial contracting, sales practices, consultancy services, tax payments, internal audit, external audit and executive compensation also, fall under the umbrella of finance and accounting. Particular corporate ethical / legal abuses include: creative accounting, earnings management, misleading financial analysis, insider trading, securities fraud, bribery / kickbacks and facilitation payments. Outside of corporations, bucket shops and forex scams are criminal manipulations of financial markets. Cases include accounting scandals, Enron, WorldCom and Satyam.
Human resource management occupies the sphere of activity of recruitment selection, orientation, performance appraisal, training and development, industrial relations and health and safety issues. Business Ethicists differ in their orientation towards labor ethics. Some assess human resource policies according to whether they support an egalitarian workplace and the dignity of labor.
Issues including employment itself, privacy, compensation in accord with comparable worth, collective bargaining (and / or its opposite) can be seen either as inalienable rights or as negotiable. Discrimination by age (preferring the young or the old), gender / sexual harassment, race, religion, disability, weight and attractiveness. A common approach to remedying discrimination is affirmative action.
Once hired, employees have the right to occasional cost of living increases, as well as raises based on merit. Promotions, however, are not a right, and there are often fewer openings than qualified applicants. It may seem unfair if an employee who has been with a company longer is passed over for a promotion, but it is not unethical. It is only unethical if the employer did not give the employee proper consideration or used improper criteria for the promotion. Each employer should know the distinction between what is unethical and what is illegal. If an action is illegal it is breaking the law but if an action seems morally incorrect that is unethical. In the workplace what is unethical does not mean illegal and should follow the guidelines put in place by OSHA, EEOC, and other law binding entities.
Potential employees have ethical obligations to employers, involving intellectual property protection and whistle - blowing.
Employers must consider workplace safety, which may involve modifying the workplace, or providing appropriate training or hazard disclosure. This differentiates on the location and type of work that is taking place and can needs to comply with the standards to protect employees and non-employees under workplace safety.
Larger economic issues such as immigration, trade policy, globalization and trade unionism affect workplaces and have an ethical dimension, but are often beyond the purview of individual companies.
Trade Unions for example, may push employers to establish due process for workers, but may also cause job loss by demanding unsustainable compensation and work rules.
Unionized workplaces may confront union busting and strike breaking and face the ethical implications of work rules that advantage some workers over others.
Among the many people management strategies that companies employ are a "soft '' approach that regards employees as a source of creative energy and participants in workplace decision making, a "hard '' version explicitly focused on control and Theory Z that emphasizes philosophy, culture and consensus. None ensure ethical behavior. Some studies claim that sustainable success requires a humanely treated and satisfied workforce.
Marketing ethics came of age only as late as the 1990s. Marketing ethics was approached from ethical perspectives of virtue or virtue ethics, deontology, consequentialism, pragmatism and relativism.
Ethics in marketing deals with the principles, values and / or ideals by which marketers (and marketing institutions) ought to act. Marketing ethics is also contested terrain, beyond the previously described issue of potential conflicts between profitability and other concerns. Ethical marketing issues include marketing redundant or dangerous products / services transparency about environmental risks, transparency about product ingredients such as genetically modified organisms possible health risks, financial risks, security risks, etc., respect for consumer privacy and autonomy, advertising truthfulness and fairness in pricing & distribution.
According to Borgerson, and Schroeder (2008), marketing can influence individuals ' perceptions of and interactions with other people, implying an ethical responsibility to avoid distorting those perceptions and interactions.
Marketing ethics involves pricing practices, including illegal actions such as price fixing and legal actions including price discrimination and price skimming. Certain promotional activities have drawn fire, including greenwashing, bait and switch, shilling, viral marketing, spam (electronic), pyramid schemes and multi-level marketing. Advertising has raised objections about attack ads, subliminal messages, sex in advertising and marketing in schools.
Being the most important element of a business, stakeholders ' main concern is to determine whether or not the business is behaving ethically or unethically. The business ' actions and decisions should be primarily ethical before it happens to become an ethical or even legal issue. "In the case of the government, community, and society what was merely an ethical issue can become a legal debate and eventually law. '' Some unethical issues are:
1. Fairness The three aspects that motivate people to be fair is; equality, optimization, and reciprocity. Fairness is the quality of being just, equitable, and impartial.
2. Misuse of company 's times & Resources This particular topic may not seems to be a very common one, but it is very important, as it costs a company billions of dollars on a yearly basis. This misuse is from late arrivals, leaving early, long lunch breaks, inappropriate sick days etc. This has been observed as a major form of misconduct in businesses today. One of the greatest ways employees participate in misuse of company 's time and resources is by using the company computer for personal use.
3. Consumer Fraud There are many different types of fraud, namely; friendly fraud, return fraud, wardrobing, price arbitrage, returning stolen goods. Fraud is a major unethical practice within businesses which should be paid special attention. Consumer fraud is when consumers attempt to deceive businesses for their very own benefit.
4. Abusive Behavior A common ethical issue among employees. Abusive behavior consists of inflicting intimidating acts on other employees. Such acts include harassing, using profanity, threatening someone physically and insulting them, and being annoying.
This area of business ethics usually deals with the duties of a company to ensure that products and production processes do not needlessly cause harm. Since few goods and services can be produced and consumed with zero risk, determining the ethical course can be problematic. In some case consumers demand products that harm them, such as tobacco products. Production may have environmental impacts, including pollution, habitat destruction and urban sprawl. The downstream effects of technologies nuclear power, genetically modified food and mobile phones may not be well understood. While the precautionary principle may prohibit introducing new technology whose consequences are not fully understood, that principle would have prohibited most new technology introduced since the industrial revolution. Product testing protocols have been attacked for violating the rights of both humans and animals. With technology growing there are sources and websites that provide list and information on companies and business and that are "green '' or do not test on animals. These companies often advertise this and are growing in popularity among the younger generations.
The etymological root of property is the Latin ' proprius ' which refers to ' nature ', ' quality ', ' one 's own ', ' special characteristic ', ' proper ', ' intrinsic ', ' inherent ', ' regular ', ' normal ', ' genuine ', ' thorough, complete, perfect ' etc. The word property is value loaded and associated with the personal qualities of propriety and respectability, also implies questions relating to ownership. A ' proper ' person owns and is true to herself or himself, and is thus genuine, perfect and pure.
Modern discourse on property emerged by the turn of the 17th century within theological discussions of that time. For instance, John Locke justified property rights saying that God had made "the earth, and all inferior creatures, (in) common to all men ''.
In 1802 Utilitarian Jeremy Bentham stated, "property and law are born together and die together ''.
One argument for property ownership is that it enhances individual liberty by extending the line of non-interference by the state or others around the person. Seen from this perspective, property right is absolute and property has a special and distinctive character that precedes its legal protection. Blackstone conceptualized property as the "sole and despotic dominion which one man claims and exercises over the external things of the world, in total exclusion of the right of any other individual in the universe ''.
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, slavery spread to European colonies including America, where colonial legislatures defined the legal status of slaves as a form of property. During this time settlers began the centuries - long process of dispossessing the natives of America of millions of acres of land. The natives lost about 200,000 square miles (520,000 km) of land in the Louisiana Territory under the leadership of Thomas Jefferson, who championed property rights.
Combined with theological justification, property was taken to be essentially natural ordained by God. Property, which later gained meaning as ownership and appeared natural to Locke, Jefferson and to many of the 18th and 19th century intellectuals as land, labour or idea and property right over slaves had the same theological and essentialized justification It was even held that the property in slaves was a sacred right. Wiecek noted, "slavery was more clearly and explicitly established under the Constitution as it had been under the Articles ''. Accordingly, US Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney in his 1857 judgment stated, "The right of property in a slave is distinctly and expressly affirmed in the Constitution ''.
Neoliberals hold that private property rights are a non-negotiable natural right. Davies counters with "property is no different from other legal categories in that it is simply a consequence of the significance attached by law to the relationships between legal persons. '' Singer claims, "Property is a form of power, and the distribution of power is a political problem of the highest order ''. Rose finds, "' Property ' is only an effect, a construction, of relationships between people, meaning that its objective character is contestable. Persons and things, are ' constituted ' or ' fabricated ' by legal and other normative techniques. ''. Singer observes, "A private property regime is not, after all, a Hobbesian state of nature; it requires a working legal system that can define, allocate, and enforce property rights. '' Davis claims that common law theory generally favors the view that "property is not essentially a ' right to a thing ', but rather a separable bundle of rights subsisting between persons which may vary according to the context and the object which is at stake ''.
In common parlance property rights involve a ' bundle of rights ' including occupancy, use and enjoyment, and the right to sell, devise, give, or lease all or part of these rights. Custodians of property have obligations as well as rights. Michelman writes, "A property regime thus depends on a great deal of cooperation, trustworthiness, and self - restraint among the people who enjoy it. ''
Menon claims that the autonomous individual, responsible for his / her own existence is a cultural construct moulded by Western culture rather than the truth about the human condition. Penner views property as an "illusion '' -- a "normative phantasm '' without substance.
In the neoliberal literature, property is part of the private side of a public / private dichotomy and acts a counterweight to state power. Davies counters that "any space may be subject to plural meanings or appropriations which do not necessarily come into conflict ''.
Private property has never been a universal doctrine, although since the end of the Cold War is it has become nearly so. Some societies, e.g., Native American bands, held land, if not all property, in common. When groups came into conflict, the victor often appropriated the loser 's property. The rights paradigm tended to stabilize the distribution of property holdings on the presumption that title had been lawfully acquired.
Property does not exist in isolation, and so property rights too. Bryan claimed that property rights describe relations among people and not just relations between people and things Singer holds that the idea that owners have no legal obligations to others wrongly supposes that property rights hardly ever conflict with other legally protected interests. Singer continues implying that legal realists "did not take the character and structure of social relations as an important independent factor in choosing the rules that govern market life ''. Ethics of property rights begins with recognizing the vacuous nature of the notion of property.
Intellectual property (IP) encompasses expressions of ideas, thoughts, codes and information. "Intellectual property rights '' (IPR) treat IP as a kind of real property, subject to analogous protections, rather than as a reproducible good or service. Boldrin and Levine argue that "government does not ordinarily enforce monopolies for producers of other goods. This is because it is widely recognized that monopoly creates many social costs. Intellectual monopoly is no different in this respect. The question we address is whether it also, creates social benefits commensurate with these social costs. ''
International standards relating to Intellectual Property Rights are enforced through Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights. In the US, IP other than copyrights is regulated by the United States Patent and Trademark Office.
The US Constitution included the power to protect intellectual property, empowering the Federal government "to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries ''. Boldrin and Levine see no value in such state - enforced monopolies stating, "we ordinarily think of innovative monopoly as an oxymoron. Further they comment, ' intellectual property ' "is not like ordinary property at all, but constitutes a government grant of a costly and dangerous private monopoly over ideas. We show through theory and example that intellectual monopoly is not necessary for innovation and as a practical matter is damaging to growth, prosperity, and liberty ''. Steelman defends patent monopolies, writing, "Consider prescription drugs, for instance. Such drugs have benefited millions of people, improving or extending their lives. Patent protection enables drug companies to recoup their development costs because for a specific period of time they have the sole right to manufacture and distribute the products they have invented. '' The court cases by 39 pharmaceutical companies against South Africa 's 1997 Medicines and Related Substances Control Amendment Act, which intended to provide affordable HIV medicines has been cited as a harmful effect of patents.
One attack on IPR is moral rather than utilitarian, claiming that inventions are mostly a collective, cumulative, path dependent, social creation and therefore, no one person or firm should be able to monopolize them even for a limited period. The opposing argument is that the benefits of innovation arrive sooner when patents encourage innovators and their investors to increase their commitments. Roderick Long, a libertarian philosopher, observes, "Ethically, property rights of any kind have to be justified as extensions of the right of individuals to control their own lives. Thus any alleged property rights that conflict with this moral basis -- like the "right '' to own slaves -- are invalidated. In my judgment, intellectual property rights also fail to pass this test. To enforce copyright laws and the like is to prevent people from making peaceful use of the information they possess. If you have acquired the information legitimately (say, by buying a book), then on what grounds can you be prevented from using it, reproducing it, trading it? Is this not a violation of the freedom of speech and press? It may be objected that the person who originated the information deserves ownership rights over it. But information is not a concrete thing an individual can control; it is a universal, existing in other people 's minds and other people 's property, and over these the originator has no legitimate sovereignty. You can not own information without owning other people ". Machlup concluded that patents do not have the intended effect of enhancing innovation. Self - declared anarchist Proudhon, in his 1847 seminal work noted, "Monopoly is the natural opposite of competition, '' and continued, "Competition is the vital force which animates the collective being: to destroy it, if such a supposition were possible, would be to kill society ''
Mindeli and Pipiya hold that the knowledge economy is an economy of abundance because it relies on the "infinite potential '' of knowledge and ideas rather than on the limited resources of natural resources, labor and capital. Allison envisioned an egalitarian distribution of knowledge. Kinsella claims that IPR create artificial scarcity and reduce equality. Bouckaert wrote, "Natural scarcity is that which follows from the relationship between man and nature. Scarcity is natural when it is possible to conceive of it before any human, institutional, contractual arrangement. Artificial scarcity, on the other hand, is the outcome of such arrangements. Artificial scarcity can hardly serve as a justification for the legal framework that causes that scarcity. Such an argument would be completely circular. On the contrary, artificial scarcity itself needs a justification '' Corporations fund much IP creation and can acquire IP they do not create, to which Menon and others object. Andersen claims that IPR has increasingly become an instrument in eroding public domain.
Ethical and legal issues include: Patent infringement, copyright infringement, trademark infringement, patent and copyright misuse, submarine patents, biological patents, patent, copyright and trademark trolling, Employee raiding and monopolizing talent, Bioprospecting, biopiracy and industrial espionage, digital rights management.
Notable IP copyright cases include Napster, Eldred v. Ashcroft and Air Pirates.
While business ethics emerged as a field in the 1970s, international business ethics did not emerge until the late 1990s, looking back on the international developments of that decade. Many new practical issues arose out of the international context of business. Theoretical issues such as cultural relativity of ethical values receive more emphasis in this field. Other, older issues can be grouped here as well. Issues and subfields include:
The success of any business depends on its financial performance. Financial accounting helps the management to report and also, control the business performance.
The information regarding the financial performance of the company plays an important role in enabling people to take right decision about the company. Therefore, it becomes necessary to understand how to record based on accounting conventions and concepts ensure unambling and accurate records.
Foreign countries often use dumping as a competitive threat, selling products at prices lower than their normal value. This can lead to problems in domestic markets. It becomes difficult for these markets to compete with the pricing set by foreign markets. In 2009, the International Trade Commission has been researching anti-dumping laws. Dumping is often seen as an ethical issue, as larger companies are taking advantage of other less economically advanced companies.
Ethical issues often arise in business settings, whether through business transactions or forming new business relationships. An ethical issue in a business atmosphere may refer to any situation that requires business associates as individuals, or as a group (for example, a department or firm) to evaluate the morality of specific actions, and subsequently make a decision amongst the choices. Some ethical issues of particular concern in today 's evolving business market include such topics as: honesty, integrity, professional behaviors, environmental issues, harassment, and fraud to name a few. It is integral to the success of an organization that ethics issues such as these be properly addressed and resolved. Businesses should strive to educate themselves on these issues, and ethical practices in general. From a 2009 National Business Ethics survey, it was found that types of employee - observed ethical misconduct included abusive behavior (at a rate of 22 percent), discrimination (at a rate of 14 percent), improper hiring practices (at a rate of 10 percent), and company resource abuse (at a rate of percent).
The ethical issues associated with honesty are widespread and vary greatly in business, from the misuse of company time or resources to lying with malicious intent, engaging in bribery, or creating conflicts of interest within an organization. Honesty encompasses wholly the truthful speech and actions of an individual. Some cultures and belief systems even consider honesty to be an essential pillar of life, such as Confucianism and Buddhism (referred to as sacca, part of the Four Noble Truths). Many employees lie in order to reach goals, avoid assignments or negative issues; however, sacrificing honesty in order to gain status or reap rewards poses potential problems for the overall ethical culture organization, and jeopardizes organizational goals in the long run. Using company time or resources for personal use is also, commonly viewed as unethical because it boils down to stealing from the company. The misuse of resources costs companies billions of dollars each year, averaging about 4.25 hours per week of stolen time alone, and employees ' abuse of Internet services is another main concern. Bribery, on the other hand, is not only considered unethical is business practices, but it is also illegal. In accordance with this, the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act was established in 1977 to deter international businesses from giving or receiving unwarranted payments and gifts that were intended to influence the decisions of executives and political officials. Although, small payments known as facilitation payments will not be considered unlawful under the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act if they are used towards regular public governance activities, such as permits or licenses.
Many aspects in the work environment influence an individual 's decision - making regarding ethics in the business world. When an individual is on the path of growing a company, many outside influences can pressure them to perform a certain way. The core of the person 's performance in the workplace is rooted by their personal code of behavior. A person 's personal code of ethics encompasses many different qualities such as integrity, honesty, communication, respect, compassion, and common goals. In addition, the ethical standards set forth by a person 's superior (s) often translate into their own code of ethics. The company 's policy is the ' umbrella ' of ethics that play a major role in the personal development and decision - making processes that people make in respects to ethical behavior.
The ethics of a company and its ' individuals are heavily influenced by the state of their country. If a country is heavily plagued with poverty, large corporations continuously grow, but smaller companies begin to wither, and are then forced to adapt and scavenge for any method of survival. As a result, the leadership of the company is often tempted to participate in unethical methods to obtain new business opportunities. Additionally, Social Media is arguably the most influential factor in ethics. The immediate access to so much information and the opinions of millions highly influence people 's behaviors. The desire to confirm with what is portrayed as the norm often manipulates our idea of what is morally and ethically sound. Popular trends on social media and the instant gratification that is received from participating in such quickly distort people 's ideas and decisions.
Political economy and political philosophy have ethical implications, particularly regarding the distribution of economic benefits. John Rawls and Robert Nozick are both notable contributors. For example, Rawls has been interpreted as offering a critique of offshore outsourcing on social contract grounds, whereas Nozick 's libertarian philosophy rejects the notion of any positive corporate social obligation.
"Laws '' are the written statutes, codes, and opinions of government organizations by which citizens, businesses, and persons present within a jurisdiction are expected to govern themselves or face legal sanction. Sanctions for violating the law can include (a) civil penalties, such as fines, pecuniary damages, and loss of licenses, property, rights, or privileges; (b) criminal penalties, such as fines, probation, imprisonment, or a combination thereof; or (c) both civil and criminal penalties.
Very often it is held that business is not bound by any ethics other than abiding by the law. Milton Friedman is the pioneer of the view. He held that corporations have the obligation to make a profit within the framework of the legal system, nothing more. Friedman made it explicit that the duty of the business leaders is, "to make as much money as possible while conforming to the basic rules of the society, both those embodied in the law and those embodied in ethical custom ''. Ethics for Friedman is nothing more than abiding by ' customs ' and ' laws '. The reduction of ethics to abidance to laws and customs however have drawn serious criticisms.
Counter to Friedman 's logic it is observed that legal procedures are technocratic, bureaucratic, rigid and obligatory where as ethical act is conscientious, voluntary choice beyond normativity. Law is retroactive. Crime precedes law. Law against a crime, to be passed, the crime must have happened. Laws are blind to the crimes undefined in it. Further, as per law, "conduct is not criminal unless forbidden by law which gives advance warning that such conduct is criminal ''. Also, law presumes the accused is innocent until proven guilty and that the state must establish the guilt of the accused beyond reasonable doubt. As per liberal laws followed in most of the democracies, until the government prosecutor proves the firm guilty with the limited resources available to her, the accused is considered to be innocent. Though the liberal premises of law is necessary to protect individuals from being persecuted by Government, it is not a sufficient mechanism to make firms morally accountable.
As part of more comprehensive compliance and ethics programs, many companies have formulated internal policies pertaining to the ethical conduct of employees. These policies can be simple exhortations in broad, highly generalized language (typically called a corporate ethics statement), or they can be more detailed policies, containing specific behavioural requirements (typically called corporate ethics codes). They are generally meant to identify the company 's expectations of workers and to offer guidance on handling some of the more common ethical problems that might arise in the course of doing business. It is hoped that having such a policy will lead to greater ethical awareness, consistency in application, and the avoidance of ethical disasters.
An increasing number of companies also require employees to attend seminars regarding business conduct, which often include discussion of the company 's policies, specific case studies, and legal requirements. Some companies even require their employees to sign agreements stating that they will abide by the company 's rules of conduct.
Many companies are assessing the environmental factors that can lead employees to engage in unethical conduct. A competitive business environment may call for unethical behaviour. Lying has become expected in fields such as trading. An example of this are the issues surrounding the unethical actions of the Salomon Brothers.
Not everyone supports corporate policies that govern ethical conduct. Some claim that ethical problems are better dealt with by depending upon employees to use their own judgment.
Others believe that corporate ethics policies are primarily rooted in utilitarian concerns, and that they are mainly to limit the company 's legal liability, or to curry public favour by giving the appearance of being a good corporate citizen. Ideally, the company will avoid a lawsuit because its employees will follow the rules. Should a lawsuit occur, the company can claim that the problem would not have arisen if the employee had only followed the code properly.
Sometimes there is disconnection between the company 's code of ethics and the company 's actual practices. Thus, whether or not such conduct is explicitly sanctioned by management, at worst, this makes the policy duplicitous, and, at best, it is merely a marketing tool.
Jones and Parker write, "Most of what we read under the name business ethics is either sentimental common sense, or a set of excuses for being unpleasant. '' Many manuals are procedural form filling exercises unconcerned about the real ethical dilemmas. For instance, US Department of Commerce ethics program treats business ethics as a set of instructions and procedures to be followed by ' ethics officers '., some others claim being ethical is just for the sake of being ethical. Business ethicists may trivialize the subject, offering standard answers that do not reflect the situation 's complexity.
Author of ' Business Ethics, ' Richard DeGeorge writes in regard to the importance of maintaining a corporate code, "Corporate codes have a certain usefulness and there are several advantages to developing them. First, the very exercise of doing so in itself is worthwhile, especially if it forces a large number of people in the firm to think through, in a fresh way, their mission and the important obligations they as a group and as individuals have to the firm, to each other, to their clients and customers, and to society as a whole. Second, once adopted a code can be used to generate continuing discussion and possible modification to the code. Third, it could help to inculcate in new employees at all levels the perspective of responsibility, the need to think in moral terms about their actions, and the importance of developing the virtues appropriate to their position. ''
Following a series of fraud, corruption, and abuse scandals that affected the United States defense industry in the mid-1980s, the Defense Industry Initiative (DII) was created to promote ethical business practices and ethics management in multiple industries. Subsequent to these scandals, many organizations began appointing ethics officers (also referred to as "compliance '' officers). In 1991, the Ethics & Compliance Officer Association (ECOA) -- originally the Ethics Officer Association (EOA) -- was founded at the Center for Business Ethics at Bentley University as a professional association for ethics and compliance officers.
The 1991 passing of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines for Organizations in 1991 was another factor in many companies appointing ethics / compliance officers. These guidelines, intended to assist judges with sentencing, set standards organizations must follow to obtain a reduction in sentence if they should be convicted of a federal offense.
Following the high - profile corporate scandals of companies like Enron, WorldCom and Tyco between 2001 and 2004, and following the passage of the Sarbanes -- Oxley Act, many small and mid-sized companies also began to appoint ethics officers.
Often reporting to the Chief Executive Officer, ethics officers focus on uncovering or preventing unethical and illegal actions. This is accomplished by assessing the ethical implications of the company 's activities, making recommendations on ethical policies, and disseminating information to employees.
The effectiveness of ethics officers is not clear. The establishment of an ethics officer position is likely to be insufficient in driving ethical business practices without a corporate culture that values ethical behavior. These values and behaviors should be consistently and systemically supported by those at the top of the organization. Employees with strong community involvement, loyalty to employers, superiors or owners, smart work practices, trust among the team members do inculcate a corporate culture
Many corporate and business strategies now include sustainability. In addition to the traditional environmental ' green ' sustainability concerns, business ethics practices have expanded to include social sustainability. Social sustainability focuses on issues related to human capital in the business supply chain, such as worker 's rights, working conditions, child labor, and human trafficking. Incorporation of these considerations is increasing, as consumers and procurement officials demand documentation of a business ' compliance with national and international initiatives, guidelines, and standards. Many industries have organizations dedicated to verifying ethical delivery of products from start to finish, such as the Kimberly Process, which aims to stop the flow of conflict diamonds into international markets, or the Fair Wear Foundation, dedicated to sustainability and fairness in the garment industry.
As mentioned, initiatives in sustainability encompass "green '' topics, as well as social sustainability. There are however many different ways in which sustainability initiatives can be implemented in a company.
Improving Operations: Perhaps the most evident manner in which an organization can implement sustainability initiatives is by improving its operations and manufacturing 's process so as to make it more aligned with environment, social, and governance issues. Johnson & Johnson incorporates policies from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, applying these principles not only for members of its supply chain but also internal operations. Walmart has made commitments to doubling its truck fleet efficiency by 2015 by replacing 2 / 3rds of its fleet with more fuel - efficient trucks, including hybrids. Dell has integrated alternative, recycled, and recyclable materials in its products and packaging design, improving energy efficiency and design for end - of - life and recyclability. Dell plans to reduce the energy intensity of its product portfolio by 80 % by 2020.
Board Leadership: The board of a company can decide to lower executive compensation by a given percentage, and give the percentage of compensation to a specific cause. This is an effort which can only be implemented from the top, as it will affect the compensation of all executives in the company. In Alcoa, an aluminum company based in the USA, "1 / 5th of executive cash compensation is tied to safety, diversity, and environmental stewardship, which includes greenhouse gas emission reductions and energy efficiency '' (Best Practices). This is not usually the case for most companies, where we see the board take a uniform step towards environment, social, and governance issues. This is only the case for companies that are directly linked to utilities, energy, or material industries, something which Alcoa as an aluminum company, falls in line with. Instead, formal committees focused on environment, social, and governance issues are more usually seen in governance committees and audit committees, rather than the board of directors. "According to research analysis done by Pearl Meyer in support of the NACD 2017 Director Compensation Report shows that among 1,400 public companies reviewed, only slightly more than five percent of boards have a designated committee to address ESG issues. '' (How compensation can).
Management Accountability: Similar to board leadership, creating steering committees and other types of committees specialized for sustainability, senior executives are identified who are held accountable for meeting and constantly improving sustainability goals.
Executive compensation: Introducing bonus schemes that reward executives for meeting non-financial performance goals including safety targets, greenhouse gas emissions, reduction targets, and goals engaging stakeholders to help shape the companies public policy positions. Companies such as Exelon have implemented policies like this.
Stakeholder Engagement: Other companies will keep sustainability within its strategy and goals, presenting findings at shareholder meetings, and actively tracking metrics on sustainability. Companies such as PepsiCo, Heineken, and FIFCO take steps in this direction to implement sustainability initiatives. (Best Practices). Companies such as Coca - Cola have actively tried improve their efficiency of water usage, hiring 3rd party auditors to evaluate their water management approach. FIFCO has also led successfully led water - management initiatives.
Employee Engagement: Implementation of sustainability projects through directly appealing to employees (typically through the human resource department) is another option for companies to implement sustainability. This involves integrating sustainability into the company culture, with hiring practices and employee training. General Electric is a company that is taking the lead in implementing initiatives in this manner. Bank of America directly engaged employees by implement LEED (leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) certified buildings, with a fifth of its building meeting these certifications.
Supply chain management: Establishing requirements for not only internal operations but also first - tier suppliers as well as second - tier suppliers to help drive environmental and social expectations further down the supply chain. Companies such as Starbucks, FIFCO and Ford Motor Company have implemented requirements that suppliers must meet to win their business. Starbucks has led efforts in engaging suppliers and local communities where they operate to accelerate investment in sustainable farming. Starbucks set a goal of ethically sourcing 100 % of its coffee beans by 2015.
Releasing Studies, Insights, Best Practices and Findings: By revealing decision making data about how sustainability was reached, companies are giving away insights that can help others across the industry and beyond make more sustainable decisions. Nike launched its "making app '' in 2013 which released data about the sustainability in the materials it was using. This ultimately allows other companies to make more sustainable design decisions and create lower impact products.
As an academic discipline, business ethics emerged in the 1970s. Since no academic business ethics journals or conferences existed, researchers published in general management journals, and attended general conferences. Over time, specialized peer - reviewed journals appeared, and more researchers entered the field. Corporate scandals in the earlier 2000s increased the field 's popularity. As of 2009, sixteen academic journals devoted to various business ethics issues existed, with Journal of Business Ethics and Business Ethics Quarterly considered the leaders.
The International Business Development Institute is a global non-profit organization that represents 217 nations and all 50 United States. It offers a Charter in Business Development that focuses on ethical business practices and standards. The Charter is directed by Harvard, MIT, and Fulbright Scholars, and it includes graduate - level coursework in economics, politics, marketing, management, technology, and legal aspects of business development as it pertains to business ethics. IBDI also oversees the International Business Development Institute of Asia which provides individuals living in 20 Asian nations the opportunity to earn the Charter.
In Sharia law, followed by many Muslims, banking specifically prohibits charging interest on loans. Traditional Confucian thought discourages profit - seeking. Christianity offers the Golden Rule command, "Therefore all things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them: for this is the law and the prophets. '' According to the article "Theory of the real economy '', there is a more narrow point of view from the Christianity faith towards the relationship between ethics and religious traditions. This article stresses about how Christianity is capable of establishing reliable boundaries for financial institutions. One criticism comes from Pope Benedict by describing the "damaging effects of the real economy of badly managed and largely speculative financial dealing. '' It is mentioned that Christianity has the potential to transform the nature of finance and investment but only if theologians and ethicist provide more evidence of what is real in the economic life. Business ethics receives an extensive treatment in Jewish thought and Rabbinic literature, both from an ethical (Mussar) and a legal (Halakha) perspective; see article Jewish business ethics for further discussion. According to the article "Indian Philosophy and Business Ethics: A Review '', by Chandrani Chattopadyay, Hindus follow "Dharma '' as Business Ethics and unethical business practices are termed "Adharma ''. Business men are supposed to maintain steady - mindedness, self - purification, non-violence, concentration, charity and control over senses. Books like Bhagavat Gita and Arthashastra contribute a lot towards conduct of ethical business.
Business ethics is part of the philosophy of economics, the branch of philosophy that deals with the philosophical, political, and ethical underpinnings of business and economics. Business ethics operates on the premise, for example, that the ethical operation of a private business is possible -- those who dispute that premise, such as libertarian socialists, (who contend that "business ethics '' is an oxymoron) do so by definition outside of the domain of business ethics proper.
The philosophy of economics also deals with questions such as what, if any, are the social responsibilities of a business; business management theory; theories of individualism vs. collectivism; free will among participants in the marketplace; the role of self interest; invisible hand theories; the requirements of social justice; and natural rights, especially property rights, in relation to the business enterprise.
Business ethics is also related to political economy, which is economic analysis from political and historical perspectives. Political economy deals with the distributive consequences of economic actions.
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where did the idea of indian removal originate | Indian Removal - wikipedia
Indian removal was a policy of the United States government in the 19th century whereby Native Americans were forcibly removed from their ancestral homelands in the eastern United States to lands west of the Mississippi River, thereafter known as Indian Territory. In a matter that remains one of debate by scholars, description of the policy -- which clearly contributed to devastation in numbers, freedom and prosperity for those displaced -- is sometimes elevated to being one of long - term genocide of Native Americans. In any case, Indian removal was a consequence of actions first by European settlers to North America in the colonial period, then by the United States government and its citizens until the mid-20th century. The policy traced its direct origins to the administration of James Monroe, though it addressed conflicts between European Americans and Native Americans that had been occurring since the 17th century, and were escalating into the early 19th century as white settlers were continually pushing westward. The Indian Removal Act was the key law that forced the removal of the Indians, and was signed into law by President Andrew Jackson on May 28, 1830.
American leaders in the Revolutionary and Early National era debated whether the American Indians should be treated officially as individuals or as nations in their own right. Some of these views are summarized below.
In a draft, "Proposed Articles of Confederation '', presented to the Continental Congress on May 10, 1775, Benjamin Franklin called for a "perpetual Alliance '' with the Indians for the nation about to take birth, especially with the Six Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy:
Article XI. A perpetual Alliance offensive and defensive, is to be entered into as soon as may be with the Six Nations; their Limits to be ascertained and secured to them; their Land not to be encroached on, nor any private or Colony Purchases made of them hereafter to be held good; nor any Contract for Lands to be made but between the Great Council of the Indians at Onondaga and the General Congress. The Boundaries and Lands of all the other Indians shall also be ascertained and secured to them in the same manner; and Persons appointed to reside among them in proper Districts, who shall take care to prevent Injustice in the Trade with them, and be enabled at our general Expense by occasional small Supplies, to relieve their personal Wants and Distresses. And all Purchases from them shall be by the Congress for the General Advantage and Benefit of the United Colonies.
In his Notes on the State of Virginia (1785), Thomas Jefferson defended American Indian culture and marveled at how the tribes of Virginia "never submitted themselves to any laws, any coercive power, any shadow of government '' due to their "moral sense of right and wrong ''. He would later write to the Marquis de Chastellux in 1785, "I believe the Indian then to be in body and mind equal to the whiteman ''. His desire, as interpreted by Francis Paul Prucha, was for the Native Americans to intermix with European Americans and to become one people. To achieve that end, Jefferson would, as President, offer U.S. citizenship to some Indian nations, and propose offering credit to them to facilitate their trade -- with the expectation, as Bernard Sheehan argues, that they would be unable to honor their debts and thereby allow the United States to acquire their land.
President George Washington, in his address to the Seneca nation in 1790, describing the pre-Constitutional Indian land sale difficulties as "evils '', asserted that the case was now entirely altered, and publicly pledged to uphold their "just rights ''. In March and April of 1792, Washington met with 50 tribal chiefs in Philadelphia -- including the Iroquois -- to discuss closer friendship between them and the United States. Later that same year, in his Fourth Annual Message to Congress, Washington stressed the need for building peace, trust, and commerce with America 's Indian neighbors:
I can not dismiss the subject of Indian affairs without again recommending to your consideration the expediency of more adequate provision for giving energy to the laws throughout our interior frontier, and for restraining the commission of outrages upon the Indians; without which all pacific plans must prove nugatory. To enable, by competent rewards, the employment of qualified and trusty persons to reside among them, as agents, would also contribute to the preservation of peace and good neighbourhood. If, in addition to these expedients, an eligible plan could be devised for promoting civilization among the friendly tribes, and for carrying on trade with them, upon a scale equal to their wants, and under regulations calculated to protect them from imposition and extortion, its influence in cementing their interests with our 's (sic) could not but be considerable.
In 1795, in his Seventh Annual Message to Congress, Washington intimated that if the U.S. government wanted peace with the Indians, then it must give peace to them, and that if the U.S. wanted raids by Indians to stop, then raids by American "frontier inhabitants '' must also stop.
The Confederation Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which would serve broadly as a precedent for the manner in which the United States ' territorial expansion would occur for years to come, calling for the protection of Indians ' "property, rights, and liberty '': The U.S. Constitution of 1787 (Article I, Section 8) makes Congress responsible for regulating commerce with the Indian tribes. In 1790, the new U.S. Congress passed the Indian Nonintercourse Act (renewed and amended in 1793, 1796, 1799, 1802, and 1834) to protect and codify the land rights of recognized tribes.
As president, Thomas Jefferson developed a far - reaching Indian policy that had two primary goals. First, the security of the new United States was paramount, so Jefferson wanted to assure that the Native nations were tightly bound to the United States, and not other foreign nations. Second, he wanted "to civilize '' them into adopting an agricultural, rather than a hunter - gatherer lifestyle. These goals would be achieved through the development of trade and the signing of treaties.
Jefferson initially promoted an American policy that encouraged Native Americans to become assimilated, or "civilized ''. As President, Jefferson made sustained efforts to win the friendship and cooperation of many Native American tribes, repeatedly articulating his desire for a united nation of both whites and Indians, as in a letter to the Seneca spiritual leader, Handsome Lake, dated November 3, 1802:
Go on then, brother, in the great reformation you have undertaken... In all your enterprises for the good of your people, you may count with confidence on the aid and protection of the United States, and on the sincerity and zeal with which I am myself animated in the furthering of this humane work. You are our brethren of the same land; we wish your prosperity as brethren should do. Farewell.
When a delegation from the Upper Towns of the Cherokee Nation lobbied Jefferson for the full and equal citizenship George Washington had promised to Indians living in American territory, his response indicated that he was willing to accommodate citizenship for those Indian nations that sought it. In his Eighth Annual Message to Congress on November 8, 1808, he presented to the nation a vision of white and Indian unity:
With our Indian neighbors the public peace has been steadily maintained... And, generally, from a conviction that we consider them as part of ourselves, and cherish with sincerity their rights and interests, the attachment of the Indian tribes is gaining strength daily... and will amply requite us for the justice and friendship practiced towards them... (O) ne of the two great divisions of the Cherokee nation have now under consideration to solicit the citizenship of the United States, and to be identified with us in laws and government, in such progressive manner as we shall think best.
As some of Jefferson 's other writings illustrate, however, he was ambivalent about Indian assimilation, even going so far as to use the words "exterminate '' and "extirpate '' regarding tribes that resisted American expansion and were willing to fight to defend their lands. Jefferson 's intention was to change Indian lifestyles from hunter - gatherering to farming, largely through "the decrease of game rendering their subsistence by hunting insufficient ''. He expected that the switch to agriculture would make them dependent on white Americans for trade goods and therefore more likely to give up their land in exchange, or else be removed to lands west of the Mississippi. In a private 1803 letter to William Henry Harrison, Jefferson wrote:
When they withdraw themselves to the culture of a small piece of land, they will perceive how useless to them are their extensive forests, and will be willing to pare them off from time to time in exchange for necessaries for their farms and families. To promote this disposition to exchange lands, which they have to spare and we want, for necessaries, which we have to spare and they want, we shall push our trading uses, and be glad to see the good and influential individuals among them run in debt, because we observe that when these debts get beyond what the individuals can pay, they become willing to lop them off by a cession of lands. At our trading houses, too, we mean to sell so low as merely to repay us cost and charges, so as neither to lessen or enlarge our capital. This is what private traders can not do, for they must gain; they will consequently retire from the competition, and we shall thus get clear of this pest without giving offence or umbrage to the Indians. In this way our settlements will gradually circumscribe and approach the Indians, and they will in time either incorporate with us as citizens of the United States, or remove beyond the Mississippi. The former is certainly the termination of their history most happy for themselves; but, in the whole course of this, it is essential to cultivate their love. As to their fear, we presume that our strength and their weakness is now so visible that they must see we have only to shut our hand to crush them, and that all our liberalities to them proceed from motives of pure humanity only. Should any tribe be foolhardy enough to take up the hatchet at any time, the seizing the whole country of that tribe, and driving them across the Mississippi, as the only condition of peace, would be an example to others, and a furtherance of our final consolidation.
Elsewhere in the same letter, Jefferson spoke of protecting the Indians from injustices perpetrated by whites:
Our system is to live in perpetual peace with the Indians, to cultivate an affectionate attachment from them, by everything just and liberal which we can do for them within... reason, and by giving them effectual protection against wrongs from our own people.
By the terms of the treaty of February 27, 1819, the U.S. government would again offer citizenship to the Cherokees who lived east of the Mississippi River, along with 640 acres of land per family. Native American land was sometimes purchased, either via a treaty or under duress. The idea of land exchange, that is, that Native Americans would give up their land east of the Mississippi in exchange for a similar amount of territory west of the river, was first proposed by Jefferson in 1803 and had first been incorporated in treaties in 1817, years after the Jefferson presidency. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 incorporated this concept.
Under President James Monroe, Secretary of War John C. Calhoun devised the first plans for Indian removal. By late 1824, Monroe approved Calhoun 's plans and in a special message to the Senate on January 27, 1825, requested the creation of the Arkansaw Territory and Indian Territory. The Indians east of the Mississippi were to voluntarily exchange their lands for lands west of the river. The Senate accepted Monroe 's request and asked Calhoun to draft a bill, which was killed in the House of Representatives by the Georgia delegation. President John Quincy Adams assumed the Calhoun -- Monroe policy and was determined to remove the Indians by non-forceful means, but Georgia refused to submit to Adams ' request, forcing Adams to make a treaty with the Cherokees granting Georgia the Cherokee lands. On July 26, 1827, the Cherokee Nation adopted a written constitution modeled after that of the United States which declared they were an independent nation with jurisdiction over their own lands. Georgia contended that it would not countenance a sovereign state within its own territory, and proceeded to assert its authority over Cherokee territory. When Andrew Jackson became president as the candidate of the newly organized Democratic Party, he agreed that the Indians should be forced to exchange their eastern lands for western lands and relocate to them, and enforced Indian removal policy vigorously.
When Andrew Jackson assumed office as president of the United States in 1829, his government took a hard line on Indian Removal policy. Jackson abandoned the policy of his predecessors of treating different Indian groups as separate nations. Instead, he aggressively pursued plans against all Indian tribes which claimed constitutional sovereignty and independence from state laws, and which were based east of the Mississippi River. They were to be removed to reservations in Indian Territory west of the Mississippi (now Oklahoma), where their laws could be sovereign without any state interference. At Jackson 's request, the United States Congress opened a debate on an Indian Removal Bill. After fierce disagreements, the Senate passed the measure 28 -- 19, the House 102 -- 97. Jackson signed the legislation into law May 30, 1830.
In 1830, the majority of the "Five Civilized Tribes '' -- the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Seminole, and Cherokee -- were living east of the Mississippi. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 implemented the federal government 's policy towards the Indian populations, which called for moving Native American tribes living east of the Mississippi River to lands west of the river. While it did not authorize the forced removal of the indigenous tribes, it authorized the President to negotiate land exchange treaties with tribes located in lands of the United States.
On September 27, 1830, the Choctaw signed the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek and by concession, became the first Native American tribe to be removed. The agreement represented one of the largest transfers of land that was signed between the U.S. Government and Native Americans without being instigated by warfare. By the treaty, the Choctaw signed away their remaining traditional homelands, opening them up for European - American settlement in Mississippi Territory. When the Choctaw reached Little Rock, a Choctaw chief referred to the trek as a "trail of tears and death ''.
In 1831, Alexis de Tocqueville, the French historian and political thinker, witnessed an exhausted group of Choctaw men, women and children emerging from the forest during an exceptionally cold winter near Memphis, Tennessee, on their way to the Mississippi to be loaded onto a steamboat, and wrote:
In the whole scene there was an air of ruin and destruction, something which betrayed a final and irrevocable adieu; one could n't watch without feeling one 's heart wrung. The Indians were tranquil, but sombre and taciturn. There was one who could speak English and of whom I asked why the Chactas were leaving their country. "To be free, '' he answered, could never get any other reason out of him. We... watch the expulsion... of one of the most celebrated and ancient American peoples.
While the Indian Removal Act made the move of the tribes voluntary, it was often abused by government officials. The best - known example is the Treaty of New Echota, which was negotiated and signed by a small faction of only twenty Cherokee tribal members, not the tribal leadership, on December 29, 1835. Most of the Cherokees later blamed them and the treaty for the forced relocation of the tribe in 1838. An estimated 4,000 Cherokees died in the march, now known as the Trail of Tears. Missionary organizer Jeremiah Evarts urged the Cherokee Nation to take their case to the U.S. Supreme Court.
The Marshall court heard the case in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), but declined to rule on its merits, instead declaring that the Native American tribes were not sovereign nations, and had no status to "maintain an action '' in the courts of the United States. In Worcester v. Georgia (1832), the court held, in an opinion written by Chief Justice Marshall, that individual states had no authority in American Indian affairs.
Yet the state of Georgia defied the Supreme Court ruling, and the desire of white settlers and land speculators for Indian lands continued unabated. Some whites claimed that the Indian presence was a threat to peace and security; the Georgia legislature passed a law that after March 31, 1831, forbade whites from living on Indian territory without a license from the state, in order to exclude white missionaries who opposed Indian removal.
In 1835, the Seminole people refused to leave their lands in Florida, leading to the Second Seminole War. Osceola was a war leader of the Seminole in their fight against removal. Based in the Everglades of Florida, Osceola and his band used surprise attacks to defeat the U.S. Army in many battles. In 1837, Osceola was seized by deceit upon the orders of U.S. General Thomas Jesup when Osceola came under a flag of truce to negotiate a peace near Fort Peyton. Osceola died in prison of illness. The war would result in over 1,500 U.S. deaths and cost the government $20 million. Some Seminole traveled deeper into the Everglades, while others moved west. Removal continued out west and numerous wars ensued over land.
In the aftermath of the Treaty of Fort Jackson and the Treaty of Washington, the Muscogee were confined to a small strip of land in present - day east central Alabama. Following the Indian Removal Act, in 1832 the Creek National Council signed the Treaty of Cusseta, ceding their remaining lands east of the Mississippi to the U.S., and accepting relocation to the Indian Territory. Most Muscogee were removed to Indian Territory during the Trail of Tears in 1834, although some remained behind.
Friends and Brothers -- By permission of the Great Spirit above, and the voice of the people, I have been made President of the United States, and now speak to you as your Father and friend, and request you to listen. Your warriors have known me long. You know I love my white and red children, and always speak with a straight, and not with a forked tongue; that I have always told you the truth... Where you now are, you and my white children are too near to each other to live in harmony and peace. Your game is destroyed, and many of your people will not work and till the earth. Beyond the great River Mississippi, where apart of your nation has gone, your Father has provided a country large enough for all of you, and he advises you to remove to it. There your white brothers will not trouble you; they will have no claim to the land, and you can live upon it you and all your children, as long as the grass grows or the water runs, in peace and plenty. It will be yours forever. For the improvements in the country where you now live, and for all the stock which you can not take with you, your Father will pay you a fair price...
Unlike other tribes who exchanged land grants, the Chickasaw were to receive mostly financial compensation of $3 million from the United States for their lands east of the Mississippi River. In 1836, the Chickasaw reached an agreement that purchased land from the previously removed Choctaw after a bitter five - year debate, paying them $530,000 for the westernmost part of Choctaw land. Most of the Chickasaw moved in 1837 -- 1838. The $3,000,000 that the U.S. owed the Chickasaw went unpaid for nearly 30 years.
As a result, the Five Civilized Tribes were resettled in the new Indian Territory in modern - day Oklahoma. The Cherokee occupied the northeast corner of the Territory, as well as a strip of land seventy miles wide in Kansas on the border between the two. Some indigenous nations resisted forced migration more strongly. Those few that stayed behind eventually formed tribal groups, including the Eastern Band of Cherokee based in North Carolina, the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, the Seminole Tribe of Florida, and the Creeks in Alabama, including the Poarch Band.
Tribes in the Old Northwest were far smaller and more fragmented than the Five Civilized Tribes, so the treaty and emigration process was more piecemeal. Bands of Shawnee, Ottawa, Potawatomi, Sauk, and Meskwaki (Fox) signed treaties and relocated to the Indian Territory. In 1832, a Sauk leader named Black Hawk led a band of Sauk and Fox back to their lands in Illinois; in the ensuing Black Hawk War, the U.S. Army and Illinois militia defeated Black Hawk and his warriors, resulting in the Sauk and Fox being relocated into what would become present day Iowa.
Tribes further to the east, such as the already displaced Lenape (or Delaware tribe), as well as the Kickapoo and Shawnee, were removed from Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio in the 1820s. The Potawatomi were forced out in late 1838 and resettled in Kansas Territory. Many Miami were resettled to Indian Territory in the 1840s.
By the terms of the Second Treaty of Buffalo Creek (1838), the Senecas transferred all their land in New York, excepting one small reservation, in exchange for 200,000 acres of land in Indian Territory. The U.S. federal government would be responsible for the removal of those Senecas who opted to go west, while the Ogden Land company would acquire their lands in New York. The lands were sold by government officials, however, and the money deposited in the U.S. Treasury. The Senecas asserted that they had been defrauded, and sued for redress in the U.S. Court of Claims. The case was not resolved until 1898, when the United States awarded $1,998,714.46 in compensation to "the New York Indians ''. In 1842 and 1857, the U.S. signed treaties with the Senecas and the Tonawanda Senecas, respectively. Under the treaty of 1857, the Tonawandas renounced all claim to lands west of the Mississippi in exchange for the right to buy back the lands of the Tonawanda reservation from the Ogden Land Company. Over a century later, the Senecas purchased a nine - acre plot (part of their original reservation) in downtown Buffalo to build the "Seneca Buffalo Creek Casino ''.
The following is a compilation of the statistics, many containing rounded figures, regarding the Southern removals.
Historical views regarding the Indian Removal have been re-evaluated since that time. Widespread acceptance at the time of the policy, due in part to an embracing of the concept of Manifest destiny by the general populace, have since given way to somewhat harsher views. Descriptions such as "paternalism '', ethnic cleansing, and even genocide have been ascribed by historians past and present to the motivation behind the Removals.
Andrew Jackson 's reputation took a blow for his treatment of the Indians. Historians who admire Jackson 's strong presidential leadership, such as Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., would skip over the Indian question with a footnote. Writing in 1969, Francis Paul Prucha argued that Jackson 's removal of the Five Civilized Tribes from the very hostile white environment in the Old South to Oklahoma probably saved their very existence. In the 1970s, however, Jackson came under sharp attack from writers, such as Michael Paul Rogin and Howard Zinn, chiefly on this issue. Zinn called him "exterminator of Indians ''; In the 21st century, his reputation has improved somewhat: both Paul R. Bartrop and Steven Leonard Jacobs argue that Jackson 's policies did not meet the criterion for genocide or cultural genocide.
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town in alaska that has a cat as a mayor | Stubbs (cat) - wikipedia
Stubbs (April 12, 1997 -- July 21, 2017) was a cat who was the mayor of Talkeetna, Alaska from July 1997 until his death.
Stubbs was described as a tourist attraction, having been flooded with cards and letters, and drawing 30 to 40 tourists each day (most of whom were en route to other Alaska destinations, such as Denali) who hoped to meet "the mayor ''. Stubbs 's position was honorary, as the town is only a historic district.
Every afternoon, Stubbs went to a nearby restaurant and drank water laden with catnip out of a wineglass or margarita glass.
At least one opinion writer for the Alaska Dispatch News insisted that the whole story was false, and that Talkeetna did not in fact have a cat mayor. Stubbs died on July 21, 2017, at the age of 20 years and 3 months.
In 1997, Lauri Stec, manager of Nagley 's General Store, found Stubbs in a box full of kittens in her parking lot. The owners were giving the kittens away; Stec chose "Stubbs '' because he did not have a tail.
Stubbs is widely believed to have been elected after a write - in campaign by voters who opposed the human candidates. But according to NPR, the cat could not have been elected as a write - in candidate because "the tiny town has no real mayor, so there was no election. '' Nagley 's General Store doubled as Stubbs 's mayoral office during his tenure.
Stubbs was featured in an effort to protest the 2014 U.S. Senate race in Alaska when people urged voters to write Stubbs in on the ballot. Stubbs was featured in a video criticizing both the Democratic and Republican candidates for Senate.
Stubbs 's owners have suggested that another family cat, Denali, may assume Talkeetna 's mayoralty.
On August 31, 2013, Stubbs was attacked by a dog. He was placed under heavy sedation at a veterinary hospital 70 miles away in Wasilla, having suffered a punctured lung, a fractured sternum, and a deep cut in his side. A crowd - funding page was set up to help pay his medical bills. Stubbs remained in the veterinary hospital for nine days before returning to the upstairs room of the general store; he was subsequently discouraged from roaming. Donations toward his care were received from around the world; the surplus was given to an animal shelter and to the local veterinary clinic.
Other perils Stubbs escaped from included being shot by teenagers with BB guns and falling into a restaurant 's deep fryer (which was switched off and cool at the time). Other exploits included having hitched a ride to the outskirts of Talkeetna on a garbage truck.
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who directed the musical episode of grey's anatomy | Song Beneath the Song - wikipedia
"Song Beneath the Song, '' also known as Grey 's Anatomy: "The Music Event, '' is the eighteenth episode of the seventh season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy, and the one - hundred forty - fourth episode overall. It was named after a song initially performed by American singer Maria Taylor. Written by series creator Shonda Rhimes and directed by Tony Phelan, it premiered on ABC in the United States on March 31, 2011. It is the series 's first musical episode, and features the cast performing songs previously featured within the program. It is accompanied by a soundtrack album, titled Grey 's Anatomy: The Music Event, also released on March 31, 2011.
The episode revolves around Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) and Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw), just after they are involved in a vehicular collision. Various songs are performed by the cast members, as they attempt to save the life of Torres. Rhimes originally idealized the episode at the conception of the drama, while the show remained untitled. The episode opened to mixed reviews from television critics, and it was the second most watched program of the night. "Song Beneath the Song '' was ranked in several "best and worst '' lists, and the soundtrack was included on the Billboard 200.
En route to a weekend getaway, surgeons Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) and Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) are involved in a vehicular collision, moments after Robbins proposes marriage. Torres suffers severe injuries, which endanger both her life and the life of her unborn child. She and Robbins are taken to Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital, the institute at which they both work. Their colleagues attempt to save Torres, while Robbins and Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), the father of Torres 's baby, stand by. Torres 's many injuries include neurological trauma. While barely conscious, she hallucinates an uninjured version of herself standing beside her. The hallucinatory Torres begins to sing, and is gradually joined by the doctors treating her. This singing continues throughout the episode, as Torres 's projection of herself attempts to reach out to Robbins.
Torres goes into cardiac arrest and is taken into an operating room she is temporarily stabilized, pending further surgery. She is moved into intensive care, while neonatal surgeon Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh) is flown in by helicopter in case the baby has to be delivered prematurely. Robbins and Sloan argue over Torres 's treatment; Robbins believes that Torres would not risk endangering the baby, but Sloan argues for saving Torres at all costs. The attending surgeons devise a treatment plan, led by trauma surgeon Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd). As they do so, Torres dreams about the moments preceding the accident. Her dream self sings to Robbins, interspersed with shots of the hospital staff singing and dancing with their own partners. Dr. Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh) suggests treating Torres with a high - risk but potentially effective cardiothoracic procedure she learned from her old mentor, Preston Burke (Isaiah Washington). Her current mentor, Teddy Altman (Kim Raver), refuses to perform it, but when Torres 's condition deteriorates and she is rushed back into surgery, Hunt agrees that Yang should attempt the procedure.
When Torres again goes into cardiac arrest, Montgomery delivers her daughter at twenty - three weeks 's gestation. The baby is initially unable to breathe, so with Sloan 's support, Robbins steps in and is able to revive her. Across the operating room, Torres 's condition begins to improve. Once the surgery is complete, the doctors deal with their own affairs; Sloan 's former partner Lexie Grey (Chyler Leigh) commits to her new relationship with resident Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams); Lexie 's sister (and series main character) Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo, primary series star) confesses that she was jealous of Torres 's pregnancy, which prompts her husband Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) to promise that they will have a child together; Altman tells Yang that she can no longer teach her; Sloan and Robbins bond over their shared parenthood. Later, as Robbins keeps a vigil by Torres 's bedside, the hallucinatory Torres is able to rouse her recovering self. As she regains consciousness, Torres accepts Robbins 's proposal.
Since Grey 's Anatomy began, series creator Shonda Rhimes had planned to produce a musical episode. She first discussed the idea during filming of the pilot episode, when the program was as yet untitled. Rhimes felt that seasons six and seven were the right time for the crew to "try anything and everything (they had) always wanted to do, '' and explained that she "finally (had) the right idea and the right talent to make (a musical episode) happen. '' Filming began seven and a half years after Rhimes initially raised the idea. The episode was shot in approximately two weeks. Though cast member Dempsey jokingly referred to the episode as Glee M.D., Rhimes intended for it to differ from other musical television episodes. She called it the opposite of "Once More, with Feeling, '' the "all - out, show - stopping, '' musical episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, as she aimed to "do something that was musical without being a musical. ''
Rhimes said she had difficulty getting the network 's permission. She added: "I begged the studio people. I begged the network people. I took these people to dinner and begged. I jumped out at these people in bathrooms and begged. And they all smiled politely but what they were clearly really thinking was, ' This woman is an idiot. ' ''
Rhimes also told about delays in producing this episode:
The script was written by Rhimes in November 2010. She centered the episode around Ramirez 's character, Callie, and stated that the storyline would have developed regardless of whether it involved musical performances. Sara Ramirez used the opportunity to launch her career as a singer - songwriter; an alternate version of "The Story '' is included on her debut EP, released four days prior to the episode 's premiere. In this episode, Mark and Arizona improve their relationship. Capshaw said, "The traumatic circumstance leads to them having a greater understanding of each other and then appreciation, and then need for each other and desire to be in each other 's lives. They come to care, I think, for one another. ''
Rhimes, executive producer Betsy Beers and director Tony Phelan selected songs that had become well - known by their use in Grey 's Anatomy, and chose "the most iconic ones, the ones that best suited (their) singers, and the ones that made the most sense. '' The multiple cover versions include the program 's theme tune, "Cosy in the Rocket '' by Psapp. The primary vocalists are cast members Ramirez, McKidd, Leigh and Chandra Wilson. The soundtrack also includes "How to Save a Life '' by The Fray and "Running on Sunshine '' by Jesus Jackson, performed as ensemble pieces by Ramirez, McKidd, Wilson, Leigh, Daniel Sunjata, Scott Foley, Ellen Pompeo, Justin Chambers, Raver, Dane, and Capshaw. Ramirez, McKidd and Wilson also perform together on Snow Patrol 's "Chasing Cars. '' Ramirez is the lead vocalist on "The Story '' by Brandi Carlile, and "Grace '' by Kate Havnevik, which also features the other female cast members, including Leigh and Sarah Drew on the chorus. Capshaw duets with Ramirez on KT Tunstall 's "Universe & U. '' Wilson is the lead vocalist on "Wait '' by Get Set Go, McKidd on "How We Operate '' by Gomez, and Leigh on Anna Nalick 's "Breathe (2 AM). ''
Chyler Leigh 's impressions on singing for the episode
Leigh said that some actors were not "excited '' about singing but still could participate in the episode. "There were certain ways in which the scenes were written, even if there was a song in there, that perhaps a line was spoken instead of sung, '' she said.
A vocal coach was enlisted to help the cast. Music director Chris Horvath was recruited to arrange the selected songs for the cast. The arrangements took around two months, with vocals recorded over four days in February 2011. Horvath praised the cast 's response to the episode, noting that only four performers had "serious vocal talent, '' while some had "barely sung in the shower '' before. Those with professional singing experience include Ramirez, who won a Tony Award for her role in the musical Spamalot, and Wilson, who appeared in the Broadway production of Caroline, or Change. Cast members 's reactions toward the episode varied. Pompeo initially deemed the idea "crazy, '' but changed her mind following the first read - through. Recurring cast member Sunjata stated that singing was "a bit out of (his) comfort zone, '' but found it an "interesting challenge, '' and McKidd deemed it "very exciting to do something that 's completely out on a limb for the show. ''
Critical response prior to broadcast was mixed. TVLine 's Michael Ausiello assessed that the episode would "either be a show - stopping triumph or a spectacular failure, '' with no possible middle ground. William Keck of TV Guide initially had "serious doubts, '' which were allayed by a visit to the set, during which he listened to the soundtrack. Keck likened it to the "much - beloved early seasons of Grey 's, when music played a vital role on the show. '' Entertainment Weekly 's Dan Snierson predicted heavy use of Auto Tune, though fellow EW writer Jennifer Armstrong was optimistic that the episode would be a success, commenting: "I have faith. I like musicals, I like Grey 's. I 'm rooting for this to work. ''
During its original broadcast, "Song Beneath the Song '' was watched by an average of 13.09 million American viewers. It attained a 4.9 / 13 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic, making it the second highest - rated program of the night, behind only American Idol on the Fox network. The rating was the second highest of the seventh season until that point, and a 30 percent increase from the previous episode, "This is How We Do It, '' which was watched by 2.4 million fewer viewers.
In Canada, where the episode also aired on March 31, 2011, it was watched by 3.18 million viewers. Viewership again increased on "This is How We Do It, '' which attained 2.63 million viewers. However, while the preceding episode was the most - viewed scripted show for the week of its original broadcast, "Song Beneath the Song '' ranked second, behind The Big Bang Theory.
Following the first minutes of the drama, reactions on Twitter were mixed. Nicole Golden from TV Fanatic gave the episode 4.5 stars out of 5.0. She found that "overall, the concept worked since music really has always played a big part in the show. Some songs were more appropriate and / or better performed than others, though. '' She also wrote the concept worked in part because it was new but noted "the format would probably not have the same effect if used in future episodes. '' Even though Boston Herald 's critic Mark Perigard was not a fan of the concept, saying "the Grey 's Anatomy event proved how tricky it is for an established show, especially a drama, to pull off a musical episode, '' he did like several actors 's performances. He wrote: "Chandra Wilson and Chyler Leigh (whom I never have anything good to say about) delivered some impressive vocal work. Eric Dane did some of his best acting of his career last night as an anxious father - to - be terrified he would lose his best friend. '' Lyneka Little of The Wall Street Journal wrote, "If Glee and ER had a baby it would be tonight 's episode of the medical drama Grey 's Anatomy titled "Song Beneath the Song. '' '' In his review of the episode Alan Sepinwall of HitFix wrote "Like Grey 's Anatomy as a whole, some parts were unintentionally silly, others were surprisingly powerful, and it was rarely dull, at least. ''
Patrick Dempsey admitted that the musical episode might not have been showrunner Shonda Rhimes 's best idea. He explained: "It 's very difficult to keep it fresh when you 're doing 24 episodes a year. Shonda Rhimes has a lot of ideas, and she is in a position where she can take more chances. Sometimes that works, sometimes it does not. Last year we had the singing episode, which I think was a big mistake. But you have to try. ''
In 2011, the episode was ranked number 19 on the TV Guide Network special, 25 Biggest TV Blunders 2. It was included in TV Guide 's list "The Worst of 2011 '' saying, "Sara Ramirez has powerhouse pipes, but what this episode desperately needed was a better playlist. '' BuddyTV, however, ranked it number 43 on its list of 2011 's 50 Best TV Episodes and it also appeared on Digital Spy 's shortlist of "TV 's Best Musical Episodes. '' Supervising Music Editor Jennifer Barak and Music Editors Carli Barber and Jessica Harrison were nominated in the Best Sound Editing: Short Form Musical in Television category at the 2012 Golden Reel Awards for their work on the episode.
Grey 's Anatomy: The Music Event debuted at number 24 on the Billboard 200, with 19,000 copies sold. It reached number 2 on the U.S. Soundtracks chart, and was the number 5 Independent Album. "The Story '' entered the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart at number 69, and the Canadian Hot 100 at 72.
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how long will it take me to get to pinole from alameda | Alameda, California - wikipedia
Alameda (/ ˌæləˈmiːdə / AL - ə - MEE - də; Spanish: (ala'meða)) is a city in Alameda County, California, United States. It is located on Alameda Island and Bay Farm Island, and is adjacent to and south of Oakland and east of San Francisco across the San Francisco Bay. Bay Farm Island, a portion of which is also known as "Harbor Bay Isle '', is not actually an island, and is part of the mainland adjacent to the Oakland International Airport. The city 's estimated 2017 population was 79,928. Alameda is a charter city, rather than a general law city, allowing the city to provide for any form of government. Alameda became a charter city and adopted a council -- manager government in 1916, which it retains to the present.
The island Alameda occupies what was originally a peninsula connected to Oakland. Much of it was low - lying and marshy, but on higher ground than the peninsula and adjacent parts of what is now downtown Oakland were home to one of the largest coastal oak forests in the world. The area was therefore called Encinal, Spanish for "forest of evergreen oak ''. Alameda is Spanish for "grove of poplar trees '' or "tree - lined avenue '', and was chosen in 1853 by popular vote.
The inhabitants at the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the late 18th century were a local band of the Ohlone tribe. The peninsula became part of the vast Rancho San Antonio granted in 1820 to Luis Peralta by the Spanish king who claimed California. The grant was later confirmed by the new Republic of Mexico upon its independence from Spain.
Over time, the place became known as Bolsa de Encinal or Encinal de San Antonio.
The city was founded on June 6, 1853, and the town originally contained three small settlements. "Alameda '' referred to the village at Encinal and High Streets, Hibbardsville was at the North Shore ferry and shipping terminal, and Woodstock was on the west near the ferry piers of the South Pacific Coast Railroad and the Central Pacific. Eventually, the Central Pacific 's ferry pier became the Alameda Mole, featuring transit connections between San Francisco ferries, local trollies and Southern Pacific (formerly Central Pacific) commuter lines.
The first post office opened in 1854. The first school, Schmermerhorn School, was opened in 1855 (and eventually became Lincoln School), Encinal School was opened in 1860 (and closed in 1980). The San Francisco and Alameda Railroad opened the Encinal station in 1864. The Encinal area was also known as Fasskings Station in honor of Frederick Louis Fassking. Encinal 's own post office opened in 1876, was renamed West End in 1877, and closed in 1891. The West End area was originally called Bowman 's Point in honor of Charles G. Bowman, an early settler.
The Alameda Terminal was the site of the arrival of the first train via the First Transcontinental Railroad into the San Francisco Bay Area on September 6, 1869. The transcontinental terminus was switched to the Oakland Mole two months later, on November 8, 1869.
The borders of Alameda were made coextensive with the island in 1872, incorporating Woodstock into Alameda. Mark Twain described Alameda as being "The Garden of California. ''
In 1917, an attraction called Neptune Beach was built in the area now known as Crab Cove. Often compared to Coney Island, the park was a major attraction in the 1920s and 1930s. The original owners of the facility, the Strehlow family, partnered with a local confectioner to create tastes unique to Neptune Beach. Both the American snow cone and the popsicle were first sold at Neptune Beach. The Kewpie doll, hand - painted and dressed in unique hand - sewn dresses, became the original prize for winning games at the beach -- another Neptune Beach invention. The Strehlows owned and operated the beach on their own, even filling in a section of the bay to add an additional Olympic - size swimming pool and an exceptional roller coaster which must have given riders a tremendous view of the bay. The Cottage Baths were available for rent.
Neptune Beach 's two huge outdoor pools hosted swimming races and exhibitions by such famous swimmers as Olympian Johnny Weissmuller, who later starred as the original Tarzan, and Jack LaLanne, who started a chain of health clubs. The park closed down in 1939 because of the Great Depression, the completion of the San Francisco -- Oakland Bay Bridge, people circumventing paying the admission price, and the rise of car culture. Once the Bay Bridge was complete, the rail lines, which ran right past the entrance to Neptune Beach on the way to the Alameda Mole and the Ferry, lost riders in droves. People began using their cars to escape the city and the immediate suburbs like Alameda and traveling further afield in California. Alameda lost its resort status as more distant locations became more attractive to cash - rich San Francisco tourists. Youngsters in town became aware of ways to avoid paying the dime for admission to the park. Strong swimmers or even waders could sneak in on the bay side just by swimming around the fence.
Some of the resort homes and buildings from the Neptune beach era still exist in present - day Alameda. The Croll Building, on the corner of Webster Street and Central Avenue, was the site of Croll 's Gardens and Hotel, famous as training quarters for some of the greatest fighters in boxing history from 1883 to 1914. James J. Corbett, Bob Fitzsimmons, Jim Jefferies, Jack Johnson, and many other champions all stayed and trained here. Today this beautifully preserved building is home to Croll 's Pizza and the 1400 Bar & Grill Restaurant. Neptune Court, just a block away on the corner of Central Ave. and McKay Ave., provides another glimpse of what resort life was like in Alameda in the 1920s. A short walk near Crab Cove will reveal many more historic gems.
The vast majority of the Neptune Beach structures -- the hand - carved carousel from the world - famed Dentzel Company, the Ferris wheel, the roller coaster, and other rides -- were auctioned off in 1940 for mere pennies on the dollar of their original cost. Today, A consequence of the Neptune Beach closing around 1940 was a total dearth of quality, clean swimming facilities in town. A grass roots effort to create swimming pools at two high schools and two city parks would continue into the early 1960s.
When the railroad came to town in the 1860s Park Street developed into the major thoroughfare of the city and the location of the main Alameda train station, residents of Old Alameda pulled up stakes and moved across town to the new downtown. The street 's location was chosen by two landowners who wished to attract tenants and development to their land. As a result, they designated their mutual property line as Park Street.
In 1902, the need for expanded shipping facilities led to the dredging of a canal through the marshland between Oakland and Alameda, turning Alameda into an island. Most of the soil from the canal was used to fill in nearby marshland. The area of Alameda called Bay Farm Island is no longer an island, but is attached by fill to Oakland. In his youth, author Jack London was known to take part in oyster pirating in the highly productive oyster beds near Bay Farm Island, today long gone. The Alameda Works Shipyard was one of the largest and best equipped shipyards in the country. In the 1950s, Alameda 's industrial and ship building industries thrived along the Alameda Estuary, where the world 's first - ever, land - based, containerized shipping crane was used. Currently, the Port of Oakland across the estuary serves as one of the largest ports on the West Coast, using the shipping technologies originally experimented with in Alameda. As of March 21, 2006, Alameda is a "Coast Guard City '', one of seven in the country.
In addition to the regular trains running to the Alameda Mole, Alameda was also served by local steam commuter lines of the Southern Pacific (initially, the Central Pacific) which were later transformed into the East Bay Electric Lines. Southern Pacific 's electrified trains were not streetcars, but full - sized railroad cars which connected to the mainland by bridges at Webster Street and Fruitvale (only the latter bridge survives today). The trains ran to both the Oakland Mole and the Alameda Mole. In fact, one line which ran between the two moles was dubbed the "Horseshoe Line '' for the shape of the route on a map. Soon after the completion of the Bay Bridge, Alameda trains ran directly to San Francisco on the lower deck of the bridge, the ferries having been rendered unnecessary. Alameda was the site of the Southern Pacific 's West Alameda Shops where all the electric trains were maintained and repaired.
In the 1930s Pan American Airways established a seaplane port along the fill that led to the Alameda Mole. This was the original home base for the famous China Clipper flying boat. In 1929, the University of California established the San Francisco Airdrome located near the current Webster Street tube as a public airport. The Bay Airdrome had its gala christening party in 1930. The airfield was a busy place, as an early home base for Coastal Air Freight, Varney Air Lines, West Coast Air Transport, Western Air Express, the transbay Air Ferries, and Boeing 's Pacific Air Transport. The Airdrome was closed in 1941 when its air traffic interfered with the newly built Naval Air Station Alameda (NAS Alameda). With the advent of World War II, a vast stretch of the marshy area southwest of the Alameda Mole was filled and the NAS Alameda established. This major Naval facility included a large airfield, as well as docks for several aircraft carriers. It closed in 1997.
In the late 1950s the Utah Construction Company began a landfill beyond the Old Sea Wall and created South Shore.
On February 7, 1973, a USN Vought A-7E Corsair II fighter jet on a routine training mission from Lemoore Naval Air Station, suddenly caught fire, 28,000 feet over the San Francisco Bay and crashed into the Tahoe Apartments in Alameda. Eleven people, including pilot Lieutenant Robert Lee Ward died in the crash and fire.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 23.0 square miles (60 km), of which 10.6 square miles (27 km) is land and 12.3 square miles (32 km) (53.79 %) is water.
Although Alameda 's nickname is "The Island City '' (or simply "the island ''), the current city occupies two islands as well as a small section of the mainland. Today, the city consists of the main original section, with the former Naval Air Station Alameda (NAS Alameda) at the west end of Alameda Island, Southshore along the southern side of Alameda Island, and Bay Farm Island, which is part of the mainland proper. The area of the former NAS is now known as "Alameda Point. '' The Southshore area is separated from the main part of Alameda Island by a lagoon; the north shore of the lagoon is located approximately where the original south shore of the island was. Alameda Point and Southshore are built on bay fill.
Not all of Alameda Island is part of the City of Alameda. Although nearly all of the island is in Alameda city limits, a small portion of a dump site west of the former runways at Alameda Point extends far enough into San Francisco Bay that it is over the county line and part of the City and County of San Francisco.
Coast Guard Island, a small island between Alameda Island and Oakland, is also part of Alameda and is the home of Integrated Support Command Alameda
This region experiences warm (but not hot) and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71.6 ° F. According to the Köppen climate classification system, Alameda has a warm - summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb '' on climate maps. Annual precipitation is about 20 inches, all rain (snow is extremely rare at sea level in the San Francisco Bay area).
The 2010 United States Census reported that Alameda had a population of 73,812. (2015 census estimates place the population at 78,630)
The population density was 3,214.9 people per square mile (1,241.3 / km2). The racial makeup of Alameda was 37,460 (50.8 %) White, 23,058 (31.2 %) Asian, 4,759 (6.4 %) African American, 426 (0.6 %) Native American, 381 (0.5 %) Pacific Islander, 2,463 (3.3 %) from other races, and 5,265 (7.1 %) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8,092 persons (11.0 %).
The Census reported that 72,316 people (98.0 % of the population) lived in households, 857 (1.2 %) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 639 (0.9 %) were institutionalized.
There were 30,123 households, out of which 9,144 (30.4 %) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 13,440 (44.6 %) were opposite - sex married couples living together, 3,623 (12.0 %) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,228 (4.1 %) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 1,681 (5.6 %) unmarried opposite - sex partnerships, and 459 (1.5 %) same - sex married couples or same - sex partnerships. 9,347 households (31.0 %) were made up of individuals and 2,874 (9.5 %) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40. There were 18,291 families (60.7 % of all households); the average family size was 3.06.
The age distribution of the population shows 15,304 people (20.7 %) under the age of 18, 5,489 people (7.4 %) aged 18 to 24, 21,000 people (28.5 %) aged 25 to 44, 22,044 people (29.9 %) aged 45 to 64, and 9,975 people (13.5 %) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40.7 years. For every 100 females there were 91.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.5 males.
Per capita money income in past 12 months (2013 dollars), 2009 -- 2013 was $41,340.00 per US Census. Median household income, 2009 -- 2013 was $74,606.00 per US Census.
There were 32,351 housing units at an average density of 1,409.0 per square mile (544.0 / km2), of which 14,488 (48.1 %) were owner - occupied, and 15,635 (51.9 %) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.1 %; the rental vacancy rate was 5.7 %. 37,042 people (50.2 % of the population) lived in owner - occupied housing units and 35,274 people (47.8 %) lived in rental housing units.
As of the census of 2000, there were 72,259 people, 30,226 households, and 17,863 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,583.3 / km2 (6,693.4 / mi2). There were 31,644 housing units at an average density of 1,131.3 / km2 (2,931.2 / mi2). The racial makeup of the city was 56.95 % White, 6.21 % Black or African American, 0.67 % Native American, 26.15 % Asian, 0.60 % Pacific Islander, 3.29 % from other races, and 6.13 % from two or more races. 9.31 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 30,226 households out of which 27.7 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.7 % were married couples living together, 11.4 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.9 % were non-families. 32.2 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9.4 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 3.04.
In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 21.5 % under the age of 18, 7.0 % from 18 to 24, 33.6 % from 25 to 44, 24.6 % from 45 to 64, and 13.3 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 92.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $56,285, and the median income for a family was $68,625. Males had a median income of $49,174 versus $40,165 for females. The per capita income for the city was $30,982. About 6.0 % of families and 8.2 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.4 % of those under age 18 and 6.1 % of those age 65 or over.
There is a large Filipino community; and also a major Portuguese community, from which Tom Hanks ' mother came and where Lyndsy Fonseca was raised for some time. Alameda also has a historic Japanese American community and had a small Japanese business district on a portion of Park Street prior to World War II, when the city 's Japanese population was interned. A Japanese Buddhist church is one of the few remaining buildings left of Alameda 's pre-war Japanese American community.
Like much of the heavily Democratic Alameda County, the City of Alameda is considered a liberal city. In addition to voting solidly for Democratic candidates in statewide elections, voters in the city have approved a number of progressive ballot initiatives.
Vehicle access to Alameda Island is via three bridges from Oakland (Park Street, Fruitvale Avenue, and High Street Bridges), as well as the two one - way Posey and Webster Street Tubes leading into Oakland 's Chinatown. Connections from Alameda to Bay Farm Island is provided via the Bay Farm Island Bridge for vehicular traffic as well as the Bay Farm Island Bicycle Bridge (the only pedestrian / bicycle - only drawbridge in the United States). California State Route 61 runs down city streets from the Posey and Webster Street Tubes, across the Bay Farm Island Bridge, and south to the Oakland Airport.
Public transportation includes the AC Transit buses (which include express buses to San Francisco) and two ferry services -- the Alameda / Oakland Ferry and the Alameda Harbor Bay Ferry. AC Transit buses also cover 3 bus times in the morning and afternoon to Lincoln Middle School, located in Alameda. Both ferry services may soon be transferred to the Water Transit Authority. The closest BART stations are Lake Merritt and 12th Street, near the exit to the Posey Tube, and Fruitvale, near the Fruitvale Bridge.
Even though the island is just minutes off Interstate 880 in Oakland, the speed limit for the city is 25 mph (40 km / h) on almost every road. Many unaware drivers fail to slow down after exiting the highway. Groups like Pedestrian Friendly Alameda and BikeAlameda advocate stronger enforcement of speeding laws.
Alameda has also featured prominently on automotive blog Jalopnik, with their "Down on The Street '' segment consisting of cars found on the streets of Alameda. Jalopnik has nicknamed it "The Island That Rust Forgot ''.
Due to its proximity to the Bay, wind surfers and kite surfers can often be seen at Robert W. Crown Memorial State Beach. From the beach there are also views of the San Francisco skyline and the San Francisco -- Oakland Bay Bridge.
The aircraft carrier USS Hornet, a museum ship, has been moored at the former Naval Air Station as the USS Hornet Museum since 1998. This ship was originally named the USS Kearsarge, but was renamed in honor of the previous Hornet CV - 8 (famous for the Doolittle raid), which was lost in October 1942.
Alameda is known for its Victorian houses; 9 % of all single - family houses (1500) in Alameda are Victorian, and many more have been divided into two to four - unit dwellings. It is said that Alameda has more pre-1906 earthquake era homes in the Gold Coast section than any other city in the Bay Area.
Alameda is home to the official offices and training facility of the Oakland Raiders American football team, which is located on Bay Farm Island. The facility is also home to The Raider Image, the merchandise arm of the franchise, which the public can visit.
At the turn of the 19th century, the city of Alameda took a large chunk of Charles Froling 's land away to build a street. Froling had planned to build his dream house on the plot of land he received through inheritance. To spite the city and an unsympathetic neighbor, Froling built a house 10 feet (3.0 m) wide, 54 feet (16 m) long and 20 feet (6.1 m) high on the tiny strip of land left to him. The Froling spite house is still standing and occupied.
Alameda is also known for its Fourth of July parade, which is advertised as the second oldest and second longest Fourth of July parade in the United States. It features homemade floats, classic cars, motorized living room furniture, fire - breathing dragons, marching bands, and large crowds. The parade route is about 3 miles (5 km) long.
The Historic Park Street Business District is known for its many buildings that date back to the 1800s and is a designated Historic Commercial District on the National Register. This main thoroughfare of downtown Alameda Is filled with local shops, restaurants, drinking establishments, and services. The renovated 1932 Alameda Theatre & Cineplex is the cultural centerpiece of the commercial district. In addition, popular attractions include High Scores Arcade Museum (a retro video game arcade) and Subpar Miniature Golf (an indoor miniature golf complex that features Bay Area landmarks such as the Golden Gate Bridge and Coit Tower at each hole).
Naval Air Station Alameda (NAS), at Alameda Point, which was decommissioned in 1997, has been turned over to the City of Alameda for civilian development. The area of the former NAS is now known as Alameda Point. In late July 2006, the City of Alameda announced a deal with the Navy that would turn the land over to the city for $108 M. The transfer process was initially slowed down by disputes between the Navy and the city regarding payment for environmental cleanup of the land.
In September 2010 the US Veterans Administration proposed construction of a $209 million state - of - the - art facility at Alameda Point that would provide primary care, specialty care, and mental health, substance abuse and other services. (1) The VA received Congressional $17.33 million in budget authority for the project in 2011. But concerns over the proximity to a nesting site for an endangered bird, the California least tern, have led to delays in moving the project forward. The VA 's 2012 and 2013 budget requests to Congress contain no funding requests for Alameda Point. (2)
In September 2011 Alameda and the Navy reached an agreement on the terms of a no - cost conveyance for the entire 918 acres at Alameda Point.
The 33rd America 's Cup Race was won by Golden Gate Yacht Club racing team BMW Oracle, founded by Larry Ellison. One possible use of the air station would be an alternate or partnered site with San Francisco for 34th America 's Cup. Within 2 weeks of the Golden Gate Yacht Club winning the America 's Cup, Alameda city council with local support sent a unanimous letter of support to hold AC 34 in San Francisco Bay Area. In early 2011, the City Council created an ad hoc America 's Cup Citizens Advisory Committee to look for ways that Alameda could draw interest from teams and potential spectators. Through those efforts, in mid-2012, the Swedish Artemis Racing team announced that they would create their team base in one of the former air station hangars on Alameda Point.
Rosenblum Cellars Winery, Rock Wall Winery, Building 43 Winery, Hangar 1, and St. George Spirits are located at Alameda Point. In 1978, Alameda veterinarian Kent Rosenblum and his wife Kathy founded Rosenblum Cellars. In 2008, the company was purchased by Diageo Estates. Shauna Rosenblum, daughter of Kent and Kathy, is the wine maker for Rock Wall Winery. In December, 2007, St. George Absinthe Verte, produced by St. George Spirits became the first brand of American - made absinthe to be legally produced in the United States since a ban was enacted in 1912.
The city restored the historic Art Deco city landmark Alameda Theatre, expanding it to include a theater multiplex. The public opening was May 21, 2008.
The South Shore Mall Twin Cinema opened in 1969 and served as a prominent theater on the island until its closure in 1998. In 2002, the building was demolished and its former site is now a parking lot.
Alameda also hosts the Altarena Playhouse, which since 1957 has been home to the Bay Area 's oldest continuously operating community theater organization.
According to the City 's 2016 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:
Alameda 's first newspaper, the Encinal, appeared in the early 1850s and the paper 's editor was instrumental in the movement to incorporate the city. Following the Encinal, several other papers appeared along geographic lines, and the Daily Argus eventually rose to prominence. A young Alameda native, Joseph R. Knowland, wrote political and historical articles for the Alameda papers. Later, Knowland owned the powerful Oakland Tribune. Around 1900, the Daily Argus began to fade in importance and east and west papers The Times and The Star combined to take the leading role as the Alameda Times - Star in the 1930s. The Times - Star was sold to the Alameda Newspaper Group in the 1970s.
In 1997, the Hills Newspaper chain was bought by Knight Ridder, at the time, the second - largest newspaper chain in the U.S. Following the buyout, former Hills Newspapers employees recognized the lack of a local community voice in Alameda, and again formed a new locally based newspaper, the Alameda Sun, in 2001. In 2006, Knight Ridder announced its impending sale to McClatchy Corp., a Sacramento - based publishing firm. McClatchy Corp. has put the Contra Costa Times, which under the Knight Ridder reorganization included all five of the original Hills Newspapers, up for sale. The current owners of the Alameda Times - Star, MediaNews, Inc., based in Colorado, have announced a strong interest in buying both the Contra Costa Times chain and the San Jose Mercury News, consolidating the daily newspaper market of the East Bay, effectively under one owner. MediaNews closed the Times - Star in 2011.
The Alameda community is currently served by two weekly newspapers, the Alameda Journal, owned by the MediaNews Group, and the Alameda Sun, along with news websites, The Alamedan, Action Alameda News.
After two previous failures, voters in the city passed a ballot measure in 2000 authorizing a bond measure for construction of a new library to replace the city 's Carnegie library, damaged during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. The city also received state funds for the new library and opened the doors to the new facility in November 2006.
There is a library branch on Bay Farm Island and another at Santa Clara and Eighth Avenue.
Founded in 1894, Alameda Hospital is located at Clinton Avenue and Willow Street.
Unlike surrounding communities, Alameda has a municipal power service, Alameda Municipal Power (AMP), that delivers services directly to consumers. AMP sold the majority of its telecommunications business to Comcast in 2008 but continues to provide telecommunication service at Alameda Point.
During the California electricity crisis of 2000 and 2001, Alameda Municipal Power did not raise electricity rates, while residents in most of the state endured significant price increases.
The Alameda Arts Council (AAC) serves as the local Alameda City arts council. The Alameda Civic Ballet is the ballet troupe of the city. The Alameda Museum features displays on the history of Alameda. The Alameda Art Association has about 80 members as of January 2011, and has a gallery space at South Shore Center mall. The Association began in 1944. An annual benefit, Circus for Arts in the Schools, was started by clown artist Jeff Raz in 2004. Photo - realist Robert Bechtle has painted numerous Alameda subjects, including "Alameda Gran Torino '', which was acquired by SFMOMA in 1974 and remains one of Bechtle 's most famous works.
Alameda has been home to many movie sets. Some of the movies filmed on the island have included Bicentennial Man, The Net, The Matrix Reloaded, The Matrix Revolutions, Bee Season, the original 1968 Your, Mine and Ours and the movie musical Rent. Parts of Alameda High School were animated for the Animatrix episode "Kid 's Story ''. A massive hangar at the former Naval Air Station Alameda was used to film special scenes requiring computer - generated imagery for movies such as Bicentennial Man, Flubber, What Dreams May Come, Mission: Impossible 2 and many scenes from the Matrix trilogy, including the signature bullet time scene. The open space of the decommissioned naval base often hosts MythBusters ' more dangerous experiments. The movie "Spirit Of ' 76 '' was filmed all throughout Alameda.
The documentary, Shallow Waters: The Public Death of Raymond Zack was filmed at Alameda locations, and chronicled the 2011 Death of Raymond Zack on Crown Beach in Alameda. The film was screened in 2016 at the Michaan Auction House Theater in Alameda.
The USS Hornet Museum, permanently moored at Alameda Point, has been the site for scenes used in major theatrical releases: XXX: State of the Union, Rescue Dawn, and The Master. In addition, the aircraft carrier has been used for television shows such as JAG, Carrier, Looking, The Great Escape, and the special military episode of Fear Factor; plus a number of television commercials.
The Altarena Playhouse, which performs comedies, dramas and musicals, was founded in 1938 and is the longest continuously operating community theater in the San Francisco Bay Area.
Rhythmix Cultural Works (RCW) brings people of all ages together to experience and explore music, dance, visual art and educational opportunities. RCW 's programs are housed in a restored industrial waterfront building that speaks to Alameda 's history while creating an inclusive venue that reflects the Bay Area 's rich diversity. The organization offers an array of arts programming to the community including Island Arts, Island City Waterways, Round the World Festival and its Performance Art and Learning program (PAL) that serves more than 2000 youth with free cultural arts assemblies each year.
Webster Street in Alameda has long been the host of many arts, crafts and holiday festivals. During some of these festivals, the Chamber of Commerce along with the West Alameda Business Association (WABA) will block of a portion of Webster St. for the entertainment of festival goers. Festivals such as The Island JAM formerly known as the Peanut Butter Jam Festival brings a lot of local and outside visitors. Other event on the "West - End '' include Trick - or - Treat on Webster Street where merchants supply goodies for local children and culminates with a parade and costume contest; in December "Santa Claus Meet - n - Greet on Webster Street '' happens with elves, and a photo with the big guy.
There are three major events when the street in Alameda 's historic downtown district is closed to vehicular traffic. The Park Street Spring Festival takes place every May during the weekend of Mother 's Day and attracts over 50,000 visitors. The Park Street Art & Wine Faire takes place the last weekend of every July and attracts over 100,000 visitors. Both street fairs feature over 150 arts & crafts vendors, food vendors, beer and wine pouring, a children 's area, and two stages with regional entertainment. The Park Street Classic Car Show is held on the second Saturday every October and displays over 400 vintage vehicles.
Public primary and secondary education in Alameda is the responsibility of the Alameda Unified School District, which is legally separate from the City of Alameda government (as is common throughout California). The College of Alameda, a two - year community college in the West End is part of the Peralta Community College District. The city has numerous private primary schools, and one private high school, St. Joseph Notre Dame High School, a Catholic school.
Alameda 's relationships with Wuxi and Jiangyin were initiated in 2005, in part, by Stewart Chen, who then served on the City of Alameda Social Service and Human Relations board, and who went on to be elected to Alameda City Council in November, 2012.
Wuxi, China, is a so - called friendship city, because the diplomacy organization Sister Cities International does not recognize the relationship.
In September, 2013, a Tibetan rights group initiated a social media and e-mail campaign targeting the Mayor of Alameda, complaining that City of Alameda 's participation in, and association with, a flag - raising ceremony to recognize National Day of the People 's Republic of China on October 1 was tantamount to endorsing the communist regime in China, its human rights abuses, and the occupation of Tibet. The City of Alameda responded that the ceremony was a function of the Alameda Sister City Association and the Alameda Wuxi Friendship Committee, not a function of the City of Alameda. The Tibetan rights group responded that on September 26, the City of Alameda Social Service and Human Relations board appointed a member, Michael Robles - Wong, as a representative to the Sister City Association.
On October 1, 2013, the Tibetan rights groupsTibetTruth and Bay Area Friends of Tibet sent roughly 75 protesters to Alameda City Hall to protest the ceremony, which organizers ultimately canceled before it began. Former City of Alameda Councilmember Frank Matarrese announced the cancellation. Then - city councilmember Stewart Chen subsequently defended the ceremony, as a diplomatic, not political, exercise.
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what is the value of gravity on earth | Gravity of Earth - wikipedia
The gravity of Earth, which is denoted by g, refers to the acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within Earth. In SI units this acceleration is measured in metres per second squared (in symbols, m / s or m s) or equivalently in newtons per kilogram (N / kg or N kg). Near Earth 's surface, gravitational acceleration is approximately 9.8 m / s, which means that, ignoring the effects of air resistance, the speed of an object falling freely will increase by about 9.8 metres per second every second. This quantity is sometimes referred to informally as little g (in contrast, the gravitational constant G is referred to as big G).
The precise strength of Earth 's gravity varies depending on location. The nominal "average '' value at Earth 's surface, known as standard gravity is, by definition, 9.80665 m / s. This quantity is denoted variously as g, g (though this sometimes means the normal equatorial value on Earth, 9.78033 m / s), g, gee, or simply g (which is also used for the variable local value). The weight of an object on Earth 's surface is the downwards force on that object, given by Newton 's second law of motion, or F = ma (force = mass × acceleration). Gravitational acceleration contributes to the total acceleration, but other factors, such as the rotation of Earth, also contribute, and, therefore, affect the weight of the object.
A perfect sphere of uniform mass density, or whose density varies solely with distance from the centre (spherical symmetry), would produce a gravitational field of uniform magnitude at all points on its surface, always pointing directly towards the sphere 's centre. The Earth is not spherically symmetric, but is slightly flatter at the poles while bulging at the Equator: an oblate spheroid. There are consequently slight deviations in both the magnitude and direction of gravity across its surface. The net force (or corresponding net acceleration) as measured by a scale and plumb bob is called "effective gravity '' or "apparent gravity ''. Effective gravity includes other factors that affect the net force. These factors vary and include things such as centrifugal force at the surface from the Earth 's rotation and the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun.
Effective gravity on the Earth 's surface varies by around 0.7 %, from 9.7639 m / s on the Nevado Huascarán mountain in Peru to 9.8337 m / s at the surface of the Arctic Ocean. In large cities, it ranges from 9.7760 in Kuala Lumpur, Mexico City, and Singapore to 9.825 in Oslo and Helsinki.
In 1901 the third General Conference on Weights and Measures defined a standard gravitational acceleration for the surface of the Earth: g = 9.80665 m / s. The larger variations described below were not yet known. Therefore this definition is not a value of any particular place or carefully worked out average, but an agreement for a value to use if a better actual local value is not known or not important.
The surface of the Earth is rotating, so it is not an inertial frame of reference. At latitudes nearer the Equator, the outward centrifugal force produced by Earth 's rotation is larger than at polar latitudes. This counteracts the Earth 's gravity to a small degree -- up to a maximum of 0.3 % at the Equator -- and reduces the apparent downward acceleration of falling objects.
The second major reason for the difference in gravity at different latitudes is that the Earth 's equatorial bulge (itself also caused by centrifugal force from rotation) causes objects at the Equator to be farther from the planet 's centre than objects at the poles. Because the force due to gravitational attraction between two bodies (the Earth and the object being weighed) varies inversely with the square of the distance between them, an object at the Equator experiences a weaker gravitational pull than an object at the poles.
In combination, the equatorial bulge and the effects of the surface centrifugal force due to rotation mean that sea - level effective gravity increases from about 9.780 m / s at the Equator to about 9.832 m / s at the poles, so an object will weigh about 0.5 % more at the poles than at the Equator.
The same two factors influence the direction of the effective gravity (as determined by a plumb line or as the perpendicular to the surface of water in a container). Anywhere on Earth away from the Equator or poles, effective gravity points not exactly toward the centre of the Earth, but rather perpendicular to the surface of the geoid, which, due to the flattened shape of the Earth, is somewhat toward the opposite pole. About half of the deflection is due to centrifugal force, and half because the extra mass around the Equator causes a change in the direction of the true gravitational force relative to what it would be on a spherical Earth.
Gravity decreases with altitude as one rises above the Earth 's surface because greater altitude means greater distance from the Earth 's centre. All other things being equal, an increase in altitude from sea level to 9,000 metres (30,000 ft) causes a weight decrease of about 0.29 %. (An additional factor affecting apparent weight is the decrease in air density at altitude, which lessens an object 's buoyancy. This would increase a person 's apparent weight at an altitude of 9,000 metres by about 0.08 %)
It is a common misconception that astronauts in orbit are weightless because they have flown high enough to escape the Earth 's gravity. In fact, at an altitude of 400 kilometres (250 mi), equivalent to a typical orbit of the Space Shuttle, gravity is still nearly 90 % as strong as at the Earth 's surface. Weightlessness actually occurs because orbiting objects are in free - fall.
The effect of ground elevation depends on the density of the ground (see Slab correction section). A person flying at 30 000 ft above sea level over mountains will feel more gravity than someone at the same elevation but over the sea. However, a person standing on the earth 's surface feels less gravity when the elevation is higher.
The following formula approximates the Earth 's gravity variation with altitude:
Where
The formula treats the Earth as a perfect sphere with a radially symmetric distribution of mass; a more accurate mathematical treatment is discussed below.
An approximate value for gravity at a distance r from the center of the Earth can be obtained by assuming that the Earth 's density is spherically symmetric. The gravity depends only on the mass inside the sphere of radius r. All the contributions from outside cancel out as a consequence of the inverse - square law of gravitation. Another consequence is that the gravity is the same as if all the mass were concentrated at the center. Thus, the gravitational acceleration at this radius is
where G is the gravitational constant and M (r) is the total mass enclosed within radius r. If the Earth had a constant density ρ, the mass would be M (r) = (4 / 3) πρr and the dependence of gravity on depth would be
g at depth d is given by g ' = g (1 - d / R) where g is acceleration due to gravity on surface of the earth, d is depth and R is radius of Earth. If the density decreased linearly with increasing radius from a density ρ at the center to ρ at the surface, then ρ (r) = ρ − (ρ − ρ) r / r, and the dependence would be
The actual depth dependence of density and gravity, inferred from seismic travel times (see Adams -- Williamson equation), is shown in the graphs below.
Local differences in topography (such as the presence of mountains), geology (such as the density of rocks in the vicinity), and deeper tectonic structure cause local and regional differences in the Earth 's gravitational field, known as gravitational anomalies. Some of these anomalies can be very extensive, resulting in bulges in sea level, and throwing pendulum clocks out of synchronisation.
The study of these anomalies forms the basis of gravitational geophysics. The fluctuations are measured with highly sensitive gravimeters, the effect of topography and other known factors is subtracted, and from the resulting data conclusions are drawn. Such techniques are now used by prospectors to find oil and mineral deposits. Denser rocks (often containing mineral ores) cause higher than normal local gravitational fields on the Earth 's surface. Less dense sedimentary rocks cause the opposite.
In air, objects experience a supporting buoyancy force which reduces the apparent strength of gravity (as measured by an object 's weight). The magnitude of the effect depends on air density (and hence air pressure); see Apparent weight for details.
The gravitational effects of the Moon and the Sun (also the cause of the tides) have a very small effect on the apparent strength of Earth 's gravity, depending on their relative positions; typical variations are 2 μm / s (0.2 mGal) over the course of a day.
Tools exist for calculating the strength of gravity at various cities around the world. The effect of latitude can be clearly seen with gravity in high - latitude cities: Anchorage (9.826 m / s), Helsinki (9.825 m / s), being about 0.5 % greater than that in cities near the equator: Kuala Lumpur (9.776 m / s), Manila (9.780 m / s). The effect of altitude can be seen in Mexico City (9.776 m / s; altitude 2,240 metres (7,350 ft)), and by comparing Denver (9.798 m / s; 1,616 metres (5,302 ft)) with Washington, D.C. (9.801 m / s; 30 metres (98 ft)), both of which are near 39 ° N. Measured values can be obtained from Physical and Mathematical Tables by T.M. Yarwood and F. Castle, Macmillan, revised edition 1970.
If the terrain is at sea level, we can estimate g (φ) (\ displaystyle g \ (\ phi \)), the acceleration at latitude φ (\ displaystyle \ phi):
This is the International Gravity Formula 1967, the 1967 Geodetic Reference System Formula, Helmert 's equation or Clairaut 's formula.
An alternative formula for g as a function of latitude is the WGS (World Geodetic System) 84 Ellipsoidal Gravity Formula:
where,
then, where G p = 9.8321849378 m ⋅ s − 2 (\ displaystyle \ mathbb (G) _ (p) = 9.8321849378 \, \, \ mathrm (m) \ cdot \ mathrm (s) ^ (- 2)),
The difference between the WGS - 84 formula and Helmert 's equation is less than 0.68 μm s.
The first correction to be applied to the model is the free air correction (FAC) that accounts for heights above sea level. Near the surface of the Earth (sea level), gravity decreases with height such that linear extrapolation would give zero gravity at a height of one half of the earth 's radius - (9.8 m s per 3,200 km.)
Using the mass and radius of the Earth:
The FAC correction factor (Δg) can be derived from the definition of the acceleration due to gravity in terms of G, the Gravitational Constant (see Estimating g from the law of universal gravitation, below):
where:
At a height h above the nominal surface of the earth g is given by:
So the FAC for a height h above the nominal earth radius can be expressed:
This expression can be readily used for programming or inclusion in a spreadsheet. Collecting terms, simplifying and neglecting small terms (h < < r), however yields the good approximation:
Using the numerical values above and for a height h in metres:
Grouping the latitude and FAC altitude factors the expression most commonly found in the literature is:
where g (φ, h) (\ displaystyle g \ (\ phi, h \)) = acceleration in m s at latitude φ (\ displaystyle \ \ phi) and altitude h in metres. Alternatively (with the same units for h) the expression can be grouped as follows:
For flat terrain above sea level a second term is added for the gravity due to the extra mass; for this purpose the extra mass can be approximated by an infinite horizontal slab, and we get 2πG times the mass per unit area, i.e. 4.2 × 10 m s kg (0.042 μGal kg m) (the Bouguer correction). For a mean rock density of 2.67 g cm this gives 1.1 × 10 s (0.11 mGal m). Combined with the free - air correction this means a reduction of gravity at the surface of ca. 2 μm s (0.20 mGal) for every metre of elevation of the terrain. (The two effects would cancel at a surface rock density of 4 / 3 times the average density of the whole earth. The density of the whole earth is 5.515 g cm, so standing on a slab of something like iron whose density is over 7.35 g cm would increase one 's weight.)
For the gravity below the surface we have to apply the free - air correction as well as a double Bouguer correction. With the infinite slab model this is because moving the point of observation below the slab changes the gravity due to it to its opposite. Alternatively, we can consider a spherically symmetrical Earth and subtract from the mass of the Earth that of the shell outside the point of observation, because that does not cause gravity inside. This gives the same result.
From the law of universal gravitation, the force on a body acted upon by Earth 's gravity is given by
where r is the distance between the centre of the Earth and the body (see below), and here we take m to be the mass of the Earth and m to be the mass of the body.
Additionally, Newton 's second law, F = ma, where m is mass and a is acceleration, here tells us that
Comparing the two formulas it is seen that:
So, to find the acceleration due to gravity at sea level, substitute the values of the gravitational constant, G, the Earth 's mass (in kilograms), m, and the Earth 's radius (in metres), r, to obtain the value of g:
Note that this formula only works because of the mathematical fact that the gravity of a uniform spherical body, as measured on or above its surface, is the same as if all its mass were concentrated at a point at its centre. This is what allows us to use the Earth 's radius for r.
The value obtained agrees approximately with the measured value of g. The difference may be attributed to several factors, mentioned above under "Variations '':
There are significant uncertainties in the values of r and m as used in this calculation, and the value of G is also rather difficult to measure precisely.
If G, g and r are known then a reverse calculation will give an estimate of the mass of the Earth. This method was used by Henry Cavendish.
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who went before the knesset the israeli parliament | Knesset - wikipedia
Government (66)
Opposition (54)
The Knesset (Hebrew: הַכְּנֶסֶת (ha keˈneset) (listen); lit. "the gathering '' or "assembly ''; Arabic: الكنيست al - K (e) neset) is the unicameral national legislature of Israel. As the legislative branch of the Israeli government, the Knesset passes all laws, elects the President and Prime Minister (although the latter is ceremonially appointed by the President), approves the cabinet, and supervises the work of the government. In addition, the Knesset elects the State Comptroller. It also has the power to waive the immunity of its members, remove the President and the State Comptroller from office, dissolve the government in a constructive vote of no confidence, and to dissolve itself and call new elections. The Prime Minister may also dissolve the Knesset. However, until an election is completed, the Knesset maintains authority in its current composition. The Knesset is located in Givat Ram, Jerusalem.
The term "Knesset '' is derived from the ancient Knesset HaGdola (Hebrew: כְּנֶסֶת הַגְּדוֹלָה ) or "Great Assembly '', which according to Jewish tradition was an assembly of 120 scribes, sages, and prophets, in the period from the end of the Biblical prophets to the time of the development of Rabbinic Judaism -- about two centuries ending c. 200 BCE. There is, however, no organisational continuity and -- aside from the number of members -- little similarity, as the ancient Knesset was a religious, completely unelected body.
As the legislative branch of the Israeli government, the Knesset passes all laws, elects the president, approves the cabinet, and supervises the work of the government through its committees. It also has the power to waive the immunity of its members, remove the President and the State Comptroller from office, and to dissolve itself and call new elections.
The Knesset has de jure parliamentary supremacy, and can pass any law by a simple majority, even one that might arguably conflict with the Basic Laws of Israel, unless the basic law includes specific conditions for its modification; in accordance with a plan adopted in 1950, the Basic Laws can be adopted and amended by the Knesset, acting in its capacity as a Constituent Assembly.
In addition to the absence of a formal constitution, and with no Basic Law thus far being adopted which formally grants a power of judicial review to the judiciary, the Supreme Court of Israel has in recent years asserted its authority, when sitting as the High Court of Justice, to invalidate provisions of Knesset laws it has found to be inconsistent with a Basic Law. The Knesset is presided over by a Speaker and a Deputy Speaker.
The Knesset is divided into committees, which amend bills on the appropriate subjects. Committee chairpersons are chosen by their members, on recommendation of the House Committee, and their factional composition represents that of the Knesset itself. Committees may elect sub-committees and delegate powers to them, or establish joint committees for issues concerning more than one committee. To further their deliberations, they invite government ministers, senior officials, and experts in the matter being discussed. Committees may request explanation and information from any relevant ministers in any matter within their competence, and the ministers or persons appointed by them must provide the explanation or information requested.
There are four types of committees in the Knesset. Permanent committees amend proposed legislation dealing with their area of expertise, and may initiate legislation. However, such legislation may only deal with Basic Laws and laws dealing with the Knesset, elections to the Knesset, Knesset members, or the State Comptroller. Special committees function in a similar manner to permanent committees, but are appointed to deal with particular manners at hand, and can be dissolved or turned into permanent committees. Parliamentary inquiry committees are appointed by the plenum to deal with issues viewed as having special national importance. In addition, there are two types of committees that convene only when needed: the Interpretations Committee, made up of the Speaker and eight members chosen by the House Committee, deals with appeals against the interpretation given by the Speaker during a sitting of the plenum to the Knesset rules of procedure or precedents, and Public Committees, established to deal with issues that are connected to the Knesset.
Permanent committees:
Special committees:
The other committees are the Arrangements Committee and the Ethics Committee. The Ethics Committee is responsible for jurisdiction over Knesset members who violate the rules of ethics of the Knesset, or involved in illegal activities outside the Knesset. Within the framework of responsibility, the Ethics Committee may place various sanctions on a member, but is not allowed to restrict a members ' right to vote. The Arrangements Committee proposes the makeup of the permanent committees following each election, as well as suggesting committee chairs, lays down the sitting arrangements of political parties in the Knesset, and the distribution of rooms in the Knesset building to members and parties.
Knesset members often join together in formal or informal groups known as "lobbies '' or "caucuses '', to advocate for a particular topic. There are hundreds are such caucuses in the Knesset. The Knesset Christian Allies Caucus and the Knesset Land of Israel Caucus are two of the largest and most actives caucuses.
The Knesset numbers 120 members, after the size of the Great Assembly. The subject of Knesset membership has often been a cause for proposed reforms. In 1996, then - Justice Minister Yossi Beilin, backed the ultimately unsuccessful institution of the so - called "Norwegian law '', which would require appointed members of the cabinet to resign their seats in the Knesset and allow other members of their parties to take their positions while they serve in the cabinet; this would have resulted in more active members of the legislature being present in regular sessions and committee meetings. This proposed law has also been favoured by other politicians, including Benjamin Netanyahu.
The 120 members of the Knesset (MKs) are popularly elected from a single nationwide electoral district to concurrent four - year terms, subject to calls for early elections (which are quite common). All Israeli citizens 18 years or older may vote in legislative elections, which are conducted by secret ballot.
Knesset seats are allocated among the various parties using the D'Hondt method of party list proportional representation. A party or electoral alliance must pass the election threshold of 3.25 % of the overall vote to be allocated a Knesset seat. Parties select their candidates using a closed list. Thus, voters select the party of their choice, not any specific candidate.
The electoral threshold was previously set at 1 % from 1949 to 1992, then 1.5 % from 1992 to 2003, and then 2 % until March 2014 when the current threshold of 3.25 % was passed (effective with elections for the 20th Knesset). As a result of the low threshold, a typical Knesset has 10 or more factions represented. With such a large number of parties, it is nearly impossible for one party or faction to govern alone, let alone win a majority. No party or faction has ever won the 61 seats necessary for a majority; the closest being the 56 seats won by the Alignment in the 1969 elections (the Alignment had briefly held 63 seats going into the 1969 elections after being formed shortly beforehand by the merger of several parties, the only occasion on which any party or faction has ever held a majority). Every Israeli government has been a coalition of two or more parties.
After an election, the President meets with the leaders of every party that won Knesset seats and asks them to recommend which party leader should form the government. The President then nominates the party leader who is most likely to command the support of a majority in the Knesset (though not necessarily the leader of the largest party / faction in the chamber). The Prime Minister - designate has 42 days to put together a viable coalition, and then must win a vote of confidence in the Knesset before taking office.
Despite numerous motions of no confidence being tabled in the Knesset, a government has only been defeated by one once, when Yitzhak Shamir 's government was brought down on 15 March 1990 as part of a plot that became known as the dirty trick (Hebrew: התרגיל המסריח, HaTargil HaMasriaḥ, lit. the stinking trick).
However, several governments have resigned as a result of no - confidence motions, even when they were not defeated. These include the fifth government, which fell after Prime Minister Moshe Sharett resigned in June 1955 following the abstention of the General Zionists (part of the governing coalition) during a vote of no - confidence; the ninth government, which fell after Prime Minister Ben - Gurion resigned in January 1961 over a motion of no - confidence on the Lavon Affair; and the seventeenth government, which resigned in December 1976 after the National Religious Party (part of the governing coalition) abstained in a motion of no - confidence against the government.
The Knesset first convened on February 14, 1949, following the 20 January elections, replacing the Provisional State Council which acted as Israel 's official legislature from its date of independence on May 14, 1948 and succeeding the Assembly of Representatives that had functioned as the Jewish community 's representative body during the Mandate era.
The Knesset compound sits on a hilltop in western Jerusalem in a district known as Sheikh Badr before the 1948 Arab -- Israeli War, now Givat Ram. The main building was financed by James de Rothschild as a gift to the State of Israel in his will and was completed in 1966. It was built on land leased from the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem. Over the years, significant additions to the structure were constructed, however, these were built at levels below and behind the main 1966 structure as not to detract from the original assembly building 's appearance.
Before the construction of its permanent home, the Knesset met in the Jewish Agency building in Jerusalem, the Kessem Cinema building in Tel Aviv and the Froumine building in Jerusalem.
Each Knesset session is known by its election number. Thus the Knesset elected by Israel 's first election in 1949 is known as the First Knesset. The current Knesset, elected in 2015, is the Twentieth Knesset.
The Knesset holds morning tours in Hebrew, English, French, Spanish, Arabic, German and Russian, on Sunday and Thursday and there are also live session viewing times on Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday mornings.
The Knesset is protected by the Knesset Guard, a protective security unit responsible for the security of the Knesset building and Knesset members. Guards are stationed outside the building to provide armed protection, and ushers are stationed inside to maintain order. The Knesset Guard also plays a ceremonial role, participating in state ceremonies which includes greeting dignitaries on Mount Herzl on the eve of Israeli Independence Day.
A poll conducted by the Israeli Democracy Institute in April and May 2014 showed that while a majority of both Jews and Arabs in Israel are proud to be citizens of the country, both groups share a distrust of Israel 's government, including the Knesset. Almost three quarters of Israelis surveyed said corruption in Israel 's political leadership was either "widespread or somewhat prevalent. '' A majority of both Arabs and Jews trusted the Israel Defense Forces, the President of Israel and the Supreme Court of Israel, but Jews and Arabs reported similar levels of mistrust, with little more than a third of each group claiming confidence in the Knesset.
Coordinates: 31 ° 46 ′ 36 '' N 35 ° 12 ′ 19 '' E / 31.77667 ° N 35.20528 ° E / 31.77667; 35.20528
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write the process in detail evaporation sublimation combustion solidification condensation | Sublimation (phase transition) - wikipedia
Sublimation is the transition of a substance directly from the solid to the gas phase, without passing through the intermediate liquid phase. Sublimation is an endothermic process that occurs at temperatures and pressures below a substance 's triple point in its phase diagram, which corresponds to the lowest pressure at which the substance can exist as a liquid. The reverse process of sublimation is deposition or desublimation, in which a substance passes directly from a gas to a solid phase. Sublimation has also been used as a generic term to describe a solid - to - gas transition (sublimation) followed by a gas - to - solid transition (deposition). While a transition from liquid to gas is described as evaporation if it occurs below the boiling point of the liquid, and as boiling if it occurs at the boiling point, there is no such distinction within the solid - to - gas transition, which is always described as sublimation.
At normal pressures, most chemical compounds and elements possess three different states at different temperatures. In these cases, the transition from the solid to the gaseous state requires an intermediate liquid state. The pressure referred to is the partial pressure of the substance, not the total (e.g. atmospheric) pressure of the entire system. So, all solids that possess an appreciable vapour pressure at a certain temperature usually can sublime in air (e.g. water ice just below 0 ° C). For some substances, such as carbon and arsenic, sublimation is much easier than evaporation from the melt, because the pressure of their triple point is very high, and it is difficult to obtain them as liquids.
The term sublimation refers to a physical change of state and is not used to describe the transformation of a solid to a gas in a chemical reaction. For example, the dissociation on heating of solid ammonium chloride into hydrogen chloride and ammonia is not sublimation but a chemical reaction. Similarly the combustion of candles, containing paraffin wax, to carbon dioxide and water vapor is not sublimation but a chemical reaction with oxygen.
Sublimation is caused by the absorption of heat which provides enough energy for some molecules to overcome the attractive forces of their neighbors and escape into the vapor phase. Since the process requires additional energy, it is an endothermic change. The enthalpy of sublimation (also called heat of sublimation) can be calculated by adding the enthalpy of fusion and the enthalpy of vaporization.
Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) sublimes everywhere along the line below the triple point (e.g., at the temperature of − 78.5 ° C (194.65 K, − 109.30 ° F) at atmospheric pressure, whereas its melting into liquid CO can occur only along the line at pressures and temperatures above the triple point (i.e., 5.2 atm, − 56.4 ° C).
Snow and ice sublime, although more slowly, at temperatures below the freezing / melting point temperature line at 0 ° C for most pressures; see line below triple point. In freeze - drying, the material to be dehydrated is frozen and its water is allowed to sublime under reduced pressure or vacuum. The loss of snow from a snowfield during a cold spell is often caused by sunshine acting directly on the upper layers of the snow. Ablation is a process that includes sublimation and erosive wear of glacier ice.
Naphthalene, an organic compound commonly found in pesticide such as mothball, sublimes easily because it is made of non-polar molecules that are held together only by van der Waals intermolecular forces. Naphthalene is a solid that sublimes at standard atmospheric temperature with the sublimation point at around 80 _̊ C or 176 _̊ F. At low temperature, its vapour pressure is high enough, 1 mmHg at 53 _̊ C, to make the solid form of naphthalene evaporate into gas. On cool surfaces, the naphthalene vapours will solidify to form needle - like crystals.
Iodine produces fumes on gentle heating. It is possible to obtain liquid iodine at atmospheric pressure by controlling the temperature at just above the melting point of iodine. In forensic science, iodine vapor can reveal latent fingerprints on paper. Arsenic can also sublime at high temperatures.
Sublimation is a technique used by chemists to purify compounds. A solid is typically placed in a sublimation apparatus and heated under vacuum. Under this reduced pressure, the solid volatilizes and condenses as a purified compound on a cooled surface (cold finger), leaving a non-volatile residue of impurities behind. Once heating ceases and the vacuum is removed, the purified compound may be collected from the cooling surface. For even higher purification efficiencies a temperature gradient is applied, which also allows for the separation of different fractions. Typical setups use an evacuated glass tube that is gradually heated in a controlled manner. The material flow is from the hot end, where the initial material is placed, to the cold end that is connected to a pump stand. By controlling temperatures along the length of the tube the operator can control the zones of recondensation, with very volatile compounds being pumped out of the system completely (or caught by a separate cold trap), moderately volatile compounds recondensating along the tube according to their different volatilities, and non-volatile compounds remaining in the hot end. Vacuum sublimation of this type is also the method of choice for purification of organic compounds for the use in the organic electronics industry, where very high purities (often > 99.99 %) are needed to satisfy the standards for consumer electronics and other applications.
In ancient alchemy, a protoscience that contributed to the development of modern chemistry and medicine, alchemists developed a structure of basic laboratory techniques, theory, terminology, and experimental methods. Sublimation was used to refer to the process in which a substance is heated to a vapor, then immediately collects as sediment on the upper portion and neck of the heating medium (typically a retort or alembic), but can also be used to describe other similar non-laboratory transitions. It is mentioned by alchemical authors such as Basil Valentine and George Ripley, and in the Rosarium philosophorum, as a process necessary for the completion of the magnum opus. Here, the word sublimation is used to describe an exchange of "bodies '' and "spirits '' similar to laboratory phase transition between solids and gases. Valentine, in his Triumphal Chariot of Antimony (published 1678) makes a comparison to spagyrics in which a vegetable sublimation can be used to separate the spirits in wine and beer. Ripley uses language more indicative of the mystical implications of sublimation, indicating that the process has a double aspect in the spiritualization of the body and the corporalizing of the spirit. He writes:
And Sublimations we make for three causes, The first cause is to make the body spiritual. The second is that the spirit may be corporeal, And become fixed with it and consubstantial. The third cause is that from its filthy original. It may be cleansed, and its saltiness sulphurious May be diminished in it, which is infectious.
The enthalpy of sublimation has commonly been predicted using the equipartition theorem. If the lattice energy is assumed to be approximately half the packing energy, then the following thermodynamic corrections can be applied to predict the enthalpy of sublimation. Assuming a 1 molar ideal gas gives a correction for the thermodynamic environment (pressure and volume) in which pV = RT, hence a correction of 1RT. Additional corrections for the vibrations, rotations and translation then need to be applied. From the equipartition theorem gaseous rotation and translation contribute 1.5 RT each to the final state, therefore a + 3RT correction. Crystalline vibrations and rotations contribute 3RT each to the initial state, hence − 6RT. Summing the RT corrections; − 6RT + 3RT + RT = − 2RT. This leads to the following approximate sublimation enthalpy. A similar approximation can be found for the entropy term if rigid bodies are assumed. Δ H sublimation = − U lattice energy − 2 R T (\ displaystyle \ Delta H_ (\ text (sublimation)) = - U_ (\ text (lattice energy)) - 2RT)
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criminal law is established by elected representatives administrative agencies and judges | United States Attorney - wikipedia
United States Attorneys (also known as chief federal prosecutors and, historically, as United States District Attorneys) represent the United States federal government in United States district court and United States court of appeals.
The prosecution is the legal party responsible for presenting the case against an individual suspected of breaking the law, initiating and directing further criminal investigations, guiding and recommending the sentencing of offenders, and are the only attorneys allowed to participate in grand jury proceedings.
There are 93 U.S. Attorney offices located throughout the United States, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands. As of June 2017, most of the U.S. Attorney positions have been held by acting or interim appointees since at least March. One U.S. Attorney is assigned to each of the judicial districts, with the exception of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands where a single U.S. Attorney serves both districts. Each U.S. Attorney is the chief federal law enforcement officer within his or her particular jurisdiction, acting under the guidance of the United States Attorneys ' Manual. They supervise district offices with as many as 350 Assistant U.S. Attorneys (AUSAs) and as many as 350 support personnel.
An Assistant U.S. Attorney (AUSA), or federal prosecutor, is a public official who represents the federal government on behalf of the U.S. Attorney (USA) in criminal prosecutions, and in certain civil cases as either the plaintiff or the defendant. In carrying out their duties as prosecutors, AUSAs have the authority to investigate persons, issue subpoenas, file formal criminal charges, plea bargain with defendants, and grant immunity to witnesses and accused criminals.
U.S. Attorneys and their offices are part of the Department of Justice. U.S. Attorneys receive oversight, supervision, and administrative support services through the Justice Department 's Executive Office for United States Attorneys. Selected U.S. Attorneys participate in the Attorney General 's Advisory Committee of United States Attorneys.
The Office of the United States Attorney was created by the Judiciary Act of 1789, along with the office of Attorney General and the United States Marshals Service. The same act also specified the structure of the Supreme Court of the United States and established inferior courts making up the United States Federal Judiciary, including a district court system. Thus, the office of U.S. Attorney is older than the Department of Justice. The Judiciary Act of 1789 provided for the appointment in each judicial district of a "Person learned in the law to act as attorney for the United States... whose duty it shall be to prosecute in each district all delinquents for crimes and offenses cognizable under the authority of the United States, and all civil actions in which the United States shall be concerned... '' Prior to the existence of the Department of Justice, the U.S. Attorneys were independent of the Attorney General, and did not come under the AG 's supervision and authority until 1870, with the creation of the Department of Justice.
The U.S. Attorney is appointed by the President of the United States for a term of four years, with appointments subject to confirmation by the Senate. A U.S. Attorney continues in office, beyond the appointed term, until a successor is appointed and qualified. By law, each United States attorney is subject to removal by the President. The Attorney General has had the authority since 1986 to appoint interim U.S. Attorneys to fill a vacancy.
The governing statute, 28 U.S.C. § 546 provided, up until March 9, 2007:
(c) A person appointed as United States attorney under this section may serve until the earlier of --
(d) If an appointment expires under subsection (c) (2), the district court for such district may appoint a United States attorney to serve until the vacancy is filled. The order of appointment by the court shall be filed with the clerk of the court.
On March 9, 2007, President George W. Bush signed into law the USA PATRIOT Act which amended Section 546 by striking subsections (c) and (d) and inserting the following new subsection:
(c) A person appointed as United States attorney under this section may serve until the qualification of a United States Attorney for such district appointed by the President under section 541 of this title.
This, in effect, extinguished the 120 - day limit on interim U.S. Attorneys, and their appointment had an indefinite term. If the president failed to put forward any nominee to the Senate, then the Senate confirmation process was avoided, as the Attorney General - appointed interim U.S. Attorney could continue in office without limit or further action. Related to the dismissal of U.S. attorneys controversy, in March 2007 the Senate and the House voted to overturn the amendments of the USA PATRIOT Act to the interim appointment statute. The bill was signed by President George W. Bush, and became law in June 2007.
Senator Dianne Feinstein (D, California), summarized the history of interim United States Attorney appointments, on March 19, 2007 in the Senate.
Then, in 1898, a House of Representatives report explained that while Congress believed it was important to have the courts appoint an interim U.S. attorney:
' There was a problem relying on circuit courts since the circuit justice is not always to be found in the circuit and time is wasted in ascertaining his whereabouts. '
Therefore, at that time, the interim appointment authority was switched to the district courts; that is, in 1898 it was switched to the district courts.
Thus, for almost 100 years, the district courts were in charge of appointing interim U.S. attorneys, and they did so with virtually no problems. This structure was left undisturbed until 1986 when the statute was changed during the Reagan administration. In a bill that was introduced by Senator Strom Thurmond, the statute was changed to give the appointment authority to the Attorney General, but even then it was restricted and the Attorney General had a 120 - day time limit. After that time, if a nominee was not confirmed, the district courts would appoint an interim U.S. attorney. The adoption of this language was part of a larger package that was billed as technical amendments to criminal law, and thus there was no recorded debate in either the House or the Senate and both Chambers passed the bill by voice vote.
Then, 20 years later, in March 2006 -- again without much debate and again as a part of a larger package -- a statutory change was inserted into the PATRIOT Act reauthorization. This time, the Executive 's power was expanded even further, giving the Attorney General the authority to appoint an interim replacement indefinitely and without Senate confirmation.
The U.S. Attorney is both the primary representative and the administrative head of the Office of the U.S. Attorney for the district. The U.S. Attorney 's Office (USAO) is the chief prosecutor for the United States in criminal law cases, and represents the United States in civil law cases as either the defendant or plaintiff, as appropriate. However, they are not the only one that can represent the United States in Court. In certain circumstances, using an action called a qui tam, any U.S. citizen, provided they are represented by an attorney, can represent the interests of the United States, and share in penalties assessed against guilty parties.
The U.S. Attorney for the District of Columbia has the additional responsibility of prosecuting local criminal cases in the Superior Court of the District of Columbia, the equivalent of a municipal court for the national capital. The Superior Court is a federal Article I court.
The Executive Office for United States Attorneys (EOUSA) provides the administrative support for the 93 United States Attorneys (encompassing 94 United States Attorneys ' offices, as the Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands has a single U.S. Attorney for both districts), including:
These responsibilities include certain legal, budgetary, administrative, and personnel services, as well as legal education.
The EOUSA was created on April 6, 1953, by Attorney General Order No. 8 - 53 to provide for close liaison between the Department of Justice in Washington, DC, and the 93 U.S. attorneys located throughout the 50 states, the District of Columbia, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. It was organized by Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals judge James R. Browning, who also served as its first chief.
Note: Except as indicated parenthetically, the foregoing links are to the corresponding district court, rather than to the U.S. Attorney 's Office.
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who wrote the song baby it's cold outside | Baby, It 's Cold Outside - wikipedia
"Baby, It 's Cold Outside '' is a song written by Frank Loesser in 1944. It is a call and response duet in which a host, usually performed by a male voice, tries to convince a guest, usually performed by a female voice, that she should stay the evening because the weather is cold and the trip home would be difficult.
Loesser wrote the song for him and his wife to perform at parties. He sold the song to MGM, which used it for the 1949 film Neptune 's Daughter. It was sung by Esther Williams and Ricardo Montalban and won the Academy Award. Since 1949 it has been covered by many singers, including Ray Charles, Michael Bublé, and Dolly Parton.
During the 1940s, when Hollywood celebrities attended parties, they were expected to perform. In 1944, Frank Loesser wrote "Baby, It 's Cold Outside '' for him and his wife, Lynn Garland, to sing at a housewarming party in New York City at the Navarro Hotel. They sang the song to indicate to guests that it was time to leave. Loesser often introduced himself as the "evil of two Loessers '' because of the role he played in the song.
Garland wrote that after the first performance, "We become instant parlor room stars. We got invited to all the best parties for years on the basis of ' Baby. ' It was our ticket to caviar and truffles. Parties were built around our being the closing act. '' In 1948, after years of performing the song, Loesser sold it to MGM for the 1949 romantic comedy Neptune 's Daughter. Garland was furious. She wrote, "I felt as betrayed as if I 'd caught him in bed with another woman. ''
In the film, "Baby, It 's Cold Outside '' was sung by Esther Williams and Ricardo Montalbán, then by Betty Garrett and Red Skelton, who reversed the roles. The song won the Academy Award.
The lyrics in this duet are designed to be heard as a conversation between two people, identified as "mouse '' (usually female) and "wolf '' (usually male) on the printed score; they are at the wolf 's home and the mouse decides it is time to go home, but the wolf flirtatiously invites the mouse to stay as it is late and "it 's cold outside. '' The mouse states that he / she has enjoyed the time and agrees at one point to another drink, but the mouse also says "the answer is no '' and tries to return home, worried what family and neighbors will think. Every line in the song features a statement from the mouse followed by a response from the wolf, which is musically known as a call and response song.
Although some critical analyses of the song have highlighted parts of the lyrics such as "What 's in this drink? '' and the wolf 's unrelenting pressure to stay despite the mouse 's repeated suggestions that she should go home, others noted that cultural expectations of the time period were such that women were not socially permitted to spend the night with a boyfriend or fiancé, and that the mouse states that she wants to stay, while "What 's in this drink? '' was a common idiom of the period used to rebuke social expectations by blaming one 's actions on the influence of alcohol.
In at least one published version the tempo of the song is given as "Loesserando '', a humorous reference to the composer 's name.
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who leads the american league in home runs since the start of 2016 | List of Major League Baseball annual home run Leaders - wikipedia
In baseball, a home run is scored when the ball is hit so far that the batter is able to circle all the bases ending at home plate, scoring himself plus any runners already on base, with no errors by the defensive team on the play. An automatic home run is achieved by hitting the ball on the fly over the outfield fence in fair territory. More rarely, an inside - the - park home run occurs when the hitter reaches home plate while the baseball remains in play on the field. In Major League Baseball (MLB), a player in each league wins the home run title each season by hitting the most home runs that year. Only home runs hit in a particular league count towards that league 's seasonal lead. Mark McGwire, for example, hit 58 home runs in 1997, more than any other player that year. However, McGwire was traded from the American League 's (AL) Oakland Athletics to the National League 's (NL) St. Louis Cardinals midway through the season and his individual AL and NL home run totals (34 and 24, respectively) did not qualify to lead either league.
The first home run champion in the National League was George Hall. In the league 's inaugural 1876 season, Hall hit five home runs for the short - lived National League Philadelphia Athletics. In 1901, the American League was established and Hall of Fame second baseman Nap Lajoie led it with 14 home runs for the American League Philadelphia Athletics. Over the course of his 22 - season career, Babe Ruth led the American League in home runs 12 times. Mike Schmidt and Ralph Kiner have the second and third most home run titles respectively, Schmidt with eight and Kiner with seven, all won in the National League. Kiner 's seven consecutive titles from 1946 to 1952 are also the most consecutive home run titles by any player. The most recent champions (2016) are Mark Trumbo with 47 home runs in the American League, and Nolan Arenado and Chris Carter tied with 41 in the National League.
Ruth set the Major League Baseball single - season home run record four times, first at 29 (1919), then 54 (1920), 59 (1921), and finally 60 (1927). Ruth 's 1920 and 1921 seasons are tied for the widest margin of victory for a home run champion as he topped the next highest total by 35 home runs in each season. The single season mark of 60 stood for 34 years until Roger Maris hit 61 home runs in 1961. Maris ' mark was broken 37 years later by both Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa during the 1998 home run record chase, with McGwire ultimately setting the mark at 70. Barry Bonds, who also has the most career home runs, set the current single season record of 73 in 2001. The 1998 and 2001 seasons each had 4 players hit 50 or more home runs -- Greg Vaughn, Ken Griffey, Jr., Sosa, and McGwire in 1998 and Alex Rodriguez, Luis Gonzalez, Sosa, and Bonds in 2001. A player has hit 50 or more home runs 42 times, 25 times since 1990. The lowest home run total to lead a major league was four, recorded in the NL by Lip Pike in 1877 and Paul Hines in 1878.
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what happened in harry potter half blood prince | Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince (film) - Wikipedia
Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince is a 2009 fantasy film directed by David Yates and distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures. It is based on the novel of the same name by J.K. Rowling. The film, which is the sixth instalment in the Harry Potter film series, was written by Steve Kloves and produced by David Heyman and David Barron. The story follows Harry Potter 's sixth year at Hogwarts as he receives a mysterious textbook, falls in love, and attempts to retrieve a memory that holds the key to Lord Voldemort 's downfall.
The film stars Daniel Radcliffe as Harry Potter, alongside Rupert Grint and Emma Watson as Harry 's best friends Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger. It is the sequel to Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix and is followed by Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 1. Filming began on 24 September 2007, leading to the film 's worldwide cinematic release on 15 July 2009, one day short of the fourth anniversary of the corresponding novel 's release. The film was simultaneously released in regular cinemas and IMAX 3D everywhere except North America, where its IMAX release was delayed for two weeks.
Half - Blood Prince was a major commercial success, breaking the record for the biggest single - day worldwide gross. In five days the film made $394 million, breaking the record for highest five - day worldwide gross. With a total gross of $934 million, it became the 8th - highest - grossing film of all time and 2009 's second - highest - grossing film (behind Avatar). It is currently the 43rd - highest - grossing film of all time worldwide unadjusted for inflation. It is the fifth - highest - grossing film in the franchise.
The film remains one of the best reviewed instalments within the series among film critics; at the time of its release, it became the third - highest - rated Harry Potter film on review aggregators Rotten Tomatoes and Metacritic. It was praised for Yates 's direction and its performances, cinematography, musical score, and "emotionally satisfying '' story. The film was nominated at the 82nd Academy Awards for Best Cinematography and the 63rd British Academy Film Awards for Best Special Visual Effects and Best Production Design.
Lord Voldemort is tightening his grip on both the wizarding and Muggle worlds, kidnapping Ollivander from Diagon Alley and destroying the Millennium Bridge. After the Malfoy family is disgraced when Lucius is apprehended and sent to Azkaban for his involvement with the Death Eaters, Voldemort chooses Draco to carry out a secret mission at Hogwarts. Bellatrix Lestrange and Narcissa Malfoy, Draco 's mother, seek help from Severus Snape, who claims to have been acting as a mole within the Order of the Phoenix all along. Snape makes an Unbreakable Vow with Narcissa to protect Draco and fulfill the assignment if he fails.
16 - year old Harry accompanies Albus Dumbledore from Surbiton to the village of Budleigh Babberton to visit former Potions professor Horace Slughorn. Professor Slughorn has been in hiding but agrees to return to teach at Hogwarts. Dumbledore then takes Harry to The Burrow, where Harry reunites with his best friends, Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger. When the three go visit Fred and George Weasley 's new joke shop at Diagon Alley, they see Draco entering Knockturn Alley with a group of Death Eaters including Fenrir Greyback. Harry believes Voldemort has made Draco a Death Eater, but Ron and Hermione are skeptical. On the Hogwarts Express, Harry hides in the Slytherin carriage using his Invisibility Cloak. Harry is spotted by Malfoy, who petrifies him and breaks his nose. Harry is found and saved by Luna Lovegood.
At Hogwarts, Harry and Ron borrow textbooks for Slughorn 's Potions class, and Harry is stuck with a copy that turns out to be filled with helpful notes and spells left by the "Half - Blood Prince ''. Harry uses the book to excel in the class and impresses Slughorn, winning a vial of Liquid Luck. Ron becomes Keeper of the Gryffindor Quidditch team and forms a romantic relationship with Lavender Brown, upsetting Hermione. Harry consoles Hermione and reveals that he now has feelings for Ron 's younger sister, Ginny Weasley.
Harry spends the Christmas holidays with the Weasleys. On Christmas Eve, Harry discusses his suspicions about Draco to the Order of the Phoenix. Harry 's suspicions are dismissed by the Order, but later on Arthur Weasley tells Harry privately that the Malfoys may have been interested in a Vanishing Cabinet. Bellatrix and Greyback attack the Burrow and burn it down, drawing Harry into a battle before the Order arrive and fight them off. At Hogwarts, Dumbledore reveals to Harry that Slughorn possesses a memory of Voldemort that Dumbledore needs desperately. Slughorn gave Dumbledore the memory, but it was an altered version that made it appear that Slughorn did n't know anything. Dumbledore shows Harry the altered memory and asks him to confront Slughorn and retrieve the real one, but when Harry brings it up Slughorn gets angry and refuses to talk any more about it. After Ron accidentally ingests a love potion, Harry brings him to Slughorn for a cure and to smooth over their argument from earlier. After curing Ron, the trio celebrate with mead that Slughorn had intended to gift to Dumbledore. The mead poisons Ron, and Harry is forced to save his life after Slughorn hesitates. Ron murmurs Hermione 's name while recovering in the infirmary, causing Lavender to end their relationship. Harry confronts Draco about the poisoned mead and a cursed necklace, and the two duel. Harry uses a curse from the Half - Blood Prince 's potion book to severely injure Malfoy, who is rescued and healed by Professor Snape. Fearing the potion book may be filled with more Dark Magic, Ginny and Harry hide it in the Room of Requirement and share their first kiss.
Harry decides to use his Liquid Luck potion to convince Slughorn to give up the memory Dumbledore needs. Harry views the memory with Dumbledore and learns that Voldemort wanted information for creating Horcruxes, magical objects that could contain pieces of a wizard 's soul and save them from death. Dumbledore concludes that Voldemort successfully created seven Horcruxes, two of which have already been destroyed: Tom Riddle 's diary and Marvolo Gaunt 's ring. Harry and Dumbledore travel to a seaside cave where Harry aids Dumbledore in drinking a potion that hides another Horcrux, Slytherin 's locket. A weakened Dumbledore defends them from Inferi and apparates back to Hogwarts. Bellatrix, Greyback, and more Death Eaters enter Hogwarts with Draco 's help through the vanishing cabinet in the Room of Requirement that Draco managed to connect to the one he had been working on in Knockturn Alley.
Dumbledore instructs Harry to hide and not to interfere no matter what happens. Draco arrives and disarms Dumbledore revealing that he has been chosen by Voldemort to kill the headmaster. When Draco is unable to bring himself to do it, Snape casts the killing curse instead. Harry confronts and attacks Snape, but Snape overpowers him, and reveals himself as the Half - Blood Prince before escaping. Harry returns to Hogwarts, where the students, staff, and a few guests mourn Dumbledore 's death. Harry later reveals to Ron and Hermione that the locket Horcrux was a fake. The locket contains a message from "R.A.B. '', stating that he has stolen the real Horcrux with the intent of destroying it. Rather than returning for their final year at Hogwarts, the three decide to hold out, and track down the remaining Horcruxes.
Before David Yates was officially chosen to direct the film, many directors had expressed an interest in taking the helm. Alfonso Cuarón, the director of the third film, stated he "would love to have the opportunity '' to return. Goblet of Fire director Mike Newell declined a spot to direct the fifth film, and was not approached for this one. Guillermo del Toro turned down the chance to direct the film in order to direct Hellboy II: The Golden Army. Terry Gilliam was Rowling 's personal choice to direct Philosopher 's Stone. When asked whether he would consider directing a later film, Gilliam said, "Warner Bros. had their chance the first time around, and they blew it. ''
In an interview with Dark Horizons, Yates said that "I was still working on Order of the Phoenix when they asked me to do Half - Blood Prince. So they were really delighted with the material that they were seeing while we were in post-production, and the conversations happened before the movie was released, because I had to start pre-production on it while Order of the Phoenix was being promoted. It was just something they see in the work that they really liked, and responded to. '' Yates described Half - Blood Prince as being "a cross between the chills of Prisoner of Azkaban and the fantastical adventure of Goblet of Fire. ''
Emma Watson considered not returning for the film, but eventually decided that, "the pluses outweighed the minuses, '' and could not bear to see anyone else play Hermione. Composer Nicholas Hooper returned from the last film; he included a reworking of John Williams 's Hedwig 's Theme, which has recurred in all scores. Also maintained were costume designer Jany Temime, visual effects supervisor Tim Burke, creature and make - up effects designer Nick Dudman, and special effects supervisor John Richardson from the third film.
Yates and Heyman have noted that some of the events of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows influenced the script of Half - Blood Prince.
Christian Coulson, who played the young Tom Riddle in Chamber of Secrets, expressed an interest in returning in the role for flashback sequences; Yates responded that Coulson was too old, nearing 30, to be playing the role. Jamie Campbell Bower, who appeared in Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street, previously noted that he had his "fingers crossed '' he would be cast as a young Riddle. (Bower was, however, later cast as the teenage Gellert Grindelwald in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 1.) Thomas James Longley was the original choice to take on the role but Riddle was ultimately played by Hero Fiennes - Tiffin as a child and Frank Dillane as a teenager.
Helen McCrory appears as Narcissa Malfoy, Draco 's mother and younger sister of Bellatrix. McCrory was originally cast as Bellatrix in Order of the Phoenix, but had to drop out due to pregnancy. Naomi Watts was previously reported as having accepted the role, only for it to be denied by her agency.
Both Clémence Poésy, who has played Fleur Delacour, and Chris Rankin, who has played Percy Weasley, were interested in returning, but did not appear in the film. After Bill Nighy expressed an interest in appearing, Yates confirmed that Nighy would be his first choice for the role of Minister for Magic Rufus Scrimgeour. Scrimgeour 's character was ultimately cut from the film, but Nighy appeared in his role in Deathly Hallows.
Stuart Craig, the production designer of the first five films, stayed on to design all the sets in Half - Blood Prince. Several new sets are introduced, including Tom Riddle 's Orphanage, Astronomy Tower and the Cave. Craig noted that the film used several CGI sets, noticeably the interior of the Cave where Harry and Dumbledore both go to hunt Horcruxes. The exterior of the cave scene was filmed at the Cliffs of Moher in the west of Ireland, the only location to be filmed outside of the United Kingdom throughout the film series. The interior of the cave is made up of geometric crystal formations. Craig noted "Apart from the point at which Harry and Dumbledore first arrive and the island formation on which everything inside the cave happens, the set is entirely virtual, designed in the computer. We 'd had our first totally virtual set on the last film, so we approached this one with a bit more confidence. ''
Before filming began, there was belief that filming might move from the UK, where all previous films were shot. The crew also scouted around Cape Wrath in Scotland, for use in the cave scene. Filming returned to Glen Coe and Glenfinnan, both which have appeared in the previous films, to preserve the continuity of the landscape.
Following a week of rehearsals, principal photography began on 24 September 2007 and ended on 17 May 2008. Though Radcliffe, Gambon and Broadbent started shooting in late September 2007, some other cast members started much later: Grint did not begin until November 2007, Watson did not begin until December 2007, Rickman until January 2008, and Bonham Carter until February 2008.
On the weekend of 6 October 2007, the crew shot scenes involving the Hogwarts Express in the misty and dewy environment of Fort William, Scotland. A series of night scenes were filmed in the village of Lacock and the cloisters at Lacock Abbey for three nights starting 25 October 2007. Filming took place from 5 pm to 5 am daily, and residents of the street were asked to black out their windows with dark blinds. On set reports indicated that the main scene filmed was Harry and Dumbledore 's visit to Slughorn 's house. Further filming took place in Surbiton railway station in October 2007, Gloucester Cathedral, where the first and second films were shot, in February 2008, and at the Millennium Bridge in London in March 2008.
Due to cinematographer Bruno Delbonnel 's use of de-focussing and soft wipes in the digital grade, Warner Bros. asked director David Yates to add more colours to the film. Yates did n't want to lose the "very European look '' of the film, but after retouching the picture, he said, "It 's not what you wanted, but we 're happy with it. '' After five minutes of watching the film, the studio were pleased with the changes. In an interview with Total Film, Yates said that "the choice of angles, the extreme close - ups, (and) the pacing of the scenes '' made the film "incredibly rich ''. The palette and lighting was heavily inspired by the Dutch painter Rembrandt. Half - Blood Prince is the only film in the series to be nominated for the Best Cinematography accolade at the Academy Awards.
One of the major challenges for Delbonnel was lighting the film. In an interview with the Academy, he said, "Some of the sets are there since the very first Potter. How could I light them in a different way? This question brought another one based on the series itself... I thought it would be interesting to have those very intimate stories amidst this very dark mood. As if the school was a dark character. That 's when I suggested to go for this (again) dark moody variations of greys. Fortunately David Yates, and the producers liked the idea. '' In reference to the cave scene Delbonnel said, "I wanted to have some kind of ' dynamism ' with the light. I thought it could be interesting and more dramatic if the light was floating, circling above the characters faces: sometimes lighting them, sometimes hiding them in a very random and unpredictable way. ''
Tim Burke and Tim Alexander were the visual effects supervisors for the film. Tim Alexander said that completing the Inferi - attack scene took several months. He said, "It 's certainly much bolder and scarier than we imagined that they 'd ever go in a ' Potter ' movie. Director David Yates was cautious of not making this into a zombie movie, so we were constantly trying to figure out how not to make these dead people coming up look like zombies. A lot of it came down to their movement -- they do n't move fast, but they do n't move really slow or groan and moan. We ended up going with a very realistic style. '' He also noted that Inferi are skinnier than zombies, waterlogged and grey.
About Dumbledore 's ring of fire, he noted that the effect would look as if someone sprayed propane and then lit it. He added, "We did a lot of research on molten volcanoes, which have a lot of heat going on but no actual flames, and collected a bunch of other references, including flares that burn underwater, and showed them to the Potter folks. '' The visual effects team emulated these six fire parameters: heat ripples, smoke, buoyancy, viscosity, opacity, and brightness. Since the whole fire scene was very time consuming, computer graphics artist Chris Horvath spent eight months finding a faster way to conjure flames.
The opening scenes of the Death Eaters ' attack on Diagon Alley and London was created by Double Negative, led by VFX Supervisor Paul Franklin. Double Negative spent six months surveying and documenting the environment around the River Thames and Trafalgar Square to create the swooping views of the city. Double Negative also contributed the Pensieve sequences, developing complex directed fluid simulations to realise the swirling world of memory and the past.
The film 's score was composed by Nicholas Hooper, who also composed the music for Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. The soundtrack was released on an Audio CD format on 14 July 2009, a day before the film was released in cinemas.
The album debuted at number twenty - nine on the Billboard 200 chart, thus making it the highest - charting soundtrack among all the six movie soundtracks released. It was nominated for the 2010 Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack Album For Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media.
While at the middle of the series in length, the film Half - Blood Prince did add or change events in the literary canon. The book begins with a scene involving the Muggle Prime Minister. Yates and his crew debated over this scene, as well as the character Rufus Scrimgeour, but gave up the beginning of the movie to events described but not seen in the book. Yates thought it would give the audience a feel for what the Death Eaters were doing if they showed the collapse of the Millennium Bridge rather than simply describe it (as was done with the Brockdale Bridge in the book). As with Goblet of Fire, the Dursleys were cut, which Steve Kloves did to "break the pattern ''. Further background of Tom Riddle was removed, such as the Gaunts because they felt it more important to concentrate on Riddle as a young boy, and an additional action scene at the Burrow was added to keep with the tone of the franchise. Yates felt that they needed "an injection of jeopardy and danger '' and that without it there was too much comedy and lightness. A small battle scene at Hogwarts which happened during the end of the book was cut; Heyman commented that it was removed to "(avoid) repetition '' with the forthcoming adaptation of the Battle of Hogwarts in Deathly Hallows. Dumbledore 's funeral was removed as it was believed it did not fit with the rest of the film.
Warner Bros. has spent an estimated $155 million to market and distribute the film. The special - edition two - disc DVD for Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix contained two sneak peeks of the film, while the US edition included an additional clip. A 15 - second teaser for the film was shown alongside the IMAX release of The Dark Knight. The first full - length US teaser trailer was released on 29 July on AOL 's Moviefone website. An international teaser was released on 26 October and another teaser trailer was released. The US theatrical trailer was released on 14 November. Another trailer was screened on the Japanese TV station Fuji TV during a screening of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire on 18 January 2009. Scenes from the film were aired during ABC Family 's Harry Potter marathon which took place 5 -- 7 December 2008. On 5 February 2009, the first three promotional teaser posters were released, featuring Dumbledore and Harry. On 5 March and 16 April 2009, new trailers were released by Warner Bros.
Warner Bros and MSN ran an online Order of the Phoenix quiz, with the prize being a walk - on part in the Half - Blood Prince. As with the previous films, EA Games produced a video game based on the film. On 10 March 2009, it was announced that there would be a video game soundtrack, which was released on 17 March 2009. On 27 March six character posters were released: Harry, Dumbledore, Ron, Hermione, Draco and Professor Snape. An English version of the international trailer and a Japanese version of the international trailer were released online 10 April. On 8 May, CW Channel aired a 30 - second TV spot, which focused on the romantic side of the film. On 20 May, first clip from the film was released through The Ellen DeGeneres Show 's official website, showing love - struck Ron. Another clip of the film, showing Dumbledore visiting Tom Riddle 's Orphanage was released on 31 May 2009, at MTV Awards.
The film was released in the United Kingdom, United States, France, Belgium, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Sweden, Canada, Australia, Taiwan, New Zealand, India, Brazil, Spain and Mexico on 15 July 2009. It was originally set to be released on 21 November 2008, but was pushed back by eight months to 17 July, despite being completed. Warner Bros. executive Alan F. Horn noted that the move was meant "to guarantee the studio a major summer blockbuster in 2009, '' with other films being delayed due to the 2007 -- 08 Writers Guild of America strike. The box - office success of summer WB films Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix and The Dark Knight also motivated the decision. An unnamed rival studio executive told Entertainment Weekly that the move was to "stop next year 's profits from looking seriously underwhelming after the phenomenal success of The Dark Knight, '' as "they do n't need the money this year anymore. '' Dan Fellman, WB head of distribution, said that the studio had considered the date change for three to four weeks prior to the announcement, but gave it serious consideration a week before they came to their final decision. Three months before its release in July, the date was again changed by 2 days from 17 to 15 July, so it could open on a Wednesday like most tentpole summer movies.
The date change was met with a heavily negative reaction by Harry Potter fans, as the Los Angeles Times noted: "Petitions were circulating, rumors were flying and angry screeds were being posted on Internet sites within minutes of the Thursday announcement. '' The move was mocked by Entertainment Weekly which had Half - Blood Prince on the cover on its "Fall Preview Issue ''. Despite each being owned by Time Warner Inc., EW was unaware of the change until it was publicly announced by WB and noted that readers would now be in possession of a "Dewey Defeats Truman collectible ''. Several days after the announcement, Horn released a statement in response to the "large amount of disappointment '' expressed by fans of the series. Following the date change, Half - Blood Prince 's release slot was taken by Summit Entertainment 's Twilight and Walt Disney Pictures ' Bolt.
The sixth film was simultaneously released in regular cinemas and IMAX 3D everywhere but the United States, due to a conflicting agreement in which Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen was given a four - week window by itself in IMAX in that country. Therefore, the IMAX 3D version of the film was released on 29 July 2009 there. The film 's opening sequence featuring the destruction of the Millennium Bridge was in 3D. The film had been chosen to be screened at the 2008 Royal Film Performance on 17 November, but was not shown. Cinema and Television Benevolent Fund chief executive Peter Hore noted he was "very disappointed '' with Warner Bros ' decision.
Advance ticket sales on Fandango.com for Half - Blood Prince surpassed advance ticket sales for Transformers 2 at the same point in sale cycles. It is also in MovieTickets. com 's top 25 advance sellers of all time.
Running 153 minutes (2 hours 33 minutes and 19 seconds) long, Half - Blood Prince is the third - longest film in the series, behind Chamber of Secrets (161 minutes) and Goblet of Fire (157 minutes).
Like the previous films, a 1 - disc and 2 - disc special edition for the film was released on Blu - ray with a Digital Copy and DVD on 7 December 2009 in the United Kingdom, and 8 December 2009 in the United States. The Blu - ray and DVD includes an 11 - minute, 38 - second feature on the new Wizarding World of Harry Potter mini theme park which opened on 18 June 2010 at Islands of Adventure in Orlando, Florida. Also included are deleted scenes comprising 8 scenes with a running length of 6 minutes and 31 seconds, and a sneak peek of the next Harry Potter movie, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 1 (2010). The Blu - ray and DVD released in India, the Philippines, South Africa, Czech Republic and Israel on 16 November 2009, making them the first countries to get the Half Blood Prince DVD release before the UK and the US. The release date for Australia and New Zealand was 18 November and for Brazil and Chile, 19 November. The Blu - ray and two - disc DVD editions in North America includes a digital copy of the film. In the United Kingdom, the DVD release became the fastest - selling DVD of the year with an estimated 840,000 copies of the film sold in a few hours. In the US, the DVD made a strong debut at number one in both the DVD and Blu - ray markets widely beating out any competition with sales of 4,199,622 copies. Worldwide DVD and Blu - ray sales of the film show that it is the fastest - selling film of 2009.
On 14 June 2011, an Ultimate Edition was released simultaneously with the Ultimate Edition of the Order of the Phoenix film on both Blu - ray and DVD, containing new bonus features, documentaries and collectables.
Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince broke the then - record for biggest midnight showings, making $22.8 million in 3,000 cinemas; The Twilight Saga: New Moon bested this with $26.3 million. Half - Blood Prince opened in the same Wednesday slot that Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix did in 2007, which grossed $12 million in midnight runs, on its way to $139.7 million in its five - day debut in the US. The film 's box office run was over on 17 December 2009.
The film opened in 4,325 cinemas (rising to 4,455 three weeks later, becoming the largest number of cinemas until The Twilight Saga: Eclipse surpassed it with the 4,468 cinemas) and grossed $58.2 million on its opening day at the top of the United States and Canadian box office, the third - highest Wednesday opening of all time behind Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen and The Twilight Saga: Eclipse. It is also the nineteenth - highest single - day gross of all time and the third - highest for a film in the Harry Potter franchise behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 's $91.1 million and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 1, which made $61.1 million. It earned an additional $46 million overseas for a worldwide total of $104 million, breaking the record for highest single - day worldwide gross, previously held by The Dark Knight. By 20 July, the film had taken in $158.7 million in the US and $236 million from 85 other markets, for a worldwide tally of $394.7 million. This broke the record for biggest - ever worldwide five - day opening, surpassing Spider - Man 3 's $381 million; this makes the film the fastest to reach the $350 million mark in worldwide box office of all time. In the US, it surpassed all of its predecessors by a wide margin, achieving the sixth - largest - ever five - day opening in that country. The film held this record for two years until it was topped by Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 ($483.2 million). In the UK, the film grossed £ 19.75 million (equivalent to about $38.13 million), the highest opening for both the series and releases of 2009. At the end of the film 's US and Canadian box office run the total ticket sales of the film were $302 million, making it the third most successful film in the franchise, after Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 and Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, as well as the third - highest - grossing film of 2009 in these regions behind Avatar and Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen. As with all of the previous films in the franchise, Half - Blood Prince proved to be extremely successful globally with an estimated non-US total gross of $632.5 million, totalling approximately $934.4 million worldwide, making it the second - highest - grossing film of 2009, behind Avatar, and the 34th - highest - grossing film of all time, unadjusted for inflation. It is the fifth - highest - grossing film in the franchise, behind Philosopher 's Stone, both parts of Deathly Hallows, and Order of the Phoenix.
In South Africa the film opened with the number one position grossing $789,176, it maintained a number one position during the second week, too, with a total of $242,336. In Australia, as in most of the world, the film broke records with a debut of $11,492,142 and opening at number one, maintaining a second week at number one with a total of $5,278,096 (down 54 %), and grossed a total of $24,208,243. In France the film debuted at $20,541,239 from 949 cinemas.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 84 % based on 268 reviews, with an average rating of 7.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Dark, thrilling, and occasionally quite funny, Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince is also visually stunning and emotionally satisfying. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating to reviews, the film has a score of 78 out of 100, based on 36 critics, indicating "generally favourable '' reviews. The film scored an 87 from professional critics at the Broadcast Film Critics Association; it is the first Harry Potter film to receive a Critic 's Choice certificate. On CinemaScore, audiences gave the film an average grade of "A - '' on an A+ to F scale.
The first review of the film came three weeks before the official release. Paul Dergarabedian of Hollywood.com ranked the film with The Lord of the Rings film trilogy and called the film a "possible Oscar contender ''. He highly praised the performance of Sir Michael Gambon, Alan Rickman and Daniel Radcliffe. He commented, "Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince is a tour - de-force that combines style and substance, special effects and heart and most importantly great performances from all of the actors young and not - so - young ''. Another early review came from the UK tabloid The Sun, whose anonymous reviewer called the film "masterful '' and "very emotional ''. The reviewer praised David Yates 's directing and called Jim Broadbent 's portrayal of Horace Slughorn "perfect ''. Devin Faraci of Chud.com called the film not only the best Harry Potter film yet, but also one of the best films of the year.
Andrew Pulver of The Guardian wrote a positive review, and gave the film 3.5 out of 5 stars rating. Todd McCarthy of the trade magazine Variety said that the film is "dazzlingly well made '' and "less fanciful than the previous entries ''. He praised Alan Rickman 's performance and he described Helena Bonham Carter as "mesmerising '' and Jim Broadbent as a "grand eccentric old professor ''. BBC News 's Tim Masters praised the film 's cinematography, visual effects, production design, improved acting and darker plotline. The Hollywood Reporter 's Kirk Honeycutt noted that the film 's first half is "jerky and explosive '', but in the second half, the film finds better footing. He adds, "Composer Nicholas Hooper, cinematographer Bruno Delbonnel and designer Stuart Craig deliver a singularly muscular and vigorous chapter ''. Screen Daily called the film "(s) tunningly shot by Bruno Delbonnel in metallic hues leavened by buttery tones and the thumping beats of Nicholas Hooper 's score bear little resemblance to the original and the overall effect is much less tween, much more grown - up ''.
Chris Tilly of IGN UK commented on the length of the film, saying "while on occasion it drags, the 153 - minute run - time never feels too long, thanks in no small part to the astonishing visuals and (largely) marvellous performances, '' and goes on to say, "This is by far the best - looking of the Potter films thus far, '' commending the "beautiful '' Quidditch match and the "stunning '' finale. However, Dave Golder of SFX magazine found some aspects of the film to be a disappointment, largely due to the large number of opportunities the director and screenwriter had sacrificed to devote "huge swathes of the film to subplots of Harry and his chums ' teenage romances, '' but nevertheless found the film to be a large enjoyment, praising the performances of Jim Broadbent and Alan Rickman.
David Stratton, of Margaret and David at the Movies, gave the film a 2.5 out of a possible 5 stars, remarking, "For non-readers (of the Harry Potter series) the films are now borderline incomprehensible '', and that the film was "a little tedious '' and "generally less interesting visually than its predecessors. '' He praised the cast, describing them as "consummate '', adding Sir Michael Gambon "really makes Dumbledore an imposing character '' and Jim Broadbent was "wonderful ''. Margaret Pomeranz, the co-host of the television show, gave the film 3 out of 5 stars.
At the time of its release, Rowling stated that Half - Blood Prince was her "favourite one '' of the six film adaptations.
The film was nominated for BAFTA Awards in Production Design and Visual Effects, and was in the longlists for five other categories, including Best Supporting Actor for Alan Rickman. Bruno Delbonnel was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Cinematography at the 82nd Academy Awards. The film was also one of the final seven contenders for Best Visual Effects.
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when did the us send troops to korea | United States in the Korean War - wikipedia
At the conclusion of World War II the Allied nations began the process of disarmament of Axis controlled regions. Japan occupied Korea at this time and had been in control since 1910. In 1945, the decision was made to have American Marines forces oversee Japanese surrender and disarmament south of the 38th parallel and the Soviet Union would facilitate the change of power to the north. At the time there was no political motivation and seemed to be a logical and convenient plan of action. The original agreement and intent was to create a unified and independent Korea out of the post Japanese occupation era. Instead each side of the 38th parallel established its own government under the influence of the occupational country; the United States in South Korea and the Soviet Union in North Korea. Both new Korean governments discredited the other and claimed to be the only legitimate political system. Tensions between the North and South escalated and each side began to petition foreign powers for resources and support. South Korea wanted weapons and supplies from Truman and the United States government while North Korea sought help from Stalin and the Soviet Union. The United States was still war weary from the disruptive World War II campaign and refused South Korea 's request for weapons and troops. North Korea convinced the Soviet Union to supply them with the weapons and support they requested. This decision coincided with the United States withdrawing the last remaining combat troops from South Korea. North Korea saw its opportunity and attacked South Korean forces at the 38th parallel on June 25, 1950 and thus initiating the Korean War.
In response to North Korea 's invasion into South Korea the United Nations convened to formulate a response. The U.N. demanded North Korea 's immediate withdrawal and, when this was not met, United States Army General Douglas MacArthur was appointed supreme commander of U.N. forces. To halt the rapid progress of North Korean forces into the south Task Force Smith was deployed to the Korean front from Japan. Task Force Smith consisted of U.S. Army officers and regiments of the Army 's 24th Infantry Division that were stationed in Japan as occupational forces. The 24th were under trained, poorly supplied, and outnumbered. The 24th offered very little resistance against the North Korean advance. American and South Korean troops were pushed south and in late July 1950 Task Force Smith was overrun in the city of Taejon. Troops from the Army 's 25th Infantry Division were deployed to Taejon to establish a new line and pullout the decimated 24th I.D. This addition of combat troops did not stop the North Korean advance and both American and South Korean troops were pushed further south.
The first battle the Americans entered in the Korean War was the Battle of Osan, where about four hundred U.S. soldiers landed in Pusan airport on the first of July. The American troops were sent off to Taejon the next morning where Major General John H. Church the head of U.S. field headquarters was confident in the US troop 's strengths to push back the North Koreans. On July fifth the troops were finally put to the test when North Korean tanks crept towards Osan. The four hundred infantryman of the U.S. also called Task Force Smith opened fire on the North Koreans at 8: 16 am. Only four of the North Korean tanks were destroyed and twenty - nine kept moving forward breaking the US line. At the end of the battle only two more North Korean Tanks and two regiments of North Korean infantry were destroyed. The US had lost the battle, revealing that the mere sight of US troops would not reverse the military balance in Korea. By early August, the North Korean troops had pushed back the US and South Korean troops all the way to Naktong River, which is located about thirty miles from Pusan. The two weeks of fighting following this resulted in the most casualties of US troops than any other equivalent period of this war. However, during this time the US pushed supplies and personnel to Korea and by the end of July South Koreans and US troops outnumbered the North Koreans, although the North had pushed back the US and South by an amazing amount the North had suffered over fifty thousand casualties. Also because North Koreas supply lines were so lengthy and with the US in control of the water and air replenishing their losses were slow.
Although MacArthur clearly stated that the Battle of Inchon was a 5000 to 1 gamble, it was an important military move to make. Incheon is 25 miles from Seoul on the coast and only once during September is the water even deep enough to allow the 29 foot draft of American LSTs. It was a defenders ' best place to allow troops into Korea, and to push the invaders back. On September 15 the 1st Marine Division landed at the port city, taking the defending North Koreans completely by surprise, and by the end of the night over a third of Incheon was taken back.
During the mid-1950s, Germany and Japan were both at a desperate state caused by World War II. Germany received a sort of benefit from the U.S. as a compensation of war and reconstruction. The Japanese on the other end were devastated by the aftermath. People were suffering, eating out of garbage, and many people starved. Meanwhile, the U.S. troops in the Korean War were in great demand of uniforms and other equipment. The American government turned to Japan for the favor, which eventually stimulated the manufacturing factories that were in jeopardy due to damage caused by World War II. Japan accepted the offer and mainly supplied U.S. troops in Korea with uniforms and other sorts of clothing. Bases were also erected in Japan for U.S. Air Force planes, such as B - 29 Superfortress bombers.
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how many teams qualify for world cup in groups | 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification - Wikipedia
The 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification process was a series of tournaments organised by the six FIFA confederations to decide 31 of the 32 teams which will play in the 2018 FIFA World Cup, with Russia qualifying automatically as hosts. All 210 remaining FIFA member associations were eligible to enter the qualifying process, and for the first time in World Cup history, all eligible national teams registered for the preliminary competition, but Zimbabwe and Indonesia were disqualified before playing their first matches. Bhutan, South Sudan, Gibraltar and Kosovo made their FIFA World Cup qualification debuts. Myanmar, having successfully appealed against a ban from the competition for crowd trouble during a 2014 World Cup qualifying tie against Oman, were obliged to play all their home matches outside the country.
While the main qualifying draw took place at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, on 25 July 2015, a number of qualification matches were played before that. The first began in Dili, Timor Leste, on 12 March 2015 as part of the AFC 's qualification, with East Timorese player Chiquito do Carmo scoring the first goal of qualification. Matches were also played in CONCACAF prior to the main draw.
The number of teams participating in the final tournament is 32. Even though the qualification process began in March 2015, the allocation of slots for each confederation was discussed by the FIFA Executive Committee on 30 May 2015 in Zürich after the FIFA Congress. It was decided that the same allocation as 2014 would be kept for the 2018 and 2022 tournaments.
In October 2013, UEFA President Michel Platini proposed that the World Cup finals should be expanded from 32 to 40 teams starting from 2018. The format would have been the same, but in groups of five instead of four. This was in response to FIFA President Sepp Blatter 's comments that Africa and Asia deserved more spots in the World Cup finals at the expense of European and South American teams. However, FIFA general secretary Jérôme Valcke said that expansion in 2018 would be "unlikely '', while Russian sports minister Vitaly Mutko said that the country was "preparing on the basis that 32 teams will be taking part. '' Expansion was ultimately delayed until 10 January 2017, when the FIFA Council voted unanimously to expand to 48 teams starting in the 2026 FIFA World Cup.
While all FIFA members entered the tournament, not all competed. Zimbabwe were expelled from the competition on 12 March 2015 for their failure to pay former coach José Claudinei a severance fee and Indonesia were excluded from the qualifying competition following the suspension of their football association by FIFA on 30 May 2015. Kuwait had a number of their qualifiers cancelled for a similar suspension that began while their campaign was underway, which eventually resulted in their elimination. Brazil were the first team to achieve qualification for the tournament following their 3 -- 0 victory over Paraguay on 28 March 2017. Peru became the 32nd and final team to qualify when, 233 days after Brazil secured their place, they beat New Zealand 2 -- 0 on aggregate in the OFC - CONMEBOL play - off.
Note: One team each from AFC, CONCACAF, CONMEBOL, and OFC played in the inter-confederation play - offs, between 10 -- 15 November 2017 (CONCACAF v AFC and OFC v CONMEBOL).
Note: UEFA total includes + 1 for Russia as hosts.
The formats of the qualifying competitions depended on each confederation (see below). Each round might be played in either of the following formats:
In league format, the ranking of teams in each group is based on the following criteria (regulations Articles 20.6 and 20.7):
In cases where teams finishing in the same position across different groups are compared for determining which teams advance to the next stage, the criteria is decided by the confederation and require the approval of FIFA (regulations Article 20.8).
In knockout format, the team that has the higher aggregate score over the two legs progresses to the next round. In the event that aggregate scores finish level, the away goals rule is applied, i.e. the team that scored more goals away from home over the two legs progresses. If away goals are also equal, then thirty minutes of extra time are played, divided into two fifteen - minutes halves. The away goals rule is again applied after extra time, i.e. if there are goals scored during extra time and the aggregate score is still level, the visiting team qualifies by virtue of more away goals scored. If no goals are scored during extra time, the tie is decided by penalty shoot - out (regulations Article 20.9).
The AFC Executive Committee meeting on 16 April 2014 approved the proposal to merge the preliminary qualification rounds of the FIFA World Cup and the AFC Asian Cup, which will be expanded to 24 teams starting in 2019:
A total of 24 teams eliminated from World Cup qualification in the second round compete in the third round of 2019 AFC Asian Cup qualification (which is separate from the third round of 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification), where they are divided into six groups of four teams and compete for the remaining slots of the 2019 AFC Asian Cup. The 24 teams consist of the 16 highest ranked teams eliminated in the second round, and the eight teams that advanced from the play - off round of 2019 AFC Asian Cup qualification which are contested by the remaining 12 teams eliminated in the second round.
The draw for the third round was held on 12 April 2016 at the Mandarin Oriental Hotel in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Group A
Group B
The third - placed teams from each group in the third round played against each other home - and - away over two legs to determine which team advanced to the inter-confederation play - offs.
The CAF Executive Committee approved the format for the qualifiers of the 2018 FIFA World Cup on 14 January 2015. However, on 9 July 2015 FIFA officially announced that only three rounds would be played instead of four.
Zimbabwe, even though they entered the competition, were expelled on 12 March 2015 for their failure to pay former coach José Claudinei a severance fee. Therefore, only 53 African teams were involved in the draw.
The draw for the third round was held on 24 June 2016 at the CAF headquarters in Cairo, Egypt.
Group A
Group B
Group C
Group D
Group E
An amendment to the qualification process for this tournament had been suggested, which would see the first three rounds played as knockout rounds, with both the fourth round and the final round (referred to as ' The Hex ') played as group stages. The first round would be played during the FIFA international dates of 23 -- 31 March 2015. CONCACAF announced the full details on 12 January 2015:
The draw for the fifth round (to decide the fixtures) was held on 8 July 2016 at the CONCACAF headquarters in Miami Beach, United States.
The qualification structure was the same as the previous five editions. The ten teams played in a league of home - and - away round - robin matches. The top four teams qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, and the fifth - placed team advanced to the inter-confederation play - offs, playing the winners of the Oceania Football Confederation qualifying competition.
Unlike previous qualifying tournaments where the fixtures were pre-determined, the fixtures were decided by a draw held on 25 July 2015, at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, Russia.
The qualification structure was as follows:
The OFC had considered different proposals of the qualifying tournament. A previous proposal adopted by the OFC in October 2014 would have the eight teams divided into two groups of four teams to play home - and - away round - robin matches in the second round, followed by the top two teams of each group advancing to the third round to play in a single group of home - and - away round - robin matches to decide the winners of the 2016 OFC Nations Cup which would qualify to the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup and advance to the inter-confederation play - offs. However, it was later reported in April 2015 that the OFC had reversed its decision, and the 2016 OFC Nations Cup was played as a one - off tournament similar to the 2012 OFC Nations Cup.
The draw for the third round was held on 8 July 2016 at the OFC headquarters in Auckland, New Zealand.
Group A
Group B
Final The draw for the final (which decided the order of legs) was held on 15 June 2017 at the OFC headquarters in Auckland, New Zealand. The winners of the final advanced to inter-confederation play - offs.
Russia qualified automatically as hosts. The qualifying format for the remaining FIFA - affiliated UEFA teams was confirmed by the UEFA Executive Committee meeting on 22 -- 23 March 2015 in Vienna.
The draw for the first round was held on 25 July 2015, at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, Russia.
In deciding the eight best runners - up, the matches against the sixth - placed team in each group were discarded.
The draw for the second round (play - offs) was held on 17 October 2017 at the FIFA headquarters in Zürich, Switzerland. The winners of each tie qualified for the World Cup.
There were two inter-confederation playoffs to determine the final two qualification spots for the finals. The first legs were played on 10 and 11 November 2017, and the second legs were played on 15 November 2017.
The matchups were decided at the preliminary draw which was held on 25 July 2015, at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, Russia.
For each confederation and inter-confederation play - offs, see sections in each article:
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carly simon you think this song is about you | You 're So Vain - wikipedia
"You 're So Vain '' is a song written and performed by Carly Simon and released in November 1972. The song is a critical profile of a self - absorbed lover about whom Simon asserts "You 're so vain, you probably think this song is about you. '' The title subject 's identity has long been a matter of speculation, with Simon stating that the song refers to three men, only one of whom she has named publicly, actor Warren Beatty. The song is ranked at # 82 on Billboard 's Greatest Songs of All - Time. "You 're So Vain '' was voted # 216 in RIAA 's Songs of the Century, and in August 2014, the UK 's Official Charts Company crowned it the ultimate song of the 1970s.
The distinctive bass guitar intro is played by Klaus Voormann and the strings were arranged by Simon and orchestrated by Paul Buckmaster. Simon plays piano on the track.
Before the song became a hit single in 1972, Simon told an interviewer that the song was about "men, '' not a specific "man ''.
In 1983, she said it is not about Mick Jagger, who contributed uncredited backing vocals to the song. In a 1993 book, Angie Bowie claimed to be the "wife of a close friend '' mentioned in "You 're So Vain '', and that Jagger, for a time, had been "obsessed '' with her. Simon made another comment about the subject 's identity as a guest artist on Janet Jackson 's 2001 single, "Son of a Gun (I Betcha Think This Song Is About You) '', which sampled "You 're So Vain ''. Simon said about the song, "The apricot scarf was worn by Nick (Delbanco). Nothing in the words referred to Mick. ''
In a 2007 interview Warren Beatty said, "Let 's be honest. That song was about me. '' Simon had said in 1983 that Beatty "certainly thought it was about him -- he called me and said thanks for the song... '' In an interview for the 1978 / 1982 version of The History of Rock & Roll radio series, producer Richard Perry acknowledges that Simon was essentially referring to Beatty while also referencing other men in her life.
Over the years Simon has divulged "letter clues '' and has claimed that the subject 's name contains the letters A, E, and R.
Shortly before the writing of the song, Simon was married to James Taylor; she has said that he was "definitely not '' the subject of the song. David Bowie, David Cassidy and Cat Stevens have all been cited by the press as speculative candidates.
In August 2003 Simon agreed to reveal the name of the song 's subject to the highest bidder of the Martha 's Vineyard Possible Dreams charity auction. With the top bid of $50,000, Dick Ebersol, president of NBC Sports and a friend of Simon, won the right to know the name of the subject of "You 're So Vain ''. A condition of the prize was that Ebersol not reveal the name. Ebersol said Simon allowed him to divulge a clue about the person 's name: "Carly told me that I could offer up to the entire world a clue as to what she 'll tell me when we have this night in about two weeks. And the clue is: The letter ' E ' is in the person 's name. ''
In 2004 Simon told Regis Philbin, "If I tell it, it 's going to come out in dribs and drabs. And I 've given out two letters already, an ' A ' and an ' E. ' But I 'm going to add one to it. I 'm going to add an ' R, ' in honor of you. ''
In 2005 Simon 's ex-husband Jim Hart said he was sure that the song was not about anyone famous.
On June 19, 2008, Howard Stern stated that Simon had privately revealed to him about whom the song was written after her interview on his popular radio show on Sirius Satellite Radio. Stern commented, "There is an odd aspect to it... he 's not that vain. '' On March 17, 2009, Stern stated that she had said it was a "composite of three people. '' Stern repeated this on May 5, 2014, stating, "She takes me aside, pulls me close, whispers in my ear... three names. She goes, it was n't one person, it was three people. '' Simon herself confirmed that Stern was among "a few people '' that she had given the names to.
In her 2008 book Girls Like Us, author Sheila Weller includes a detailed account of Simon 's love affair with musician Dan Armstrong, and suggests that he was the inspiration for "You 're So Vain. '' Her heartbreak over eventually losing him inspired the song "Dan, My Fling, '' which appears on her first album. Armstrong 's full name, Daniel Kent Armstrong, contains all three letters of Simon 's clue.
On November 4, 2009, Simon said she had hidden the name of the subject in a certain version of the song. The next day, the program 's crew revealed the name concealed in a back - played whisper: David. Simon denied that the whisper was "David, '' saying she had spoken "Ovid '' both forwards and backwards, and that sounded like David. In February 2010, Simon reiterated that the name of the subject was whispered in a re-recording of "You 're So Vain '': "There 's a little whisper -- and it 's the answer to the puzzle. '' A representative for Simon confirmed that the name whispered during the song is "David ''. Multiple media outlets then speculated that the subject was Simon 's former boss at Elektra, David Geffen, The following day Jim Hart, Simon 's ex-husband and close friend, denied that the song was about Geffen. Simon said that when she wrote the song in 1971, she had not yet met Geffen. Simon 's publicist also confirmed the song was not about Geffen, but that there was indeed "a David who is connected to the song in some way, shape, or form, '' Vanity Fair noted that in addition to "David '', "Warren '' and an unintelligible name are whispered during the recording.
After her live performance of the song with Simon in July 2013, Taylor Swift stated that Simon had revealed the identity of the song 's subject to her in confidence.
In November 2015, Simon, promoting her about - to - be-published memoir, said, "I have confirmed that the second verse is Warren (Beatty) '' and added that while "Warren thinks the whole thing is about him, '' he is the subject of that verse only, with the remainder of the song referring to two other, still unnamed men.
The song was a number - one hit in the US, Canada and Australia and reached number four in Ireland and South Africa. Bowing at # 99 on the Billboard Hot 100 on 2 December 1972, the song took only five more weeks to rocket to the top of the chart, where it stayed for the first three weeks of 1973, also spending two weeks at the top of the Easy Listening chart in early 1973, her first number one on either chart. "You 're So Vain '' was Simon 's breakthrough hit in the United Kingdom, reaching number three on the UK chart on its original release in 1973. The song was re-released in the UK in 1991 to cash in on its inclusion in a commercial for Dunlop Tyres, peaking at number 41.
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when does neo-confucianism really become a scholarly focus in japan | Edo Neo-Confucianism - wikipedia
Hermeneutic schools:
Four Books:
Five Classics:
Other:
Confucian churches and sects:
Edo Neo-Confucianism, known in Japanese as Shushi - Gaku (朱子学, shushigaku), refers to the schools of Neo-Confucian philosophy that developed in Japan during the Edo period. Neo-Confucianism reached Japan during the Kamakura period. The philosophy can be characterized as humanistic and rationalistic, with the belief that the universe could be understood through human reason, and that it was up to man to create a harmonious relationship between the universe and the individual. The 17th - century Tokugawa shogunate adopted Neo-Confucianism as the principle of controlling people and Confucian philosophy took hold. Neo-Confucians such as Hayashi Razan and Arai Hakuseki were instrumental in the formulation of Japan 's dominant early modern political philosophy.
Neo-Confucianism has its origins in the Chinese Tang Dynasty; the Confucianist scholars Han Yu and Li Ao are seen as forebears of the Neo-Confucianists of the Song Dynasty. The Song Dynasty philosopher Zhou Dunyi is seen as the first true "pioneer '' of Neo-Confucianism, using Daoist metaphysics as a framework for his ethical philosophy. Neo-Confucianism developed both as a renaissance of traditional Confucian ideas, and as a reaction to the ideas of Buddhism and religious Daoism. Although the Neo-Confucianists denounced Buddhist metaphysics, Neo-Confucianism did borrow Daoist and Buddhist terminology and concepts.
Neo-Confucianism was brought to Japan during the late Kamakura period. It was spread as basic education for monks in training and others among gosan (Zen temples highly ranked by the government), while its theory was completed by annotations brought by the monk Yishan Yining, who visited Japan in 1299 from the Yuan Dynasty, in the form of the Cheng - Zhu school of Neo-Confucianism. Moreover, Neo-Confucianist thought derived from the works of Cheng Yi, Cheng Hao, and Zhu Xi, and the then - orthodox ideology of China and Korea. The rise of Neo-Confucianism in Japan was aided by state support from the Tokugawa government, who encouraged the establishment of national secular ideology as a method of strengthening political rule over the country. The philosophy had arrived earlier in the 14th century, but knowledge of it was limited to Zen monasteries, who saw Confucianism as intellectually interesting, but secondary to Zen, and some schools like the Ashikaga Gakko.
The pioneering Japanese Neo-Confucian was Fujiwara Seika, a former Zen practitioner interested in Confucian thought, who eventually rejected Zen ideas to become one of Neo-Confucianism's foremost advocates in Japan. Fujiwara 's student, Hayashi Razan, served the Tokugawa shoguns, and through state patronage was able to establish the Shoheiko academy. After the Kansei Edict established Neo-Confucianism as Japan 's official ideology, the Shoheiko academy became the premier authority on Confucian orthodoxy. Although heterodox schools of Neo-Confucianism were officially banned, the schools still persisted in Japan. The Japanese philosopher Toju Nakae is one such case, who was more influenced by the heterodox Wang Yang - ming than he was by the orthodox Zhu Xi.
The influence of Neo-Confucianism was challenged by the rise of the Kokugaku philosophical school in the 17th and 18th centuries. Kokugaku advocates argued that the ancient Japanese were better representatives of Confucian virtues than the ancient Chinese were, and that there should be more intellectual focus on ancient Japanese classics and the indigenous religion of Shinto. Although philosophical competitors, Kokugaku and Neo-Confucianism would co-exist as the dominant philosophical thought of Japan until the arrival of Western philosophy during the Meiji period.
Like Chinese and Korean Confucianism, Edo Neo-Confucianism is a social and ethical philosophy based on metaphysical ideas. The philosophy can be characterized as humanistic and rationalistic, with the belief that the universe could be understood through human reason, and that it was up to man to create a harmonious relationship between the universe and the individual.
The rationalism of Neo-Confucianism is in contrast to the mysticism of the previously dominant Zen Buddhism in Japan. Unlike the Buddhists, the Neo-Confucians believed that reality existed, and could be understood by mankind, even if the interpretations of reality were slightly different depending on the school of Neo-Confucianism.
But the spirit of Neo-Confucian rationalism is diametrically opposed to that of Buddhist mysticism. Whereas Buddhism insisted on the unreality of things, Neo-Confucianism stressed their reality. Buddhism and Taoism asserted that existence came out of, and returned to, non-existence; Neo-Confucianism regarded reality as a gradual realization of the Great Ultimate... Buddhists, and to some degree, Taoists as well, relied on meditation and insight to achieve supreme reason; the Neo-Confucianists chose to follow Reason.
The social aspects of the philosophy are hierarchical with a focus on filial piety. This created a Confucian social stratification in Edo society that previously had not existed, dividing Japanese society into four main classes: the samurai, seen as the Japanese equivalent of the Chinese scholar - bureaucrats, at the top of the social hierarchy, then the farmers, artisans, and merchants. The samurai were especially avid readers and teachers of Confucian thought in Japan, establishing many Confucian academies.
Neo-Confucianism also introduced elements of ethnocentrism into Japan. As the Chinese Neo-Confucians had regarded their own culture as the center of the world, the Japanese Neo-Confucians developed a similar national pride. This national pride would later evolve into the philosophical school of Kokugaku, which would later challenge Neo-Confucianism, and its perceived foreign Chinese origins, as the dominant philosophy of Japan.
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triple h vs shawn michaels bad blood 2004 | Bad Blood (2004) - wikipedia
Bad Blood (2004) was a professional wrestling pay - per - view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) and presented by Subway, which took place on June 13, 2004, at the Nationwide Arena in Columbus, Ohio. It was the third and final annual Bad Blood event.
The main event was a Hell in a Cell match, in which Triple H defeated Shawn Michaels in a ring surrounded by a steel structure of metal. Two bouts were featured on the undercard. In respective singles matches, World Heavyweight Champion Chris Benoit defeated Kane to retain his title and WWE Intercontinental Champion Randy Orton defeated Shelton Benjamin to retain his title.
The event marked the third time the Hell in a Cell format was used by WWE in a Bad Blood event; the first was at Badd Blood: In Your House in 1997. Bad Blood grossed over $ 494,000 ticket sales from an attendance of 9,000 and received 264,000 pay - per - view buys, and was instrumental in helping WWE increase its pay - per - view revenue by $4.7 million compared to the previous year. When the event was released on DVD, it reached a peak position of third on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart.
Seven professional wrestling matches were scheduled on the event 's card beforehand, which were planned with predetermined outcomes by WWE 's script writers. The buildup to these matches and scenarios that took place before, during and after the event were also planned by the script writers. The event featured wrestlers and other talent from Raw 's brand -- a storyline expansion in which WWE assigned its employees. Wrestlers portrayed either a villainous or fan favorite gimmick, as they followed a series of events which generally built tension, leading to a wrestling match.
The main event scripted into Bad Blood was fought in a Hell in a Cell match between Triple H and Shawn Michaels, a match where the ring is surrounded by a structure of metal. The buildup to the match began after Backlash, WWE 's previous pay - per - view event, where the main event was a rematch of the main event of WrestleMania XX where Michaels and Triple H took on Chris Benoit in a Triple Threat Match for the World Heavyweight Championship, which saw Benoit retain by forcing Michaels to submit. On the May 3 episode of Raw, one of WWE 's primary television programs, General Manager Eric Bischoff signed a title defense between Benoit and Michaels. The title match saw Benoit successfully retain the title after interference by Triple H. On the May 10 episode of Raw, at the start of the program, a singles match between Triple H and Shelton Benjamin resulted in a no contest after Michaels attacked Triple H; this resulted in a storyline suspension of Michaels from WWE by Bischoff. The following week on Raw, a number one contender 's battle royal was contested, with the winner facing Benoit for the World Heavyweight title at Bad Blood. During the match, Michaels interfered and eliminated Triple H. On the May 24 episode of Raw, Bischoff scheduled Michaels and Triple H in a Hell in a Cell match at the Bad Blood event.
One of the featured matches was contested for the World Heavyweight Championship pitting Benoit against the winner of the aforementioned battle royal, which turned out to be Kane. The following week, Kane held a promotional interview, in which he revealed that he envied Benoit for having the World Heavyweight Championship and concluded that he would win the championship. On the May 31 episode of Raw, Kane was scheduled in a match against Eugene. The match ended in a disqualification, after Kane hit Eugene with a folding chair. After the match ended, Kane chokeslammed Eugene and began to assault him. Benoit, however, came down to the ring to Eugene 's aid. The following week, Benoit and Edge faced off against La Résistance (Sylvain Grenier and Robért Conway) and Kane in a handicap tag team match. The match saw Kane perform a chokeslam and pin Benoit for the win.
The other featured preliminary match was Randy Orton versus Shelton Benjamin in a singles match for Orton 's Intercontinental Championship. On the May 17 episode of Raw, Randy Orton, who was a villain, was giving a speech. Shelton Benjamin interrupted Orton 's speech and challenged Orton to an Intercontinental Championship match. The challenge, however, was denied by Orton, in which prompted Benjamin to attack Orton. The following week, an all - out brawl ensued between Orton and Chris Jericho. The brawl brought out fellow Evolution member, a group of wrestlers, Batista, to Orton 's aid. Benjamin also made his way to the ring and evened the sides. As a result of the brawl, Bischoff announced a tag team match, in which Benjamin and Jericho defeated Orton and Batista. On the May 31 episode of Raw, it was announced that Orton would defend the Intercontinental Championship against Benjamin at Bad Blood.
Before the event went live on pay - per - view, Batista defeated Maven in a match taped for Heat, one of WWE 's secondary television programs.
After Heat, the pay - per - view began with a tag team match for the World Tag Team Championship, where La Résistance (Sylvain Grenier and Robért Conway) defended the title against Chris Benoit and Edge. La Résistance gained the early advantage when Conway grabbed Edge and rammed him onto the security wall, back first. At one point, Benoit applied a crossface submission hold on Grenier. Kane 's pyrotechnics went off and made his way to the ring, as he entered the ring and delivered a Big Boot to Benoit, prompting the referee to end the match in a disqualification, thus La Résistance retained the World Tag Team title.
The second match was Tyson Tomko, accompanied by Trish Stratus, versus Chris Jericho. In the early stages both competitors wrestled inconclusively, reversed each other 's attacks, before Tyson backed Jericho into the ring corner and hit him numerous times with his elbows. Afterwards, Jericho attempted to perform the Lionsault, but Tomko rolled out of the way. The match concluded as Jericho performed an enzuigiri on Tomko for the win.
The next match was for the WWE Intercontinental Championship, in which Randy Orton defended the championship against Shelton Benjamin. The match began with Benjamin performing a drop kick on Orton, which knocked him out to the outside of the ring. Benjamin proceeded to knock Orton over the security barricade into the crowd. Orton got the advantage, after Ric Flair made his way to the ring, distracting Benjamin in the process. The match came to an end when Benjamin went off the top rope and dove onto Orton, but Orton rolled through and hooked Benjamin 's tights to pin Benjamin for the three count and retaining the Intercontinental Championship.
The match that followed was a Fatal 4 - Way Match for the WWE Women 's Championship, with Victoria defending the title against Trish Stratus, Lita, and Gail Kim. The start of the match saw Victoria and Lita double team Stratus, however, Stratus avoided the assault, as she rolled out of the ring. Lita and Victoria went on to double team Kim, however, Stratus pulled Lita out of the ring, afterward Victoria performed a moonsault and landed on Kim 's torso. Lita then drove Kim 's head into the mat. Stratus then went on to use a roll up on Lita to gain a pinfall victory, becoming Women 's champion for a fifth time.
The fifth match was between Eugene and Jonathan Coachman. The match started with Eugene hitting an arm drag on Coachman and hitting numerous headbutts. An unknown woman in a bikini came out to the ringside area with some cookies, Coachman offered cookies to Eugene. The woman lured Eugene out of the ring and Eugene went over and grabbed some cookies. As Eugene went to grab more cookies, Coachman slammed Eugene 's head into the cookie tray. A spot in the match saw Garrison Cade come out to ringside with a stuffed animal, which prompted Cade to tear up said toy animal. Cade tried to hold Eugene so Coachman could get the advantage, however, Eugene was able dodge the attack, as Coachman ended up hitting Cade instead. Eugene Rock bottomed Coachman and pinned him for the win.
The featured preliminary match was for the World Heavyweight Championship in which Chris Benoit defended the championship against Kane. Benoit started the match by delivering chops to Kane. Mid-way in the match, Benoit charged towards Kane, but Kane delivered a sidewalk slam and tossed him over the top rope to the arena floor. Kane then stepped out of the ring and grabbed Benoit to launch him into the ring post, but Benoit was able to reverse Kane 's attack, and slammed him into the ring post. After blocking a Crippler crossface attempt, Kane chokeslammed Benoit for a near - fall. The match concluded when Kane attempted a flying clothesline but Benoit countered it with the Crippler crossface, which Kane fought out of. Benoit rolled Kane up in a pin to retain the World Heavyweight Championship.
The main event was the Hell in a Cell match between Shawn Michaels and Triple H. The match began with Michaels delivering a Thesz Press and slamming Triple H into the cell wall, resulting in Triple H bleeding. Triple H got the advantage, as he was able to counter a piledriver and performed a back body drop on Michaels. Another attack saw Triple H hit Michaels with the steel steps, which resulted in Michaels bleeding. A spot in the match saw Michaels lay Triple H on a table, as he climbed onto a ladder that he took out from under the ring, and performed a diving elbow drop onto Triple H through the table. Triple H performed a Pedigree on Michaels for a near - fall. Michaels performed Sweet Chin Music on Triple H for a near - fall. Triple H performed two Pedigrees on Michaels for the win. After the match, Michaels was given a standing ovation by the audience.
Following Bad Blood, Raw commentator Jim Ross tried making amends between Shawn Michaels and Triple H by making them shake hands. As Michaels and Triple H extended their hands to shake, however, Kane came out and attacked Michaels, with Kane, in storyline, crushing Michaels ' throat with a wedged chair. Michaels was then taken out in an ambulance for medical attention. Lita 's pregnancy was scripted into a storyline. On the June 21 episode of Raw, it appeared that Lita 's then - boyfriend, Matt Hardy was going to propose to Lita, having found out she was pregnant, but he was interrupted by Kane, who claimed to be the father of Lita 's child. Two months later, it was revealed that Kane was, indeed, the father. At SummerSlam, the rivalry between Kane and Hardy intensified, when they were booked in a "Till Death Do Us Part '' match, with the stipulation that Lita would be obliged to marry Kane should Hardy lose. Kane won the match, leading to he and a reluctant Lita marrying one another on an episode of Raw. On the August 30 episode of Raw, Kane revealed that Eric Bischoff 's wedding gift to them was to name any match he wanted for at the September annual event, Unforgiven. Continuing with the scripted angle, Lita informed Kane that his opponent at the event was Shawn Michaels. At Unforgiven, Michaels defeated Kane in a no disqualification match.
On the June 21 episode of Raw, a number one contender 's match between Eugene and Triple H was scheduled in which the winner would face Chris Benoit for the World Heavyweight Championship. The match, however, ended in a No Contest. On the June 28 episode of Raw, a rematch for the World Heavyweight Championship between Benoit and Kane took place. A stipulation was placed that Benoit had to win the match by submission, while Kane could win by pinfall, submission, disqualification or countout. Benoit won the match, after he made Kane submit to a crossface. At Vengeance, Benoit defeated Triple H to retain his Championship.
A heated confrontation between Randy Orton and Edge was seen, with Edge spearing Orton. The following week, it was announced that Orton would defend the Intercontinental Championship against Edge at Vengeance. Weeks leading to the event, both men took the upper hand over one another. At the scheduled event, Orton lost the Intercontinental Championship to Edge.
The Nationwide Arena usually can accommodate 19,500, but the capacity was reduced for the event. This event grossed over $494,000 from an approximate attendance of 9,000. It also received 264,000 pay - per - view buys. Bad Blood helped WWE earn $21.6 million in revenue from pay - per - view events versus $16.9 million the previous year, which was later confirmed by Linda McMahon, the CEO of WWE, on September 7, 2005 in a quarterly result. Canadian Online Explorer 's professional wrestling section rated the event a five out of 10 stars. The rating was higher than the Bad Blood event in 2003, which rated a four out of 10 stars. The World Heavyweight Championship match between Chris Benoit and Kane was rated an eight out of 10 stars. Additionally, the match between Eugene and Jonathan Coachman was rated zero out of 10 stars.
The event was released on DVD on July 13, 2004. The DVD was distributed by the label, Sony Music Entertainment. The DVD reached third on Billboard 's DVD Sales Chart for recreational sports during the week of August 28, 2004, although falling thereafter. It remained in the chart for two consecutive weeks, until the week of September 25, 2004, when it ranked 19th.
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humanists of the renaissance had a strong interest in | Renaissance humanism - wikipedia
Renaissance humanism is the study of classical antiquity, at first in Italy and then spreading across Western Europe in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. The term Renaissance humanism is contemporary to that period -- Renaissance (rinascimento, "rebirth '') and "humanist '' (whence modern humanism; also Renaissance humanism to distinguish it from later developments grouped as humanism).
Renaissance humanism was a response to the utilitarian approach and what came to be depicted as the "narrow pedantry '' associated with medieval scholasticism. Humanists sought to create a citizenry able to speak and write with eloquence and clarity and thus capable of engaging in the civic life of their communities and persuading others to virtuous and prudent actions. This was to be accomplished through the study of the studia humanitatis, today known as the humanities: grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, and moral philosophy.
According to one scholar of the movement,
Early Italian humanism, which in many respects continued the grammatical and rhetorical traditions of the Middle Ages, not merely provided the old Trivium with a new and more ambitious name (Studia humanitatis), but also increased its actual scope, content and significance in the curriculum of the schools and universities and in its own extensive literary production. The studia humanitatis excluded logic, but they added to the traditional grammar and rhetoric not only history, Greek, and moral philosophy, but also made poetry, once a sequel of grammar and rhetoric, the most important member of the whole group.
Humanism was a pervasive cultural mode and not the program of a small elite, a program to revive the cultural legacy, literary legacy, and moral philosophy of classical antiquity. There were important centres of humanism in Florence, Naples, Rome, Venice, Genoa, Mantua, Ferrara, and Urbino.
Some of the first humanists were great collectors of antique manuscripts, including Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio, Coluccio Salutati, and Poggio Bracciolini. Of the four, Petrarch was dubbed the "Father of Humanism '' because of his devotion or loyalty to Greek and Roman scrolls. Many worked for the Catholic Church and were in holy orders, like Petrarch, while others were lawyers and chancellors of Italian cities, and thus had access to book copying workshops, such as Petrarch 's disciple Salutati, the Chancellor of Florence.
In Italy, the humanist educational program won rapid acceptance and, by the mid-15th century, many of the upper classes had received humanist educations, possibly in addition to traditional scholasticist ones. Some of the highest officials of the Catholic Church were humanists with the resources to amass important libraries. Such was Cardinal Basilios Bessarion, a convert to the Catholic Church from Greek Orthodoxy, who was considered for the papacy, and was one of the most learned scholars of his time. There were several 15th - century and early 16th - century humanist Popes one of whom, Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini (Pope Pius II), was a prolific author and wrote a treatise on The Education of Boys. These subjects came to be known as the humanities, and the movement which they inspired is shown as humanism.
The migration waves of Byzantine Greek scholars and émigrés in the period following the Crusader sacking of Constantinople and the end of the Byzantine Empire in 1453 greatly assisted the revival of Greek and Roman literature and science via their greater familiarity with ancient languages and works. They included Gemistus Pletho, George of Trebizond, Theodorus Gaza, and John Argyropoulos.
Italian humanism spread northward to France, Germany, the Low Countries, and England with the adoption of large - scale printing after the end of the era of incunabula (or books printed prior to 1501), and it became associated with the Protestant Reformation. In France, pre-eminent humanist Guillaume Budé (1467 -- 1540) applied the philological methods of Italian humanism to the study of antique coinage and to legal history, composing a detailed commentary on Justinian 's Code. Budé was a royal absolutist (and not a republican like the early Italian umanisti) who was active in civic life, serving as a diplomat for François I and helping to found the Collège des Lecteurs Royaux (later the Collège de France). Meanwhile, Marguerite de Navarre, the sister of François I, was a poet, novelist, and religious mystic who gathered around her and protected a circle of vernacular poets and writers, including Clément Marot, Pierre de Ronsard, and François Rabelais.
Many humanists were churchmen, most notably Pope Pius II (Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini), Sixtus IV, and Leo X, and there was often patronage of humanists by senior church figures. Much humanist effort went into improving the understanding and translations of Biblical and early Christian texts, both before and after the Protestant Reformation, which was greatly influenced by the work of non-Italian, Northern European figures such as Desiderius Erasmus, Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, William Grocyn, and Swedish Catholic Archbishop in exile Olaus Magnus.
The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy describes the rationalism of ancient writings as having tremendous impact on Renaissance scholars:
Here, one felt no weight of the supernatural pressing on the human mind, demanding homage and allegiance. Humanity -- with all its distinct capabilities, talents, worries, problems, possibilities -- was the center of interest. It has been said that medieval thinkers philosophised on their knees, but, bolstered by the new studies, they dared to stand up and to rise to full stature.
Inevitably, the rediscovery of classical philosophy and science would eventually challenge traditional religious beliefs. In 1417, for example, Poggio Bracciolini discovered the manuscript of Lucretius, De rerum natura, which had been lost for centuries and which contained an explanation of Epicurean doctrine, though at the time this was not commented on much by Renaissance scholars, who confined themselves to remarks about Lucretius 's grammar and syntax. Lorenzo Valla, however, puts a defense of epicureanism in the mouth of one of the interlocutors of one of his dialogues. Valla 's defense, or adaptation, of Epicureanism was later taken up in The Epicurean by Erasmus, the "Prince of humanists: ''
If people who live agreeably are Epicureans, none are more truly Epicurean than the righteous and godly. And if it is names that bother us, no one better deserves the name of Epicurean than the revered founder and head of the Christian philosophy Christ, for in Greek epikouros means "helper. '' He alone, when the law of Nature was all but blotted out by sins, when the law of Moses incited to lists rather than cured them, when Satan ruled in the world unchallenged, brought timely aid to perishing humanity. Completely mistaken, therefore, are those who talk in their foolish fashion about Christ 's having been sad and gloomy in character and calling upon us to follow a dismal mode of life. On the contrary, he alone shows the most enjoyable life of all and the one most full of true pleasure.
This passage exemplifies the way in which the humanists saw pagan classical works, such as the philosophy of Epicurus, as being in harmony with their interpretation of Christianity.
Renaissance Neo-Platonists such as Marsilio Ficino (whose translations of Plato 's works into Latin were still used into the 19th century) attempted to reconcile Platonism with Christianity, according to the suggestions of early Church fathers Lactantius and Saint Augustine. In this spirit, Pico della Mirandola attempted to construct a syncretism of all religions (he was not a humanist but an Aristotelian trained in Paris), but his work did not win favor with the church authorities.
Historian Steven Kreis expresses a widespread view (derived from the 19th - century Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt), when he writes that:
The period from the fourteenth century to the seventeenth worked in favor of the general emancipation of the individual. The city - states of northern Italy had come into contact with the diverse customs of the East, and gradually permitted expression in matters of taste and dress. The writings of Dante, and particularly the doctrines of Petrarch and humanists like Machiavelli, emphasized the virtues of intellectual freedom and individual expression. In the essays of Montaigne the individualistic view of life received perhaps the most persuasive and eloquent statement in the history of literature and philosophy.
Two noteworthy trends in Renaissance humanism were Renaissance Neo-Platonism and Hermeticism, which through the works of figures like Nicholas of Kues, Giordano Bruno, Cornelius Agrippa, Campanella and Pico della Mirandola sometimes came close to constituting a new religion itself. Of these two, Hermeticism has had great continuing influence in Western thought, while the former mostly dissipated as an intellectual trend, leading to movements in Western esotericism such as Theosophy and New Age thinking. The "Yates thesis '' of Frances Yates holds that before falling out of favour, esoteric Renaissance thought introduced several concepts that were useful for the development of scientific method, though this remains a matter of controversy.
Though humanists continued to use their scholarship in the service of the church into the middle of the sixteenth century and beyond, the sharply confrontational religious atmosphere following the Protestant reformation resulted in the Counter-Reformation that sought to silence challenges to Catholic theology, with similar efforts among the Protestant denominations. However, a number of humanists joined the Reformation movement and took over leadership functions, for example, Philipp Melanchthon, Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin, and William Tyndale.
With the Counter Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent (1545 - 1563), positions hardened and a strict Catholic orthodoxy based on Scholastic philosophy was imposed. Some humanists, even moderate Catholics such as Erasmus, risked being declared heretics for their perceived criticism of the church.
The historian of the Renaissance Sir John Hale cautions against too direct a linkage between Renaissance humanism and modern uses of the term humanism: "Renaissance humanism must be kept free from any hint of either "humanitarianism '' or "humanism '' in its modern sense of rational, non-religious approach to life... the word "humanism '' will mislead... if it is seen in opposition to a Christianity its students in the main wished to supplement, not contradict, through their patient excavation of the sources of ancient God - inspired wisdom ''
The unashamedly humanistic flavor of classical writings had a tremendous impact on Renaissance scholar.
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attack on titan last episode of season 1 | List of Attack on Titan episodes - Wikipedia
Attack on Titan is an anime series adapted from the manga of the same title by Hajime Isayama. It is set in a world where humanity lives inside cities surrounded by enormous walls due to the Titans, gigantic humanoid beings who devour humans seemingly without reason. The story follows the adventures of Eren Yeager, his adopted friend Mikasa Ackerman, and their friend Armin Arlert, whose lives are changed forever after a Colossal Titan breaches the wall of their home town. Vowing revenge and to reclaim the world from the Titans, Eren and his friends join the Survey Corps, an elite group of soldiers who fight Titans.
Produced by IG Port 's Wit Studio and directed by Tetsurō Araki, Attack on Titan was broadcast on the Mainichi Broadcasting System from April 7 to September 29, 2013, and later aired on Tokyo MX, FBS, TOS, HTB, TVA and BS11. Both Funimation and Crunchyroll have streamed the series with subtitles on their respective websites. Funimation has also licensed the anime for home video release in 2014. Episode 1 of the English version premiered at Anime Boston, with other episodes put on Funimation 's subscription services. On television of the series has broadcast weekly on Adult Swim 's Toonami block on May 3, 2014, starting at 11: 30 p.m. EST.
From episode 1 to 13, the anime 's opening theme song is "Feuerroter Pfeil und Bogen '' (紅蓮 の 弓矢, Guren no Yumiya, lit. "Crimson Bow and Arrow '') by Linked Horizon and the ending theme song is "Utsukushiki Zankoku na Sekai '' (美しき 残酷 な 世界, lit. "A Beautiful Cruel World '') by Yōko Hikasa. From episode 14 to 25, the anime 's opening theme song is "Die Flügel der Freiheit '' (自由 の 翼, Jiyū no Tsubasa, lit. "The Wings of Freedom '') by Linked Horizon and the ending theme song is "great escape '' by Cinema Staff. The opening themes were collected on Linked Horizon 's single "Jiyū e no Shingeki '' which sold over 100 thousand copies in its first week of sales.
A second season premiered on April 1, 2017 on MBS and other television networks. Funimation and Crunchyroll are streaming the second season on their respective websites, with Adult Swim airing a dubbed version. The opening theme song is "Opfert eure Herzen! '' (心臓 を 捧げよ!, Shinzō o Sasageyo!, lit. "Dedicate Your Hearts! '') by Linked Horizon and the ending theme song is "Yūgure no Tori '' (夕暮れ の 鳥) by Shinsei Kamattechan.
On June 17, 2017, a third season was announced at the close of the second season 's final episode, with a release date slated for April 2018.
The following bonus original video animation episodes were released alongside select volumes of the manga.
Chibi Theater: Fly, Cadets, Fly! (ち み キャラ 劇場 と んで け! 訓練 兵団, Chimi Kyara Gekijō -- Tondeke! Kunren Heidan) is a series of flash animated gag shorts included with the Blu - ray Disc / DVD releases, featuring the characters in chibi form based on designs by Yuupon.
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who is a manager according to elton mayo | Elton Mayo - wikipedia
George Elton Mayo (26 December 1880 -- 7 September 1949) was an Australian born psychologist, industrial researcher, and organizational theorist. Mayo was formally trained at the University of Adelaide, acquiring a Bachelor of Arts Degree graduating with First Class Honours, majoring in philosophy and psychology, and was later awarded an honorary Master of Arts Degree from the University of Queensland (UQ).
While in Queensland, Mayo served on the University 's war committee and pioneered research into the psychoanalytic treatment of shell - shock. As a psychologist Mayo often helped soldiers returning from World War I recover from the stresses of war and with a Brisbane physician, pioneered the psychoanalytic treatment of shell - shock and conducted psycho - pathological tests. He was a lecturer in psychology and mental philosophy at the UQ between 1911 and 1922, when he sailed to the United States. In 1926 he was appointed to the Harvard Business School (HBS) as a professor of industrial research.
In Philadelphia he conducted research at a textile plant in order to develop a method to reduce the very high rate of turnover in the plant. Mayo 's association with the Hawthorne studies as well as his research and work in Australia led to his enjoying a public acclaim granted to few social scientists of his day.
Mayo has been credited with making significant contributions to a number of disciplines, including business management, industrial sociology, philosophy, and social psychology. His field research in industry had a significant impact on industrial and organizational psychology. According to Trahair, Mayo "is known for having established the scientific study of what today is called organizational behavior when he gave close attention to the human, social, and political problems of industrial civilization. '' (p. 15).
Mayo 's work helped to lay the foundation for the human relations movement. He emphasized that alongside the formal organization of an industrial workplace there exists an informal organizational structure as well. Mayo recognized the "inadequacies of existing scientific management approaches '' to industrial organizations, and underlined the importance of relationships among people who work for such organizations. His ideas on group relations were advanced in his 1933 book The Human Problems of an Industrialized Civilization, which was based partly on his Hawthorne research.
Mayo was the eldest son of George Gibbes Mayo, a draftsman and later a civil engineer, and his wife Henrietta Mary, née Donaldson. His grandfather George Mayo (1807 -- 1894) was a well - known South Australian medical practitioner. Elton attended several schools in Australia (Queen 's School, St Peter 's College, Adelaide, and University of Adelaide) and after 1901 attended medical school in Edinburgh and London, neither of which he completed. In 1903 he went to West Africa, and upon returning to London, began writing articles for magazines and teaching English at the Working Men 's College. He returned to Adelaide in 1905 to a partnership in the printing firm of J.H. Sherring & Co., but in 1907 he went back to the university to study philosophy and psychology under Sir William Mitchell. He won the Roby Fletcher prize in psychology and graduated with honours (B.A., 1910; M.A., 1926) and was named the David Murray research scholar in scientific studies. In 1911 he became foundation lecturer in mental and moral philosophy at the new University of Queensland and in 1919 -- 23 held the first chair of philosophy there. He moved on to the University of Pennsylvania, but spent the second half of his career at Harvard Business School (1926 -- 1947), where he was professor of industrial research.
Two influences on his career from his time at the University of Queensland were Mayo 's friendship with the social anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski and his work with shell - shock cases returning from the First World War. Malinowski first met Mayo on his way to and from the Trobriand Islands; they became close friends and were regularly in touch until Malinowski 's death in 1942. The work with shell - shock soldiers provided a focus for Mayo 's interests in clinical psychology and developed his skills in psychotherapy. In this he was strongly influenced by the work on hysteria and obsession of the French psychiatrist, Pierre Janet, who became a critic of Sigmund Freud. For the rest of his working life, Mayo was an active psychotherapist and this practical experience was an important influence on his theoretical and methodological work in America.
One of Mayo 's (1924) earliest research efforts involved workers at a Philadelphia textile mill. The mill had been experiencing a high rate of turnover. Mayo believed that the repetitive work in the spinning department gave rise to mental abnormalities in the workers. He found that the introduction of rest periods helped reduce turnover. The research helped make Mayo more widely known in the U.S.
Mayo helped to lay the foundation for the human relations movement, and was known for his industrial research including the Hawthorne Studies and his book The Human Problems of an Industrialized Civilization (1933). The research he conducted under the rubric of the Hawthorne Studies in the late 1920s and early 1930s, underlining the importance of groups in affecting the behaviour of individuals at work.
Elton Mayo laid the ground rules for interviewing, the principles of which have been subsequently repeated in numerous ' how to ' books on leadership, coaching and mentoring over the last half century.
Fritz J. Roethlisberger, Mayo 's graduate assistant, and William J. Dickson, head of the Department of Employee Relations at Western Electric, conducted the bulk of the practical research, with Mayo rarely visiting the Hawthorne plant in Cicero, Illinois. Mayo 's team carried out a number of "experiments '' to look at ways of improving productivity. The research involved manipulating length of rest and lunch periods and piecework payment plans. Mayo concluded that productivity partly depended on the informal social patterns of interaction in the work group.
Mayo, in communicating to business leaders, advanced the idea that managers who understand the nature of informal ties among workers can make decisions for management 's benefit. Mayo concluded that people 's work performance is dependent on both social relationships and job content. He suggested a tension between workers ' "logic of sentiment '' and managers ' "logic of cost and efficiency '' which could lead to conflict within organizations.
Parsons, however, showed that the Hawthorne studies, which were not really experiments, were too confounded to enable researchers to draw firm conclusions. The qualitative aspects of the research suggested that norms of co-operation among workers were related to productivity.
The books begins with an account of the research on human fatigue and efficiency conducted in the early 20th century.
Although biographers agree about Mayo 's contributions, there is no consensus about his credentials. The Encyclopædia Britannica, biographical dictionaries, and some published texts indicate that Mayo was a psychologist. Some authors and critics have discussed Mayo 's credentials and his various other job titles during his career in the United States. Cullen does not mention that Mayo was a psychologist although Cullen noted that Mayo let interlocutors call him "Dr. Mayo, '' letting himself be cast as a Ph. D. in one of the social sciences, without correcting the mistake. Mayo 's biographer Trahair wrote, "Mayo was not a psychologist, sociologist, or anthropologist, although sometimes he was cast as such '' (p. 357). Trahair also wrote that "after the great war Mayo 's reputation grew as a successful academic, clinical psychologist and public speaker '' (p. 89). Of course having a reputation as a clinical psychologist does not necessarily make one a clinical psychologist (the public often thinks of psychotherapists, regardless of training, as clinical psychologists or even psychiatrists).
Cullen indicated that Mayo was not a medical doctor, writing that in April 1903, Mayo "enrolled at a small medical school at Saint George 's Hospital at London... At this point, Mayo 's interest in medicine was all but non-existent '' (p. 28). Having dropped out by December 1903, Mayo "wrote home and finally revealed to his family the truth; he did not and could not become a doctor '' (p. 28). Miner wrote: "An effective speaker and proficient in cultivating influential friends and mentors, he nevertheless had little by way of academic credentials and practically no training in the conduct of scientific research '' (p. 60).
Mayo 's contributions to management theory were criticised by intellectual Daniel Bell. Writing in 1947, Bell criticised Mayo and other social scientists for "adjusting men to machines, '' rather than enlarging human capacity or human freedom. Many, including Reinhard Bendix and Lloyd H. Fisher, criticized Mayo for generalizing his results of the Hawthorne studies. The two state that Mayo 's research concerned small, isolated groups, and it was not clear that the conditions and supervision he achieved could have been replicated in large groups and factory settings. His theories are also based upon the assumption that humans, by nature, want to cooperate and form groups, and he never allows for the possibility of José Ortega y Gasset 's idea of "the stranger, '' built upon the proposition that humans, by nature, are suspicious of others. More recently, in 2003, James Hoopes criticised Mayo for "substituting therapy for democracy. '' Re-analyses of the original Hawthorne data indicate that the quality of the research was poor.
Elton Mayo married Dorothea McConnel (--) on 18 April 1913. Dorothea was the eldest daughter of James Henry McConnel (c. 1850 -- 7 June 1914) of Cressbrook Station, Queensland and the sister of Ursula McConnel. They had two daughters:
The medical doctor Helen Mayo (1878 -- 1967) was a sister, and the Supreme Court judge Sir Herbert Mayo (1885 -- 1972) was a brother.
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where the indian flag hoisted first on independence day | Independence Day (India) - Wikipedia
Independence Day is annually celebrated on 15 August, as a national holiday in India commemorating the nation 's independence from the United Kingdom on 15 August 1947, the UK Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act 1947 transferring legislative sovereignty to the Indian Constituent Assembly. India still retained King George VI as head of state until its transition to full republican constitution. India attained independence following the Independence Movement noted for largely nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience led by the Indian National Congress (INC). Independence coincided with the partition of India, in which the British India was divided along religious lines into the Dominions of India and Pakistan; the partition was accompanied by violent riots and mass casualties, and the displacement of nearly 15 million people due to religious violence. On 15 August 1947, the Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru raised the Indian national flag above the Lahori Gate of the Red Fort in Delhi. On each subsequent Independence Day, the prime minister customarily raises the flag and gives an address to the nation.
The holiday is observed throughout India with flag - hoisting ceremonies, parades and cultural events. There is a national holiday, and schools and government offices distribute sweets, but no official work is done.
European traders had established outposts in the Indian subcontinent by the 17th century. Through overwhelming military strength, the British East India company subdued local kingdoms and established themselves as the dominant force by the 18th century. Following the First War of Independence of 1857, the Government of India Act 1858 led the British Crown to assume direct control of India. In the decades following, civic society gradually emerged across India, most notably the Indian National Congress Party, formed in 1885. The period after World War I was marked by British reforms such as the Montague -- Chelmsford Reforms, but it also witnessed the enactment of the repressive Rowlatt Act and calls for self - rule by Indian activists. The discontent of this period crystallised into nationwide non-violent movements of non-cooperation and civil disobedience, led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.
During the 1930 s, reform was gradually legislated by the British; Congress won victories in the resulting elections. The next decade was beset with political turmoil: Indian participation in World War II, the Congress ' final push for non-cooperation, and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism led by the All - India Muslim League. The escalating political tension was capped by Independence in 1947. The jubilation was tempered by the bloody partition of the subcontinent into India and Pakistan.
At the 1929 Lahore session of the Indian National Congress, the Purna Swaraj declaration, or "Declaration of the Independence of India '' was promulgated, and 15 August was declared as Independence Day. The Congress called on people to pledge themselves to civil disobedience and "to carry out the Congress instructions issued from time to time '' until India attained complete independence. Celebration of such an Independence Day was envisioned to stoke nationalistic fervour among Indian citizens, and to force the British government to consider granting independence. The Congress observed 26 January as the Independence Day between 1930 and 1946. The celebration was marked by meetings where the attendants took the "pledge of independence ''. Jawaharlal Nehru described in his autobiography that such meetings were peaceful, solemn, and "without any speeches or exhortation ''. Gandhi envisaged that besides the meetings, the day would be spent "... in doing some constructive work, whether it is spinning, or service of ' untouchables, ' or reunion of Hindus and Mussalmans, or prohibition work, or even all these together ''. Following actual independence in 1947, the Constitution of India came into effect on and from 26 January 1950; since then 26 January is celebrated as Republic Day.
In 1946, the Labour government in Britain, its exchequer exhausted by the recently concluded World War II, realised that it had neither the mandate at home, the international support, nor the reliability of native forces for continuing to control an increasingly restless India. In February 1947, Prime Minister Clement Attlee announced that the British government would grant full self - governance to British India by June 1948 at the latest.
The new viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, advanced the date for the transfer of power, believing the continuous contention between the Congress and the Muslim League might lead to a collapse of the interim government. He chose the second anniversary of Japan 's surrender in World War II, 15 August, as the date of power transfer. The British government announced on 3 June 1947 that it had accepted the idea of partitioning British India into two states; the successor governments would be given dominion status and would have an implicit right to secede from the British Commonwealth. The Indian Independence Act 1947 (10 & 11 Geo 6 c. 30) of the Parliament of the United Kingdom partitioned British India into the two new independent dominions of India and Pakistan (including what is now Bangladesh) with effect from 15 August 1947, and granted complete legislative authority upon the respective constituent assemblies of the new countries. The Act received royal assent on 18 July 1947.
Millions of Muslim, Sikh and Hindu refugees trekked the newly drawn borders in the months surrounding independence. In Punjab, where the borders divided the Sikh regions in halves, massive bloodshed followed; in Bengal and Bihar, where Mahatma Gandhi 's presence assuaged communal tempers, the violence was mitigated. In all, between 250,000 and 1,000,000 people on both sides of the new borders died in the violence. While the entire nation was celebrating the Independence Day, Gandhi stayed in Calcutta in an attempt to stem the carnage. On 14 August 1947, the Independence Day of Pakistan, the new Dominion of Pakistan came into being; Muhammad Ali Jinnah was sworn in as its first Governor General in Karachi.
The Constituent Assembly of India met for its fifth session at 11 pm on 14 August in the Constitution Hall in New Delhi. The session was chaired by the president Rajendra Prasad. In this session, Jawaharlal Nehru delivered the Tryst with Destiny speech proclaiming India 's independence.
Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance. It is fitting that at this solemn moment, we take the pledge of dedication to the service of India and her people and to the still larger cause of humanity.
The members of the Assembly formally took the pledge of being in the service of the country. A group of women, representing the women of India, formally presented the national flag to the assembly.
The Dominion of India became an independent country as official ceremonies took place in New Delhi. Nehru assumed office as the first prime minister, and the viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, continued as its first governor general. Gandhi 's name was invoked by crowds celebrating the occasion; Gandhi himself however took no part in the official events. Instead, he marked the day with a 24 - hour fast, during which he spoke to a crowd in Calcutta, encouraging peace between Hindu and Muslim.
Independence Day, one of the three National holidays in India (the other two being the Republic Day on 26 January and Mahatma Gandhi 's birthday on 2 October), is observed in all Indian states and union territories. On the eve of Independence Day, the President of India delivers the "Address to the Nation ''. On 15 August, the prime minister hoists the Indian flag on the ramparts of the historical site Red Fort in Delhi. Twenty - one gun shots are fired in honour of the solemn occasion. In his speech, the prime minister highlights the past year 's achievements, raises important issues and calls for further development. He pays tribute to the leaders of the Indian independence movement. The Indian national anthem, "Jana Gana Mana '', is sung. The speech is followed by march past of divisions of the Indian Armed Forces and paramilitary forces. Parades and pageants showcase scenes from the independence struggle and India 's diverse cultural traditions. Similar events take place in state capitals where the Chief Ministers of individual states unfurl the national flag, followed by parades and pageants.
Flag hoisting ceremonies and cultural programmes take place in governmental and non-governmental institutions throughout the country. Schools and colleges conduct flag hoisting ceremonies and cultural events. Major government buildings are often adorned with strings of lights. In Delhi and some other cities, kite flying adds to the occasion. National flags of different sizes are used abundantly to symbolise allegiance to the country. Citizens adorn their clothing, wristbands, cars, household accessories with replicas of the tri-colour. Over a period of time, the celebration has changed emphasis from nationalism to a broader celebration of all things India.
The Indian diaspora celebrates Independence Day around the world with parades and pageants, particularly in regions with higher concentrations of Indian immigrants. In some locations, such as New York and other US cities, 15 August has become "India Day '' among the diaspora and the local populace. Pageants celebrate "India Day '' either on 15 August or an adjoining weekend day.
Kashmiris throughout the Kashmir Valley have observed India 's independence day as a ' black day ' since late 1980 's. General strike and a civil curfew is organized with ceremonial burning of the Indian flag. Most shops remain closed and a reduced traffic is seen on the roads. Black flags are hoisted on buildings throughout the India - administered Kashmir. Its purpose is to send a message to the international community that India has usurped Kashmiris ' inalienable right to self - determination through the use of force.
As early as three years after independence, the Naga National Council called for a boycott of Independence Day in northeast India. Separatist protests in this region intensified in the 1980s; calls for boycotts and terrorist attacks by insurgent organisations such as the United Liberation Front of Assam and the National Democratic Front of Bodoland, marred celebrations. With increasing insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir from the late 1980s, separatist protesters boycotted Independence Day there with bandh (strikes), use of black flags and by flag burning. Terrorist outfits such as Lashkar - e-Taiba, the Hizbul Mujahideen and the Jaish - e-Mohammed have issued threats, and have carried out attacks around Independence Day. Boycotting of the celebration has also been advocated by insurgent Maoist rebel organisations.
In the anticipation of terrorist attacks, particularly from militants, security measures are intensified, especially in major cities such as Delhi and Mumbai and in troubled states such as Jammu and Kashmir. The airspace around the Red Fort is declared a no - fly zone to prevent aerial attacks and additional police forces are deployed in other cities.
On Independence Day and Republic Day, patriotic songs in regional languages are broadcast on television and radio channels. They are also played alongside flag hoisting ceremonies. Patriotic films are broadcast. Over the decades, according to The Times of India, the number of such films broadcast has decreased as channels report that audiences are oversaturated with patriotic films. The population cohort that belong to the Generation Next often combine nationalism with popular culture during the celebrations. This mixture is exemplified by outfits and savouries dyed with the tricolour and designer garments that represent India 's various cultural traditions. Retail stores offer Independence Day sales promotions. Some news reports have decried the commercialism. Indian Postal Service publishes commemorative stamps depicting independence movement leaders, nationalistic themes and defence - related themes on 15 August.
Independence and partition inspired literary and other artistic creations. Such creations mostly describe the human cost of partition, limiting the holiday to a small part of their narrative. Salman Rushdie 's novel Midnight 's Children (1980), which won the Booker Prize and the Booker of Bookers, wove its narrative around children born at midnight of 14 -- 15 August 1947 with magical abilities. Freedom at Midnight (1975) is a non-fiction work by Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierre that chronicled the events surrounding the first Independence Day celebrations in 1947. Few films centre on the moment of independence, instead highlighting the circumstances of partition and its aftermath. On the Internet, Google has commemorated Independence Day since 2003 with a special doodle on its Indian homepage.
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who sings the end credits of the two towers | Emilíana Torrini - Wikipedia
Emilíana Torrini (born 16 May 1977), is an Icelandic singer and songwriter. She is best known for her 1999 album Love in the Time of Science, her performance of "Gollum 's Song '' for the 2002 film The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers, and her 2009 single "Jungle Drum ''.
Emilíana was born in Iceland, where she grew up in Kópavogur. At the age of seven, she joined a choir as a soprano, until she went to opera school at the age of 15. Her father, Salvatore Torrini, is Italian (from Naples), while her mother, Anna Stella Snorradóttir, is Icelandic. Because of name regulations in Iceland at the time, her father had to change his name to "Davíð Eiríksson '', which also meant that Emilíana had to use the surname after her father in the traditional way. A few years later, the name regulations were changed, and she was again allowed to use her original surname. After being discovered singing in a restaurant in Iceland by Derek Birkett, the owner of One Little Indian Records, Emilíana was asked to visit London to record a song. She decided to stay in London.
Emilíana has been a member of Icelandic artist group GusGus, and contributed vocals to several songs on their debut Polydistortion (1997), most notably "Why ''. She co-wrote Kylie Minogue 's "Slow '' and "Someday '' from her Body Language album in 2003. She also produced "Slow '' along with Dan Carey; the two were nominated for a Best Dance Recording Grammy Award in 2005 for their work on the track. Prior to these, Emilíana contributed vocals to songs on Thievery Corporation 's 2002 album The Richest Man in Babylon and was credited with composing the songs "Resolution '', "Until The Morning '', and "Heaven 's Gonna Burn Your Eyes '' from that album. Also in 2002, she sang vocals on Paul Oakenfold 's song "Hold Your Hand '' taken from his Bunkka album.
On 3 June 2013, Emilíana revealed to fans that she would release her new album on 9 September 2013 in the UK. The album was released in Ireland, Iceland, Germany, Austria, and Switzerland on 6 September 2013. The new LP is titled Tookah. Emilíana will play a number of music festivals in the lead up to the album 's release in Russia and Budapest.
On 29 July 2013, Emilíana revealed the radio edition of a new track "Speed of Dark ''. Three additional tracks were also revealed allowing fans to stream these include "Autumn Sun '', "Animal Games '', and "Tookah ''.
Torrini contributed vocals on all tracks, otherwise noted.
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who wrote the song i'm going down | I 'm Going Down (Rose Royce song) - wikipedia
"I 'm Going Down '' is a song written and produced by Norman Whitfield, and performed by Rose Royce. The single is from the film Car Wash and is featured on the film 's soundtrack.
The Rose Royce (original) version received moderate success. It peaked at number seventy on the US Billboard Hot 100 and reached number ten on the R&B singles chart. In the film Car Wash, the song serves as a double entendre, as it compliments the screen time of Maureen, a forlorn prostitute who desperately seeks a chance at true love with "Joe, '' even as she turns tricks.
In 1994, the song would gain more exposure and popularity when it was covered by R&B artist Mary J. Blige for her second album, My Life. Due to the heavy airplay that it received, Blige 's version peaked at number thirteen on the Hot R&B Songs chart and number twenty - two on the US Billboard Hot 100. It became her fifth consecutive Top 40 hit as a lead artist. This song is also frequently performed at many of her concerts and as well as live sets.
The music video for Blige 's "I 'm Goin ' Down '' was directed from January 14 -- 15, 1995 by Matthew Rolston and was shot in black and white, with Blige singing in a club, and wearing an - all black suit with a matching hat, walking downstairs (being duplicated over and over again).
"Oh Boy '' off of Cam'ron 's third album Come Home with Me samples the original Rose Royce song. Mariah Carey also sampled the song in her 2002 album Charmbracelet for the song "Boy (I Need You) ''. Both songs were composed by hip - hop producer Justin "Just Blaze '' Smith and are almost identical.
On the episode season 3 finale of Sister, Sister, Tamera (Tamera Mowry) covered the song for a talent show, winning a bet that her sister Tia (Tia Mowry) had with her enemy -- and Tamera 's opponent, Marva.
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what conclusion can you make about the skeletal structure of these two organisms | Comparative anatomy - wikipedia
Comparative anatomy is the study of similarities and differences in the anatomy of different species. It is closely related to evolutionary biology and phylogeny (the evolution of species).
Comparative anatomy has long served as evidence for evolution, now joined in that role by comparative genomics; it indicates that various organisms share a common ancestor. Also, it assists scientists in classifying organisms based on similar characteristics of their anatomical structures. A common example of comparative anatomy is the similar bone structures in forelimbs of cats, whales, bats, and humans. All of these appendages consist of the same basic parts; yet, they serve completely different functions. The skeletal parts which form a structure used for swimming, such as a fin, would not be ideal to form a wing, which is better - suited for flight. One explanation for the forelimbs ' similar composition is descent with modification. Through random mutations and natural selection, each organism 's anatomical structures gradually adapted to suit their respective habitats. The rules for development of special characteristics which differ significantly from general homology were listed by Karl Ernst von Baer (the Baer laws).
Three major concepts of comparative anatomy are:
The first specifically anatomical investigation separate from a surgical or medical procedure is associated by early commentators with Alcmaeon of Croton. Pierre Belon, a French naturalist born in 1517, conducted research and held discussions on dolphin embryos as well as the comparisons between the skeletons of birds to the skeletons of humans. His research later led to what is referred to as modern comparative anatomy.
Around the same time, Andreas Vesalius was also making some strides of his own. A young anatomist of Flemish descent made famous by a penchant for amazing charts, he was systematically investigating and correcting the anatomical knowledge of the Greek physician Galen. He noticed that many of Galen 's observations were not even based on actual humans. Instead, they were based on animals such as oxen. Up until that point, Galen and his teachings had been the authority on human anatomy. The irony is that Galen himself had emphasized the fact that one should make one 's own observations instead of using those of another, but this advice was lost during the numerous translations of his work. As Vesalius began to uncover these mistakes, other physicians of the time began to trust their own observations more than those of Galen. An interesting observation made by some of these physicians was the presence of homologous structures in a wide variety of animals which included humans. These observations were later used by Darwin as he formed his theory of Natural Selection.
Edward Tyson is regarded as the founder of modern comparative anatomy. He is credited with determining that marine mammals are, in fact, mammals. Also, he concluded that chimpanzees are more similar to humans than to monkeys because of their arms. Marco Aurelio Severino also compared various animals, including birds, in his Zootomia democritaea, one of the first works of comparative anatomy. In the 18th and 19th century, great anatomists like George Cuvier, Richard Owen and Thomas Henry Huxley revolutionized our understanding of the basic build and systematics of vertebrates, laying the foundation for Charles Darwin 's work on evolution. An example of a 20th - century comparative anatomist is Victor Negus, who worked on the structure and evolution of the larynx. Until the advent of genetic techniques like DNA sequencing, comparative anatomy together with embryology were the primary tools for understanding phylogeny, as exemplified by the work of Alfred Romer.
Comparative anatomy is still taught, particularly in the field of paleontology.
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when was the mirage in las vegas renovated | The Mirage - wikipedia
The Mirage is a 3,044 room Polynesian - themed resort and casino resort located on the Las Vegas Strip in Paradise, Nevada, United States. The resort was built by developer Steve Wynn and is currently owned and operated by MGM Resorts International.
The original marquee sign in front of the Mirage is the largest free standing marquee in the world. The resort is connected by a free tram (currently closed for refurbishment until late 2018) to the Treasure Island Hotel and Casino neighboring the hotel 's property to the north.
The Mirage was built by developer Steve Wynn and designed by Joel Bergman and Roger Thomas. It was built on the site formerly occupied by the Castaways and prior to that, the Red Rooster Nite Club.
The Mirage was proposed with an initial cost of $565 million. Financier Michael Milken helped finance the project by selling $525 million worth of mortgage bonds. The Mirage was the first resort that was built with the money of Wall Street through the use of junk bonds. The project went over budget, and was the most expensive hotel - casino in history, with a construction cost of US $630 million. The hotel 's distinctive gold windows get their color from actual gold dust used in the tinting process.
The Mirage 's construction is considered noteworthy in that Wynn had set a new standard for Vegas resorts, and is widely considered to be the father of today 's Las Vegas. Prior to The Mirage 's opening, the city was experiencing a decline in tourism that began in the 1970s, especially around the time that the state of New Jersey legalized gambling and tourists (in particular those on the East Coast) began to frequent the casinos of Atlantic City. Also, this was a time when Las Vegas was no longer considered a fashionable destination, so a new, high - profile, project was necessary to jump - start the ailing industry. Wynn planned for the resort to feature boxing matches to compete against the Las Vegas Hilton and the adjacent Caesars Palace.
Wynn initially considered naming the resort the Golden Nugget, after his Golden Nugget hotel - casino in downtown Las Vegas. However, Wynn and others involved with the new resort knew that it would need a different name; otherwise, they believed that the two properties would become known as "the old one '' and "the new one. '' Wynn chose "The Mirage '' because of the resort 's South Pacific theme. In 1988, to avoid confusion, Wynn purchased the rights to the Mirage name from two other businesses, the La Mirage Casino and the Mirage Motel. Both businesses received $250,000 to change their names.
The Mirage, initially scheduled for an opening in early December 1989, was opened early on November 22, 1989. At the time of its opening, The Mirage was the largest hotel in the world, with 3,044 rooms. The hotel tower, standing 29 stories, was built out in a Y - shape design, a concept that was later copied by Las Vegas ' Treasure Island, Monte Carlo, and Mandalay Bay resorts. The hotel 's top five floors were used exclusively for high roller rooms and penthouse suites. The Mirage was the first new resort to be built on the Las Vegas Strip in 16 years, after the completion of the MGM Grand in 1973. When it opened, The Mirage was the first casino to use security cameras full - time on all table games.
Starting in February 1990, The Mirage was the venue for the Siegfried & Roy show, held in the resort 's 1,500 - seat showroom. The two headliners combined magic and the use of wild animals. The show closed in 2003 after performer Roy Horn was critically injured by Montecore, one of the 650 - pound white tigers used in the show.
In 1993, The Mirage hosted an extended run of the Cirque du Soleil show Nouvelle Expérience in a tent in The Mirage parking lot. It was during this time that Steve Wynn decided to invite Cirque to create Mystère for the soon - to - be-built Treasure Island resort next door. Finally returning to where they began in Las Vegas, Cirque du Soleil has a permanent production at The Mirage, LOVE.
As of 1999, The Mirage had 6,000 employees. At that time, Wynn was investing $100 million into the resort to build two theaters and to add 130,000 sq ft (12,000 m) of convention space. On March 7, 2000, MGM Grand Inc. acquired Wynn 's company, Mirage Resorts, for $4.4 billion.
In March 2000, Danny Gans started performing at the resort. Prior to that time, Gans performed at the Rio Hotel and Casino. Gans took over the marquee in 2004, becoming the resort 's main entertainment attraction. In December 2006, the Beatles - themed REVOLUTION ultra-lounge opened. It was the first time Cirque du Soleil was involved in the development of a nightlife venue, operated by The Light Group.
Gans left The Mirage in February 2009 to star in a show at the Encore Las Vegas. In 2009, ventriloquist and 2007 America 's Got Talent winner Terry Fator began a 5 - year run at the hotel. Also in 2009, The Mirage was featured on The Amazing Race 15, where one team member had to bungee the other into the air to grab a bouquet of flowers presented in the Love theater.
In November 2012 The Mirage casino became the second Las Vegas casino to offer Geoff Hall 's Blackjack variant Free Bet Blackjack, after the Golden Nugget Casino. In 2014, The Mirage was featured in The Amazing Race 24, where teams had to replace the lightbulbs in the letter ' I ' in ' Mirage '.
In 2015 MGM Resorts International announced that it would place the Mirage and other properties into a real estate investment trust. MGM would continue to operate The Mirage.
Notable features include:
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who has the most sacks in the nfl this year | List of National Football League annual sacks leaders - wikipedia
This is a list of National Football League players who have led the regular season in sacks each year. Sacks became an official statistic in 1982. Michael Strahan of the New York Giants holds the record with 22.5, which he had during the 2001 season. In 2013, the NFL created the Deacon Jones Award to recognize the season leader in sacks. There have only been two players lead in sacks with 2 different teams, Jared Allen (2007 with the Chiefs and 2011 with the Vikings) and Kevin Greene (1994 with the Steelers and 1996 with the Panthers). The Chiefs and the Vikings have had the most players lead the NFL in sacks with 4. Six players have led the NFL in sacks more than once, nobody has led more than twice.
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where did four score and seven years ago come from | Gettysburg Address - wikipedia
President of the United States
First term
Second term
Assassination and legacy
The Gettysburg Address is a speech by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln, and one of the best - known speeches in American history. It was delivered by Lincoln during the American Civil War at the dedication of the Soldiers ' National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania on the afternoon of Thursday, November 19, 1863 -- four and a half months after the Union armies defeated those of the Confederacy at the Battle of Gettysburg.
Lincoln 's carefully crafted address, secondary to others ' presentations that day, came to be seen as one of the greatest and most influential statements of American national purpose. In just over two minutes Lincoln reiterated the principles of human equality espoused by the Declaration of Independence and proclaimed the Civil War as a struggle for the preservation of the Union sundered by the secession crisis, with "a new birth of freedom '' that would bring true equality to all of its citizens. Lincoln also redefined the Civil War as a struggle not just for the Union, but also for the principle of human equality.
Beginning with the now - iconic phrase "Four score and seven years ago '' -- referring to the signing of the Declaration of Independence eighty - seven years earlier -- Lincoln invoked the United States ' founding principles as set forth in that document, then reminded his listeners of the peril to those principles posed by the Civil War then in progress. He extolled the sacrifices of those who died at Gettysburg in defense of those principles, and exhorted his listeners to continue the struggle for survival of the nation 's representative democracy as a beacon to the world -- urging resolve "that these dead shall not have died in vain -- that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom -- and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. ''
Despite the speech 's prominent place in the history and popular culture of the United States, the exact wording and location of the speech are disputed. The five known manuscripts of the Gettysburg Address in Lincoln 's hand differ in a number of details, and also differ from contemporary newspaper reprints of the speech. Modern scholarship locates the speakers ' platform 40 yards (or more) away from the Traditional Site within Soldiers ' National Cemetery at the Soldiers ' National Monument and entirely within private, adjacent Evergreen Cemetery.
Following the Battle of Gettysburg on July 1 -- 3, 1863, reburial of Union soldiers from the Gettysburg Battlefield graves began on October 17. David Wills, of the committee for the November 19 Consecration of the National Cemetery at Gettysburg, invited President Lincoln: "It is the desire that, after the Oration, you, as Chief Executive of the nation, formally set apart these grounds to their sacred use by a few appropriate remarks. '' Lincoln 's address followed the oration by Edward Everett, who subsequently included a copy of the Gettysburg Address in his 1864 book about the event (Address of the Hon. Edward Everett At the Consecration of the National Cemetery At Gettysburg, 19th November 1863, with the Dedicatory Speech of President Lincoln, and the Other Exercises of the Occasion; Accompanied by An Account of the Origin of the Undertaking and of the Arrangement of the Cemetery Grounds, and by a Map of the Battle - field and a Plan of the Cemetery).
During the train trip from Washington, D.C., to Gettysburg on November 18, Lincoln remarked to John Hay that he felt weak. On the morning of November 19, Lincoln mentioned to John Nicolay that he was dizzy. In the railroad car the President rode with his secretary, John G. Nicolay, his assistant secretary, John Hay, the three members of his Cabinet who accompanied him, William Seward, John Usher and Montgomery Blair, several foreign officials and others. Hay noted that during the speech Lincoln 's face had ' a ghastly color ' and that he was ' sad, mournful, almost haggard. ' After the speech, when Lincoln boarded the 6: 30 pm train for Washington, D.C., he was feverish and weak, with a severe headache. A protracted illness followed, which included a vesicular rash and was diagnosed as a mild case of smallpox. It thus seems highly likely that Lincoln was in the prodromal period of smallpox when he delivered the Gettysburg address.
The program organized for that day by Wills and his committee included:
Music, by Birgfeld 's Band ("Homage d'uns Heros '' by Adolph Birgfeld)
Prayer, by Reverend T.H. Stockton, D.D. Music, by the Marine Band ("Old Hundred ''), directed by Francis Scala Oration, by Hon. Edward Everett ("The Battles of Gettysburg '') Music, Hymn ("Consecration Chant '') by B.B. French, Esq., music by Wilson G Horner, sung by Baltimore Glee Club Dedicatory Remarks, by the President of the United States Dirge ("Oh! It is Great for Our Country to Die '', words by James G. Percival, music by Alfred Delaney), sung by Choir selected for the occasion
While it is Lincoln 's short speech that has gone down in history as one of the finest examples of English public oratory, it was Everett 's two - hour oration that was slated to be the "Gettysburg address '' that day. His now seldom - read 13,607 - word oration began:
Standing beneath this serene sky, overlooking these broad fields now reposing from the labors of the waning year, the mighty Alleghenies dimly towering before us, the graves of our brethren beneath our feet, it is with hesitation that I raise my poor voice to break the eloquent silence of God and Nature. But the duty to which you have called me must be performed; -- grant me, I pray you, your indulgence and your sympathy.
And ended two hours later with:
But they, I am sure, will join us in saying, as we bid farewell to the dust of these martyr - heroes, that wheresoever throughout the civilized world the accounts of this great warfare are read, and down to the latest period of recorded time, in the glorious annals of our common country, there will be no brighter page than that which relates the Battles of Gettysburg.
Lengthy dedication addresses like Everett 's were common at cemeteries in this era. The tradition began in 1831 when Justice Joseph Story delivered the dedication address at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Those addresses often linked cemeteries to the mission of Union.
Shortly after Everett 's well - received remarks, Lincoln spoke for only a few minutes. With a "few appropriate remarks '', he was able to summarize his view of the war in just ten sentences.
Despite the historical significance of Lincoln 's speech, modern scholars disagree as to its exact wording, and contemporary transcriptions published in newspaper accounts of the event and even handwritten copies by Lincoln himself differ in their wording, punctuation, and structure. Of these versions, the Bliss version, written well after the speech as a favor for a friend, is viewed by many as the standard text. Its text differs, however, from the written versions prepared by Lincoln before and after his speech. It is the only version to which Lincoln affixed his signature, and the last he is known to have written.
Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.
Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle - field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.
But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate -- we can not consecrate -- we can not hallow -- this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us -- that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion -- that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain -- that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom -- and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.
In Lincoln at Gettysburg, Garry Wills notes the parallels between Lincoln 's speech and Pericles 's Funeral Oration during the Peloponnesian War as described by Thucydides. (James McPherson notes this connection in his review of Wills 's book. Gore Vidal also draws attention to this link in a BBC documentary about oration.) Pericles ' speech, like Lincoln 's:
In contrast, writer Adam Gopnik, in The New Yorker, notes that while Everett 's Oration was explicitly neoclassical, referring directly to Marathon and Pericles, "Lincoln 's rhetoric is, instead, deliberately Biblical. (It is difficult to find a single obviously classical reference in any of his speeches.) Lincoln had mastered the sound of the King James Bible so completely that he could recast abstract issues of constitutional law in Biblical terms, making the proposition that Texas and New Hampshire should be forever bound by a single post office sound like something right out of Genesis. ''
Several theories have been advanced by Lincoln scholars to explain the provenance of Lincoln 's famous phrase "government of the people, by the people, for the people ''. Despite many claims, there is no evidence a similar phrase appears in the Prologue to John Wycliffe 's 1384 English translation of the Bible.
In a discussion "A more probable origin of a famous Lincoln phrase '', in The American Monthly Review of Reviews, Albert Shaw credits a correspondent with pointing out the writings of William Herndon, Lincoln 's law partner, who wrote in the 1888 work Abraham Lincoln: The True Story of A Great Life that he had brought to Lincoln some of the sermons of abolitionist minister Theodore Parker, of Massachusetts, and that Lincoln was moved by Parker 's use of this idea:
I brought with me additional sermons and lectures of Theodore Parker, who was warm in his commendation of Lincoln. One of these was a lecture on ' The Effect of Slavery on the American People '... which I gave to Lincoln, who read and returned it. He liked especially the following expression, which he marked with a pencil, and which he in substance afterwards used in his Gettysburg Address: ' Democracy is direct self - government, over all the people, for all the people, by all the people. '
Craig R. Smith, in "Criticism of Political Rhetoric and Disciplinary Integrity '', suggested Lincoln 's view of the government as expressed in the Gettysburg Address was influenced by the noted speech of Massachusetts Senator Daniel Webster, the "Second Reply to Hayne '', in which Webster famously thundered "Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable! '' Specifically, in this speech on January 26, 1830, before the United States Senate, Webster described the federal government as: "made for the people, made by the people, and answerable to the people '', foreshadowing Lincoln 's "government of the people, by the people, for the people ''. Webster also noted, "This government, Sir, is the independent offspring of the popular will. It is not the creature of State legislatures; nay, more, if the whole truth must be told, the people brought it into existence, established it, and have hitherto supported it, for the very purpose, amongst others, of imposing certain salutary restraints on State sovereignties. ''
A source predating these others with which Lincoln was certainly familiar was Chief Justice John Marshall 's opinion in McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), a case asserting federal authority to create a national bank and to be free from the State 's powers to tax. In asserting the superiority of federal power over the states, Chief Justice Marshall stated: "The government of the Union, then (whatever may be the influence of this fact on the case), is, emphatically and truly, a government of the people. In form, and in substance, it emanates from them. Its powers are granted by them, and are to be exercised directly on them, and for their benefit. '' Lincoln, a lawyer and President engaged in the greatest struggle of federalism, was (more eloquently) echoing the preeminent case that had solidified federal power over the States.
Wills observed Lincoln 's usage of the imagery of birth, life, and death in reference to a nation "brought forth '', "conceived '', and that shall not "perish ''. Others, including Allen C. Guelzo, the director of Civil War Era studies at Gettysburg College in Pennsylvania, suggested that Lincoln 's formulation "four score and seven '' was an allusion to the King James Version of the Bible 's Psalms 90: 10, in which man 's lifespan is given as "threescore years and ten; and if by reason of strength they be fourscore years ''.
Each of the five known manuscript copies of the Gettysburg Address is named for the person who received it from Lincoln. Lincoln gave copies to his private secretaries, John Nicolay and John Hay. Both of these drafts were written around the time of his November 19 address, while the other three copies of the address, the Everett, Bancroft, and Bliss copies, were written by Lincoln for charitable purposes well after November 19. In part because Lincoln provided a title and signed and dated the Bliss copy, it has become the standard text of Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address.
Nicolay and Hay were appointed custodians of Lincoln 's papers by Lincoln 's son Robert Todd Lincoln in 1874. After appearing in facsimile in an article written by John Nicolay in 1894, the Nicolay copy was presumably among the papers passed to Hay by Nicolay 's daughter Helen upon Nicolay 's death in 1901. Robert Lincoln began a search for the original copy in 1908, which resulted in the discovery of a handwritten copy of the Gettysburg Address among the bound papers of John Hay -- a copy now known as the "Hay copy '' or "Hay draft ''.
The Hay draft differed from the version of the Gettysburg Address published by John Nicolay in 1894 in a number of significant ways: it was written on a different type of paper, had a different number of words per line and number of lines, and contained editorial revisions in Lincoln 's hand.
Both the Hay and Nicolay copies of the Address are within the Library of Congress, encased in specially designed, temperature - controlled, sealed containers with argon gas in order to protect the documents from oxidation and continued deterioration.
The Nicolay copy is often called the "first draft '' because it is believed to be the earliest copy that exists. Scholars disagree over whether the Nicolay copy was actually the reading copy Lincoln held at Gettysburg on November 19. In an 1894 article that included a facsimile of this copy, Nicolay, who had become the custodian of Lincoln 's papers, wrote that Lincoln had brought to Gettysburg the first part of the speech written in ink on Executive Mansion stationery, and that he had written the second page in pencil on lined paper before the dedication on November 19. Matching folds are still evident on the two pages, suggesting it could be the copy that eyewitnesses say Lincoln took from his coat pocket and read at the ceremony. Others believe that the delivery text has been lost, because some of the words and phrases of the Nicolay copy do not match contemporary transcriptions of Lincoln 's original speech. The words "under God '', for example, are missing in this copy from the phrase "that this nation shall have a new birth of freedom... '' In order for the Nicolay draft to have been the reading copy, either the contemporary transcriptions were inaccurate, or Lincoln would have had to depart from his written text in several instances. This copy of the Gettysburg Address apparently remained in John Nicolay 's possession until his death in 1901, when it passed to his friend and colleague John Hay. It used to be on display as part of the American Treasures exhibition of the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.
The existence of the Hay copy was first announced to the public in 1906, after the search for the "original manuscript '' of the Address among the papers of John Hay brought it to light. Significantly, it differs somewhat from the manuscript of the Address described by John Nicolay in his article, and contains numerous omissions and inserts in Lincoln 's own hand, including omissions critical to the basic meaning of the sentence, not simply words that would be added by Lincoln to strengthen or clarify their meaning. In this copy, as in the Nicolay copy, the words "under God '' are not present.
This version has been described as "the most inexplicable '' of the drafts and is sometimes referred to as the "second draft ''. The "Hay copy '' was made either on the morning of the delivery of the Address, or shortly after Lincoln 's return to Washington. Those who believe that it was completed on the morning of his address point to the fact that it contains certain phrases that are not in the first draft but are in the reports of the address as delivered and in subsequent copies made by Lincoln. It is probable, they conclude, that, as stated in the explanatory note accompanying the original copies of the first and second drafts in the Library of Congress, Lincoln held this second draft when he delivered the address. Lincoln eventually gave this copy to his other personal secretary, John Hay, whose descendants donated both it and the Nicolay copy to the Library of Congress in 1916.
The Everett copy, also known as the "Everett - Keyes copy '', was sent by President Lincoln to Edward Everett in early 1864, at Everett 's request. Everett was collecting the speeches at the Gettysburg dedication into one bound volume to sell for the benefit of stricken soldiers at New York 's Sanitary Commission Fair. The draft Lincoln sent became the third autograph copy, and is now in the possession of the Illinois State Historical Library in Springfield, Illinois, where it is currently on display in the Treasures Gallery of the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum.
The Bancroft copy of the Gettysburg Address was written out by President Lincoln in February 1864 at the request of George Bancroft, the famed historian and former Secretary of the Navy, whose comprehensive ten - volume History of the United States later led him to be known as the "father of American History ''. Bancroft planned to include this copy in Autograph Leaves of Our Country 's Authors, which he planned to sell at a Soldiers ' and Sailors ' Sanitary Fair in Baltimore. As this fourth copy was written on both sides of the paper, it proved unusable for this purpose, and Bancroft was allowed to keep it. This manuscript is the only one accompanied both by a letter from Lincoln transmitting the manuscript and by the original envelope addressed and franked by Lincoln. This copy remained in the Bancroft family for many years, was sold to various dealers and purchased by Nicholas and Marguerite Lilly Noyes, who donated the manuscript to Cornell in 1949. It is now held by the Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections in the Carl A. Kroch Library at Cornell University. It is the only one of the five copies to be privately owned.
Discovering that his fourth written copy could not be used, Lincoln then wrote a fifth draft, which was accepted for the purpose requested. The Bliss copy, named for Colonel Alexander Bliss, Bancroft 's stepson and publisher of Autograph Leaves, is the only draft to which Lincoln affixed his signature. Lincoln is not known to have made any further copies of the Gettysburg Address. Because of the apparent care in its preparation, and in part because Lincoln provided a title and signed and dated this copy, it has become the standard version of the address and the source for most facsimile reproductions of Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address. It is the version that is inscribed on the South wall of the Lincoln Memorial.
This draft is now displayed in the Lincoln Room of the White House, a gift of Oscar B. Cintas, former Cuban Ambassador to the United States. Cintas, a wealthy collector of art and manuscripts, purchased the Bliss copy at a public auction in 1949 for $54,000 ($555,000 as of 2018), at that time the highest price ever paid for a document at public auction. Cintas ' properties were claimed by the Castro government after the Cuban Revolution in 1959, but Cintas, who died in 1957, willed the Gettysburg Address to the American people, provided it would be kept at the White House, where it was transferred in 1959.
Garry Wills concluded the Bliss copy "is stylistically preferable to others in one significant way: Lincoln removed ' here ' from ' that cause for which they (here) gave... ' The seventh ' here ' is in all other versions of the speech. '' Wills noted the fact that Lincoln "was still making such improvements '', suggesting Lincoln was more concerned with a perfected text than with an ' original ' one.
From November 21, 2008, to January 1, 2009, the Albert H. Small Documents Gallery at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History hosted a limited public viewing of the Bliss copy, with the support of then - First Lady Laura Bush. The Museum also launched an online exhibition and interactive gallery to enable visitors to look more closely at the document.
Another contemporary source of the text is the Associated Press dispatch, transcribed from the shorthand notes taken by reporter Joseph L. Gilbert. It also differs from the drafted text in a number of minor ways.
Eyewitness reports vary as to their view of Lincoln 's performance. In 1931, the printed recollections of 87 - year - old Mrs. Sarah A. Cooke Myers, who was 19 when she attended the ceremony, suggest a dignified silence followed Lincoln 's speech: "I was close to the President and heard all of the Address, but it seemed short. Then there was an impressive silence like our Menallen Friends Meeting. There was no applause when he stopped speaking. '' According to historian Shelby Foote, after Lincoln 's presentation, the applause was delayed, scattered, and "barely polite ''. In contrast, Pennsylvania Governor Curtin maintained, "He pronounced that speech in a voice that all the multitude heard. The crowd was hushed into silence because the President stood before them... It was so Impressive! It was the common remark of everybody. Such a speech, as they said it was! '' Reinterment of soldiers ' remains from field graves into the cemetery, which had begun within months of the battle, was less than half complete on the day of the ceremony.
In an oft - repeated legend, Lincoln is said to have turned to his bodyguard Ward Hill Lamon and remarked that his speech, like a bad plow, "wo n't scour ''. According to Garry Wills, this statement has no basis in fact and largely originates from the unreliable recollections of Lamon. In Garry Wills 's view, "(Lincoln) had done what he wanted to do (at Gettysburg) ''.
In a letter to Lincoln written the following day, Everett praised the President for his eloquent and concise speech, saying, "I should be glad if I could flatter myself that I came as near to the central idea of the occasion, in two hours, as you did in two minutes. '' Lincoln replied that he was glad to know the speech was not a "total failure ''.
Other public reaction to the speech was divided along partisan lines. The Democratic - leaning Chicago Times observed, "The cheek of every American must tingle with shame as he reads the silly, flat and dishwatery utterances of the man who has to be pointed out to intelligent foreigners as the President of the United States. '' In contrast, the Republican - leaning New York Times was complimentary and printed the speech. In Massachusetts, the Springfield Republican also printed the entire speech, calling it "a perfect gem '' that was "deep in feeling, compact in thought and expression, and tasteful and elegant in every word and comma ''. The Republican predicted that Lincoln 's brief remarks would "repay further study as the model speech ''. On the sesquicentennial of the address, The Patriot - News of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, formerly the Patriot & Union, retracted its original reaction ("silly remarks '' deserving "the veil of oblivion '') stating: "Seven score and ten years ago, the forefathers of this media institution brought forth to its audience a judgment so flawed, so tainted by hubris, so lacking in the perspective history would bring, that it can not remain unaddressed in our archives... the Patriot & Union failed to recognize (the speech 's) momentous importance, timeless eloquence, and lasting significance. The Patriot - News regrets the error. ''
Foreign newspapers also criticized Lincoln 's remarks. The Times of London commented: "The ceremony (at Gettysburg) was rendered ludicrous by some of the luckless sallies of that poor President Lincoln. ''
Congressman Joseph A. Goulden, then an eighteen - year - old school teacher, was present and heard the speech. He served in the United States Marine Corps during the war, and later had a successful career in insurance in Pennsylvania and New York City before entering Congress as a Democrat. In his later life, Goulden was often asked about the speech, since the passage of time made him one of a dwindling number of individuals who had been present for it. He commented on the event and Lincoln 's speech in favorable terms, naming Lincoln 's address as one of the inspirations for him to enter military service. Goulden 's recollections included remarks to the House of Representatives in 1914.
William R. Rathvon is the only known eyewitness of both Lincoln 's arrival at Gettysburg and the address itself to have left an audio recording of his recollections. One year before his death in 1939, Rathvon 's reminiscences were recorded on February 12, 1938, at the Boston studios of radio station WRUL, including his reading the address, itself, and a 78 rpm record was pressed. The title of the 78 record was "I Heard Lincoln That Day -- William R. Rathvon, TR Productions ''. A copy wound up at National Public Radio (NPR) during a "Quest for Sound '' project in 1999. NPR continues to air it around Lincoln 's birthday.
Like most people who came to Gettysburg, the Rathvon family was aware that Lincoln was going to make some remarks. The family went to the town square where the procession was to form to go out to the cemetery that had not been completed yet. At the head of the procession rode Lincoln on a gray horse preceded by a military band that was the first the young boy had ever seen. Rathvon describes Lincoln as so tall and with such long legs that they went almost to the ground; he also mentions the long eloquent speech given by Edward Everett of Massachusetts whom Rathvon accurately described as the "most finished orator of the day ''. Rathvon then goes on to describe how Lincoln stepped forward and "with a manner serious almost to sadness, gave his brief address ''. During the delivery, along with some other boys, young Rathvon wiggled his way forward through the crowd until he stood within 15 feet of Mr. Lincoln and looked up into what he described as Lincoln 's "serious face ''. Rathvon recalls candidly that, although he listened "intently to every word the president uttered and heard it clearly '', he explains, "boylike, I could not recall any of it afterwards ''. But he explains that if anyone said anything disparaging about "honest Abe '', there would have been a "junior battle of Gettysburg ''. In the recording Rathvon speaks of Lincoln 's speech allegorically "echoing through the hills ''.
The only known and confirmed photograph of Lincoln at Gettysburg, taken by photographer David Bachrach was identified in the Mathew Brady collection of photographic plates in the National Archives and Records Administration in 1952. While Lincoln 's speech was short and may have precluded multiple pictures of him while speaking, he and the other dignitaries sat for hours during the rest of the program. Given the length of Everett 's speech and the length of time it took for 19th - century photographers to get "set up '' before taking a picture, it is quite plausible that the photographers were ill - prepared for the brevity of Lincoln 's remarks.
The words "under God '' do not appear in the Nicolay and Hay drafts but are included in the three later copies (Everett, Bancroft, and Bliss). Accordingly, some skeptics maintain that Lincoln did not utter the words "under God '' at Gettysburg. However, at least three reporters telegraphed the text of Lincoln 's speech on the day the Address was given with the words "under God '' included. Historian William E. Barton argues that:
Every stenographic report, good, bad and indifferent, says ' that the nation shall, under God, have a new birth of freedom. ' There was no common source from which all the reporters could have obtained those words but from Lincoln 's own lips at the time of delivery. It will not do to say that (Secretary of War) Stanton suggested those words after Lincoln 's return to Washington, for the words were telegraphed by at least three reporters on the afternoon of the delivery.
The reporters present included Joseph Gilbert, from the Associated Press; Charles Hale, from the Boston Advertiser; John R. Young (who later became the Librarian of Congress), from the Philadelphia Press; and reporters from the Cincinnati Commercial, New York Tribune, and The New York Times. Charles Hale "had notebook and pencil in hand, (and) took down the slow - spoken words of the President ''. "He took down what he declared was the exact language of Lincoln 's address, and his declaration was as good as the oath of a court stenographer. His associates confirmed his testimony, which was received, as it deserved to be, at its face value. '' One explanation is that Lincoln deviated from his prepared text and inserted the phrase when he spoke. Ronald C. White, visiting professor of history at the University of California -- Los Angeles and professor of American religious history emeritus at the San Francisco Theological Seminary, wrote in this context of Lincoln 's insertion and usage of "under God '':
It was an uncharacteristically spontaneous revision for a speaker who did not trust extemporaneous speech. Lincoln had added impromptu words in several earlier speeches, but always offered a subsequent apology for the change. In this instance, he did not. And Lincoln included "under God '' in all three copies of the address he prepared at later dates. "Under God '' pointed backward and forward: back to "this nation '', which drew its breath from both political and religious sources, but also forward to a "new birth ''. Lincoln had come to see the Civil War as a ritual of purification. The old Union had to die. The old man had to die. Death became a transition to a new Union and a new humanity.
The phrase "under God '' was used frequently in works published before 1860, usually with the meaning "with God 's help ''.
Outside the Cemetery and within sight of the cross-walk, a historical marker proclaims:
Nearby, Nov. 19, 1863, in dedicating the National Cemetery, Abraham Lincoln gave the address which he had written in Washington and revised after his arrival at Gettysburg the evening of November 18.
Directly inside the Taneytown Road entrance are located the Rostrum and the Lincoln Address Memorial. Neither of these is located within 300 yards of any of the five (or more) claimed locations for the dedicatory platform.
Colonel W. Yates Selleck was a marshal in the parade on Consecration Day and was seated on the platform when Lincoln made the address. Selleck marked a map with the position of the platform and described it as "350 feet almost due north of Soldiers ' National Monument, 40 feet from a point in the outer circle of lots where (the) Michigan and New York (burial sections) are separated by a path ''. A location which approximates this description is 39 ° 49.243 ′ N, 77 ° 13.869 ′ W.
As pointed out in 1973 by retired park historian Frederick Tilberg, the Selleck Site is 25 feet lower than the crest of Cemetery Hill, and only the crest presents a panoramic view of the battlefield. A spectacular view from the location of the speech was noted by many eyewitnesses, is consistent with the Traditional Site at the Soldiers ' National Monument (and other sites on the crest) but is inconsistent with the Selleck Site.
The Kentucky Memorial was erected in 1975, is located directly adjacent to the Soldiers ' National Monument, and states, "Kentucky honors her son, Abraham Lincoln, who delivered his immortal address at the site now marked by the soldiers ' monument. '' With its position at the center of the concentric rings of soldiers ' graves and the continuing endorsement of Lincoln 's native state the Soldiers ' National Monument persists as a credible location for the speech.
Writing a physical description of the layout for the Gettysburg National Cemetery under construction in November 1863, the correspondent from the Cincinnati Daily Commercial described the dividing lines between the state grave plots as "the radii of a common center, where a flag pole is now raised, but where it is proposed to erect a national monument ''. With the inclusion of this quotation Tilberg inadvertently verifies a central principle of future photographic analyses -- a flagpole, rather than the speakers ' platform, occupied the central point of the soldiers ' graves. In fact, the precision of the photo - analyses relies upon the coincidence of position between this temporary flag pole and the future monument.
Confusing to today 's tourist, the Kentucky Memorial is contradicted by a newer marker which was erected nearby by the Gettysburg National Military Park and locates the speakers ' platform inside Evergreen Cemetery. Similarly, outdated National Park Service documents which pinpoint the location at the Soldiers ' National Monument have not been systematically revised since the placement of the newer marker. Miscellaneous web pages perpetuate the Traditional Site.
Based upon photographic analysis, the Gettysburg National Military Park (G.N.M.P.) placed a marker (near 39 ° 49.199 ′ N 77 ° 13.840 ′ W / 39.819983 ° N 77.230667 ° W / 39.819983; - 77.230667 (Gettysburg address marker)) which states, "The speakers ' platform was located in Evergreen Cemetery to your left. '' The observer of this marker stands facing the fence which separates the two cemeteries (one public and one private).
In 1982, Senior Park Historian Kathleen Georg Harrison first analyzed photographs and proposed a location in Evergreen Cemetery but has not published her analysis. Speaking for Harrison without revealing details, two sources characterize her proposed location as "on or near (the) Brown family vault '' in Evergreen Cemetery.
William A. Frassanito, a former military intelligence analyst, documented a comprehensive photographic analysis in 1995, and it associates the location of the platform with the position of specific modern headstones in Evergreen Cemetery. According to Frassanito, the extant graves of Israel Yount (died 1892) (39 ° 49.180 ′ N 77 ° 13.845 ′ W / 39.819667 ° N 77.230750 ° W / 39.819667; - 77.230750 (grave of Israel Yount (d. 1892))), John Koch (died 1913) (39 ° 49.184 ′ N 77 ° 13.847 ′ W / 39.819733 ° N 77.230783 ° W / 39.819733; - 77.230783 (grave of John Koch (d. 1913))), and George E. Kitzmiller (died 1874) (39 ° 49.182 ′ N 77 ° 13.841 ′ W / 39.819700 ° N 77.230683 ° W / 39.819700; - 77.230683 (grave of George E. Kitzmiller (d. 1874))) are among those which occupy the location of the 1863 speaker 's stand.
Assistant Professor of New Media at the University of North Carolina at Asheville, Christopher Oakley and his students are "working to produce a lifelike virtual 3 - D re-creation of Lincoln delivering the Gettysburg Address '' as part of the Virtual Lincoln Project. After taking precise measurements, some using lasers, and countless photographs on Cemetery Hill in 2013, Oakley 's team used 3 - D animation software Maya to estimate locations for the platform and the photographers who recorded its occupants. This work remains under development.
The GNMP marker, Wills ' interpretation of Harrison 's analysis, and the Frassanito analysis concur that the platform was located in private Evergreen Cemetery, rather than public Soldiers ' National Cemetery. The National Park Service 's National Cemetery Walking Tour brochure is one NPS document which agrees:
The Soldiers ' National Monument, long misidentified as the spot from which Lincoln spoke, honors the fallen soldiers. (The location of the speech) was actually on the crown of this hill, a short distance on the other side of the iron fence and inside the Evergreen Cemetery, where President Lincoln delivered the Gettysburg Address to a crowd of some 15,000 people.
While the GNMP marker is unspecific, providing only "to your left '', the locations determined by the Harrison / Wills analysis and the Frassanito analysis differ by 40 yards. Frassanito has documented 1) his own conclusion, 2) his own methods and 3) a refutation of the Harrison site, but neither the GNMP nor Harrison has provided any documentation. Each of the three points to a location in Evergreen Cemetery, as do modern NPS publications.
Although Lincoln dedicated the Gettysburg National Cemetery, the monument at the Cemetery 's center actually has nothing to do with Lincoln or his famous speech. Intended to symbolize Columbia paying tribute to her fallen sons, its appreciation has been commandeered by the thirst for a tidy home for the speech. Freeing the Cemetery and Monument to serve their original purpose, honoring of Union departed, is as unlikely as a resolution to the location controversy and the erection of a public monument to the speech in the exclusively private Evergreen Cemetery.
The importance of the Gettysburg Address in the history of the United States is underscored by its enduring presence in American culture. In addition to its prominent place carved into a stone cella on the south wall of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., the Gettysburg Address is frequently referred to in works of popular culture, with the implicit expectation that contemporary audiences will be familiar with Lincoln 's words.
In the many generations that have passed since the Address, it has remained among the most famous speeches in American history, and is often taught in classes about history or civics. Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address is itself referenced in another of those famed orations, Martin Luther King, Jr. 's "I Have a Dream '' speech. Standing on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in August 1963, King began with a reference, by the style of his opening phrase, to President Lincoln and his enduring words: "Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. ''
Phrases from the Address are often used or referenced in other works. The current Constitution of France states that the principle of the French Republic is "gouvernement du peuple, par le peuple et pour le peuple '' ("government of the people, by the people, and for the people ''), a literal translation of Lincoln 's words. Sun Yat - Sen 's "Three Principles of the People '' as well as the preamble for the 1947 Constitution of Japan were also inspired from that phrase. The aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincoln has as its ship 's motto the phrase "shall not perish ''.
U.S. Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts wrote of the address and its enduring presence in American culture after Lincoln 's assassination in April 1865: "That speech, uttered at the field of Gettysburg... and now sanctified by the martyrdom of its author, is a monumental act. In the modesty of his nature he said ' the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here; but it can never forget what they did here. ' He was mistaken. The world at once noted what he said, and will never cease to remember it. ''
U.S. President John F. Kennedy stated in July 1963 about the battle and Lincoln 's speech: "Five score years ago the ground on which we here stand shuddered under the clash of arms and was consecrated for all time by the blood of American manhood. Abraham Lincoln, in dedicating this great battlefield, has expressed, in words too eloquent for paraphrase or summary, why this sacrifice was necessary. '' Kennedy would meet the same fate as Abraham Lincoln only three days after the Gettysburg Address centennial.
In 2015, the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library Foundation compiled Gettysburg Replies: The World Responds to Abraham Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address. The work challenges leaders to craft 272 word responses to celebrate Abraham Lincoln, the Gettysburg Address, or a related topic. One of the replies was by astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson in which he made the point that one of Lincoln 's greatest legacies was establishing, in the same year of the Gettysburg Address, the National Academy of Sciences, which had the longterm effect of "setting our Nation on a course of scientifically enlightened governance, without which we all may perish from this Earth ''.
A common American myth about the Gettysburg Address is that Lincoln quickly wrote the speech on the back of an envelope. This widely held misunderstanding may be a result of a popular book, The Perfect Tribute, by Mary Raymond Shipman Andrews, first published in 1906, in which this myth appears. The best - selling work was assigned reading for generations of schoolchildren, sold 600,000 copies when published as a standalone volume, and was twice adapted for film.
Other lesser - known claims include Harriet Beecher Stowe 's assertion that Lincoln had composed the address "in only a few moments, '' and that of industrialist Andrew Carnegie, who claimed to have personally supplied President Lincoln 's pen.
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in what ways is aeneas a classical hero | Parallels between Virgil 's Aeneid and Homer 's Iliad and Odyssey - wikipedia
When writing the Aeneid, Virgil (or Vergil) drew from his studies on the Homeric epics of the Iliad and the Odyssey to help him create a national epic poem for the Roman people. Virgil used several characteristics associated with epic poetry, more specifically Homer 's epics, including the use of hexameter verse, book division, lists of genealogies and underlying themes to draw parallels between the Romans and their cultural predecessors, the Greeks.
The second half of the Aeneid, Books VI through XII, follow similarly to what happens throughout the Iliad.
Book VI of the Aeneid reveals a prophecy for Aeneas by the Sibyl of Cumae stating that a Latin - born Achilles, who is also the son of a goddess (Aeneid, Book VI, lines 89 -- 90), exists. There are many scholarly debates on who this Latin - born Achilles is, whether he is Aeneas, Turnus, or some other character, and if so, is the opponent symbolic of another character from the Iliad? If comparing Aeneas to Achilles and Turnus to Hector, several parallels can be drawn. One example is when Aeneas is absent from the battlefield, Turnus lays waste to the Trojan army, just as Hector did to the Greek army in the absence of Achilles. Just as Hector kills Patroclus, Turnus slaughters Pallas, and to avenge the deaths of their friends, both Achilles and Aeneas slay their opponents.
Prophecies contribute a large theme among epics, especially that of the Iliad, the Odyssey and the Aeneid. From the beginning of the Iliad, readers knew that the Greeks were fated to triumph over the Trojans, as was declared by the king of the gods, Zeus. Achilles fate was also foretold; if he went to war he would die a hero. Similarly, Aeneas was told by the ghost of Hector in Book II that he was to leave burning Troy to found a new city. Throughout the rest of the epic, the gods include reminders that Aeneas is destined to find Italy and found Rome for future generations.
Another thing Virgil replicates from the Iliad is the ekphrasis of Aeneas ' shield. In Book VIII of the Aeneid, Vulcan (the Roman equivalent of the Greek god Hephaestus) forges a shield for Aeneas before he goes into battle. This is similar to Hephaestus creating Achilles ' shield in Book XVII of the Iliad. Both of the goddesses who mothered the heroes (Venus and Thetis) feared for the safety of their sons preceding war, so both went to Vulcan / Hephaestus asking for him to create armor and a shield for Aeneas and Achilles. Upon the finish of the god of fire 's creations, the poets soon followed with a detailed description of the shields, an ekphrasis. The ekphrasis of the shield of Achilles depicts everything that the world currently consisted of, as well as opposites, such as war and peace, heaven and earth, etc. The ekphrasis of Aeneas ' shield depicts Rome 's greatest glories that are to come, such as the founder of Rome, Romulus, with his twin brother Remus with the she - wolf that cared for the twins, and Augustus ' victory at the Battle of Actium.
The first half of the Aeneid mimics the journey of Odysseus in several ways. Though the Odyssey takes course over the span of 24 books while the Aeneid replicates the happenings in the Odyssey in 6 books, there are several comparisons to make.
Odysseus and Aeneas are both royalty, Odysseus being the king of Ithaca and Aeneas a Trojan prince. Without the help of divine intervention though, neither hero would have met his destiny, though there were opposing gods who wanted to delay and provide hardship for the heroes along the journey. Odysseus ' antagonist was Poseidon, the god of the sea, whom he angered by blinding Poseidon 's son Polyphemus. In doing this, Poseidon 's wrath was given every chance possible, especially with storms blowing the Greek ships off course, even destroying them. Hera was the goddess who used everything in her power to delay Aeneas from ever fulfilling his prophecy since Aeneas was a Trojan, and Hera had a hatred for the Trojans ever since the Trojan prince Paris gave a golden apple to Aphrodite, stating that she was the most beautiful out of her, Athena and Hera. Storms caused by Hera also blow the Trojan fleet about and off course, which ultimately lands them at Carthage (leading to another reason for Hera to despise Aeneas and the Trojans).
The concept of a character narrating a story within the current story, providing subsequent layers, is seen in both the Aeneid and the Odyssey, more specifically the story of the heroes ' journey up until that point in time, since both epics start in medias res, in the middle of things. With the story of Odysseus, the Greek washes up on the shores of Scheria, the land of the Phaeacians, whom hospitably take Odysseus in and ask him how he has come to their land. Odysseus spends Books IX through XII recounting his journey from Troy to where he was presently. In Aeneas ' case, upon arrival in Carthage, Dido asked Aeneas to share his story, so Books II and III were narrating the fall of Troy and how Aeneas and his people arrived at Carthage.
The ultimate purpose of both Aeneas and Odysseus is returning home, or in Aeneas ' case, founding a new home. Both heroes sail over the same sea, sometimes visiting the same locations and experiencing the same difficulties. In Book III of the Aeneid, Aeneas and his men come close to Scylla and Charybdis, as Odysseus and his men do in Book XII of the Odyssey, followed by the Trojans landing on the island of the Cyclopes, as Aeneas does in Book IV. Aeneas ' crew had the fortune of not having the same fate as some in Odysseus ' crew. Virgil also included an emaciated Greek named Achaemenides, who had sailed with Odysseus but had been left behind. The two heroes also make a katabasis into the Underworld to retrieve information from the deceased.
Upon arrival in Ithaca, Odysseus is met with suitors in his home, destroying it and trying to win his wife, Penelope 's hand. Odysseus proceeds to fight off these suitors, killing them so he can have his home back. Similarly, Aeneas is supposed to found his home in Latium and marry the princess Lavinia, where he is met with the army of Turnus, who was the king of Rutuli and Lavinia 's leading suitor before Aeneas came along. Aeneas has to engage in a battle before he can finally rest in his newfound home.
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where did the phrase god bless you originate | God bless you - wikipedia
God bless you (variants include God bless or bless you) is a common English expression, used to wish a person blessings in various situations, especially as a response to a sneeze, and also, when parting or writing a valediction.
The phrase has been used in the Hebrew Bible by Jews (cf. Numbers 6: 24), and by Christians, since the time of the early Church as a benediction, as well as a means of bidding a person Godspeed. Many clergy, when blessing their congregants individually or as a group, use the phrase "God bless you ''.
A typical polite response after being told "bless you '' in response to sneezing is to thank the person who has said it.
National Geographic reports that during the plague of AD 590, "Pope Gregory I ordered unceasing prayer for divine intercession. Part of his command was that anyone sneezing be blessed immediately ('' God bless you "), since sneezing was often the first sign that someone was falling ill with the plague. '' By AD 750, it became customary to say "God bless you '' as a response to one sneezing.
The practice of blessing someone who sneezes dates as far back as at least AD 77, although it is far older than most specific explanations can account for. Some have offered an explanation suggesting that people once held the folk belief that a person 's soul could be thrown from their body when they sneezed, that sneezing otherwise opened the body to invasion by the Devil or evil spirits, or that sneezing was the body 's effort to force out an invading evil presence. In these cases, "God bless you '' or "bless you '' is used as a sort of shield against evil. The Irish Folk story "Master and Man '' by Thomas Crofton Croker, collected by William Butler Yeats, describes this variation. Moreover, in the past some people may have thought that the heart stops beating during a sneeze, and that the phrase "God bless you '' encourages the heart to continue beating.
In some cultures, sneezing is seen as a sign of good fortune or God 's beneficence. As such, alternative responses to sneezing are the French phrase à vos souhaits (meaning "to your wishes ''), the German word Gesundheit (meaning "health '') sometimes adopted by English speakers, the Irish word sláinte (meaning "good health ''), the Spanish salud (also meaning "health '') and the Hebrew laBri'ut (colloquial) or liVriut (classic) (both spelled: "לבריאות '') (meaning "to health '').
In Persian culture, sneezing sometimes is called "sabr = صبر, '' meaning "to wait or be patient. '' And when trying to do something or go somewhere and suddenly sneezing, one should stop or sit for a few minutes and then re-start. By this act the "bad thing '' passes and one will be saved. This is observed in Indian culture as well.
In Greek culture, sneezing was widely recognized as a divine omen. In Book 17 of Homer 's Odyssey, Penelope speaks to Eumaeus in private about the suitors feasting in the halls of the king 's palace, and how surely Odysseus will return and kill them. Suddenly her son Telemachus sneezes and Penelope laughed. A sneeze meant the intercession of the gods to make her statement come true. It was a blessing from the gods, connecting the sneeze to the "God Bless You. ''
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who is the actress in being mary jane | Gabrielle Union - wikipedia
Gabrielle Monique Union - Wade (born October 29, 1972) is an American actress. She began her career in the 1990s, appearing on television sitcoms, before landing supporting roles in teen comedy films She 's All That and 10 Things I Hate About You (1999). Her breakthrough role was in the 2000 teen comedy film Bring It On, after which she was female lead in the short - lived CBS medical drama series City of Angels later that year.
Union is best known for her performances in the romantic comedy films The Brothers (2001), Deliver Us from Eva (2003), Daddy 's Little Girls (2007), Think Like a Man (2012) and Think Like a Man Too (2014). She also had starring roles in Bad Boys II (2003), Cradle 2 the Grave (2003), the critically acclaimed Neo Ned (2005), Cadillac Records (2008), and Top Five (2014). In 2013, Union began starring as lead character in the BET drama series Being Mary Jane, for which she has received critical acclaim and an NAACP Image Award. She co-starred in film The Birth of a Nation (2016), and next appeared in Almost Christmas (2016) and Sleepless (2017).
Gabrielle Union was born in Omaha, Nebraska, the daughter of Theresa (Glass), a phone company manager and social worker, and Sylvester E. Union, a business executive and military sergeant. She was raised Catholic. During her childhood, she was taught "to be an independent woman, standing on my own two feet, and that 's the road I opted to take. '' According to Union, her mother taught her to have "a world perspective '' and took her to a gay pride parade at the age of eight after the family moved to Pleasanton, California, where she attended Foothill High School. Her parents divorced after 30 years of marriage and Union said, "They handled their divorce and our subsequent transition into a blended family with grace and dignity and respect. They always put us first and did n't involve us. I 'm lucky that I can just mirror what my parents did and always put the kids first. They 're pretty awesome, I 'm lucky. ''
Union grew up with self - esteem issues relating to her appearance, as she believed growing up that blonde women were "the ideal of beauty '' and "if I looked nothing like that, then I must be ugly. '' She longed to be acknowledged for her physical appearance. "I was never really looked upon as being pretty. '' On her college football memories, Union reflected, "In my family if you could n't talk Cornhusker football -- that means knowing the black shirt defense, knowing the I - back formation -- then you do n't get to have an opinion. When I first toured the Nebraska campus and I saw Turner Gill walk, I freaked out. That was like the biggest star - struck moment I 've probably ever had in my life. But it 's because I grew up in a household that always talked specifically Cornhusker football and Big 8 sports, at the time. '' Union 's personality was originally "mean '' until her trainer A.J. Johnson confronted her over the behavior during a party the two were attending.
Union attended the University of Nebraska, where she played on the club soccer team, before transferring to Cuesta College. She eventually transferred to UCLA and earned a degree in sociology. While studying there in her senior year, she interned at the Judith Fontaine Modeling & Talent Agency to earn extra academic credits. When she came to work as an Intern, Judith Fontaine thought she was so pretty, she requested Union get some photos so the Agency could book her as a model. She got the photos and Fontaine did book her as a model. The career of Gabrielle Union was started. Union started her acting career in minor roles. Her first audition was for "Saved by the Bell ''. Other of her earlier roles included those in teen movies such as 10 Things I Hate About You, She 's All That, and Love & Basketball. In 1997, Union appeared in the sixth - season episode of "Star Trek: Deep Space Nine -- '' Sons and Daughters '' as the Klingon N'Garen. She also appeared in Sister, Sister as Vanessa, in Smart Guy as Denise, and in five episodes of 7th Heaven as Keesha Hamilton.
She appeared in the 2000 film Love & Basketball. In 2000 Union performed the role of Isis in the cheerleading movie Bring It On opposite Kirsten Dunst. Bring It On helped push Union into the mainstream and she began gaining more exposure. Union herself would say of all her films, Bring It On gave her the "biggest boost ''. This led to Union being cast in the CBS television drama City of Angels as Dr. Courtney Ellis. Union was featured in The Brothers and was seen as having "a beguiling sincerity, even when she 's fudging the truth. '' Union was cast in her first leading role in the 2003 film Deliver Us from Eva with LL Cool J. This was her second time working with the rapper since making a cameo in his video "Paradise '' in 2002. When casting Eva, director Gary Hardwick was looking for an actress capable of instantly changing from "funny to caustic and dramatic. '' Hardwick had previously worked with Union in The Brothers and believed she was perfect for the role of Eva. Union 's role in the film was met by praise, with Dustin Putman of All-Reviews.com wrote that she was "the star attraction, and the number - one reason to even consider seeing the film. '' Union drew influence from her father for the "stern '' look she had in the film, admitting that she had stolen it from him.
Union landed the role of Will Smith 's character 's girlfriend, Syd, in the film Bad Boys II, a box - office success grossing more than $273 million worldwide. Union felt that she had been "blessed '' with her role in the film, feeling it elevated her career. The following year she appeared in Something the Lord Made. Union starred with Jamie Foxx in the film Breakin ' All the Rules in 2004. The film was unpopular with critics. She appeared in the 2005 film Neo Ned, costarring Jeremy Renner and portraying an African - American woman with delusions that she is Adolf Hitler. They were noted by Mark Olsen of the Los Angeles Times as having "a strange, offbeat chemistry that drives the film. '' She won an award for Best Actress in Neo Ned at the Palm Beach International Film Festival, and the film received awards at several festivals.
She starred in the 2005 remake of The Honeymooners with comedian Cedric The Entertainer. Union starred in the short - lived ABC series Night Stalker. She called the series a "reworking '' rather than a remake. Union admitted that at the time of getting the script, she was turned off, but became interested after reading the script at her agent 's insistence. She then met with series creator Frank Spotnitz and executive producer Daniel Sackheim, who told her they thought of her anytime they thought of the character. In 2006, she starred as Busta Rhymes ' love interest in the music video for Rhymes ' "I Love My Chick ''.
Union starred in the 2007 film Daddy 's Little Girls by Tyler Perry (released on Valentine 's Day). She played Julia Rossmore, a romantically challenged attorney. The role was written with her in mind. Before working with Perry, she went to see his stage show to both understand him and his audience. She filmed Daddy 's Little Girls over the summer of 2006 in Atlanta, Georgia. Union was seen as performing her character well along with Idris Elba and having a "great sense of comedic timing ''. Union 's character also drew comparisons to Eva, her role in Deliver Us from Eva. According to Union, Perry had specifically approached her over not turning the role into the same character. Union made an appearance in the 2007 Christmas film The Perfect Holiday, which opened on December 12. Since she had no children of her own, Union used her mother and sister to portray the divorced single mother of three in the film. Union initially turned down the role, as she did not want to get typecast for playing a mother until she was told of other actresses that had played similar roles and still found success in their careers.
In an interview with Art Nouveau Magazine, Union complained about the lack of roles for black actresses and actors in Hollywood: "There used to be (roles) specifically written black, if you knew Denzel was doing a movie you knew his wife, girl or love interest was going to be black (but) that 's not necessarily the case anymore. You 're in that room with every amazingly talented actress of every hue, and it 's a dogfight, it 's hard ''. Moreover, although she often plays weak, insecure characters, Union believes that "Hollywood needs to recognize all shades of African - American beauty. ''
In 2008 Union appeared on Ugly Betty for three episodes (36 -- 38) as Renee, Wilhelmina Slater 's (Vanessa L. Williams) sister and Daniel Meade 's (Eric Mabius) love interest. She also made a cameo appearance in the music video for Ne - Yo 's "Miss Independent ''. Union appeared in the 2008 film Cadillac Records. Union was reported to have signed to the film in March 2008. She portrayed Geneva Wade, who later married Muddy Waters. Waters was portrayed by Jeffrey Wright, who Union played opposite to. Union also worked with Beyoncé, who she had known since she was a teenager. Union was seen as a "pleasant surprise '' to the film and her performance was said to have shown she had larger acting range than her previous roles. Union later called taking the role of Geneva Wade in the film the best business decision she had ever made. Union appeared in the 2008 film Meet Dave, playing the love interest of Eddie Murphy 's character. Union said the film was a gift. That same year, she wrote the foreword for Hill Harper 's Letters to a Young Sister: DeFINE your Destiny. Union joined the cast of the U.S. television series Life on NBC and appeared in four episodes prior to its cancellation in May 2009. She appeared in the ABC series FlashForward alongside John Cho and Joseph Fiennes as Zoey Andata, a role for which she was nominated for an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 2010.
She appeared in episodes of Army Wives and NTSF: SD: SUV in 2010 and 2011. Union was reported to be joining the cast in June 2010. Union was reported in May 2011 to have landed roles in Think Like a Man, a romantic comedy based on Steve Harvey 's book Act Like a Lady, Think Like a Man, and an indie film, Family Tree. In June 2011, Union defended the music video for the Rihanna single "Man Down '' after it sparked controversy for Rihanna depicting a rape victim shooting and killing her attacker. Union related that every rape victim was "unique '', which extended to how they believed justice should be carried out.
In January 2012, Union was announced to be a participant in Bounce TV 's documentary Our History. In 2012 she worked with Tyler Perry on the romantic comedy Good Deeds, playing the role of Natalie, the soon to be wife of Perry 's character Wesley Deeds. Union said that after she read the script she became interested in working with Tyler Perry again. and enjoyed working with the cast. She then appeared in Steve Harvey 's movie Think Like A Man. Union related to her character from having married and divorced young. She and Meagan Good were seen as having taken advantage of their "straightforward characters to add spots of comic zest as well. '' Her next appearance was In Our Nature. The film was the directorial debut of Brian Savelson, the writing ability of whom Union was impressed. Savelson had offered Union the role two years prior to the film 's release, in 2010. Union saw In Our Nature as a personal victory for her career.
In 2013, she began starring in the BET network show Being Mary Jane. Union learned of the series while auditioning for Scandal for the role of Olivia Pope, which ultimately went to Kerry Washington. Union has said that she is content with having lost the role in Scandal to Washington: "I did n't get Scandal, but I got something better -- which is my own show. '' Union was impressed with the show 's quality and professionalism. Also in 2013 Union starred in Ava DuVernay 's short film The Door as part of Miu Miu 's Women 's Tales campaign.
Union reprised her role as Kristen in Think Like a Man Too in 2014, which received mostly negative reviews. She believed the film would do well and faced comparisons to her character, who was a newlywed while Union was engaged at the time, a similarity she dispelled by insisting she kept her relationship "enjoyable, fresh and exciting ''. Union was announced in July 2014 as a producer in the Lifetime film With This Ring. She was featured in Chris Rock 's Top Five, playing the fiancée of Rock 's character. Union viewed her character as being similar to members of the Kardashian family or the Braxton sisters. In November 2015, Union began voicing Nala in the Disney movie and series The Lion Guard. In October 2016, Union was featured in The Birth of a Nation as Esther, who is raped during the film. Union stated in an op - ed with the Los Angeles Times that she took the role due to her relating to it as a rape victim. Union had a prominent role as Rachel Meyers in Almost Christmas, released in November 2016. Ariel Scotti of The New York Times panned Union 's performance: "Each overused phrase that falls out of her character, Rachel 's, vindictive, childish mouth takes viewers further out of the movie experience. ''
In 2017, Union launched Flawless by Gabrielle Union, a line of hair - care products catered to people with textured hair.
In April 2017, Union announced her first book, a memoir, entitled We 're Going to Need More Wine. The book will "feature personal stories and reflections on a range of topics that continue to define the contemporary landscape: sexuality, womanhood, friendship, race, marriage, and beauty. '' Union described the book as "the good, the bad, and the WTF. '' The book will be published by Dey Street Books, an imprint of HarperCollins. The book was released on October 17, 2017.
In 1992, at the age of 19, Union was attacked and raped at her part - time job at a Payless Store. Union has stated that she would not have survived the attack had it not been for lessons she learned by watching Oprah Winfrey 's talk show.
Winfrey stated that Union 's Fierce and Fearless Award acceptance speech -- in which Union admitted she once reveled "in gossip and rumors '' -- inspired her because she "had never heard anyone be that honest in public or private about the competition and fierce drive to be seen and succeed in Hollywood. ''
In February 2012, Union was identified as a suspicious person by airport security and was subjected to a "hair patdown ''. She tweeted about the experience. "Hopefully my weave does n't cause turbulence, '' Union joked. "It 's clearly very powerful. ''
Union ran in the Global Race for the Cure in Washington, D.C. on Saturday, June 2, 2012, in honor of her friend Kristen Martinez, who died from breast cancer. Union was present at the Newseum in Washington, D.C. on August 23, 2013, and unveiled a limited - edition 1963 March on Washington stamp to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the march.
Union is a spokeswoman for Neutrogena. She became affiliated with Neutrogena in 2004. It was reported in November 2014 that Union became ambassador for nail polish company SensatioNail. She became the company 's first celebrity ambassador and creative advisor. In 2010, Union launched Love & Blessings, a clothing line for plus - sized women. The line was inspired by Union 's full - figured sister. In March 2014, Union released her first wine, "Vanilla Puddin ' ''.
While in high school, Union dated future NBA player Jason Kidd. Union has said Kidd broke up with her two weeks before junior prom. Union met NFL player Chris Howard at a party in 1999. They married on May 5, 2001, and separated in October 2005. The divorce was finalized in 2006. Union said that when she got divorced she "sort of realized that (s) he had n't been making sound choices which were the best for her to pursue her hopes and dreams and aspirations and passions. '' In a 2014 interview, Union stated that she may have rushed into the relationship for the wrong reasons, noting that, "in my 20s, I was all about getting the ring. '' Union had earlier reflected that she spent much of the marriage "upset '' and from the relationship, she realized that the men in her life were "just human. ''
In 2009, Union began dating NBA player Dwyane Wade. According to Wade, he and Union briefly split up at some point early in 2013 because of career demands. During that time, Wade fathered a son, Xavier, born in November 2013 with a long - time friend. Wade and Union reconciled, and became engaged in December 2013, the month after the birth. The couple married on August 30, 2014, in Miami, Florida. Upon the marriage, Union became a stepmother to Xavier and Wade 's two elder sons from his first marriage, Zaire (born 2002) and Zion (born 2007). Union stated in an interview prior to the marriage that she and Wade would be signing a prenuptial agreement to protect their individual assets. Union and Wade spent their honeymoon in the Maldives and Tanzania.
Union is an advocate for survivors of assault and has voiced her support for Jada, a Texas teenager who was sexually assaulted after passing out during a party and had her sexual assault filmed and posted in clips online, where her assault has been mocked by others on social networking websites. Union has also addressed the shooting of Trayvon Martin and stated, "When you have influence I think it 's the responsible thing to do, to speak out on an issue when you see injustice. I 'm still fighting for Trayvon... we all should. '' In the months following Martin 's death, Union supported a petition that called for Florida District Attorney Norman Wolfinger to bring charges against George Zimmerman. After Zimmerman was acquitted of charges in Martin 's death in July 2013, Union remarked, "Apparently walking while black is a crime punishable by death. '' Union was angered by Todd Akin 's position on abortion, which he explained as a woman not being able to get pregnant in the case of "legitimate rape ''. Tanganyika Williams, the aunt of NBA player Matt Barnes, was killed on July 8, 2014. Union posted on both Instagram and Twitter, calling for anyone with information on the killer of Barnes 's aunt to report their information to authorities.
In 2008, Union supported Barack Obama in his presidential campaign, the election interesting her differently from past elections. After working on the unsuccessful pilot for Army Wives, Union was appointed by President Obama to work with the National Advisory Committee for Violence Against Women. Obama contacted her specifically after learning that the pilot had fallen through. Union participated in the Obama campaign 's "Greater Together '' initiative as part of his re-election campaign in 2012. Union called on Republican presidential candidate Mitt Romney to release his tax returns and birth certificate, noting his father George W. Romney had released his own tax returns while a presidential candidate. The office of Atlanta Mayor Kasim Reed in November 2014 announced a campaign entitled "Take a Stand '' and its commission of a short film featuring Union and Tika Sumpter.
Union is an Ambassador in Susan G. Komen for the Cure 's Circle of Promise. Union became a spokesperson for Planned Parenthood 's breast health initiative and launched the Women Are Watching campaign with other actresses in 2012. In October 2014, it was announced that Union would be designing t - shirts to bring attention to the Women Are Watching campaign.
(Shared with: Max Charles Joshua Rush Atticus Shaffer Diamond White Dusan Brown Rob Lowe Khary Payton Andrew Kishino Eden Riegel)
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when does agents of shield come back on 2018 | Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (Season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of the American television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D. (Strategic Homeland Intervention, Enforcement, and Logistics Division), revolves around the character of Phil Coulson and other S.H.I.E.L.D. agents and allies as they try to save humanity. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the films of the franchise. The season is produced by ABC Studios, Marvel Television, and Mutant Enemy Productions, with Jed Whedon, Maurissa Tancharoen, and Jeffrey Bell serving as showrunners.
The season was ordered in May 2017. Alongside Clark Gregg, who reprises his role as Coulson from the film series, principal cast members Ming - Na Wen, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, Elizabeth Henstridge, and Henry Simmons return from previous seasons, while Natalia Cordova - Buckley is promoted to the principal cast after appearing in a recurring role since season three. Due to its broadcast schedule, the season was split into two "pods '': the first sees the S.H.I.E.L.D. team transported to the year 2091; in the second, they return to the present and attempt to prevent that future. The season also saw Gregg make his directorial debut on the series, and features Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. 's 100th episode, which was promoted with a special commemorative art program.
The fifth season began airing on December 1, 2017, and is set to run for 22 episodes on ABC until May 18, 2018.
In January 2017, ahead of the mid-season premiere of the fourth season, ABC 's Channing Dungey said that she was "very bullish '' about S.H.I.E.L.D. 's future, feeling that "the episodes just keep getting better and stronger ''. The series was renewed for a fifth season of 22 episodes on May 11, with ABC looking to lower the cost of the series moving forward, by reducing its budget and licensing fee. Asked whether she had considered giving the season a shorter episode order, Dungey noted that every season of the series had been 22 episodes long, and she felt its prior success in delayed viewership and overseas justified continuing that. She added that the "show has continued to grow creatively every season. I feel like last season (was) its strongest creatively yet. I 'm very excited for what we have planned for Season 5. '' It was reported that Disney, the parent company of Marvel Television, ABC Studios, and ABC, had given a mandate to ABC to renew Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. "despite the desire by some at the network to end the series ''.
In May 2017, ahead of the fifth season renewal, showrunner and executive producer Jed Whedon said the writers were not sure what would happen in the season, and that it would be "by the seat of our pants. '' The season explores the ramifications of Phil Coulson making a deal with Ghost Rider at the end of the previous season, as well as the groundwork laid by Aida for humans to fear S.H.I.E.L.D. and Inhumans. Whedon stated, "The public perception of S.H.I.E.L.D. is at an all - time low, so we have not resolved that, and there will be still more fallout from it. '' Moving beyond the Framework reality established at the end of season four, Tancharoen said the emotional impact from the characters ' experiences would "be something that resonates throughout the season '', especially for Fitz and Mack. When asked if the season would be broken into pods as with season four, executive producer Jeffrey Bell said, "A 22 - episode arc is a lot for people to hold onto. By breaking it up into either smaller arcs or different pods, by introducing a set of antagonists and putting them down, or moving from space to space, our experience has been that it 's something the viewers enjoy, and it makes it a little easier to digest when you 're telling some of these stories. '' However, Whedon noted that it would depend on how the season would be aired as to where the story is broken up. The season ultimately was broken into two pod story arcs, with each pod having a different emphases, but the whole season having an arc "that will pay off ''. The writers for the season began work at the end of May 2017.
The first pod of the season was informally referred to by the production team as S.H.I.E.L.D. in Space. Ahead of the season premiere, executive producer Maurissa Tancharoen said that "every year we reset the series, and this year we definitely knew that it would be the most giant reset to date (with the characters going to space). Just creatively across the board for everyone, art direction, all of it, our sets, you 'll see an overhaul. '' On the move to space, Whedon commented, "Last year was about tearing everybody apart. We spent a lot of time doing that... So our goal this year was... putting (this) family together in an intense situation (that) will end up causing drama internally, inevitably... we 've spent this many years with them, let 's throw them on the craziest roller coaster adventure we could think of. '' The main characters eventually return home to their time period.
The second pod of the season includes the series ' 100th episode, which Whedon and Tancharoen described as a "game changer '' that would "shake up '' the rest of the pod emotionally, to the point that "nothing will be the same after '' it. Bell added the episode featured "a device that grows out of our current storyline and plot that allows us to look back and reflect on where we 've come from, turn over a couple cards that people will be excited about and then also celebrate the show and people on it. '' Loeb also felt the episode "finishes up some stories that perhaps (viewers) did n't even know we have n't revealed ''. The episode featured Fitz and Simmons getting married, which Tancharoen said was included because "it was about damn time. After 100 episodes, they needed to get married. '' Coulson 's deal with Ghost Rider was also revealed, which was to have the Kree serum that revived him after his death be burned off, resulting in his chest wound slowly killing him. Whedon said that Coulson has "come to terms with it. It 's something he actually had to come to terms with a long time ago when he was discovering the T.A.H.I.T.I. Project and everything that had been done to him. I do n't think he wants to go through any of that again. He 's ready for nature to take its course... he seems as much at peace with it as you can be considering there 's so much he 's done in a world that thinks he 's dead. ''
At the end of February 2018, the writers were planning the end of the pod, and were planning for the final episode to be able to serve as both a season and series finale, with some elements that could be adjusted based on whether the series was renewed for a sixth season or not. Whedon added, "we 're ready for if this is the end. We 're definitely going to make it rewarding either way. ''
Main cast members Clark Gregg, Ming - Na Wen, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, Elizabeth Henstridge, and Henry Simmons return from previous seasons as Phil Coulson, Melinda May, Daisy Johnson / Quake, Leo Fitz, Jemma Simmons, and Alphonso "Mack '' MacKenzie, respectively. Before the 2017 New York Comic - Con, it was revealed that Natalia Cordova - Buckley had been promoted to series regular for the season, after recurring in the past two seasons as Elena "Yo - Yo '' Rodriguez. De Caestecker also portrays "The Doctor '', the version of Fitz from the Framework reality.
In September 2017, former series regular Nick Blood was announced as returning to reprise his role of Lance Hunter. Blood left the series during the third season, to star in the spin - off series Marvel 's Most Wanted, which never came to fruition. Adrianne Palicki, who portrayed Bobbi Morse and also left in the third season for Most Wanted with Blood, expressed interest in October 2017 in returning to guest star in the season, saying she "would absolutely come back '' if asked. Also returning from earlier in the series are Joel Stoffer as Enoch, who was simply credited as "silhouetted man '' in his previous appearance, and Lola Glaudini as Polly Hinton. Polly 's daughter Robin also appears, portrayed by multiple actresses, after the character made an uncredited appearance in "Ascension '': Lexy Kolker appears as 7 - years - old Robin, Ava Kolker appears as 12 - year - old Robin, and Willow Hale appears as an older Robin, when she is also known as The Seer.
Additional returning actors include Brian Patrick Wade as Carl Creel, J. August Richards as Mike Peterson / Deathlok, Spencer Treat Clark as Werner von Strucker, Zach McGowan as Anton Ivanov / The Superior, Adrian Pasdar as Glenn Talbot, Reed Diamond as Daniel Whitehall, and Raquel Gardner as Carla Talbot, along with Briana Venskus and Maximilian Osinski as S.H.I.E.L.D. agents Piper and Davis. Ruth Negga and David Conrad reprise their roles as Raina and Ian Quinn, respectively, in a flashback sequence set during the events of the season one finale, "Beginning of the End ''. The characters Lash and Hive return from earlier seasons for the series ' 100th episode. Younger versions of Jasper Sitwell and Wolfgang von Strucker also appear, portrayed by Adam Faison and Joey Defore, respectively. Older versions of the characters had been respectively portrayed by Maximiliano Hernández (in the MCU films and first season of the series) and Thomas Kretschmann (in the MCU films).
Jeff Ward was cast in a recurring role in August 2017, and was revealed in October to be portraying Deke Shaw, alongside other newcomers Eve Harlow as Tess, Coy Stewart as Flint, and Pruitt Taylor Vince as Grill. The next month, Marvel revealed that Dove Cameron had joined the season in an unspecified role, which was revealed in January 2018 to be the character Ruby, the daughter of Catherine Dent 's General Hale. Other recurring guests for the season include Dominic Rains as Kasius, Florence Faivre as Sinara, Jay Hunter as a Kree watch commander, Tunisha Hubbard as Ava, Shontae Saldana as Candice Lee, and Peter Mensah as Qovas.
After leaving the series during the fourth season, costume designer Ann Foley returned for the first two episodes of the fifth season, before handing over to Whitney Galitz, who had assisted her on the previous few seasons, and Christann Chanell. The opening for "Orientation '' is reminiscent of the sequence for "4,722 Hours '', forgoing the title card and having the typeface silently fading onto the screen. The subsequent episodes of the season feature a title card with the series name against a backdrop of a destroyed Earth.
Filming for the season began on July 20, 2017. In May 2017, Gregg expressed interest in directing an episode in the season, and confirmed that September he would be directing an episode, which was the sixth of the season, "Fun & Games ''. Gregg felt the idea of directing was "daunting '' as he would need to be doing "five weeks of double duty '', needing to act in addition to the various aspects of directing the episode. He reached out to fellow S.H.I.E.L.D. directors Kevin Tancharoen, Billy Gierhart, and Jesse Bochco to get tips on filming for the series. Bennet felt Gregg was able to bring out performances from the cast "that another director probably would n't have been able to because he knows the characters so well. '' Gregg added that he had "shorthand with (the other actors) about what we want to try to do, ways the script could give us a chance to push us into new territory. They all also have deep and interesting ideas that helped me. '' Gregg also received a deeper appreciation for some of the other departments on the series he normally does not encounter on a regular basis and the work they contribute to each episode. The scene for Fitz and Simmons ' wedding in "The Real Deal '' was filmed in "a very remote location '' in Placerita Canyon State Park.
In terms of having connections to Marvel 's Inhumans, Whedon felt it was doubtful, but noted "we also want there to be a bigger reward for people who watch all of (the MCU series), so they 'll start to see that there 's lines connecting it. It 's more fun for people who are playing the whole game, but if you do n't, you 'll still have a great rollercoaster ride. '' In November 2017, Whedon said that the season would not have moved the characters to space if the recent MCU films like Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 and Thor: Ragnarok had not been exploring that part of the MCU, but that this would remain a "thematic tie ''. He explained that they had moved on from the overt tie - ins with the MCU films that the series utilized in earlier seasons because "we have our own mythology. That started to be much more interesting to us, and hopefully to the audience, just digging that stuff up. No one wants to come to see our show to see another show. '' Whedon added in March 2018 that the then - upcoming release of Avengers: Infinity War would similarly "open a new playground '' for the series to explore.
The season features the Kree, an alien race that previously appeared in the first, second and third seasons, and in the film Guardians of the Galaxy. The fictional element Gravitonium also returns, having first appeared in the first season.
The season began airing in the United States on ABC on December 1, 2017, beginning once Inhumans finished airing its episodes. It is set to run for 22 episodes, with a short hiatus for the airing of the 2018 Winter Olympics between "Past Life '' and "All the Comforts of Home ''. The season is intended to conclude on May 18, 2018.
The fifth season moved to a Friday timeslot, alongside the seventh season of ABC 's Once Upon a Time, with ABC chief Channing Dungey explaining, "We 've turned Friday into more of a destination for our fantasy and science fiction fans. Once Upon a Time and S.H.I.E.L.D. are airing on the same night for the first time, which is giving many fans of both shows what they 've been asking for for a long time. '' Andy Kubitz, executive vice president for program planning and scheduling at ABC, added that ABC had "confidence that (the S.H.I.E.L.D.) core audience... (would) travel with it '' to its new Friday time slot. He continued, "The great thing about Friday night for these shows is it gives three days of downtime for a lot of these younger viewers to be able to catch up on it. You 've got Saturday and Sunday viewing that will be able to be counted into our C3 to help us monetize it. ''
The main cast of the season appeared at New York Comic Con on October 7, 2017, where they promoted the season and debuted the first 20 minutes of the first episode of the season. A shortened version of the footage was released by ABC and Marvel on November 26, 2017, as a sneak peek before the season premiere later that week. The cast and executive producers will appear at WonderCon 2018 on March 24, to promote the rest of the season, and show a sneak peek of an upcoming episode. Marvel released three roundtable discussions in support of the series reaching 100 episodes. Hosted by Patton Oswalt, who has portrayed The Koenigs in the series, the first was released on March 8, 2018 with the women of the series. The second, which release on March 9, featured the full cast, while the third debuted on March 12 with the executive producers. All premiered on Marvel.com while also being available on Marvel and the series ' social media platforms and Marvel 's YouTube channel. The executive producers, main cast members except Gregg, and Ward appeared at WonderCon 2018 to promote the remainder of the season and answer fan questions. A clip from the end of "Rise and Shine '' was also shown.
In December 2017, Marvel announced the "Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: The Road to 100 '' art program to commemorate the series reaching 100 episodes. The program features five posters, one for each season of the series, representing "key pivotal moments of each season ''. The art also appeared as variant covers to select titles published by Marvel Comics in March 2018. Megan Thomas Bradner, Vice President of Development and Production, Live Action at Marvel Television, called reaching 100 episodes "quite a feat... and it felt special enough to share with the fans that got us here. By working with some of our favorite comic artists, we felt we could show a large variety of meaningful moments and the characters that helped get us to a 100. '' She added that the program "commemorates these creators, the actors, the characters and a hundred amazing stories ''.
The first poster, highlighting season one, was created by Dale Keown. It features four panels, showcasing the moment Coulson and Grant Ward approached Skye in her van from the pilot, Coulson learning he survived the Battle of New York from the T.A.H.I.T.I. program and a drug from a half - dissected Kree alien corpse, the moment Grant Ward revealed he was a Hydra agent by killing Victoria Hand, and Fitz giving Simmons the last remaining oxygen tank and declaring his love for her in the season one finale. The second poster, highlighting season two, was created by Daniel Acuña. The scenes depicted are Coulson writing the Inhuman map on a wall; Daisy coming out of her Terrigenesis; the S.H.I.E.L.D. team, Bobbi Morse, Lance Hunter, and the "real S.H.I.E.L.D. '' logo; and May cradling the deceased body of Katya Belyakov. The third poster, highlighting season three, was created by Nick Bradshaw. The poster shows the S.H.I.E.L.D. team and Hive, along with the Hydra logo breaking the S.H.I.E.L.D. logo and its tentacles covering much of the poster. Specific moments highlighted include Fitz and Simmons after she has been pulled from the portal to Maveth, Coulson killing Ward on Maveth, and the formation of the Secret Warriors. The fourth poster, highlighting season four, was created by Rahzzah. It highlighted the introduction of Ghost Rider, Life Model Decoys (LMD) and the Framework reality, Jeffrey Mace sacrificing himself in the Framework, and Coulson 's kiss with the May LMD. The fifth and final poster, highlighting this season, was created by Stonehouse. Flanked on either side are Kasius and Sinara, with the S.H.I.E.L.D. team and Deke in the center in front of the destroyed Earth of the future as well as Fitz reuniting with Simmons.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 100 % approval rating, with an average rating of 7.71 out of 10, based on 11 reviews.
Reviewing the premiere episodes, Merrill Barr of Forbes felt moving the series to space was not a reboot of the series, rather "a continuation, in some form, of the story set - up at the end of last season. The show is not different. The team is still trying to save the world. They 're just doing it in a new place and new way. Overall, there 's a lot to love about what S.H.I.E.L.D. is doing in the new season. It 's a crazy ride fans are going to be glad they 've stayed aboard for. The "Agents of Hydra '' run (at the end of season four) was a bit weak. The space run is so far proving to be anything but. '' Jon Negroni of We Got This Covered praised the show for its delightful twists and turns and for not relying on what 's already worked, adding that "it 's a testament to the show 's ongoing experimentation that we can watch these characters get to space and believe that this is far from their final frontier. '' He felt, however, that there was "little room for pathos and seeds for character development '' and that "we know almost nothing about where these individuals are at emotionally because of how fast we blazed through the finale. '' Alex McLevy of The A.V. Club praised the move to space, saying that "if season four was Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. firing on all cylinders, especially during its stellar ' Agents of Hydra ' arc in the Framework, then this is the look of a show that knows it has mastered its storytelling, and is confidently expanding the scope of its ambition. ''
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cloud-computing providers offer their services as in aws | Cloud computing - wikipedia
Cloud computing is an information technology (IT) paradigm that enables ubiquitous access to shared pools of configurable system resources and higher - level services that can be rapidly provisioned with minimal management effort, often over the Internet. Cloud computing relies on sharing of resources to achieve coherence and economies of scale, similar to a public utility.
Third - party clouds enable organizations to focus on their core businesses instead of expending resources on computer infrastructure and maintenance. Advocates note that cloud computing allows companies to avoid or minimize up - front IT infrastructure costs. Proponents also claim that cloud computing allows enterprises to get their applications up and running faster, with improved manageability and less maintenance, and that it enables IT teams to more rapidly adjust resources to meet fluctuating and unpredictable demand. Cloud providers typically use a "pay - as - you - go '' model, which can lead to unexpected operating expenses if administrators are not familiarized with cloud - pricing models.
Since the launch of Amazon EC2 in 2006, the availability of high - capacity networks, low - cost computers and storage devices as well as the widespread adoption of hardware virtualization, service - oriented architecture, and autonomic and utility computing has led to growth in cloud computing.
While the term "cloud computing '' was popularized with Amazon.com releasing its Elastic Compute Cloud product in 2006, references to the phrase "cloud computing '' appeared as early as 1996, with the first known mention in a Compaq internal document.
The cloud symbol was used to represent networks of computing equipment in the original ARPANET by as early as 1977, and the CSNET by 1981 -- both predecessors to the Internet itself. The word cloud was used as a metaphor for the Internet and a standardized cloud - like shape was used to denote a network on telephony schematics. With this simplification, the implication is that the specifics of how the end points of a network are connected are not relevant for the purposes of understanding the diagram.
The term cloud was used to refer to platforms for distributed computing as early as 1993, when Apple spin - off General Magic and AT&T used it in describing their (paired) Telescript and PersonaLink technologies. In Wired 's April 1994 feature "Bill and Andy 's Excellent Adventure II '', Andy Hertzfeld commented on Telescript, General Magic 's distributed programming language:
"The beauty of Telescript... is that now, instead of just having a device to program, we now have the entire Cloud out there, where a single program can go and travel to many different sources of information and create sort of a virtual service. No one had conceived that before. The example Jim White (the designer of Telescript, X. 400 and ASN. 1) uses now is a date - arranging service where a software agent goes to the flower store and orders flowers and then goes to the ticket shop and gets the tickets for the show, and everything is communicated to both parties. ''
During the 1960s, the initial concepts of time - sharing became popularized via RJE (Remote Job Entry); this terminology was mostly associated with large vendors such as IBM and DEC. Full - time - sharing solutions were available by the early 1970s on such platforms as Multics (on GE hardware), Cambridge CTSS, and the earliest UNIX ports (on DEC hardware). Yet, the "data center '' model where users submitted jobs to operators to run on IBM mainframes was overwhelmingly predominant.
In the 1990s, telecommunications companies, who previously offered primarily dedicated point - to - point data circuits, began offering virtual private network (VPN) services with comparable quality of service, but at a lower cost. By switching traffic as they saw fit to balance server use, they could use overall network bandwidth more effectively. They began to use the cloud symbol to denote the demarcation point between what the provider was responsible for and what users were responsible for. Cloud computing extended this boundary to cover all servers as well as the network infrastructure. As computers became more diffused, scientists and technologists explored ways to make large - scale computing power available to more users through time - sharing. They experimented with algorithms to optimize the infrastructure, platform, and applications to prioritize CPUs and increase efficiency for end users.
Since 2000, cloud computing has come into existence.
In August 2006, Amazon created subsidiary Amazon Web Services and introduced its Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2).
In April 2008, Google released Google App Engine in beta.
In early 2008, NASA 's OpenNebula, enhanced in the RESERVOIR European Commission - funded project, became the first open - source software for deploying private and hybrid clouds, and for the federation of clouds.
By mid-2008, Gartner saw an opportunity for cloud computing "to shape the relationship among consumers of IT services, those who use IT services and those who sell them '' and observed that "organizations are switching from company - owned hardware and software assets to per - use service - based models '' so that the "projected shift to computing... will result in dramatic growth in IT products in some areas and significant reductions in other areas. ''
In February 2010, Microsoft released Microsoft Azure, which was announced in October 2008.
In July 2010, Rackspace Hosting and NASA jointly launched an open - source cloud - software initiative known as OpenStack. The OpenStack project intended to help organizations offering cloud - computing services running on standard hardware. The early code came from NASA 's Nebula platform as well as from Rackspace 's Cloud Files platform. As an open source offering and along with other open - source solutions such as CloudStack, Ganeti and OpenNebula, it has attracted attention by several key communities. Several studies aim at comparing these open sources offerings based on a set of criteria.
On March 1, 2011, IBM announced the IBM SmartCloud framework to support Smarter Planet. Among the various components of the Smarter Computing foundation, cloud computing is a critical part. On June 7, 2012, Oracle announced the Oracle Cloud. This cloud offering is poised to be the first to provide users with access to an integrated set of IT solutions, including the Applications (SaaS), Platform (PaaS), and Infrastructure (IaaS) layers.
In May 2012, Google Compute Engine was released in preview, before being rolled out into General Availability in December 2013.
The goal of cloud computing is to allow users to take benefit from all of these technologies, without the need for deep knowledge about or expertise with each one of them. The cloud aims to cut costs, and helps the users focus on their core business instead of being impeded by IT obstacles. The main enabling technology for cloud computing is virtualization. Virtualization software separates a physical computing device into one or more "virtual '' devices, each of which can be easily used and managed to perform computing tasks. With operating system -- level virtualization essentially creating a scalable system of multiple independent computing devices, idle computing resources can be allocated and used more efficiently. Virtualization provides the agility required to speed up IT operations, and reduces cost by increasing infrastructure utilization. Autonomic computing automates the process through which the user can provision resources on - demand. By minimizing user involvement, automation speeds up the process, reduces labor costs and reduces the possibility of human errors.
Users routinely face difficult business problems. Cloud computing adopts concepts from Service - oriented Architecture (SOA) that can help the user break these problems into services that can be integrated to provide a solution. Cloud computing provides all of its resources as services, and makes use of the well - established standards and best practices gained in the domain of SOA to allow global and easy access to cloud services in a standardized way.
Cloud computing also leverages concepts from utility computing to provide metrics for the services used. Such metrics are at the core of the public cloud pay - per - use models. In addition, measured services are an essential part of the feedback loop in autonomic computing, allowing services to scale on - demand and to perform automatic failure recovery. Cloud computing is a kind of grid computing; it has evolved by addressing the QoS (quality of service) and reliability problems. Cloud computing provides the tools and technologies to build data / compute intensive parallel applications with much more affordable prices compared to traditional parallel computing techniques.
Cloud computing shares characteristics with:
Cloud computing exhibits the following key characteristics:
The National Institute of Standards and Technology 's definition of cloud computing identifies "five essential characteristics '':
On - demand self - service. A consumer can unilaterally provision computing capabilities, such as server time and network storage, as needed automatically without requiring human interaction with each service provider.
Broad network access. Capabilities are available over the network and accessed through standard mechanisms that promote use by heterogeneous thin or thick client platforms (e.g., mobile phones, tablets, laptops, and workstations).
Resource pooling. The provider 's computing resources are pooled to serve multiple consumers using a multi-tenant model, with different physical and virtual resources dynamically assigned and reassigned according to consumer demand.
Rapid elasticity. Capabilities can be elastically provisioned and released, in some cases automatically, to scale rapidly outward and inward commensurate with demand. To the consumer, the capabilities available for provisioning often appear unlimited and can be appropriated in any quantity at any time.
Though service - oriented architecture advocates "everything as a service '' (with the acronyms EaaS or XaaS, or simply aas), cloud - computing providers offer their "services '' according to different models, of which the three standard models per NIST are Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS). These models offer increasing abstraction; they are thus often portrayed as a layers in a stack: infrastructure -, platform - and software - as - a-service, but these need not be related. For example, one can provide SaaS implemented on physical machines (bare metal), without using underlying PaaS or IaaS layers, and conversely one can run a program on IaaS and access it directly, without wrapping it as SaaS.
"Infrastructure as a service '' (IaaS) refers to online services that provide high - level APIs used to dereference various low - level details of underlying network infrastructure like physical computing resources, location, data partitioning, scaling, security, backup etc. A hypervisor, such as Xen, Oracle VirtualBox, Oracle VM, KVM, VMware ESX / ESXi, or Hyper - V, LXD, runs the virtual machines as guests. Pools of hypervisors within the cloud operational system can support large numbers of virtual machines and the ability to scale services up and down according to customers ' varying requirements. Linux containers run in isolated partitions of a single Linux kernel running directly on the physical hardware. Linux cgroups and namespaces are the underlying Linux kernel technologies used to isolate, secure and manage the containers. Containerisation offers higher performance than virtualization, because there is no hypervisor overhead. Also, container capacity auto - scales dynamically with computing load, which eliminates the problem of over-provisioning and enables usage - based billing. IaaS clouds often offer additional resources such as a virtual - machine disk - image library, raw block storage, file or object storage, firewalls, load balancers, IP addresses, virtual local area networks (VLANs), and software bundles.
The NIST 's definition of cloud computing describes IaaS as "where the consumer is able to deploy and run arbitrary software, which can include operating systems and applications. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure but has control over operating systems, storage, and deployed applications; and possibly limited control of select networking components (e.g., host firewalls). ''
IaaS - cloud providers supply these resources on - demand from their large pools of equipment installed in data centers. For wide - area connectivity, customers can use either the Internet or carrier clouds (dedicated virtual private networks). To deploy their applications, cloud users install operating - system images and their application software on the cloud infrastructure. In this model, the cloud user patches and maintains the operating systems and the application software. Cloud providers typically bill IaaS services on a utility computing basis: cost reflects the amount of resources allocated and consumed.
The NIST 's definition of cloud computing defines Platform as a Service as:
The capability provided to the consumer is to deploy onto the cloud infrastructure consumer - created or acquired applications created using programming languages, libraries, services, and tools supported by the provider. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, or storage, but has control over the deployed applications and possibly configuration settings for the application - hosting environment.
PaaS vendors offer a development environment to application developers. The provider typically develops toolkit and standards for development and channels for distribution and payment. In the PaaS models, cloud providers deliver a computing platform, typically including operating system, programming - language execution environment, database, and web server. Application developers can develop and run their software solutions on a cloud platform without the cost and complexity of buying and managing the underlying hardware and software layers. With some PaaS offers like Microsoft Azure, Oracle Cloud Platform and Google App Engine, the underlying computer and storage resources scale automatically to match application demand so that the cloud user does not have to allocate resources manually. The latter has also been proposed by an architecture aiming to facilitate real - time in cloud environments. Even more specific application types can be provided via PaaS, such as media encoding as provided by services like bitcodin.com or media.io.
Some integration and data management providers have also embraced specialized applications of PaaS as delivery models for data solutions. Examples include iPaaS (Integration Platform as a Service) and dPaaS (Data Platform as a Service). iPaaS enables customers to develop, execute and govern integration flows. Under the iPaaS integration model, customers drive the development and deployment of integrations without installing or managing any hardware or middleware. dPaaS delivers integration -- and data - management -- products as a fully managed service. Under the dPaaS model, the PaaS provider, not the customer, manages the development and execution of data solutions by building tailored data applications for the customer. dPaaS users retain transparency and control over data through data - visualization tools. Platform as a Service (PaaS) consumers do not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, or storage, but have control over the deployed applications and possibly configuration settings for the application - hosting environment.
A recent specialized PaaS is the Blockchain as a Service (BaaS), that some vendors such as IBM Bluemix and Oracle Cloud Platform have already included in their PaaS offering.
The NIST 's definition of cloud computing defines Software as a Service as:
The capability provided to the consumer is to use the provider 's applications running on a cloud infrastructure. The applications are accessible from various client devices through either a thin client interface, such as a web browser (e.g., web - based email), or a program interface. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, storage, or even individual application capabilities, with the possible exception of limited user - specific application configuration settings.
In the software as a service (SaaS) model, users gain access to application software and databases. Cloud providers manage the infrastructure and platforms that run the applications. SaaS is sometimes referred to as "on - demand software '' and is usually priced on a pay - per - use basis or using a subscription fee. In the SaaS model, cloud providers install and operate application software in the cloud and cloud users access the software from cloud clients. Cloud users do not manage the cloud infrastructure and platform where the application runs. This eliminates the need to install and run the application on the cloud user 's own computers, which simplifies maintenance and support. Cloud applications differ from other applications in their scalability -- which can be achieved by cloning tasks onto multiple virtual machines at run - time to meet changing work demand. Load balancers distribute the work over the set of virtual machines. This process is transparent to the cloud user, who sees only a single access - point. To accommodate a large number of cloud users, cloud applications can be multitenant, meaning that any machine may serve more than one cloud - user organization.
The pricing model for SaaS applications is typically a monthly or yearly flat fee per user, so prices become scalable and adjustable if users are added or removed at any point. Proponents claim that SaaS gives a business the potential to reduce IT operational costs by outsourcing hardware and software maintenance and support to the cloud provider. This enables the business to reallocate IT operations costs away from hardware / software spending and from personnel expenses, towards meeting other goals. In addition, with applications hosted centrally, updates can be released without the need for users to install new software. One drawback of SaaS comes with storing the users ' data on the cloud provider 's server. As a result, there could be unauthorized access to the data.
In the mobile "backend '' as a service (m) model, also known as backend as a service (BaaS), web app and mobile app developers are provided with a way to link their applications to cloud storage and cloud computing services with application programming interfaces (APIs) exposed to their applications and custom software development kits (SDKs). Services include user management, push notifications, integration with social networking services and more. This is a relatively recent model in cloud computing, with most BaaS startups dating from 2011 or later but trends indicate that these services are gaining significant mainstream traction with enterprise consumers.
Serverless computing is a cloud computing code execution model in which the cloud provider fully manages starting and stopping virtual machines as necessary to serve requests, and requests are billed by an abstract measure of the resources required to satisfy the request, rather than per virtual machine, per hour. Despite the name, it does not actually involve running code without servers. Serverless computing is so named because the business or person that owns the system does not have to purchase, rent or provision servers or virtual machines for the back - end code to run on.
Function as a service (FaaS) is a service - hosted remote procedure call that leverages serverless computing to enable the deployment of individual functions in the cloud that run in response to events. FaaS is included under the broader term serverless computing, but the terms may also be used interchangeably.
Private cloud is cloud infrastructure operated solely for a single organization, whether managed internally or by a third - party, and hosted either internally or externally. Undertaking a private cloud project requires significant engagement to virtualize the business environment, and requires the organization to reevaluate decisions about existing resources. It can improve business, but every step in the project raises security issues that must be addressed to prevent serious vulnerabilities. Self - run data centers are generally capital intensive. They have a significant physical footprint, requiring allocations of space, hardware, and environmental controls. These assets have to be refreshed periodically, resulting in additional capital expenditures. They have attracted criticism because users "still have to buy, build, and manage them '' and thus do not benefit from less hands - on management, essentially "(lacking) the economic model that makes cloud computing such an intriguing concept ''.
A cloud is called a "public cloud '' when the services are rendered over a network that is open for public use. Public cloud services may be free. Technically there may be little or no difference between public and private cloud architecture, however, security consideration may be substantially different for services (applications, storage, and other resources) that are made available by a service provider for a public audience and when communication is effected over a non-trusted network. Generally, public cloud service providers like Amazon Web Services (AWS), Oracle, Microsoft and Google own and operate the infrastructure at their data center and access is generally via the Internet. AWS, Oracle, Microsoft, and Google also offer direct connect services called "AWS Direct Connect '', "Oracle FastConnect '', "Azure ExpressRoute '', and "Cloud Interconnect '' respectively, such connections require customers to purchase or lease a private connection to a peering point offered by the cloud provider.
Hybrid cloud is a composition of two or more clouds (private, community or public) that remain distinct entities but are bound together, offering the benefits of multiple deployment models. Hybrid cloud can also mean the ability to connect collocation, managed and / or dedicated services with cloud resources. Gartner defines a hybrid cloud service as a cloud computing service that is composed of some combination of private, public and community cloud services, from different service providers. A hybrid cloud service crosses isolation and provider boundaries so that it ca n't be simply put in one category of private, public, or community cloud service. It allows one to extend either the capacity or the capability of a cloud service, by aggregation, integration or customization with another cloud service.
Varied use cases for hybrid cloud composition exist. For example, an organization may store sensitive client data in house on a private cloud application, but interconnect that application to a business intelligence application provided on a public cloud as a software service. This example of hybrid cloud extends the capabilities of the enterprise to deliver a specific business service through the addition of externally available public cloud services. Hybrid cloud adoption depends on a number of factors such as data security and compliance requirements, level of control needed over data, and the applications an organization uses.
Another example of hybrid cloud is one where IT organizations use public cloud computing resources to meet temporary capacity needs that can not be met by the private cloud. This capability enables hybrid clouds to employ cloud bursting for scaling across clouds. Cloud bursting is an application deployment model in which an application runs in a private cloud or data center and "bursts '' to a public cloud when the demand for computing capacity increases. A primary advantage of cloud bursting and a hybrid cloud model is that an organization pays for extra compute resources only when they are needed. Cloud bursting enables data centers to create an in - house IT infrastructure that supports average workloads, and use cloud resources from public or private clouds, during spikes in processing demands. The specialized model of hybrid cloud, which is built atop heterogeneous hardware, is called "Cross-platform Hybrid Cloud ''. A cross-platform hybrid cloud is usually powered by different CPU architectures, for example, x86 - 64 and ARM, underneath. Users can transparently deploy and scale applications without knowledge of the cloud 's hardware diversity. This kind of cloud emerges from the raise of ARM - based system - on - chip for server - class computing.
Community cloud shares infrastructure between several organizations from a specific community with common concerns (security, compliance, jurisdiction, etc.), whether managed internally or by a third - party, and either hosted internally or externally. The costs are spread over fewer users than a public cloud (but more than a private cloud), so only some of the cost savings potential of cloud computing are realized.
A cloud computing platform can be assembled from a distributed set of machines in different locations, connected to a single network or hub service. It is possible to distinguish between two types of distributed clouds: public - resource computing and volunteer cloud.
Multicloud is the use of multiple cloud computing services in a single heterogeneous architecture to reduce reliance on single vendors, increase flexibility through choice, mitigate against disasters, etc. It differs from hybrid cloud in that it refers to multiple cloud services, rather than multiple deployment modes (public, private, legacy).
The issues of transferring large amounts of data to the cloud as well as data security once the data is in the cloud initially hampered adoption of cloud for big data, but now that much data originates in the cloud and with the advent of bare - metal servers, the cloud has become a solution for use cases including business analytics and geospatial analysis.
HPC cloud refers to the use of cloud computing services and infrastructure to execute high - performance computing (HPC) applications. These applications consume considerable amount of computing power and memory and are traditionally executed on clusters of computers. Various vendors offer servers that can support the execution of these applications. In HPC cloud, the deployment model allows all HPC resources to be inside the cloud provider infrastructure or different portions of HPC resources to be shared between cloud provider and client on - premise infrastructure. The adoption of cloud to run HPC applications started mostly for applications composed of independent tasks with no inter-process communication. As cloud providers began to offer high - speed network technologies such as InfiniBand, multiprocessing tightly coupled applications started to benefit from cloud as well.
Cloud architecture, the systems architecture of the software systems involved in the delivery of cloud computing, typically involves multiple cloud components communicating with each other over a loose coupling mechanism such as a messaging queue. Elastic provision implies intelligence in the use of tight or loose coupling as applied to mechanisms such as these and others.
Cloud engineering is the application of engineering disciplines to cloud computing. It brings a systematic approach to the high - level concerns of commercialization, standardization, and governance in conceiving, developing, operating and maintaining cloud computing systems. It is a multidisciplinary method encompassing contributions from diverse areas such as systems, software, web, performance, information, security, platform, risk, and quality engineering.
Cloud computing poses privacy concerns because the service provider can access the data that is in the cloud at any time. It could accidentally or deliberately alter or even delete information. Many cloud providers can share information with third parties if necessary for purposes of law and order even without a warrant. That is permitted in their privacy policies, which users must agree to before they start using cloud services. Solutions to privacy include policy and legislation as well as end users ' choices for how data is stored. Users can encrypt data that is processed or stored within the cloud to prevent unauthorized access.
According to the Cloud Security Alliance, the top three threats in the cloud are Insecure Interfaces and API 's, Data Loss & Leakage, and Hardware Failure -- which accounted for 29 %, 25 % and 10 % of all cloud security outages respectively. Together, these form shared technology vulnerabilities. In a cloud provider platform being shared by different users there may be a possibility that information belonging to different customers resides on same data server. Additionally, Eugene Schultz, chief technology officer at Emagined Security, said that hackers are spending substantial time and effort looking for ways to penetrate the cloud. "There are some real Achilles ' heels in the cloud infrastructure that are making big holes for the bad guys to get into ''. Because data from hundreds or thousands of companies can be stored on large cloud servers, hackers can theoretically gain control of huge stores of information through a single attack -- a process he called "hyperjacking ''. Some examples of this include the Dropbox security breach, and iCloud 2014 leak. Dropbox had been breached in October 2014, having over 7 million of its users passwords stolen by hackers in an effort to get monetary value from it by Bitcoins (BTC). By having these passwords, they are able to read private data as well as have this data be indexed by search engines (making the information public).
There is the problem of legal ownership of the data (If a user stores some data in the cloud, can the cloud provider profit from it?). Many Terms of Service agreements are silent on the question of ownership. Physical control of the computer equipment (private cloud) is more secure than having the equipment off site and under someone else 's control (public cloud). This delivers great incentive to public cloud computing service providers to prioritize building and maintaining strong management of secure services. Some small businesses that do n't have expertise in IT security could find that it 's more secure for them to use a public cloud. There is the risk that end users do not understand the issues involved when signing on to a cloud service (persons sometimes do n't read the many pages of the terms of service agreement, and just click "Accept '' without reading). This is important now that cloud computing is becoming popular and required for some services to work, for example for an intelligent personal assistant (Apple 's Siri or Google Now). Fundamentally, private cloud is seen as more secure with higher levels of control for the owner, however public cloud is seen to be more flexible and requires less time and money investment from the user.
According to Bruce Schneier, "The downside is that you will have limited customization options. Cloud computing is cheaper because of economics of scale, and -- like any outsourced task -- you tend to get what you get. A restaurant with a limited menu is cheaper than a personal chef who can cook anything you want. Fewer options at a much cheaper price: it 's a feature, not a bug. '' He also suggests that "the cloud provider might not meet your legal needs '' and that businesses need to weigh the benefits of cloud computing against the risks. In cloud computing, the control of the back end infrastructure is limited to the cloud vendor only. Cloud providers often decide on the management policies, which moderates what the cloud users are able to do with their deployment. Cloud users are also limited to the control and management of their applications, data and services. This includes data caps, which are placed on cloud users by the cloud vendor allocating certain amount of bandwidth for each customer and are often shared among other cloud users.
Privacy and confidentiality are big concerns in some activities. For instance, sworn translators working under the stipulations of an NDA, might face problems regarding sensitive data that are not encrypted.
Cloud computing is beneficial to many enterprises; it lowers costs and allows them to focus on competence instead of on matters of IT and infrastructure. Nevertheless, cloud computing has proven to have some limitations and disadvantages, especially for smaller business operations, particularly regarding security and downtime. Technical outages are inevitable and occur sometimes when cloud service providers become overwhelmed in the process of serving their clients. This may result to temporary business suspension. Since this technology 's systems rely on the internet, an individual can not be able to access their applications, server or data from the cloud during an outage.
Cloud computing is still a subject of research. A driving factor in the evolution of cloud computing has been chief technology officers seeking to minimize risk of internal outages and mitigate the complexity of housing network and computing hardware in - house. Major cloud technology companies invest billions of dollars per year in cloud Research and Development. For example, in 2011 Microsoft committed 90 percent of its $9.6 billion R&D budget to its cloud. Research by investment bank Centaur Partners in late 2015 forecasted that SaaS revenue would grow from $13.5 billion in 2011 to $32.8 billion in 2016.
The issue of carrying out investigations where the cloud storage devices can not be physically accessed has generated a number of changes to the way that digital evidence is located and collected. New process models have been developed to formalize collection.
In some scenarios existing digital forensics tools can be employed to access cloud storage as networked drives (although this is a slow process generating a large amount of internet traffic).
An alternative approach is to deploy a tool that processes in the cloud itself
For organizations using Office 365 with an ' E5 ' subscription there is the option to use Microsoft 's built - in ediscovery resources, although these do not provide all the functionality that is typically required for a forensic process.
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where does the sun set in the evening | Sunset - wikipedia
Sunset or sundown is the daily disappearance of the Sun below the horizon as a result of Earth 's rotation. The Sun will set exactly due west at the equator on the spring and fall equinoxes, each of which occurs only once a year.
The time of sunset is defined in astronomy as the moment when the trailing edge of the Sun 's disk disappears below the horizon. Near to the horizon, atmospheric refraction causes the ray path of light from the Sun to be distorted to such an extent that geometrically the Sun 's disk is already about one diameter below the horizon when a sunset is observed.
Sunset is distinct from twilight, which has three phases, the first being civil twilight, which begins once the Sun has disappeared below the horizon, and continues until it descends to 6 degrees below the horizon; the second phase is nautical twilight, between 6 and 12 degrees below the horizon; and the third is astronomical twilight, which is the period when the Sun is between 12 and 18 degrees below the horizon. Dusk is at the very end of astronomical twilight, and is the darkest moment of twilight just before night. Night occurs when the Sun reaches 18 degrees below the horizon and no longer illuminates the sky.
Locations north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle experience no sunset or sunrise on at least one day of the year, when the polar day or the polar night persists continuously for 24 hours.
Sunset creates unique atmospheric conditions such as the often intense orange and red colors of the Sun and the surrounding sky.
The time of sunset varies throughout the year, and is determined by the viewer 's position on Earth, specified by longitude and latitude, and elevation. Small daily changes and noticeable semi-annual changes in the timing of sunsets are driven by the axial tilt of Earth, daily rotation of the Earth, the planet 's movement in its annual elliptical orbit around the Sun, and the Earth and Moon 's paired revolutions around each other. During winter and spring, the days get longer and sunsets occur later every day until the day of the latest sunset, which occurs after the summer solstice. In the Northern Hemisphere, the latest sunset occurs late in June or in early July, but not on the summer solstice of June 21. This date depends on the viewer 's latitude (connected with the Earth 's slower movement around the aphelion around July 4). Likewise, the earliest sunset does not occur on the winter solstice, but rather about two weeks earlier, again depending on the viewer 's latitude. In the Northern Hemisphere, it occurs in early December or late November (influenced by the Earth 's faster movement near its perihelion, which occurs around January 3).
Likewise, the same phenomenon exists in the Southern Hemisphere, but with the respective dates reversed, with the earliest sunsets occurring some time before June 21 in winter, and latest sunsets occurring some time after December 21 in summer, again depending on one 's southern latitude. For a few weeks surrounding both solstices, both sunrise and sunset get slightly later each day. Even on the equator, sunrise and sunset shift several minutes back and forth through the year, along with solar noon. These effects are plotted by an analemma.
Neglecting atmospheric refraction and the Sun 's non-zero size, whenever and wherever sunset occurs, it is always in the northwest quadrant from the March equinox to the September equinox, and in the southwest quadrant from the September equinox to the March equinox. Sunsets occur almost exactly due west on the equinoxes for all viewers on Earth. Exact calculations of the azimuths of sunset on other dates are complex, but they can be estimated with reasonable accuracy by using the analemma.
As sunrise and sunset are calculated from the leading and trailing edges of the Sun, respectively, and not the center, the duration of a daytime is slightly longer than nighttime (by about 10 minutes, as seen from temperate latitudes). Further, because the light from the Sun is refracted as it passes through the Earth 's atmosphere, the Sun is still visible after it is geometrically below the horizon. Refraction also affects the apparent shape of the Sun when it is very close to the horizon. It makes things appear higher in the sky than they really are. Light from the bottom edge of the Sun 's disk is refracted more than light from the top, since refraction increases as the angle of elevation decreases. This raises the apparent position of the bottom edge more than the top, reducing the apparent height of the solar disk. Its width is unaltered, so the disk appears wider than it is high. (In reality, the Sun is almost exactly spherical.) The Sun also appears larger on the horizon, an optical illusion, similar to the moon illusion.
Locations north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle experience no sunset or sunrise at least one day of the year, when the polar day or the polar night persist continuously for 24 hours.
As a ray of white sunlight travels through the atmosphere to an observer, some of the colors are scattered out of the beam by air molecules and airborne particles, changing the final color of the beam the viewer sees. Because the shorter wavelength components, such as blue and green, scatter more strongly, these colors are preferentially removed from the beam. At sunrise and sunset, when the path through the atmosphere is longer, the blue and green components are removed almost completely, leaving the longer wavelength orange and red hues we see at those times. The remaining reddened sunlight can then be scattered by cloud droplets and other relatively large particles to light up the horizon red and orange. The removal of the shorter wavelengths of light is due to Rayleigh scattering by air molecules and particles much smaller than the wavelength of visible light (less than 50 nm in diameter). The scattering by cloud droplets and other particles with diameters comparable to or larger than the sunlight 's wavelengths (> 600 nm) is due to Mie scattering and is not strongly wavelength - dependent. Mie scattering is responsible for the light scattered by clouds, and also for the daytime halo of white light around the Sun (forward scattering of white light). Sunset colors are typically more brilliant than sunrise colors, because the evening air contains more particles than morning air.
Ash from volcanic eruptions, trapped within the troposphere, tends to mute sunset and sunrise colors, while volcanic ejecta that is instead lofted into the stratosphere (as thin clouds of tiny sulfuric acid droplets), can yield beautiful post-sunset colors called afterglows and pre-sunrise glows. A number of eruptions, including those of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 and Krakatoa in 1883, have produced sufficiently high stratospheric sulfuric acid clouds to yield remarkable sunset afterglows (and pre-sunrise glows) around the world. The high altitude clouds serve to reflect strongly reddened sunlight still striking the stratosphere after sunset, down to the surface. Sometimes just before sunrise or after sunset a green flash can be seen.
Some of the most varied colors at sunset can be found in the opposite or eastern sky after the Sun has set during twilight. Depending on weather conditions and the types of clouds present, these colors have a wide spectrum, and can produce unusual results.
In some languages, points of the compass bear names etymologically derived from words for sunrise and sunset. The English words "orient '' and "occident '', meaning "east '' and "west '', respectively, are descended from Latin words meaning "sunrise '' and "sunset ''. The word "levant '', related e.g. to French "(se) lever '' meaning "lift '' or "rise '' (and also to English "elevate ''), is also used to describe the east. In Polish, the word for east wschód (vskhud), is derived from the morpheme "ws '' -- meaning "up '', and "chód '' -- signifying "move '' (from the verb chodzić -- meaning "walk, move ''), due to the act of the Sun coming up from behind the horizon. The Polish word for west, zachód (zakhud), is similar but with the word "za '' at the start, meaning "behind '', from the act of the Sun going behind the horizon. In Russian, the word for west, запад (zapad), is derived from the words за -- meaning "behind '', and пад -- signifying "fall '' (from the verb падать -- padat '), due to the act of the Sun falling behind the horizon. In Hebrew, the word for east is ' מזרח ', which derives from the word for rising, and the word for west is ' מערב ', which derives from the word for setting.
The 16th - century astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus was the first to present to the world a detailed and eventually widely accepted mathematical model supporting the premise that the Earth is moving and the Sun actually stays still, despite the impression from our point of view of a moving Sun.
Sunsets on other planets appear different because of differences in the distance of the planet from the Sun and non-existent or differing atmospheric compositions.
On Mars, the setting Sun appears about two - thirds the size it appears on Earth because of its greater distance from the Sun, but at least some Martian sunsets last significantly longer and appear far redder than is typical on Earth.
The reasons for the colors of the Martian sunset are different to the processes occurring on Earth. Mars has a thin atmosphere, lacking oxygen and nitrogen, so the light scattering is not dominated by a Rayleigh Scattering process. Instead the air is full of red dust which is hoisted into the atmosphere from the ground by high speed winds so its sky color is mainly determined by a Mie Scattering process. One study also reported that Martian dust high up in the atmosphere can reflect sunlight up to two hours after the sun has set, casting a diffuse glow across the land.
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who played brian in fast n furious 7 | Furious 7 - wikipedia
Furious 7 (alternatively known as Fast & Furious 7 and Fast 7) is a 2015 American action film directed by James Wan and written by Chris Morgan. It is the seventh installment in The Fast and the Furious franchise. The film stars Vin Diesel, Paul Walker, Dwayne Johnson, Michelle Rodriguez, Tyrese Gibson, Chris "Ludacris '' Bridges, Jordana Brewster, Djimon Hounsou, Kurt Russell, and Jason Statham. Furious 7 follows Dominic Toretto (Diesel), Brian O'Conner (Walker), and the rest of their team, who have returned to the United States to live normal lives after securing amnesty for their past crimes in Fast & Furious 6 (2013), until Deckard Shaw (Statham), a rogue special forces assassin seeking to avenge his comatose younger brother, puts the team in danger once again.
With the previous three installments set between 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003) and The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (2006), Furious 7 is the first installment in the franchise to take place after Tokyo Drift. The film also marks the final film appearance of Walker, who died in a single - vehicle crash on November 30, 2013 with filming only half - completed. Following Walker 's death, filming was delayed for script rewrites, and his brothers, Caleb and Cody, were used as stand - ins to complete his remaining scenes. These script rewrites completed the story arcs for both Walker and Brewster 's characters (Brian O'Conner and Mia Toretto, respectively), causing both to be retired. As a result, it is also the final installment in the franchise to star Brewster.
Plans for a seventh installment were first announced in February 2012 when Johnson stated that production on the film would begin after the completion of Fast & Furious 6. In April 2013, Wan, predominantly known for horror films, was announced to direct the film in place of Justin Lin, who left the franchise after directing the previous four installments. Casting began in the same month with the re-signing of Diesel and Walker, and an initial release date was set. Principal photography began in Atlanta, Georgia, in September 2013, resumed in April 2014 and ended in July 2014, with other filming locations including Los Angeles, Colorado, Abu Dhabi, and Tokyo.
Furious 7 premiered in Los Angeles on April 1, 2015, and was theatrically released in the United States on April 3, 2015, playing in 3D, IMAX 3D, and 4DX internationally. Upon release, the film became a critical and commercial success, with praise being aimed at the film 's action sequences and its tribute to Walker. The film grossed $397.6 million worldwide during its opening weekend, which is the sixth highest - grossing opening of all time. The film has grossed over $1.5 billion worldwide -- more than the franchise 's first five installments combined -- making it the highest - grossing film of the franchise after just twelve days, the third highest - grossing film of 2015 and the sixth highest - grossing film of all time. A sequel, The Fate of the Furious, was released on April 14, 2017.
After defeating Owen Shaw and his crew and securing amnesty for their past crimes, Dominic "Dom '' Toretto, Brian O'Conner and the rest of their team have returned to the United States to live normal lives again. Brian begins to accustom himself to life as a father, while Dom tries to help Letty Ortiz regain her memory. Meanwhile, Owen 's older brother, Deckard Shaw, breaks into the secure hospital that the comatose Owen is being held in and swears vengeance against Dom and his team, before breaking into Luke Hobbs ' Diplomatic Security Service (DSS) office to extract profiles of Dom 's crew. After revealing his identity, Shaw engages Hobbs in a fight, and escapes when he detonates a bomb that severely injures Hobbs. Dom later learns from his sister Mia that she is pregnant again and convinces her to tell Brian. However, a bomb, disguised in a package sent from Tokyo, explodes and destroys the Toretto house just seconds after Han, a member of Dom 's team, is killed by Shaw in Tokyo. Dom later visits Hobbs in a hospital, where he learns that Shaw is a rogue special forces assassin seeking to avenge his brother. Dom then travels to Tokyo to claim Han 's body, and meets and races Sean Boswell, a friend of Han 's who gives him personal items found at Han 's crash site.
Back at Han 's funeral in Los Angeles, Dom notices a car observing them, and after a chase, confronts its driver, who is revealed to be Shaw. Both prepare to fight, but Shaw flees when a covert ops team arrives and opens fire, led by Frank Petty, a man who calls himself Mr. Nobody. Petty says that he will assist Dom in stopping Shaw if he helps him obtain God 's Eye, a computer program that uses digital devices to track down a person, and save its creator, a hacker named Ramsey, from a mercenary named Mose Jakande. Dom, Brian, Letty, Roman Pearce, and Tej Parker then airdrop their cars over the Caucasus Mountains in Azerbaijan, ambush Jakande 's convoy, and rescue Ramsey. The team then heads to Abu Dhabi, where a billionaire has acquired the flash drive containing God 's Eye, and manages to steal it from the owner. With God 's Eye near telecommunications repeaters, the team tracks down Shaw, who is waiting at a remote factory. Dom, Brian, Petty and his team attempt to capture Shaw, but are ambushed by Jakande and his men and forced to flee while Jakande obtains God 's Eye. At his own request, the injured Petty is then left behind to be evacuated by helicopter while Brian and Dom continue without him. Left with no other choice, the crew returns to Los Angeles to fight Shaw, Jakande and his men. Meanwhile, Brian promises Mia that once they deal with Shaw, he will retire and fully dedicate himself to their family.
While Jakande pursues Brian and the rest of the team with a stealth helicopter and an aerial drone, Ramsey attempts to hack into God 's Eye. Hobbs, seeing the team in trouble, leaves the hospital and destroys the drone with an ambulance. Ramsey then regains control of God 's Eye and shuts it down. Brian engages Kiet a second time and kills him by making him fall down an elevator shaft. Meanwhile, Dom and Shaw engage in a one - on - one brawl on a parking garage, before Jakande intervenes and attacks them both. Shaw is defeated when part of the parking garage collapses beneath him. Dom then launches his vehicle at Jakande 's helicopter, tossing Shaw 's bag of grenades onto its skids, before injuring himself when his car lands and crashes. Hobbs then shoots the bag of grenades from ground level, destroying the helicopter and killing Jakande. Dom is pulled from the wreckage of his car, believed to be dead. As Letty cradles Dom 's body in her arms, she reveals that she has regained her memories, and that she remembers their wedding. Dom regains consciousness soon after, remarking, "It 's about time ''.
Shaw is taken into custody by Hobbs and locked away in a secret, high - security prison. At a beach, Brian and Mia play with their son while Dom, Letty, Roman, Tej, and Ramsey observe, acknowledging that Brian is better off retired with his family. Dom silently leaves, Ramsey asks if he 's gon na say goodbye. Dom says, "It 's never goodbye. '' He drives away, but Brian catches up with him at a crossroad. As Dom remembers the times that he had with Brian, they bid each other farewell and drive off in separate directions.
On October 21, 2011, the Los Angeles Times reported that Universal Studios was considering filming two sequels -- Fast Six and Fast Seven -- back - to - back with a single storyline running through both films. Both would be written by Chris Morgan and directed by Justin Lin, who had been the franchise 's writer and director, respectively, since The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift (2006). On December 20, 2011, following the release of Fast Five, Vin Diesel stated that Fast Six would be split into two parts, with writing for the two films occurring simultaneously. On the decision, Diesel said:
We have to pay off this story, we have to service all of these character relationships, and when we started mapping all that out it just went beyond 110 pages... The studio said, ' You ca n't fit all that story in one damn movie! '
However, in an interview on February 15, 2012, Dwayne Johnson stated that the two intended sequels would no longer be filmed simultaneously because of weather issues in filming locations, and that production on Fast Seven would only begin after the completion of Fast Six.
In April 2013, during post-production of the retitled Fast & Furious 6, Lin announced that he would not return to direct a seventh film, as the studio wanted to produce the film on an accelerated schedule for release in summer 2014. This would have required Lin to begin pre-production on the sequel while performing post-production on Fast & Furious 6, which he considered would affect the quality of the final product. Despite the usual two - year gap between the previous installments, Universal chose to pursue a sequel quicker due to having fewer reliable franchises than its competitor studios. However, subsequent interviews with Lin have suggested that the sixth film was always intended to be the final installment under his direction.
In April 2013, Australian director James Wan, predominantly known for horror films, was announced as the sequel 's director, with Neal H. Moritz and Michael Fottrell returning to produce and Morgan returning to write the script, his fifth in the franchise. On April 16, 2013, Diesel announced that the sequel would be released on July 11, 2014. In May 2013, Diesel said that the sequel would feature Los Angeles, Tokyo, and the Middle East as locations.
Principal photography began in early September 2013 in Atlanta, Georgia, with a casting call issued. Abu Dhabi was also a filming location; the production crew chose it over Dubai, as they would benefit from the Emirate 's 30 % rebate scheme. Pikes Peak Highway in Colorado was closed in September to film some driving sequences.
On September 16, the production filmed with Paul Walker and the Kimsey twins, playing his son, Jack, in front of an Atlanta elementary school. Han 's funeral scene was filmed at Oakland Cemetery, with extras needed for the scene being "hot, hip and trendy cool types of all ethnicities between the ages of 18 and 45 ''. On the evening of September 19, Lucas Black joined the production for his sole scene with Diesel, in an Atlanta parking garage. Separate scenes with Walker also shot in the same location on the same night, including one half of a phone conversation between his character and Jordana Brewster 's. The day after, Diesel posted a picture from the night shoot with Black on his Facebook page.
On October 24, over a month into the film 's production, Johnson tweeted he had started shooting for the film after wrapping up on Hercules. Five days later, Diesel posted the first photo of Johnson on the set, in the hospital scene.
On November 30, 2013, while on a break for the Thanksgiving holiday, Walker, who portrayed Brian O'Conner, died in a single - vehicle accident. The next day, Universal announced that production would continue after a delay that would allow the filmmakers to rework the film. On December 4, 2013, Universal put production on hold indefinitely. Wan later confirmed that the film had not been cancelled. On December 22, 2013, Diesel announced on his Facebook page that the film would be released on April 10, 2015. On February 27, 2014, The Hollywood Reporter reported that filming would resume on April 1, and that the cast and crew had headed to Atlanta to prepare for about eight more weeks of shooting. Principal photography ended on July 10, 2014.
The "air drop '' sequence was conceived by stunt coordinator, Spiro Razatos, who also supervised on the franchise 's two previous installments; Fast Five and Fast & Furious 6. Razatos told Business Insider that he wanted to rely more on real stunts rather than CGI because he wanted the whole sequence to "feel real '' and fulfill audience 's expectations. The stunt took months of prep - solving problems. Cameras needed to be mounted onto cars in a way that they would not be destroyed when the cars landed, and the crew had to figure out a safe way to get the cars out of the plane. They performed a dry run with a single car falling out of a plane and did this six times. Cars were dropped from a Lockheed C - 130 Hercules high above the Arizona desert, but close up shots that show the cars landing on a mountain road were filmed in Colorado. There were two airplanes, flying at a height of 12,000 feet, each dropping two cars apiece. BRS parachutes enabled with GPS were secured to each of the cars before dropping off the C - 130 plane. At about 5,000 feet, the parachutes deployed. Over 10 cameras were used for the sequence. In addition to cameras on the ground, there were cameras remotely operated inside the plane and another three mounted outside each car. Additional cameras were on a helicopter, where Razatos was stationed watching monitors. Three skydivers used in the shoot wore helmet cameras to help shoot the sequence from multiple angles. Sky divers would either jump out before cars or after them. While all the cars landed on their drop zones, 70 % landed perfectly and 30 % did n't. For the close - up scenes which show the actors inside their cars, a giant gimbal with a 360 - degree range of movement were attached to each of the cars and was filmed against a green screen to reproduce their tumble through the sky. The last part of the scene, which shows the cars hitting the road was shot separately. To get that right, the team set up a pulley system that had cars six to ten feet above the ground. When they were dropped from the cranes, the stuntmen who were sitting in the driver 's seats raced their engines at about 35 to 40 miles per hour and slid to the ground at full speed. Those cranes were then later removed from the film with computers. Razatos admits that the air drop sequence was "all real '' and that it would be "hard to top ''.
The scene featuring Brian jumping off a bus off a cliff was performed by a stuntman and was all done without any computer graphics. The shooting for this particular sequence along with the scene in which Dom and his team are pursuing to rescue Ramsey almost did n't happen due to the absence of tax break in Colorado. The studio originally wanted to shoot the sequence in Georgia which provides tax breaks for film productions, and then they 'd add woods in the background later in post production to which Razatos denied saying, "the audience is going to know (it 's CGI) and are n't going to feel good about it. '' Shooting finally took place in Colorado.
A total of 340 cars were used in the film, and more than 230 cars were destroyed in the making of the film, including several black Mercedes - Benzes, a Ford Crown Victoria, and a Mitsubishi Montero. The film featured the most expensive car destroyed in the franchise so far: a Lykan HyperSport by W Motors, valued at $3.4 million. The mountain - highway chase scene on Colorado 's Monarch Pass proved to be the most damaging sequence with over 40 vehicles being destroyed. Only 10 percent of the action sequences in the film were computer - generated, and even then, much of the CGI was employed simply to erase the wires and other contraptions that were used to film real cars and drivers or to add a background. It took more than 3,500 man - days to complete the various stunts of the film. For safety reasons, stunt coordinator, Joel Kramer said that he does n't let his drivers go above 50 miles per hour.
In January 2014, Time reported that Walker 's character, Brian O'Conner, would be retired instead of killed, and that new scenes would be developed in order to allow the franchise to continue without him. To recreate Walker 's likeness, the filmmakers hired Peter Jackson 's Weta Digital visual effects house (which had previously produced the imagery of Gollum in The Lord of the Rings franchise and Caesar in Dawn of the Planet of the Apes). Initially, what Weta could do was severely constrained by the quality of the reference materials available for Walker 's physical appearance. In April 2014, it was reported that Walker 's brothers Caleb and Cody had been hired as stand - ins. Their cooperation, along with their strong resemblance to their late brother, enabled the filmmakers to use Walker 's likeness throughout the finished film. That is, Weta Digital no longer needed to recreate Walker 's entire body from scratch, and could focus on accurately modeling his face. The final film showed Walker 's face superimposed over the bodies of his brothers or actor John Brotherton in 350 visual effects shots. 260 used a computer - generated face, while 90 repurposed actual footage of Walker 's face borrowed from outtakes or older footage.
The musical score was composed by Brian Tyler, who scored the third, fourth, and fifth installments of the series. "There 's an emotional component to Fast & Furious 7 that is unique '', said Tyler about his experience scoring. "I think people are really going to be amazed by it. '' A soundtrack album to the film was released by Atlantic Records on March 17, 2015.
Songs featured in the film include:
The film, which began principal photography in September 2013, was originally designed as a Summer 2014 release. It was put on hold following the fatal car crash that claimed Paul Walker 's life on November 30, 2013. The production resumed in April 2014. In October 2014, Universal revealed that the film was officially titled Furious 7, and that the debut trailer would be released during an interactive fan event over social media. In the days leading up to the event, seven - second, behind - the - scenes videos were released, titled "7 Seconds of 7 ''. On February 1, 2015, a new trailer featuring all - new footage debuted during Super Bowl XLIX.
The film was originally scheduled for release on April 10, 2015, but it was announced that the film 's release date had been brought forward a week to April 3, 2015. The official announcement in change of date was made in July 2014. Fast and Furious 7 premiered at the SXSW Film Festival at 12: 07 a.m. at Austin 's Paramount Theatre on March 16, 2015. On March 27, 2015, a free standalone expansion for the video game Forza Horizon 2, titled Forza Horizon 2 Presents Fast & Furious, was released to help promote the film. For its global premiere at the TCL Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles on April 1, 2015, IMAX Corporation installed a new laser projection which was the first such installation in the U.S. and the second worldwide, following The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies, which opened at Scotiabank Theatre in Toronto in December 2014.
According to infringement tracking site Excipio, the film was downloaded illegally 2.59 million times in four days (April 2 -- 6) through various torrent sites with India being the top country for the illegal downloading with 578,000 downloads followed by Pakistan (321,000), China (289,000), the U.S. (251,000) and the UK (101,000). A survey revealed that most Indians tended to resort to copyright violation due to lack of availability, pricing concerns, soaring internet costs and censorship. It was illegally downloaded 44,794,877 times in 2015, making it the most pirated film released that year and the second most pirated film overall, behind Interstellar which saw over 46.7 million illegal downloads the same year.
Furious 7 was released on 7 September 2015 in the UK and was released via DVD and Blu - ray on September 15, 2015 in other countries. The Blu - ray edition features an all new extended edition, deleted scenes, stunts, behind - the - scenes, and the music video for Wiz Khalifa and Charlie Puth 's "See You Again ''. The Blu - ray and DVD version include behind - the - scene footage of the "Race Wars '' scene including rapper Iggy Azalea and making of the cars featured in the film. In the U.S. and Canada, it sold roughly 2.5 million units on Blu - ray and DVD in its first week of release, making it the highest - selling home entertainment live - action film of 2015. This record was later surpassed by Jurassic World the following month, which in turn was surpassed by Star Wars: The Force Awakens by the end of the year.
Furious 7 made $353 million in the United States and Canada and $1.16 billion in other countries, for a worldwide total of $1.515 billion, against its $190 million production budget. Worldwide, it is the sixth highest - grossing film of all time, the third highest - grossing film of 2015, the highest - grossing film in The Fast and the Furious franchise and the second highest - grossing Universal Pictures film. It was also the fastest film to reach the $1 billion mark at the time, doing so in 17 days; It is also the 20th film to gross over $1 billion. It also became the first film to pass 1 million in 4DX admissions worldwide. Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $354.03 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film.
Worldwide, Furious 7 was released across 810 IMAX theaters, which was the largest worldwide rollout in IMAX 's history, Its worldwide opening of $397.6 million was the fifth - highest opening of all time. The film had an IMAX opening weekend total of $20.8 million. Furious 7 also became the first film distributed by Universal Pictures to earn more than $1 billion in its original run.
Predictions for the opening weekend of Furious 7 in the United States and Canada were continuously revised upwards, starting from $115 million to $150 million. It opened on Friday, April 3, 2015, across 4,004 theaters, including 365 IMAX theaters, which made it the widest opening for a Fast and Furious film and Universal 's widest opening release ever (until first surpassed by Jurassic World). and earned $67.3 million, marking the tenth - biggest opening day. The film 's Friday gross included a $15.8 million late - night run (which began at 7 p.m.), from 3,069 theaters, marking Universal 's highest late - night run, of which $2.2 million came from IMAX showings, marking the third largest IMAX preview gross ever. Based on pure Friday gross (with the omission of revenues from Thursday shows), it earned $51.5 million, marking the fifth - biggest of all time. Through Sunday, April 5, it had an opening weekend total of $147.1 million, breaking the record for the biggest April opening, the biggest opening in the Fast & Furious franchise, the biggest Easter opening (the record was broken a year later by Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice 's opening gross of $166 million), the third - biggest opening of 2015, the third biggest pre-summer opening ever, and the thirteenth - biggest opening of all time. It earned an IMAX opening weekend total of $13.3 million, marking the second - biggest of all time for a 2D movie. Premium large format comprised 8 % ($11.5 million) of the total opening gross from 400 PLF screens, which is the biggest 2D PLF opening. It was Universal 's fastest film to reach the $200 million mark at the time, doing so in eight days.
In its second weekend, the film expanded to 4,022 theaters, thereby breaking its own record of being the widest Universal Pictures release ever, and earned an estimated $59.6 million, declining by 60 %, which is the third best second weekend holdover for a pre-summer film release. It became the highest - grossing film in the Fast & Furious franchise, doing so only in ten days (the previous record which was held by Fast & Furious 6 took fifteen weeks to reach its entire lifetime gross of $238.67 million). It also set the record for the biggest second - weekend April gross. It topped the box office for four consecutive weekends, becoming the first film to top the box office for four consecutive weekends since The Hunger Games in March 2012 and one of only 29 films since 1985 to have had four straight box office wins during their theatrical runs, although this highly depends on many factors, including the release time and the competition around. It ended its theatrical run on July 24, 2015, playing in theaters for a total of 112 days and became the thirty - first highest - grossing film of all time, the fifth highest - grossing film of 2015, the highest - grossing film in The Fast and the Furious franchise, the second highest - grossing Universal film of 2015 (behind Jurassic World), and the fifth highest - grossing film distributed by Universal.
Outside the US and Canada, the film became the third highest - grossing film, the highest - grossing Universal distributed film, and the highest - grossing 2015 film. On April 26, 2015, it became the third film in cinematic history to earn over $1 billion overseas. It opened on Wednesday, April 1, 2015, in 12 countries, earning $16.9 million (including previews from 22 countries). It opened in 33 more countries on Thursday, April 2, for a total of 45 countries, earning $43 million from 8,407 screens, marking Universal Pictures overseas ' highest - grossing Thursday ever, and for a two - day total of $60 million. It added 20 more countries on Friday, April 3, earning $59.2 million from 9,935 screens in 63 countries, for a three - day total of $120.6 million. The film set all - time opening - day records in 15 countries including Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, India, Indonesia, the Middle East and Thailand, and opening day records for Universal Pictures in 40 countries including Australia, Brazil, Germany, Italy and Mexico. Through Sunday, April 5, it earned a 4 - day opening weekend total of $250.4 million from 10,683 screens in 64 countries, which is the fourth - highest international opening ever, in all which it reached first place at the box office It earned an IMAX opening weekend total of $7.5 million from 175 IMAX screens, breaking the record for the biggest April IMAX gross, previously held by The Winter Soldier ($6.43 million). It set opening weekend records in 29 countries including Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Egypt, Malaysia, Mexico, Middle East, Romania, Taiwan, Thailand, Venezuela and Vietnam. In its second weekend, it held the top spot and fell gradually by 20.4 % to $198.7 million (including China 's opening day gross) from 18,374 screens in 66 territories as a result of minor competition, and remaining at number one in all 63 territories where it was released the previous week. It added three new countries in its second weekend; China, Russia and Poland. Earning $167.9 million in its third weekend, it topped the box office outside of North America for three consecutive weekends, until surpassed by Avengers: Age of Ultron in its fourth weekend.
The film was a massive box office hit in China. It opened there on April 12 and set an all - time midnight run record with $8.05 million and an opening day record with $68.8 million. Its opening day included a record breaking $5 million from IMAX run (also breaking Transformers 4 's former record of $3.4 million). Through its opening week (April 12 -- 19), it earned $245.9 million. For the weekend alone, it took in $88.7 million from 5,454 screens (Friday to Sunday) and $182.4 million (Monday to Sunday) at the Chinese box office. It grossed CN ¥ 1 billion in five days -- the fastest time in which that has been achieved -- and soon became the highest - grossing foreign film ever in China. In 15 days, its gross in China surpassed those in Canada and the United States and became the first film in China to make more than 2 billion renminbi. Its success has been credited to China Film Group Corporation, the state - owned film distributor, which had invested considerably in the film, reportedly taking a 10 % stake.
The largest openings outside North America and China occurred in Mexico ($21.5 million), the UK, Ireland and Malta ($18.7 million), Germany ($15.9 million), Russia and the CIS ($15.9 million), Brazil ($11.4 million), France ($11.4 million), Australia ($11.3 million), Taiwan ($10.3 million), Argentina ($9.3 millon), Korea ($8.9 million), India ($8.7 million), Italy ($8.2 million), Malaysia ($7.3 million), Spain ($6.3 million), Venezuela ($6 million), Thailand ($6 million), and Colombia ($5.2 million). In the UAE, where parts of the film was shot, it opened with $4.8 million. Out of the 68 countries it was released in, the only country not to open at number one was Japan (locally released with the title, Wild Speed: Skymission) where it earned $6.2 million in its opening weekend, behind Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection ' F ' ($7.6 million). and Detective Conan: Sunflowers of Inferno ($7.4 million). It became the highest - grossing film of all time in Argentina, Colombia, Ecuador, Indonesia, Malaysia, South Africa, the UAE, Uruguay, Trinidad and Vietnam and Universal Pictures ' highest - grossing film of all time in 29 countries including Argentina, China, Ecuador, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Lebanon, Malaysia, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Thailand, Turkey, UAE and Vietnam. In Latin America, it became the second highest - grossing film ($200 million), the first time Universal has reached the milestone and the second film in history to earn more than $200 million after The Avengers. In total earnings, the largest countries outside the U.S. and Canada are China ($391.2 million), the UK, Ireland and Malta ($60 million), Mexico ($50.9 million), Brazil, ($46.5 million) and Germany ($40.3 million). It grossed a total of $39 million in IMAX ticket sales in China, the biggest ever in the market.
Furious 7 received mostly positive reviews, with critics praising the film 's action sequences and its poignant tribute to Walker. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 80 % approval rating, based on 235 reviews, with an average rating of 6.6 / 10. The site 's consensus reads, "Serving up a fresh round of over-the - top thrills while adding unexpected dramatic heft, Furious 7 keeps the franchise moving in more ways than one. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score of 67 out of 100, based on 44 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave Furious 7 an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
The film received highly positive reviews upon release at a secret screening at the 2015 SXSW Film Festival on March 16, 2015. Ramin Setoodeh of Variety noted that fans started lining up outside four hours before the film was scheduled to start. The film closed with a tribute to Walker, which left many in the theater "holding back tears ''. Critic Dave Palmer gave the film 7 / 10, saying, "Furious 7 is the type of movie Michael Bay has spent his entire career trying to make: filled with shots of scantily clad women, fast cars, and clever one liners ''.
A.O. Scott of The New York Times gave the film two and a half stars out of five and said, "Furious 7 extends its predecessors ' inclusive, stereotype - resistant ethic. Compared to almost any other large - scale, big - studio enterprise, the Furious brand practices a slick, no - big - deal multiculturalism, and nods to both feminism and domestic traditionalism. ''
John DeFore of The Hollywood Reporter criticized the film however, describing it as "stupidly diverting '', saying the running time was "overinflated ''; he compared watching the film to a morbid game, in addition to criticizing the screenplay.
Regarding a possible sequel, Vin Diesel said:
I was trying to keep it close to the vest throughout the release. Paul Walker used to say that (an eighth film) was guaranteed. And in some ways, when your brother guarantees something, you sometimes feel like you have to make sure it comes to pass... so if fate has it, then you 'll get this when you hear about it. (Furious 7) was for Paul, (the eighth film) is from Paul.
Diesel further hinted at an eighth film on Jimmy Kimmel Live! when he stated that Kurt Russell 's character would span multiple films. He also stated that the film would take place in New York City. Chris Morgan wrote his sixth script in the franchise, while Neal H. Moritz returned to produce. Moritz later stated, "(The story) is going to have to be something enticing for all of us... it has to be as good as or better (than Furious 7) ''.
At the 2015 CinemaCon in Las Vegas, Diesel announced the film for an April 14, 2017 release date. On August 16, 2015, at the 2015 Teen Choice Awards (where Furious 7 received the award for Choice Movie -- Action and Walker received the award for Choice Movie Actor -- Action), Diesel gave the film the initial title Fast 8. In September 2015, Diesel stated that the script had almost been completed, and expressed interest in Rob Cohen, who directed the first film, to direct the eighth installment. On October 14, 2015, Diesel announced on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon that Straight Outta Compton director F. Gary Gray would direct the film.
In July 2015, Moritz said that Walker 's character, Brian O'Conner, would not appear in the film, following the use of CGI in the previous film after Walker died in a single - vehicle accident on November 30, 2013, with Moritz stating that his character had "moved on ''. It had previously been reported that Paul 's younger brother, Cody Walker, would either join the cast in a new role, or replace his older brother in the role of O'Conner; however, it was later announced that the character will not return to the franchise. Moritz also said that the film would shift the focus of the franchise from a series of heist films to a spy caper, following a similar change in focus from street racing in Fast Five (2011). In December 2016, the film was retitled The Fate of the Furious.
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where does the index go in a book | Index (publishing) - wikipedia
An index (plural: usually indexes, more rarely indices; see below) is a list of words or phrases (' headings ') and associated pointers (' locators ') to where useful material relating to that heading can be found in a document or collection of documents. Examples are an index in the back matter of a book and an index that serves as a library catalog.
In a traditional back - of - the - book index, the headings will include names of people, places, events, and concepts selected by the indexer as being relevant and of interest to a possible reader of the book. The indexer may be the author, the editor, or a professional indexer working as a third party. The pointers are typically page numbers, paragraph numbers or section numbers.
In a library catalog the words are authors, titles, subject headings, etc., and the pointers are call numbers. Internet search engines (such as Google) and full - text searching help provide access to information but are not as selective as an index, as they provide non-relevant links, and may miss relevant information if it is not phrased in exactly the way they expect.
Perhaps the most advanced investigation of problems related to book indexes is made in the development of topic maps, which started as a way of representing the knowledge structures inherent in traditional back - of - the - book indexes. The concept embodied by book indexes lent its name to database indexes, which similarly provide an abridged way to look up information in a larger collection, albeit one for computer use rather than human use.
In the English language, indexes have been referred to as early as 1593, as can be seen from lines in Christopher Marlowe 's Hero and Leander of that year:
Therefore, even as an index to a book So to his mind was young Leander 's look.
A similar reference to indexes is in Shakespeare 's lines from Troilus and Cressida (I. 3.344), written nine years later:
And in such indexes, although small pricks To their subsequent volumes, there is seen The baby figure of the giant mass Of things to come at large.
But according to G. Norman Knight, "at that period, as often as not, by an ' index to a book ' was meant what we should now call a table of contents. ''
Among the first indexes -- in the modern sense -- to a book in the English language was one in Plutarch 's Parallel Lives, in Sir Thomas North 's 1595 translation. A section entitled "An Alphabetical Table of the most material contents of the whole book '' may be found in Henry Scobell 's Acts and Ordinances of Parliament of 1658. This section comes after "An index of the general titles comprised in the ensuing Table ''. Both of these indexes predate the index to Alexander Cruden 's Concordance (1737), which is erroneously held to be the earliest index found in an English book.
The word is derived from Latin, in which index means "one who points out '', an "indication '', or a "forefinger ''.
In Latin, the plural form of the word is indices. In English, the plural "indices '' is commonly used in mathematical and computing contexts, and sometimes in bibliographical contexts -- for example, in the 17 - volume Women in World History: A Biographical Encyclopedia (1999 -- 2002). However, this form is now seen as an archaism by many writers and commentators, who prefer the anglicised plural "indexes ''. "Indexes '' is widely used in the publishing industry; in the International Standard ISO 999, Information and documentation -- Guidelines for the content, organization and presentation of indexes; and is preferred by the Oxford Style Manual. The Chicago Manual of Style allows both forms.
G. Norman Knight quotes Shakespeare 's lines from Troilus and Cressida (I. 3.344) -- "And in such indexes... '' -- and comments:
"But the real importance of this passage is that it establishes for all time the correct literary plural; we can leave the Latin form "indices '' to the mathematicians (and similarly "appendices '' to the anatomists). ''
The indexer reads through the text, identifying indexable concepts (those for which the text provides useful information and which will be of relevance for the text 's readership). The indexer creates index headings to represent those concepts, which are phrased such that they can be found when in alphabetical order (so, for example, one would write ' indexing process ' rather than ' how to create an index '). These headings and their associated locators (indicators to position in the text) are entered into specialist indexing software which handles the formatting of the index and facilitates the editing phase. The index is then edited to impose consistency throughout the index.
Indexers must analyze the text to enable presentation of concepts and ideas in the index that may not be named within the text. The index is intended to help the reader, researcher, or information professional, rather than the author, find information, so the professional indexer must act as a liaison between the text and its ultimate user.
In the United States, according to tradition, the index for a non-fiction book is the responsibility of the author, but most authors do n't actually do it. Most indexing is done by freelancers hired by authors, publishers or an independent business which manages the production of a book, publishers or book packagers. Some publishers and database companies employ indexers.
Commercial software is available to aid the indexer in building a book index. There are several dedicated, indexing software programs available to assist with the special sorting and copying needs involved in index preparation. The most widely known include Cindex, Macrex and SkyIndex. TExtract is a hybrid semi-automatic program combining conventional manual indexing with automated indexing features and text linking.
Embedded indexing involves including the index headings in the midst of the text itself, but surrounded by codes so that they are not normally displayed. A usable index is then generated automatically from the embedded text using the position of the embedded headings to determine the locators. Thus, when the pagination is changed the index can be regenerated with the new locators.
LaTeX documents support embedded indexes primarily through the MakeIndex package. Several widely used XML DTDs, including DocBook and TEI, have elements that allow index creation directly in the XML files. Most word processing software, such as StarWriter / OpenOffice.org Writer, Microsoft Word, and WordPerfect, as well as some desktop publishing software (for example, FrameMaker and InDesign), as well as other tools (MadCap Software 's Flare)) have some facility for embedded indexing as well. TExtract supports embedded indexing of Microsoft Word documents.
An embedded index requires more time to create than a conventional static index; however, an embedded index can save time in the long run when the material is updated or repaginated. This is because, with a static index, if even a few pages change, the entire index must be revised or recreated while, with an embedded index, only the pages that changed need updating or indexing.
Indexes are designed to help the reader find information quickly and easily. A complete and truly useful index is not simply a list of the words and phrases used in a publication (which is properly called a concordance), but an organized map of its contents, including cross-references, grouping of like concepts, and other useful intellectual analysis.
Sample back - of - the - book index excerpt:
In books, indexes are usually placed near the end (this is commonly known as "BoB '' or back - of - book indexing). They complement the table of contents by enabling access to information by specific subject, whereas contents listings enable access through broad divisions of the text arranged in the order they occur. It has been remarked that, while "(a) t first glance the driest part of the book, on closer inspection the index may provide both interest and amusement from time to time. ''
Some principles of good indexing include:
Indexing pitfalls:
Some indexers specialize in specific formats, such as scholarly books, microforms, web indexing (the application of a back - of - book - style index to a website or intranet), search engine indexing, database indexing (the application of a pre-defined controlled vocabulary such as MeSH to articles for inclusion in a database), and periodical indexing (indexing of newspapers, journals, magazines).
Some indexers with expertise in controlled vocabularies also work as taxonomists and ontologists.
Some indexers specialize in particular subject areas, such as anthropology, business, computers, economics, education, government documents, history, law, mathematics, medicine, psychology, and technology. An indexer can be found for any subject.
In "The Library of Babel '', a short story by Jorge Luis Borges, there is an index of indexes that catalogues all of the books in the library, which contains all possible books.
Kurt Vonnegut 's novel Cat 's Cradle includes a character who is a professional indexer and believes that "indexing (is) a thing that only the most amateurish author (undertakes) to do for his own book. '' She claims to be able to read an author 's character through the index he created for his own history text, and warns the narrator, an author, "Never index your own book. ''
Vladimir Nabokov 's novel Pale Fire includes a parody of an index, reflecting the insanity of the narrator.
Mark Danielewski 's novel House of Leaves contains an exhaustive 41 page index of words in the novel, including even large listings for inconsequential words such as the, and, and in.
The American Society for Indexing, Inc. (ASI) is a national association founded in 1968 to promote excellence in indexing and increase awareness of the value of well - designed indexes. ASI serves indexers, librarians, abstractors, editors, publishers, database producers, data searchers, product developers, technical writers, academic professionals, researchers and readers, and others concerned with indexing. It is the only professional organization in the United States devoted solely to the advancement of indexing, abstracting and related methods of information retrieval.
Other similar societies include:
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who is the actress who plays estelle on friends | June Gable - wikipedia
June Gable (born on June 5, 1945) is an American character actress, perhaps best known for her role as Joey 's agent Estelle Leonard in the NBC sitcom Friends. She received one Tony Award nomination for her work on Broadway.
Gable was born as June Golub in Brooklyn, New York City, the daughter of Joseph and Shirley Golub. She studied acting at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh.
Gable has appeared in four Broadway productions including the 1974 revival of Candide for which she was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical for her portrayal of the Old Lady. She was featured as Snooks Keene in the infamous Broadway disaster, Moose Murders, which opened and closed on the same night in 1983. She also appeared in a replacement cast of the off - Broadway revue Jacques Brel is Alive and Well and Living in Paris. In November 2012 she starred in the lead role of "Marie '' in the world premiere of Bill C. Davis ' "All Hallowed '' at the Waco Civic Theatre in Waco, Texas under the direction of George Boyd.
On television, Gable played detective Battista on the sitcom Barney Miller in the 1976, third season. She was also in the cast of the short - lived 1977 revival of Rowan & Martin 's Laugh - In. In 1979 she appeared as "Rhoda Rooter '' on the live - action Hanna - Barbera TV specials Legends of the Superheroes. From 1978 to 1981, she was regular member In the syndicated variety series Sha Na Na. In 1980s, she guest starred in episodes of popular series including Miami Vice and Kate & Allie, and well as had small parts in films Brenda Starr and She - Devil (both 1989).
From 1994 to 2004, Gable played Estelle Leonard of the Estelle Leonard Talent Agency, the agent of the Matt LeBlanc character Joey Tribbiani, on the NBC sitcom Friends, with her character dying in 2004. She played a nurse on the same show in season 1, episode 23. She also appeared in a recurring role in the HBO comedy series Dream On from 1990 to 1996 playing Libby Friedman.
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who had the most goals in the nhl last year | Teemu Selänne - wikipedia
Teemu Ilmari Selänne (Finnish pronunciation: (ˈt̪e̞ːmu ˈilmɑri ˈse̞lænːe̞)), nicknamed "The Finnish Flash '' (born July 3, 1970), is a Finnish former professional ice hockey winger. He began his professional career in 1989 -- 90 with Jokerit of the SM - liiga and played 21 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the Winnipeg Jets, Anaheim Ducks, San Jose Sharks and Colorado Avalanche. Selänne is the highest scoring Finn in NHL history, and one of the highest overall; he retired in 2014 11th all - time with 684 goals and 15th with 1,457 points. He holds numerous team scoring records for both the Winnipeg / Arizona franchise and the Anaheim Ducks. His jersey number 8 was retired by the Ducks in 2015. In 2017 Selanne was named one of the ' 100 Greatest NHL Players ' in history.. On June 26, 2017, Selanne was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame as the second Finn after Jari Kurri.
Selänne was a first round selection of the Jets, tenth overall, at the 1988 NHL Entry Draft, but initially remained in Finland. He led the SM - liiga in scoring as part of Jokerit 's Kanada - malja winning team in 1991 -- 92 before moving to North America. He broke into the NHL by scoring 76 goals in 1992 -- 93. It remains the league record for most goals by a rookie and earned him the Calder Memorial Trophy as the top first - year player in the NHL. He has scored 50 goals in a season three times and topped 100 points on four occasions. He played in 10 NHL All - Star Games, was named to four post-season All - Star Teams and won the inaugural Maurice "Rocket '' Richard Trophy in 1998 -- 99 as the league 's leading goal scorer. He was named recipient of the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy in 2005 -- 06 for perseverance and dedication to the game and was a member of the Ducks ' 2007 Stanley Cup championship team.
Internationally, Selänne was a long - time member of the Finnish National Team. He played in five World Championships, winning a silver and bronze medal, and in three Canada Cup / World Cup of Hockey tournaments. A six - time Olympian, Selänne helped Finland win three bronze medals and, in 2006, a silver medal. He is the all - time leader in scoring at the Olympic ice hockey tournament with 43 points. A national star in his native country, Selänne is the subject of a top grossing biographical documentary in Finland.
Selänne was born on July 3, 1970, in Helsinki, Finland. He has a twin brother, Paavo and another brother, Panu. He was raised by his mother Liisa Viitanen and father Ilmari Selänne until they divorced in the late 1980s. The family lived for a time in Rauma before settling in Espoo around the time Teemu was 10 years old.
Selänne played three sports as a youth: hockey, bandy and association football. He played hockey and football with and against Paavo, though his brother ultimately gave up on both sports in favour of field hockey, where he was a member of numerous Finnish and European championship teams. Teemu was small as a youth, creating in him a competitive spirit and drive to improve his skills. Focusing on hockey, he eventually joined the junior squad of Jokerit in Helsinki.
As a young adult, Selänne attended business school for two years and served a mandatory one - year stint with the Finnish Defence Forces. During his tenure with Jokerit, he also spent three years as a kindergarten teacher. His experiences visiting kids at Helsinki 's children 's hospital led to him co-founding the Godfathers ' Foundation, an organization that raises money for ill children.
Selänne played three years of junior hockey in Jokerit 's development program, culminating in 1987 -- 88 with a 43 - goal, 66 point season in 33 games and a Finnish Junior A championship. His performance prompted the National Hockey League (NHL) 's Winnipeg Jets to select him with their first round pick, tenth overall, at the 1988 NHL Entry Draft. Selänne attended training camp with the Jets, but returned to Finland owing to his military service.
After graduating from junior hockey, Selänne joined Jokerit 's senior team in the 1. Divisioona in 1988 -- 89 and scored 69 points in 35 games. Jokerit moved up to the SM - liiga in 1989 -- 90, and while Selänne missed the majority of the season due to a leg injury, he scored 12 points in 11 games played. Playing a full season in 1990 -- 91, Selänne scored 33 goals and 58 points in 42 games. He was named the recipient of the Raimo Kilpiö trophy as the league 's most gentlemanly player. Selänne 's best season in the SM - liiga came in 1991 -- 92 when he recorded 62 points in 44 games. With 39 goals, he won the Aarne Honkavaara trophy as top goal scorer. He added 17 points in ten playoff games, and scored the winning goal as Jokerit won the Kanada - malja as SM - liiga playoff champion.
The Jets ' organizational philosophy at the time was to allow their European draft picks to develop in their native countries, but by 1991, the franchise was working to bring him to Winnipeg. As Selänne had not yet signed a contract when he chose to play in North America for the 1992 -- 93 season, he was considered a restricted free agent. The Calgary Flames signed him to an offer sheet on a three - year contract worth $2.7 million, $1.5 million higher than what the Jets had been offering. Though concerned about paying such a high salary, Winnipeg exercised its right to match the offer. Selänne made his NHL debut on October 6, 1992, and recorded two assists in a 4 -- 1 Jets victory over the Detroit Red Wings. He scored his first career NHL goal two nights later against goaltender Jeff Hackett of the San Jose Sharks.
Selänne scored his first career hat - trick in his fifth contest and had 11 goals in his first 12 NHL games. He finished the season with 16 multi-goal games, including four hat - tricks and a four - goal game, en route to breaking the NHL record for goals by a rookie. He surpassed Mike Bossy 's record of 53 goals on March 2, 1993, against the Quebec Nordiques and on March 23, scored his 110th point, against the Toronto Maple Leafs, to break Peter Šťastný 's rookie points record. Selänne finished the season tied for fifth in scoring with 132 points, and his 76 goals tied with Alexander Mogilny for the League lead. His offensive exploits helped pull the Jets into the 1993 Stanley Cup playoffs, where they lost a first - round matchup to the Vancouver Canucks. In recognition of his season, Selänne was voted the recipient of the Calder Memorial Trophy as rookie of the year, was named to the First All - Star Team and played in his first of ten career NHL All - Star Games.
Unable to maintain a similar pace in 1993 -- 94 -- indeed, his rookie totals in goals and points would both prove his career high by more than 20 -- Selänne 's offensive production declined by 30 percent midway through the season. He scored his 100th career goal on January 12, 1994, against the Buffalo Sabres, reaching the milestone in his 130th game, the second - fastest in NHL history and only one game later than Bossy. Selänne finished the season with 54 points in 51 games, but missed the final 33 games of the season after suffering a severed Achilles tendon in a January 26 game against the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim. The 1994 -- 95 NHL lockout resulted in Selänne splitting the season between Jokerit and the Jets. While playing in Finland, Selänne was named to the tournament all - star team as Jokerit won the 1995 European Cup.
Selänne 's career in Winnipeg came to an end midway through the 1995 -- 96 season. He was leading the Jets with 72 points when, on February 6, 1996, he was traded to Anaheim. The Mighty Ducks sent first - round draft picks Chad Kilger and Oleg Tverdovsky, along with a third - round selection at the 1996 NHL Entry Draft, in exchange for Selänne, Marc Chouinard and a fourth - round draft pick. Selänne was upset when notified of the deal during practice and left the Winnipeg Arena without speaking to anyone.
Following a period of adjustment, Selänne gained an appreciation for his new team; he quickly came to call the deal the best thing that ever happened to him. He was paired with Paul Kariya, whom he met at the 1996 NHL All - Star Game, and the duo were counted on to lead the young franchise to a post-season berth for the first time. Selänne scored 36 points in 28 games with the Ducks, and combined with his Jets totals, finished the 1995 -- 96 season with 108 points. He followed it up with a third 100 - point season in 1996 -- 97, finishing with 109, including 51 goals. He was named to the First All - Star Team for a second time, while he and Kariya led the Mighty Ducks into the franchise 's first playoff appearance in 1997. Despite being criticized as being a "one - line team '', Anaheim defeated the Phoenix Coyotes in the first round before being eliminated by the Detroit Red Wings.
The 1998 All - Star Game was Selänne 's fifth, and after scoring a hat - trick, he became the first European player to be named the MVP in the All - Star Game 's 46 - year history. He finished the 1997 -- 98 season with his third career 50 - goal season; his total of 52 tied Peter Bondra for the NHL lead, and he scored his 500th career point on January 12, 1998, with an assist against the Los Angeles Kings. He was a finalist for both the Hart Memorial Trophy as the League 's MVP (finishing third) and the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy for gentlemanly conduct (as the runner - up), and was named to the Second All - Star Team. The NHL created the Maurice "Rocket '' Richard Trophy in 1998 -- 99 to be presented to the League 's leading goal scorer; Selänne became its inaugural winner following a 47 - goal season.
An 85 - point season followed in 1999 -- 2000, and he was the Mighty Ducks ' leading scorer with 59 points through 61 games in 2000 -- 01. Anaheim, however, sat in last place in the Western Conference, and on March 5, 2001, chose to make a trade. Selänne was sent to San Jose in exchange for Jeff Friesen, Steve Shields and a second - round selection in the 2003 NHL Entry Draft. Selänne 's debut with the Sharks was delayed by two weeks as he underwent minor surgery to remove loose cartilage in his knee the following day. After finishing the season with 13 points in 12 games with San Jose, Selänne led the Sharks with 29 goals in 2001 -- 02. He also led the team in both goals (28; tied) and points (64) in 2002 -- 03. As the Sharks fell out of the playoff race, they looked to make changes; the New Jersey Devils sought to acquire Selänne, but he exercised a no trade clause in his contract and blocked the deal.
Selänne then declined an option in his contract that would have paid $6.5 million in 2003 -- 04 and instead opted to sign a one - year, $5.8 million contract with the Colorado Avalanche, where he was joined by former Anaheim teammate Paul Kariya. The pair chose to sign with the Avalanche together in the belief it was their best chance at winning the Stanley Cup. Their hope failed to materialize, however, as Selänne endured a disastrous season in which he scored only 16 goals and 32 points -- the lowest totals of his career to that date -- and was ultimately relegated to Colorado 's fourth line, but was also held out of the lineup as a healthy scratch during a playoff game. He struggled throughout the year with knee problems that ultimately required surgery, his third such procedure, and with the 2004 -- 05 season canceled by a labour dispute, took the time off to recover.
A free agent when the NHL resumed play in 2005 -- 06, Selänne returned to Anaheim by signing a one - year, $1 million contract with the Mighty Ducks. During a resurgent season, he scored his 1,000 th career point on January 30, 2006, with a goal in a 4 -- 3 victory over Los Angeles. Selänne completed the season with 40 goals and 90 points, both of which led the Mighty Ducks, and he was named the recipient of the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy for dedication and perseverance.
After reaching the Western Conference Final in the 2006 playoffs, the newly renamed Anaheim Ducks entered the 2006 -- 07 season with high expectations; the team brought Selänne back with a one - year, $3.75 million contract. He reached several milestones during the season: Selänne became the 36th player in NHL history, and second Finn after Jari Kurri, to score 500 goals, on November 22, 2006, against Colorado. On December 31, he played his 1,000 th NHL game. As part of a season in which he again led Anaheim in goals (48) and points (94), Selänne played in his tenth All - Star Game in 2007, and scored his first hat - trick in six years (the 19th of his career) on January 12, 2007. It was the same day he spoke with a friend in Finland with terminal cancer and whom asked to be sent the game puck if Selänne had a three - goal game. Finally, he scored his 301st goal as a Duck on February 18, 2007, to break Paul Kariya 's franchise record.
Early in the 2007 playoffs, Selänne became Anaheim 's all - time leading playoff scorer when he recorded his 30th point as a Duck with an assist on April 13 against the Minnesota Wild. The Ducks defeated the Wild, Vancouver Canucks and Detroit Red Wings to reach the Final; it was the first time in Selänne 's career that he played in the NHL 's championship series. As the sentimental favourite to win the Stanley Cup, his teammates motivated themselves to win the title for his benefit; Ducks goaltender Jean - Sébastien Giguère noted, "We do n't have any better teammate. He 's a guy who always has fun. He deserves this and if we can help him along the way, that would be great. I 'd just love to see Teemu win this thing. '' Selänne finished the playoffs with 15 points in 21 games, and after 14 NHL seasons, the 36 - year - old Selänne raised the Stanley Cup with his teammates after defeating the Ottawa Senators in five games.
Following the Cup win, Selänne contemplated retirement. He remained undecided on a return -- and as a free agent, out of the Ducks lineup to begin the 2007 -- 08 season -- until he finally chose to return and signed a one - year contract with Anaheim on January 28, 2008. He made his return on February 5 against the New York Islanders, and the Ducks posted the League 's best record from that point to the end of the regular season by winning 20 of 26 games. In his third game back, Selänne scored his 670th point as a member of the Ducks with an assist in a 4 -- 2 victory over the Calgary Flames. With it, he broke Kariya 's franchise record of 669.
Selänne returned to the Ducks in 2008 -- 09 and signed a two - year contract. He missed several weeks of the season due to a quad muscle injury suffered when he was cut by his own skate following a hit by Denis Grebeshkov of the Edmonton Oilers, but appeared in 65 games and scored 54 points. He played his 1,100 th game during the season, became the sixth European player to score 1,200 career points and appeared in his 100th career playoff game. Selänne reached additional milestones in 2009 -- 10, as he became the 18th player in NHL history to score 600 goals, accomplishing the feat on March 21, 2010, against the Colorado Avalanche and upon scoring his 602nd goal on April 2 against the Vancouver Canucks, surpassing his childhood idol, Jari Kurri.
Selänne finished eighth in NHL scoring in 2010 -- 11 with 31 goals and 49 assists in 73 games. His 80 points was the third - highest in NHL history by a player over the age of 40 (Gordie Howe, 103 and Johnny Bucyk, 83). He also scored his 1,300 th point, achieving the mark with a two - goal performance on January 16, 2011, against Edmonton. Questions about whether Selänne would return for another NHL season had become an annual topic of discussion, and his decision to return for 2011 -- 12 was delayed by a knee operation that left him uncertain if he would be capable of playing. Nonetheless, Selänne appeared in every game for the Ducks and became the oldest player in NHL history to play an entire 82 - game season while leading the team with 66 points. 15 years after the original Jets relocated, a new Winnipeg Jets franchise joined the NHL, and fans in the Manitoba capital continued to view Selänne as a local hero. In his first return to Winnipeg, he was cheered by exuberant fans who booed every other Ducks player. Selänne was named to the Western Conference roster for the 2012 NHL All - Star Game, but declined his invitation and asked the League to instead send his teammate Corey Perry.
Following a 24 - point effort in the lockout - shortened 2012 -- 13 season, Selänne announced that 2013 -- 14 would be the 21st and final season of his NHL career. He missed several games early in the season after he was struck in the face by an errant stick that knocked out several teeth and required 40 stitches to close cuts. Selänne recorded 27 points in 64 games for the Ducks; his final regular season game, a 3 -- 2 victory over Colorado, was a celebration of his career. He wore the captain 's "C '' in place of Ryan Getzlaf for the game and as it neared conclusion, received standing ovations from the Anaheim crowd each time he took a shift. Selänne was named the game 's first, second and third star following the game and took a celebratory lap with Colorado goaltender and former Anaheim teammate Jean - Sébastien Giguère, who was also contemplating retirement.
Selänne made his final post-season appearance during the 2014 playoffs. He had six points in 12 games, but was also held out of the lineup for one game against the Dallas Stars, a decision that angered Ducks fans. He played his final game on May 16, 2014, as the Ducks were eliminated by Los Angeles. Following the contest, Selänne was saluted by fans, teammates and opponents alike, and took a final lap around the rink.
Selänne 's international debut came with the Finnish national junior team. He recorded 16 points in six games at the 1988 European Junior Championship and was named to the tournament all - star team. After participating in the 1989 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships for the sixth place Finns, Selänne made his debut with the senior team at the 1991 World Championship where he finished third in tournament scoring with 11 points for the fifth - place finishers. After playing in the 1991 Canada Cup, he made his Olympic debut at the 1992 Albertville Games. Selänne tied for the tournament scoring lead with seven goals, and was tied for fourth in overall scoring at 11 points.
It was four years before Selänne returned to international play; he appeared in the 1996 World Championship and the 1996 World Cup of Hockey and averaged over one point per game in both tournaments as Finland finished fifth each time. At the 1998 Winter Olympics, Selänne finished with ten points in five games. He was the tournament 's leading scorer on a Finnish team that he described in 2003 as the best he ever played on and the best in the tournament, but lost the semifinal, 7 -- 4 to Russia. He suffered an abdominal muscle injury that prevented him from playing in the third place game, which Finland won 3 -- 2 over Canada; Selänne and his teammates ended the tournament as the bronze medal winners.
The Finns finished one position higher at the 1999 World Championship; The tournament 's medal round was conducted in a two - game series format followed by a ten - minute sudden victory overtime if the each team wins one game. Finland and Sweden split their semifinal, but the Finns advanced to the final in the overtime period after Selänne set up Marko Tuomainen 's winning goal. The Czech Republic defeated Finland to capture the gold medal, also in a sudden victory period. Selänne finished the tournament with 11 points, was named to the all - star team and was voted the most valuable player of the World Championship.
Selänne served as the Finnish captain at the 2002 Winter Olympics and led his nation to an important preliminary round victory over Russia, however he had only three goals and no assists in four games as the Finns finished in sixth place. The World Championship was held in Finland, and the hosts were hailed as the favourite to win the title. Though Selänne led the tournament with eight goals, Finland lost their quarterfinal match against Sweden and finished fifth overall.
The 2004 World Cup of Hockey was played after Selänne 's difficult NHL season with Colorado. For Selänne, the tournament was about recovering his joy at playing hockey. The Finns went undefeated to reach the final, but Selänne and his teammates had to settle for second place after losing the championship game to Canada, 3 -- 2. Returning to the national team for the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Selänne joined Jere Lehtinen and Saku Koivu on what The Hockey News called the best team Finland has ever produced. The Finns outscored their opposition 19 -- 2 in the group stage, then defeated the United States and shut - out Russia in the semi-final. The Finns, however, were overcome in the final by Sweden, 3 -- 2, and were relegated to the silver medal. Selänne scored six goals and 11 points in the tournament, was named to the all - star team and received the Directorate Award as top forward.
Selänne stated he would retire from international competition after a bronze medal - winning performance followed at the 2008 IIHF World Championship. However, he returned to play in his fifth Olympic tournament at the 2010 Vancouver Olympics. Selänne became the all - time leading scorer in Olympic hockey history on February 19, 2010, as he recorded his 37th point in competition in a game against Germany. The Finns won the bronze medal with a 5 -- 3 victory over Slovakia in the third - place game.
Selänne was named to the Finnish team for the 2014 Sochi Olympics, which marked his sixth appearance at the tournament. In the quarterfinals, Selänne scored a goal and an assist as the Finns ousted the host Russians from the tournament, then added two goals in the bronze medal match in a 5 -- 0 victory over the United States. The 43 - year - old Selänne became the oldest player to win a medal in Olympic hockey. He was named most valuable player of the Olympic tournament as selected by the media, and added six points to his Olympic record career total of 43.
Selänne 's primary attribute is his skating speed. Nicknamed the "Finnish Flash '', he uses his speed to evade opposition defenders. According to defenceman Nicklas Lidström, "He 's one of those snipers that can put the puck on net because he finds openings and he knows where to be on the ice. Former teammate Jean - Sébastien Giguère added, "He 's just a very elegant player. He 's got a very nice stride to his skating, he plays with a lot of energy, a lot of enthusiasm... with the skill he has, it just makes for a heck of a great player. ''
An elite offensive player, Selänne is the highest scoring Finnish - born player in NHL history. He ended his career with 684 goals, 11th all - time in NHL history, and 1,457 points, 15th best. His 110 game - winning goals tied him with Brett Hull for fourth all - time. Selänne is one of eight players to score 70 or more goals in one season. He holds numerous records, including most goals, 76, and points, 132, by a rookie. Both totals are also single - season records for the Winnipeg Jets / Phoenix Coyotes franchise. The holder of most major franchise records for the Ducks, Selänne leads the team at 457 goals, 531 assists, 988 points and 966 games played. He also holds single season records with 52 goals and 109 points. Even before his playing career had ended, the Ducks announced that Selänne 's number 8 would be the first number retired by the franchise. The team formally retired his number on January 11, 2015, prior to a game against the Jets.
Selänne and his wife Sirpa have four children: sons Eemil, Eetu (a hockey player himself, starting as a freshman with the Northeastern University Huskies men 's team in 2017) and Leevi, and daughter Veera. They are residents of Coto de Caza, California, a gated community in southern Orange County. Selänne is the primary partner in a restaurant in nearby Laguna Beach which he started with longtime friends Leo Fenn and Jim Shumate, an Orange County restaurateur; He had previously owned four restaurants in Finland and intends to be involved in the business at the conclusion of his hockey career.
Selänne is known for his fun - loving personality and is known to make an effort to sign autographs and shake hands. He is well - respected in the NHL by players, coaches, and fans, including those of opposing teams. Selänne considers Paul Kariya and Joe Sakic to be the best friends he earned in the NHL, and both attended his final regular season game against the Avalanche.
An avid car collector, Selänne has entered the World Rally Championship (WRC) twice, finishing the Rally Finland 33rd overall in 1997 and 24th in 1998. He raced under the pseudonym "Teukka Salama '' ("Teddy Flash '' in English). In 1999 Selänne was involved in a crash while practicing for a rally race in his native Finland, an incident that was national news in the country. Due to Finnish laws that set fines based on an offender 's salary, Selänne received a $50,000 fine for the incident.
A popular figure in Finland, Selänne 's success in the NHL has been credited with aiding the growth of hockey in the country. He was once named the sexiest man in Finland by fashion magazine Eeva, and is the subject of the 2013 documentary film Selänne, directed by JP Siili, and which chronicles his life. The film became the highest grossing documentary in Finnish history within a month of its September 27 release, and was the third highest grossing locally produced film of the year.
(tied with Alexander Mogilny) 1993
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who played the black ranger in mighty morphin power rangers | Zack Taylor - wikipedia
Zachary "Zack '' Taylor is a fictional character in the Power Rangers universe, appearing in the television series Mighty Morphin Power Rangers. He is the original Black Ranger of the first generation of Power Rangers. He was played by actor Walter Emanuel Jones.
Zack and his close friends Kimberly Hart, Jason Lee Scott, Billy Cranston and Trini Kwan were picked as the five original Power Rangers by the wise sage Zordon to defend Earth from the evil sorceress Rita Repulsa. Zack was chosen as the Black Power Ranger, gaining the Mastodon Power Coin and the Mastodon Dinozord.
Quick - witted and clever, Zack relies on a combination of skill, strength, and agility to win his battles. The original Black Ranger is an energetic, charismatic, and fun - loving young man. He enjoys athletics (such as basketball, American football, and scuba diving), dancing (especially to a fresh beat bumping out his friend 's boombox), parties, and girls. Whenever he did n't have an arm around Trini or Kimberly, Zack could be found pursuing his attractive, but hard - to - get classmate, Angela. Zack always loved a good joke. Though he loved all the people close to him, Zack 's best friend was clearly Jason. Zack is extremely confident and positive. Only four occasions saw Zack ready to give it up: when the Green Ranger took out Zordon, Alpha 5 and the Command Center while removing the Rangers from the Megazord; when his team was placed under a spell to take away their confidence; and when their Dinozords were commandeered by Lord Zedd 's first monster, Pirantishead. But the first occasion happened very early in the series when his friends pretended to have forgotten his birthday. Zack went off into a secluded area, and into a trap by Rita Repulsa. For some time, he had to fight the powerful Knasty Knight alone. Oddly enough, despite his plentiful confidence, Zack is an extreme ophidiophobe, arachnophobe, and entomophobe meaning he is terrified of snakes, spiders, and insects although, on one occasion when performing magic for a group of children seeking shelter from a monster attack, he handled two fake snakes and used them to scare off Bulk and Skull. Because of this, it can be assumed that Zack 's fear of snakes deteriorated over time, especially after an encounter on Rita 's Island of Illusion where his strength of will was tested against his fear of snakes.
Zack enjoyed martial arts just as much as he did dancing and, as a result, created his own fighting style, called Hip Hop kido. The customized art consisted of dance - like maneuvers flourished with fast and powerful strikes, much like Capoeira or as seen by actor Daniel O ' Neill in Bangkok Adrenaline. This effective combination of power and prowess made Zack an incredibly formidable combatant. However, he would sometimes tone down his style and mimic the attacks of Billy to simultaneously strike opponents. He was also very resourceful. On several occasions, it was his cunning that led his team to victory. Such occasions included his discovery of the means to overcome the Knasty Knight who was sent to isolate and destroy him on his birthday - the monster possessed the ability to redistribute the Ranger 's force in order to fry the weapons they used against him. When the storm - bringing chimera monster Goatan froze the Megazord, Zack analyzed what little resources the Megazord had left and used it to regain dominance in the battle.
After Tommy Oliver joined the team, he and Zack quickly became close friends as a result of their similar interests. When Tommy was nervous about trying to engage a romantic relationship with Kimberly, it was Zack who Tommy sought for advice. Before Tommy appeared (or if Tommy is not at the Youth Center) Zack is usually Jason 's sparring partner when practicing Karate. Tommy and Zack would also act as sparring partners for each other, as well. Though Jason was the Ranger Tommy selected to take on his Green Ranger powers after Rita eliminated Tommy 's link to the Morphing Grid, Zack is the only other individual to don the Dragon Shield when Tommy gave it to him so that it 's enhanced regenerative powers could heal Zack from the Oysterizer monster 's acidic attack.
In the Season 2 episode "Green No More, Part 1 '', Zack 's cousin Curtis was introduced, who would have a small recurring role throughout the middle of the season. Curtis was very similar to Zack due to their similar interests in dance and music, as well as their smooth - talking speech pattern. He also formed a friendship with Trini 's crush Richie. The two once even managed to fight off a group of Putties while they were skating.
When Walter Jones (Zack), Austin St. John (Jason), and Thuy Trang (Trini) left the show (over contract disputes), their characters stopped making new on - screen or face - to - camera shots - simply being shown in their Ranger uniforms, using old footage, or with doubles who were never directly facing the cameras - before they were written off in the two - part "Power Transfer '' episode in which their characters were chosen to attend the World Peace Conference. Zack 's powers were transferred to Adam Park. Though Jason later returned in Power Rangers Zeo, Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie, and the tenth anniversary special "Forever Red, '' it was never stated what became of Trini or Zack after the peace conference, although Jones did return to the show in a few episodes in Power Rangers Lost Galaxy and Power Rangers Wild Force mainly doing voicework for monsters and villains.
Kimberly is the main character in this comic book mini series published by Boom! Studios. The series is a modern remake but also serves as a continuation from Kimberly 's exit in the third season of Mighty Morphin Power Rangers. Kimberly needs to rescue a French town under siege from Goldar. She seeks help from Zordon who uses the Sword of Light to activate the latent pink energy within her. Kimberly then teleports to Zack and Trini in South America for their help. Zordon uses the Sword of Light to share Kimberly 's power with them. Zack once again becomes the black ranger. It is also revealed that Zack and Trini are in a relationship.
During the final minutes of the episode "Legendary Battle '', the Black Mighty Morphin Power Ranger appears and takes part in the battle against the Armada 's final assault. It is assumed that it is Zack while his replacement, Adam, participates as the Green Zeo Ranger.
Zack appears in the 2017 film reboot, played by Chinese - Canadian actor Ludi Lin. He is initially introduced as a school truant with an apparent need for adrenaline, willing to attempt the team 's more extreme stunts, such as jumping over a chasm. In the course of the film, it is revealed that he lives in a mobile home park with his ill mother, and Zack is her only caretaker. He is the first Ranger to try and pilot his zord, despite being told that it is only controllable once they have morphed, taking the Mastodon on a run through the hills. He rallies in time to assist the team in facing Rita in the final battle.
The choice of color for the Black Ranger (Zack Taylor) and Yellow Ranger (Trini Kwan) have been a source of criticism, due to the belief these colors are representations of their racial backgrounds. There are many parodies illustrating the perceived inherent racism of the show. According to the producers, this was not noticed until the tenth episode of Mighty Morphin Power Rangers.
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when did the war in south sudan start | South Sudanese civil war - wikipedia
South Sudan
SSLM Uganda Egypt (alleged) JEM
UNMISS
SPLM - IO Nuer White Army
TFNF SSFDP South Sudan National Army NAS (since March 2017) SSPA SS - UF Arrow Boys (since Nov. 2015)
Riek Machar (Leader of the SPLM - IO) Paulino Zangil Peter Gadet
The South Sudanese Civil War is an ongoing conflict in South Sudan between forces of the government and opposition forces. In December 2013, President Kiir accused his former deputy Riek Machar and ten others of attempting a coup d'état. Machar denied trying to start a coup and fled to lead the SPLM -- in opposition (SPLM - IO). Fighting broke out between the Sudan People 's Liberation Movement (SPLM) and SPLM - IO, igniting the civil war. Ugandan troops were deployed to fight alongside the South Sudanese government. The United Nations has peacekeepers in the country as part of the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS). In January 2014 the first ceasefire agreement was reached. Fighting continued and would be followed by several more ceasefire agreements. Negotiations were mediated by "IGAD + '' (which includes the eight regional nations called the Intergovernmental Authority on Development as well as the African Union, United Nations, China, the EU, USA, UK and Norway). A peace agreement known as the "Compromise Peace Agreement '' was signed in August 2015. Machar returned to Juba in 2016 and was appointed vice president. Following a second breakout of fighting within Juba, the SPLM - IO fled to the surrounding and previously peaceful Equatoria region. Machar was replaced by Kiir as First Vice President by Taban Deng Gai, splitting the opposition, and rebel in - fighting has become of major part of the conflict. Rivalry among Dinka factions led by the President and Malong Awan have also led to fighting. In August 2018, another power sharing agreement came into effect.
About 400,000 people are estimated to have been killed in the war, including notable atrocities such as the 2014 Bentiu massacre. Although both men have supporters from across South Sudan 's ethnic divides, subsequent fighting has had ethnic undertones. Kiir 's Dinka ethnic group has been accused of attacking other ethnic groups and Machar 's Nuer ethnic group has been accused of attacking the Dinka. More than 4 million people have been displaced, with about 1.8 million of those internally displaced, and about 2.5 million having fled to neighboring countries, especially Uganda and Sudan. Fighting in the agricultural heart in the south of the country has soared the number of people facing starvation to 6 million with famine breaking out in some areas. The country 's economy has also been devastated. According to the IMF, real income has halved since 2013 and inflation is more than 300 % per annum.
In 2010, after a disputed election, George Athor led the South Sudan Democratic Movement in rebellion against the government. The same year, a faction of the South Sudan Democratic Movement, called the Cobra Faction, led by David Yau Yau rebelled against the government they accused of being prejudiced against the Murle. His faction signed a cease - fire with the government in 2011 and his militia was reintegrated into the army but he then defected again in 2012. After the army 's notorious 2010 disarmament campaign with widespread abuses of the Shilluk people, who were alleging persecution by the ruling Dinka, John Uliny from the Shilluk people began a rebellion, leading the Upper Nile faction of the South Sudan Democratic Movement. Gabriel Tang, who led a militia allied to Khartoum during the Second Sudanese Civil War, clashed regularly with the SPLA until 2011 when his soldiers were reintegrated into the national army. In 2011, Peter Gadet led a rebellion with the South Sudan Liberation Army, but was reintegrated into the army the same year. In a strategy of co-option known as "big tent '', the government often buys off community militia and pardons its leaders. Others call the use of rebellion to receive public office as "bad culture '' and an incentive to rebel.
After rumors about a planned coup surfaced in Juba in late 2012, South Sudanese President Salva Kiir began reorganizing the senior leadership of his government, party, and military in an unprecedented scale. In January 2013, Kiir replaced the inspector general of the national police service with a lieutenant from the army and dismissed six deputy chiefs of staff and 29 major generals in the army. In February 2013, Kiir retired an additional 117 army generals but this was viewed as troublesome in regards to a power grab by others. Kiir had also suggested that his rivals were trying to revive the rifts that had provoked infighting in the 1990s. In July 2013, Kiir dismissed Vice President Riek Machar, one - time leader of the Nasir revolt, along with his entire cabinet. Kiir suspended the SPLM Secretary - General Pagan Amum Okech and forbade him from leaving Juba or speaking to the media. The decrees elicited fears of political unrest, with Machar claiming that Kiir 's move was a step towards dictatorship and announcing that he would challenge Kiir in the 2015 presidential election. He said that if the country is to be united, it can not tolerate "one man 's rule. '' Kiir disbanded all of the top - level organs of the SPLM party, including the Political Bureau, the National Convention and the National Liberation Council in November 2013. He cited their failed performance and the expiration of their term limits.
In 2010, Dennis Blair, then United States Director of National Intelligence, issued a warning that "over the next five years,... a new mass killing or genocide is most likely to occur in southern Sudan. '' In 2011, there was fighting between the Murle and the Lou Nuer, mostly over raiding cattle and abducting children to raise as their own. The Nuer White Army released a statement stating its intention to "wipe out the entire Murle tribe on the face of the earth as the only solution to guarantee long - term security of Nuer 's cattle ''. Notably, in the Pibor massacre, an estimated 900 to 3000 people were killed in Pibor. Although Machar and Kiir are both members of the SPLM, they stem from different tribes with a history of conflict. Kiir is an ethnic Dinka, while Machar is an ethnic Nuer.
It began on the evening of Sunday, 15 December 2013, at the meeting of the National Liberation Council at Nyakuron, when opposition leaders Dr. Riek Machar, Pagan Amum and Rebecca Nyandeng voted to boycott the meeting.
The South Sudanese Sudan Tribune reported clashes breaking out in the Munuki neighbourhood late on 14 December in South Sudan 's capital, Juba, between members of the presidential guard. Kiir also claimed that the fighting began when unidentified uniformed personnel started shooting at a meeting of the SPLM. Former Minister of Higher Education Peter Adwok said that on the evening 15 December after the meeting of the National Liberation Council had failed, Kiir told Major General Marial Ciennoung to disarm his soldiers of the "Tiger Battalion, '' which he did. Adwok then controversially claims that the officer in charge of the weapons stores, opened them and rearmed only the Dinka soldiers. A Nuer soldier passing by questioned this and a fistfight then ensued between the two and attracted the attention of the "commander and his deputy to the scene. '' Unable to calm the situation, more soldiers got involved and raided the stores. It culminated in the Nuer soldiers taking control of the military headquarters. The next morning, he says that Sudan People 's Liberation Army (SPLA) reinforcements arrived and dislodged the mutineers. He then explained standard procedure:
Military doctrine dictates that once a contingent of mutinous troops have been dislodged, appeal is made for their surrender and then disarmed. Those who remained loyal (to the president) are also disarmed to prevent bad blood. The loyal troops of Tiger, hailing mainly from Warrap and Aweil, have not been disarmed. In fact, they are the ones rampaging Juba, looting and shooting to kill any Nuer in the residential neighbourhoods. ''
Adwok was then placed on a list of wanted politicians, to which he said "this may be my last contribution, because, as I said, I 'm waiting for the police in order to join my colleagues in detention. '' On Christmas Day, five days after his controversial publication, Adwok was arrested and held for two days. He was later detained at the Juba airport when attempting to leave the country. His passport was also confiscated.
The military headquarters near Juba University was then attacked with fighting continuing throughout the night. The next day heavy gunfire and mortar fire were reported, and UNMISS announced that hundreds of civilians sought refuge inside its facilities Aguer said that some military installations had been attacked but that "the army is in full control of Juba, '' that the tense situation was unlikely to deteriorate, and an investigation was under way. Several people were also injured during the fighting. Juba International Airport was closed indefinitely; Kenyan airlines Fly540 and Kenya Airways indefinitely suspended flights to Juba after the airport closed. A dusk - to - dawn curfew was imposed until further notice. State - owned SSTV went off - air for several hours. When it returned to broadcasting, it aired a message by President Salva Kiir. The dissident group was said to include Sudan People 's Liberation Movement (SPLM) founder John Garang 's widow, Rebecca Garang.
Foreign Minister Barnaba Marial Benjamin claimed that those that were a part of the coup were "disgruntled '' soldiers and politicians led by Machar and that at least ten people were confirmed to have been detained, seven were confirmed as former ministers including former Finance Minister Kosti Manibe and Pagan Amum was later reported to be held in house arrest. Other arrests included those of Kiir 's critics. Information Minister Micheal Makuei Leuth claimed that Machar had left Juba with some soldiers and stolen cattle.
President Salva Kiir spoke on national television on 16 December, having abandoned his signature suit and cowboy hat for military fatigues, and said, while surrounded by government officials, that the coup had been foiled and that it was orchestrated by a group of soldiers allied with the former vice president. On 21 December, the government announced its unconditional readiness to hold peace talks with any rebel group, including Machar In a Christmas message, Kiir warned of the fighting becoming a tribal conflict. Chief Whip and MP from the large state of Eastern Equatoria, Tulio Odongi Ayahu, announced his support for Kiir. The SPLM - affiliated youth group condemned the attempted overthrow of Kiir.
Machar spoke for the first time since the crisis began on 18 December in which he said he was not aware of any coup attempt, but instead blamed Kiir for fabricating such allegations of a coup in order to settle political scores and target political opponents. He accused Kiir of inciting ethnic tensions to achieve his ends. He also said the violence was started by the presidential guard, which was founded by Kiir and told to report directly to him instead of the military. He refused to deny or acknowledge support for Gadet but that "the rebels are acting in the right direction. '' On 22 December, Machar said he wanted to be the leader of the country and that "his '' forces would maintain control of the country 's oil fields.
Former undersecretary of culture, Jok Madut Jok, warned that the violence could "escalate into tragic acts of ethnic cleansing ''.
Fighting also occurred near the presidential palace and other areas of Juba. Ajak Bullen, a doctor at a military hospital, said that "so far, we have lost seven soldiers who died while they were waiting for medical attention and a further 59 who were killed outside. '' The International Crisis Group (ICG) also reported that Machar 's house had been bombarded and "surrounded, including with tanks '', while "parts of Juba have been reduced to rubble ''. The local Radio Tamazuj suggested UNMISS were absent from the streets in Juba and that December 2013 's president of the UN Security Council had announced that the peacekeepers would not intervene in the fighting. A semblance of calm returned to Juba by 18 December. The UN reported that 13,000 people were taking refuge from the fighting in its two compounds in Juba. Violence in Juba reportedly calmed, though there were unconfirmed reports of several students killed by security personnel at Juba University on 18 December. On 10 February 2014, the UN base in Juba was surrounded by armed government troops and policemen, who demanded that the UN surrender Nuer civilians sheltering there.
The UN announced that thousands of people had sought refuge within the UN 's compounds. Two Indian peacekeepers were killed helping to protect 36 civilians in Akobo, Jonglei, when they were attacked by about 2,000 armed Nuer youths. The attackers were apparently intending to kill the civilians sheltering at the UN base, in a move condemned by the UN Secretary - General Ban Ki - moon.
About 200 employees of petroleum operators, of which the three largest were China National Petroleum Corp, ONGC Videsh and Petronas, sought refuge at an UN compound in Bentiu. This followed the deaths of 16 such workers, five workers at a field in Unity State on 18 December and another 11 at the Thar Jath field the next day. Government soldiers then took control of the fields and said that production continued normally. The rebels had reportedly taken over at least some of the country 's oil fields amidst fears of Sudan intervening in the country.
In the north of Unity, Pariang county is home to the Rueng Dinka -- the only Dinka group in the state. Fighting broke out in Pariang on 20 December, when some SPLA troops defected to the rebels. On 24 December, an estimated 400 defectors moved southwards from Jaw, the SPLA 's northernmost operating base towards positions held by SPLA forces loyal to Koang Chuol. As of 26 December, the SPLA claimed they had destroyed 37 rebel vehicles in Pariang county, which remains in the hands of the SPLA.
Following calls from the government of South Sudan, Uganda deployed its troops to Juba to assist in securing the airport and evacuating Ugandan citizens. On 21 December a flight of three US Air Force V - 22 Osprey aircraft en route to evacuate US nationals from Bor took small arms fire from the ground, injuring four Navy SEALs. South Sudan blamed the rebels for the incident. A second evacuation attempt by four UN and civilian helicopters succeeded in evacuating about 15 US nationals, Sudanese - Americans and those working in humanitarian operations, from the United Nations base in Bor on 22 December. Although the base was surrounded by 2,000 armed youths, a rebel commander had promised safe passage for the evacuation. In total 380 officials and private citizens as well as about 300 foreign citizens were flown to Nairobi. The United States military announced a repositioning of its forces in Africa to prepare for possible further evacuations as the United Nations warned of the planned strikes. Many of these reports have come from the hundreds of foreign oil company employees gathered at the airport to leave. Five Ugandan and ten Kenyan citizens were also evacuated from Bor and then Juba before leaving the country. The Kenyan government said that there were 30,000 of its nationals in the country and that 10,000 had applied for emergency documents.
On 22 December 2013, U.S. and Nigerian envoys were on their way to Juba to try to negotiate a solution. The U.S. envoy to the country, Donald Booth, saying that having spoken to Kiir, the latter was committed to talks with Machar without preconditions. Machar said that the rebel side was ready for talks that could possibly occur in Ethiopia. He said he wanted free and fair elections and that it is best if Kiir leaves. His conditions for talks were that his "comrades '', including Rebecca Garang and Pagan Amum, be released from detention to be evacuated to Addis Ababa. Information minister Makuei said those involved in the coup would not be released and dismissed claim that the rebels had taken the major oil fields.
Fighting had spread to Bor by December 17, where three people had died and over 1,000 people sought refuge in the UN base. On 19 December 2013, Nuer soldiers led by Peter Gadet, the defected former 8th Division commander, claimed control of Bor, while Aguer admitted that the army lost control of Bor. Ethnically targeted violence was also reported and the Dinka feared a repeat of the Bor massacre. On December 23, Aguer said the army was on its way to Jonglei and Unity to retake territory. On 24 December, the government of South Sudan claimed to have recaptured Bor. Most of Gadet 's troops had left by the end of the day. On 27 December, Machar condemned Ugandan interference, claimed Ugandan air forces bombed their positions in Bor. There was also tension at the UN compound in the city as armed fighters had entered it and about 17,000 civilians seeking protection were at the location. The UN also reported that their base was being reinforced with additional protective barriers, including the area hosting the displaced civilians. On 29 December, a U.N. helicopter spotted a group of armed youths 50 kilometres (31 mi) from Bor but could not confirm their numbers. On 30 December, South Sudanese government troops clashed with ethnic White Army militiamen and other rebel factions loyal to Machar late on Monday near Bor. By the 31 December, the rebels were reaching the center of Bor and by January 2, Nhial admitted government withdrawal from the city and Kiir declared a state of emergency in Unity and Jonglei states, where rebels controlled the capitals. On 4 January intense battles involving tanks and artillery were reported on the outskirts of Bor, which by this time had changed hands three times since fighting in as many weeks. Rebels claimed that a South Sudanese army general has been killed in the fighting, as his convoy approaching Bor was ambushed. The SPLA brought large numbers of reinforcements bringing the total SPLA troops 25 km (16 mi) Bor close to 2,000.
On 25 December, fighting continued in Malakal, according to Ateny, who added that the oil fields were secured and denied rebels had taken over the city. On 27 December, the army said it had taken back full control of Malakal, the administrative center of Upper Nile, a state which currently supplied all of South Sudan 's crude oil, after fighting shut down oil fields in other areas. By February 2014, the UN compound in Malakal housed around 20,000 people who had fled the conflict. Rebel forces claimed to have recaptured Malakal from the army, while army forces claimed to have held the city after heavy fighting. The UNMISS reported that on 14 January heavy fighting broke out near the UN compound in Malakal. One civilian was killed and dozens of civilians were wounded in that attack. Civilians emptied out of the town, and at least 200 drowned when their overcrowded boat sank as they tried to flee across the Nile. On 15 January, fighting continued in the streets of Malakal with both sides claiming to control the town. On 18 February 2014, fighting between members of various ethnicities broke out within the UN Mission in the capital city of Upper Nile State, Malakal, resulting in ten deaths.
In Bentiu, capital of Unity State, SPLA 4th Division divided along factional lines with troops, including division commander James Koang, clashed with loyal troops, who retreated from their barracks on 20 December 2013. The next day, Koang announced allegiance to Machar and declared an ' interim government ' of the state and state governor Nugen Monytuel fled Mayom county. The loyal soldiers retreated to the outlying Abiemnom County and were reinforced by Western Bahr el Ghazal 's 5th division and the Northern Bahr el Ghazal 's 3rd division to take back Bentiu. South Sudan Liberation Movement (SSLA) militia forces, led by the Bul Nuer commander Matthew Puljang, decided to support them. By 27 December, a combined force of SSLA and SPLA seized Mayom, 90 kilometers from Bentiu, on 29 December. Peter Dak, the rebel commander in Mayom, announced that he fled the town on 7 January. Around 8 January 2014, the SPLA forces advanced on Bentiu, which had been mostly evacuated, securing the city on 10 January 2014.
Negotiations between both sides were mediated by "IGAD + '' (which includes the eight regional nations as well as the African Union, United Nations, China, the EU, USA, UK and Norway). In order to ensure a stronger negotiating position, South Sudanese troops fighting alongside Ugandan troops retook every town held by the rebels, including Bor on January 18 and Malakal on January 20. Government troops were assisted by Ugandan troops, against the wishes of IGAD who feared a wider regional conflict. Uganda announced they had joined the fight in January after previously denying it, saying the troops were to only to evacuate Ugandan nationals. On 23 January 2014, representatives of the Government of South Sudan and representatives of rebel leader Riek Machar reached a ceasefire agreement in Ethiopia. The deal also stipulated that 11 officials close to rebel leader Machar should be released.
Only a few days later, the rebels accused that a government takeover of Leer was a deliberate attempt to sabotage the second round of talks that were to start later in February. The rebels threatened to boycott the second round talks, demanding the release of four remaining political prisoners and the withdrawal of Ugandan troops. Later in February, the rebels attacked the strategic government controlled Malakal and the government admitted withdrawal and then, in March, the rebels admitted withdrawal, changing hands for the fifth time. In April, rebels claimed once again to have seized Bentiu and by April 19 South Sudan 's army admitted to have "lost communication '' with commanders battling in Unity state. The 2014 Bentiu massacre occurred on 15 April in Bentiu when more than 200 civilians, all said to have been Dinkas, were massacred by Nuer rebels. A mosque, hospital, and church were targeted where civilians had sought refuge from the fighting. After the fall of Bentiu, Salva Kiir sacked Army chief James Hoth Mai and replaced him with Paul Malong Awan.
In May 2014, the government signed a peace agreement called the Greater Pibor Administrative Area peace agreement with the largely Murle group, the Cobra Faction of the South Sudan Democratic Movement, led by David Yau Yau. As part of the agreement, a semi-autonomous area called the Greater Pibor Administrative Area was created to increase the minority populations within its borders and David Yau Yau was appointed chief administrator, equivalent to state governor. In February 2015, a largely Murle group, unhappy with the agreement with the government, split off from the Cobra Faction to form the Greater Pibor Forces and declared allegiance to Machar. One of their disagreements with the government was the alleged provoking of the Murle to fight against anti-government Nuer groups in Jonglei. In April 2016, Murle fighters in South Sudan crossed over to Gambela in Ethiopia and killed more than 200 people, stole 2000 cattle and kidnapped more than 100 children from the Nuer tribe.
On 9 May 2014, President Salva Kiir and Riek Machar signed the second ceasefire in Addis Ababa, a one - page agreement recommitting to the first ceasefire. Hostilities were to end in 24 hours while a permanent ceasefire would be worked on and it promised to open humanitarian corridors and allow "30 days of tranquility '' so farmers can sow crops and prevent famine. Hours after the ceasefire was to be in effect, both sides accused each other of violating the ceasefire. On 11 June 2014, both parties agreed to begin talks on the formation of a transitional government within 60 days and to a third ceasefire refraining from combat during this period. However, the talks collapsed as both sides boycotted the talks, and by 16 June, the ceasefire was reported to have been violated. In August 2014, Kiir and leaders of South Sudan 's neighbouring states sign a roadmap leading to a transitional government of national unity. Machar refuses to sign up, accusing leaders in the IGAD, a regional group involved in the negotiations, of tilting the process in favour of Kiir. In November 2014, both parties renew the much - broken ceasefire and IGAD mediators give them 15 days to reach a power - sharing deal, threatening sanctions if they fail. This third ceasefire breaks down 24 hours later with fighting in the oil - rich north. In January 2015, rival factions sign a reunification agreement in Arusha, Tanzania, but fighting continued. In February 2015, Kiir and Machar signed a document on "Areas of Agreement '' for a future transitional government of national unity and recommitted themselves to the ceasefire. The talks later collapsed and fighting broke out in March.
Johnson Olony led a militia that planned to be integrated into the SPLM government forces, but he switched to oppose the government when the government announced plans to carve up new states which the Shilluk felt was to divide their homeland. On 16 May 2015, Olony 's militia and elements of the SPLM - IO captured Upper Nile 's capital, Malakal, as well as Anakdiar and areas around Kodok. His Shilluk militia group now called itself the ' Agwelek forces '. The group said they want to run their affairs independently from others in Upper Nile State, and SPLM - IO backed away from claims that it is in charge of Olony 's group and stated that Olony 's interests simply coincides with theirs. SPLM - IO said they understood the feeling from the Shilluk community that they wanted a level of independence and that that was the reason the SPLM - IO last year created Fashoda state for the Shilluk kingdom and appointed Tijwog Aguet, a Shilluk, as governor.
On 11 August 2015, Gabriel Tang, Gathoth Gatkuoth, the former SPLM - IO logistics chief, and rebel commander Peter Gadet, announced that they and other powerful commanders had split from Riek Machar, and rejected ongoing peace talks, announcing that they would now combat Riek Machar 's forces in addition to government forces. Gathoth Gatkuoth states he wishes for a President who is neither Dinka nor Nuer and intended to register his group as a political group called the "Federal Democractic Party '' and that their forces would be called the "South Sudan National Army ''.
In late August 2015, Salva Kiir signed a peace agreement previously signed by Riek Machar called the "Compromise Peace Agreement '' mediated by IGAD +. The agreement would make Riek Machar the vice-president again. The agreement established the Joint Monitoring and Evaluation Commission (JMEC) responsible for monitoring and overseeing implementation of the agreement. On 20 October 2015, Uganda announced that it will voluntarily withdraw its soldiers from South Sudan, in accordance to that peace agreement. In January 2016, David Yau Yau dissolved the Cobra Faction of the South Sudan Democratic Movement and joined the SPLM. In January Gathoth Gatkuoth joined with the government but was dismissed by his Federal Democratic Party for doing so. In April 2016, as part of the peace deal, Machar returned to Juba with troops loyal to him and was sworn in as vice-president.
On Christmas Eve 2015, Salva Kiir announced he was going forward with a plan to increase the number of states from 10 to 28 and then, five days later, swore in all new governors appointed by him and considered loyal to him. The new borders give Kiir 's Dinkas a majority in strategic locations. Some observers feel that the government is holding on to the peace deal to maintain international aid while backing campaigns to increase Dinka control over land and resources traditionally held by other groups. As the predominantly Shilluk Agwelek forces joined, in July 2016, with the SPLM - IO, which entered the peace agreement with the government, some Shilluk felt dissatisfied. After the establishment of the new states, a new group made up of mostly Shilluk formed the "Tiger Faction New Forces '' (TFNF) in October 2015, led by General Yohanis Okiech. They rejected joining the SPLM - IO or the peace agreement and called for the restoration of the original 1956 borders of the Shilluk territories. When Dinka cattle herders, allegedly backed by the SPLA, occupied farmland, Azande youth rose up into militias mostly with the Arrow Boys, whose leader Alfred Karaba Futiyo Onyang declared allegiance to SPLM - IO and claimed to have occupied parts of Western Equatoria. A new rebel faction calling itself the South Sudan Federal Democratic Party (different from but related to the larger similarly named rebel faction led by Peter Gadet, Gabriel Chang and Gathoth Gatkuoth), made up mostly of Lotuko people formed during this time due to growing perceptions of mistreatment by the "Dinka '' government and took over a SPLA outpost in Eastern Equatoria. In February 2016, Dinka SPLA soldiers attacked a UN camp targeting Nuer and Shilluk who accused the government of annexing parts of their ancestral land. About a year after the peace agreement was signed, groups of ethnic Dinka youth and the SPLA targeted members of the Fertit in Wau, killing dozens and forcing more than 120,000 to flee their homes. As result, local Fertit tribal militias and groups allied with the SPLM - IO rose in rebellion, causing heavy clashes in the originally relatively peaceful Wau State, which continued for months.
Violence erupted in July 2016 after an attack outside of where President Kiir and Riek Machar were meeting in Juba. Fighting spread throughout the city. Over 300 people were killed and over 40 people were injured, including civilians. In the following week, 26,000 fled to neighboring Uganda. Indian Air Force evacuated Indian citizens from the country under Operation Sankat Mochan. A spokesman for Riek Machar announced that South Sudan was "back to war '' and that opposition forces based in areas of Juba had been attacked by forces loyal to the President. Fighting involving heavy machine guns, mortars and tanks was reported in several parts of Juba on 10 July. Gun battles broke out near the airport and a UN base forcing the airport to close for safety reasons. President Salva Kiir and first Vice-President Riek Machar ordered a ceasefire after days of intense violence. Machar fled Juba after the clashes. After a 48 - hour ultimatum given by Kiir for Machar to return to Juba to progress with the peace agreement talks passed, the SPLA - IO in Juba appointed lead negotiator Taban Deng Gai to replace Machar and the government accepted him as acting vice-president. Machar said any talks would be illegal because Machar had previously fired Gai. Machar, with assistance from the UN, went to exile, first to Kinshasa then to Sudan and then to South Africa, where he was allegedly kept in house arrest.
In September 2016, Machar announced a call for armed struggle against Kiir and in November, he said SPLM - IO would not participate in a workshop organized by JMEC, saying the peace agreement needs to be revised. In September, Lam Akol, leader of the largest opposition party, Democratic Change, announced a new faction called the National Democratic Movement (NDM) to overthrow Kiir. Yohanis Okiech, who led the largely Shilluk Tiger Faction New Forces, which split from Uliny 's Agwelek forces, joined the predominantly Shilluk NDM as deputy chief of general staff. In the same month, the Cobra Faction of the South Sudan Democratic Movement, now led by Khalid Boutros declared war against the government.
On the international front, the African Union, after the Juba clashes, backed plans for the deployment of troops from regional nations with a strong mandate similar to that of the United Nations Force Intervention Brigade that swiftly defeated the M23 rebels in the Democratic Republic of Congo as UN troops presently within the country have struggled to protect civilians. In August 2016, the UN Security Council authorized such a force for Juba. The government initially opposed the move, claiming a violation of sovereignty. With a resolution threatening an arms embargo if it blocked the new deployment, the government accepted the move with conditions such as the troops not being from neighboring countries, claiming they have interests at stake. They also accepted a hybrid court to investigate war crimes. The US pushed for an arms embargo and sanctions on Machar and army chief Paul Malong Awan through the Security Council, but it failed to receive enough votes to pass in December 2016. After an independent report into UNMISS 's failure to protect civilians in the Juba clashes, Secretary - General Ban sacked the commander of the UN force Lt Gen Johnson Mogoa Kimani Ondieki in November and then the general 's native Kenya declared that it would pull out of the key role it plays in the peace process and withdrew its more than 1000 peacekeepers from UNMISS before sending the troops back in with the start of the new UN secretary general 's tenure. On 30 April 2017, the first batch of the Regional Protection Force arrived under Brigadier General Jean Mupenzi of Rwanda with the first phase of troops arriving in August.
Among regional powers, Kiir met, in January 2017, with Egyptian president Abdel Fattah el - Sisi who also met with Kiir 's ally Ugandan President Museveni. Egypt had previously rejected the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam that Egypt feels would diminish its share of the Nile River and Ethiopian Prime Minister, Hailemariam Desalegn had accused Egyptian institutions of supporting terrorist groups in Ethiopia. SPLM - IO alleged that a "dirty deal '' was struck between Kiir and Egypt against Ethiopia while Kiir denied any diplomatic row. SPLM - IO accused the Egyptian Air Force of bombing their positions on February 4, 2017 while Egypt denied it. As a result of Sudan 's effective counterinsurgency strategy in the War in Darfur, the biggest rebel faction, the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM), retreated to South Sudan and became involved in mercenary and criminal activities according to a UN report. SPLM - IO accused JEM as well as another rebel group in Sudan, SPLM - North of joining the conflict on the side of Juba.
Since the July clashes, the fighting spread from the Greater Upper Nile to include the previously safe haven of Equatoria, where the bulk of SPLM - IO forces went for shelter from the clashes in Juba, located in Equatoria. As Equatoria is the agricultural belt of the country, the number of people facing starvation soared to 6 million. In November 2016, SPLM - IO claimed to have taken of the towns Bazi, Morobo and Kaljak. While the rebels were mostly in retreat in the upper nile front, the rebels had gained ground on the Equatorian front where the SPLA was mostly restricted to its garrisons. This was attributed to local self - defence militias becoming increasingly integrated and the depopulation of towns resulting in the army having fewer supplies even while the rebels were already adapted to the bush. However, after the fall of the main rebel headquarters of Pagak in the summer, the Southern headquarters in Lasu fell on 18 December 2017. In late May, Kiir declared a unilateral ceasefire, which was taken with suspicion by others as it came after the late April government offensive that retook much territory and before the rainy season that would have anyway reduced fighting. Three days after the government retook Lasu it signed another ceasefire with the rebels in December 2017.
The other major front of the conflict remained the Greater Upper Nile, where government forces mostly fought John Uliny 's SPLA - IO allied Agwelek forces. In a study of casualties up to early 2018, the deaths from violence peaked during this time between 2016 - 2017. In October 2016, the rebels attempted to take Malakal and by January 2017, fighting there had led to civilians deserting the country 's second largest city. In fighting in the Bahr el Ghazal region, pro-government militia Mathiang Anyoor attacked Wau killing up to 50 civilians in April 2017. In the same month, SPLA - IO captured Raja, the capital of Lol State, while state governor Hassan claimed the city was immediately retaken. A counteroffensive by the government starting in late April 2017 reversed most rebel gains, captured the capital of the Shilluk kingdom, Kodok, from Uliny and closed in on Pagak, which had been the SPLA - IO headquarters since 2014. In July 2017, SPLA along with forces loyal to Taban Deng Gai took over the rebel - held town of Maiwut. The government took over Pagak in August 2017 while the IO rebels still held territory in traditional Nuer areas of Panyijar Country in Unity state and rural areas of Jonglei and Akobo state. SPLA - IO counterattacked Taban Deng Gai 's SPLA - IO force, in an attempt to retake Pagak.
An additional dimension of the conflict became the fighting between the opposition loyal to Machar and those supporting Taban Deng, largely within the Nuer majority former state of Unity. Observers felt that Kiir had given up on negotiations by talking with Taban Deng instead of Machar during the peace talks, as Taban is seen by many in the opposition as a traitor. As part of the "National Dialogue '' initiated by Kiir in December 2016 where any former rebels who return to the capital will be given amnesty, about a dozen SPLM - IO officials defected to the government in January 2017. Gabriel Tang, who was one of the generals to have defected from Machar during the peace talks in 2015, now allied with Lam Akol 's largely Shilluk NDM and became its chief of staff. In January 2017 Tang was killed in clashes with the SPLM - IO allied Agwelek forces led by John Uliny, a move the SPLM - IO proclaimed as a warning to rival rebel factions. Two days later, Olony 's forces ambushed and killed Yohanis Okiech.
In February 2017, Deputy head of logistics Lt. Gen. Thomas Cirillo Swaka resigned, accusing Kiir of ethnic bias. This led to a series of high ranking resignations, including minister of Labour Lt. Gen. Gabriel Duop Lam who also pledged allegiance to Machar. Swaka formed a new rebel group called the National Salvation Front (NAS or NSF) in March 2017. In March 2017, Cirillo, a Bari from Equatoria, got additional support as SPLM - IO 's Western Bahr al Ghazal commander, Faiz Ismail Futur, resigned to joined NAS while there are reports of six SPLM - IO shadow governors from Equatoria defecting to NAS. In the same month, head of the Cobra Faction Khalid Boutros dissolved the Cobra Faction and merged it with Gen. Thomas Cirillo 's NAS and claimed opposition groups are in consultation to unite their ranks. In July 2017, John Kenyi Loburon, SPLA - IO 's commander of Central Equatoria state switched to join NAS, claiming favoritism towards Nuers in SPLA - IO and then as NAS general in the same month, fought with SPLA - IO in Central Equatoria in the first clashes between the two groups. By November 2017, NAS captured areas in Kajo Keji from SPLM - IO, before both groups were routed by the government. With broad support at its inception, by 2018, many had come to view NAS as simply "the Bari ''. By March 2018, nine opposition groups, including NAS, NDM, SSPA and SSLM but notably not including SPLM - IO, joined to form the ' South Sudan Opposition Alliance ' to collectively negotiate with the government.
Cracks were appearing along clan lines among the ruling Dinka. Kiir 's Dinka of Warrap were in a feud with the Dinka of Paul Malong Awan 's Aweil, who contributed the bulk of the government 's fighting force in the war. Around this time, the largely Dinka South Sudan Patriotic Army (SSPA) was formed in Northern Bahr el Ghazal, with the backing of powerful figures such as former presidential advisor Costello Garang Ring and allegedly Malong Awan. In May 2017, Kiir reduced the power of the chief of staff position and fired its powerful Dinka nationalist Malong Awan and replaced him with General James Ajonga Mawut, who is not a Dinka but a Luo. Awan left Juba with most of his Mathiang Anyoor militia while other militia members reportedly joined SSPA. By the end of 2017, SSPA had claimed to have captured territory around Aweil and was seen as one of the biggest threats to Juba. Awan was accused of plotting a rebellion and was detained but then released following pressure from the Dinka lobbying group, the Dinka Council of Elders. In April 2018, Awan announced the launch of a rebel group named South Sudan United Front (SS - UF), which claimed to push for federalism.
The United States, after failing in 2016, put additionally pressure on Juba by successfully passing an arms embargo on South Sudan in July 2018 through UN Security Council, with Russia and China abstaining from voting this time. Additionally, with neighboring Sudan facing economic troubles and relying on revenue from transporting oil from South Sudan, the Sudanese government, with a mix of incentives and coercion, brought Kiir and SPLA - IO to hold talks in Khartoum. In June 2018, they signed another ceasefire where they agreed to form a transitional government for the 36 months leading to national elections and to African Union and IGAD peacekeepers to deploy to South Sudan and state boundaries would be drawn by commission chaired by a non-South Sudanese; this ceasefire was violated just a few hours after coming into effect, when pro-government forces attacked rebels in Wau State. SPLM - IO protested when the Parliament, where the President 's party holds a majority of seats, extended the President 's term and that of other officials by three years. However, they eventually agreed to share power again with Machar to be one of five Vice Presidents and the 550 seat parliament to be divided with 332 going to Kiir 's faction, 128 to Machar 's group and the rest to other groups. The South Sudan Opposition Alliance made up of most of the rest of the rebelling militias, rejected the deal citing their small share in the power sharing agreement.
As part of amnesty offered to groups following the peace deal, on August 2018, Brigadier General Chan Garang, claiming to be lead a group of rebel soldiers from Malong 's SS - UF, came back to the government along with 300 rebel soldiers in what was seen as a weakening of SS - UF.
The government is accused by the US and aid groups among others of using starvation as a tactic of collection punishment for populations that support rebels by intentionally blocking aid.
Ateny Wek Ateny, president 's spokesman told to news conference, claims that rebel troops went into the hospital in the town of Bor last month and slaughtered 126 out of 127 patients. Apparently an elderly man was blind and rebels spared him. On January 31, 2014 in violation of the cease fire agreement, the signed Government troops attacked town of Leer in Unity State, forcing 240 Staff and patients of Doctors Without Borders in Leer to flee into the bush. Thousands of civilians have fled to the bush. Doctors Without Borders has lost contact with two thirds of its staff formerly located in Leer. It is believed that the town was attacked by government troops as it is the home of former Vice President Riek Machar. On 18 April, UN said that at least 58 people were killed and more than 100 others wounded in an attack against one of its bases in South Sudan sheltering thousands of civilians. On 17 April 2014, 58 people were killed in an attack on the UN base in Bor. 48 of those killed were civilians, while 10 were among the attackers. UN Secretary - General Ban Ki - moon emphasised that any attack on UN peacekeepers constituted "a war crime '', while the UN Security Council expressed "outrage '' at the attack. In late 2016, in a government attack on Yei, three villages were destroyed with 3,000 homes burned in a single village.
There are ethnic undertones to the conflict with the SPLM and SPLA, which have been accused of being dominated by the Dinka. A Dinka lobbying group known as the "Jieng Council of Elders '' is often accused of being behind hardline SPLM policies. While the army used to attract men from across tribes, during the war, the SPLA had largely constituted soldiers from the Dinka stronghold of Bahr el Ghazal, and the army was often referred to within the country as "the Dinka army ''. Much of the worst atrocities committed are blamed on a group known as "Dot Ke Beny '' (Rescue the President) or "Mathiang Anyoor '' (Brown caterpillar), while the SPLA claim that it is just another battalion. Immediately after the alleged coup in 2013, Dinka troops, and particularly Mathiang Anyoor, were accused of carrying out pogroms, assisted by guides, in house to house searches of Nuer suburbs, while similar door to door searches of Nuers were reported in government held Malakal. About 240 Nuer men were killed at a police station in Juba 's Gudele neighborhood. During the fighting in 2016 - 17 in the Upper Nile region between the SPLA and the SPLA - IO allied Upper Nile faction of Uliny, Shilluk in Wau Shilluk were forced from their homes and Yasmin Sooka, chairwoman of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan, claimed that the government was engaging in "social engineering '' after it transported 2,000 mostly Dinka people to the abandoned areas. The king of the Shilluk Kingdom, Kwongo Dak Padiet, claimed his people were at risk of physical and cultural extinction. In the Equatoria region, Dinka soldiers were accused of targeting civilians on ethnic lines against the dozens of ethnic groups among the Equatorians, with much of the atrocities being blamed on Mathiang Anyoor. Adama Dieng, the U.N. 's Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, warned of genocide after visiting areas of fighting in Yei. Khalid Boutros of the Cobra faction as well as officials of the Murle led Boma State accuse the SPLA of aiding attacks by Dinka from Jonglei state against Boma state, and soldiers from Jonglei captured Kotchar in Boma in 2017.
The SPLM - IO is predominantly Nuer and its head, Machar, had previously committed the Bor massacre of mostly Dinka civilians in 1991. In 2014, the Bentiu massacre occurred when Bentiu was recaptured by rebels April 2014 and 200 people were killed in a mosque. Rebels separated the people and picked out those from opposing ethnic groups who they then executed.
Since the conflict began, more than 17,000 children were used in the conflict, with 1,300 recruited in 2016.
Reported incidents of sexual violence rose 60 % in 2016, with Mundri in Equatoria 's Amadi State being called the epicenter of the problem. A UN survey found that 70 % of women who were sheltering in camps had been raped since the beginning of the conflict, with the vast majority of rapists being police and soldiers and that 80 % had witnessed someone else getting sexually assaulted. The SPLA were reported to have recruited militias and young men in Unity state to take back rebel held areas. They were given guns and their pay was what they could loot and women they could capture, who were raped.
It has been argued that with increased tension with the UN and outside powers over the government 's actions there has been a new shift in violence by the government against foreign peacekeepers, aid workers and diplomats. NGOs are viewed with suspicion, with Minister of cabinet affairs claiming "most of the (humanitarian) agencies are here to spy on the government. '' During the 2016 Juba clashes, 80 - 100 South Sudanese troops entered the Terrain hotel facility and gang raped five international aid workers, singling out Americans for abuse, with nearby peacekeepers refusing to help the victims. In July, soldiers ransacked a World Food Programme warehouse, stealing enough food to feed 220,000 people for a month, worth about $30 million. In July, a Rocket - propelled grenade was fired near a UN peacekeepers ' vehicle with two Chinese peacekeepers dying after the government refused passage to a clinic 10 miles away. In December 2016, two staff members of the Norwegian Refugee Council were expelled from the country without a formal explanation. In the deadliest attack on aid workers, six aid workers were killed in an ambush on 25 March 2017 bringing the number of aid workers killed since the start of the war to at least 79.
Violence has come from the rebel side as well. On 26 August 2014, a UN Mi - 8 cargo helicopter was shot down, killing 3 Russian crew members, and wounding another. This occurred 9 days after rebel commander Peter Gadet threatened to shoot down UN aircraft, which he alleged were transporting government forces.
During the first two days of fighting after December 15, reports indicated that 66 soldiers had been killed in clashes in Juba, and at least 800 injured. By 23 December, the number of dead had likely surpassed 1,000 people while an aid worker in the country estimated that the death toll was most likely in the tens of thousands. The International Crisis Group reported on 9 January 2014 that up to 10,000 people were estimated to have died. In November 2014, the International Crisis Group estimated the death toll could be between 50,000 and 100,000. A senior SPLA officer stated in November 2014 that the number of government soldiers killed and wounded topped 20,000, with 10,659 soldiers killed from January to October 2014 and 9,921 seriously wounded, according to a report by Radio Tamazuj. By March 2016, after more than two years of fighting, some aid workers and officials who did not want to speak on the record said the true figure might be as high as 300 000. A study by the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine of deaths leading up to April 2018, reported that about 383,000 people are conservatively estimated to have died as a result of the war, while the actual may be considerably higher, with 190,000 deaths directly attributed to violence and most of the deaths in Jonglei, Unity and Equatoria.
Two Indian UN peacekeepers were killed on 18 December when their base was stormed by rebels, and three US military Osprey aircraft were fired upon leading to four American service personnel being wounded. On 21 January 2014 Ankunda said that 9 Ugandan soldiers died in a rebel ambush at Gemeza a week ago, and 12 others had been killed in total since 23 December.
More than 4 million people have been displaced, with about 1.8 million internally displaced and about 2.5 million having fled to neighboring countries, especially Kenya, Sudan, and Uganda. This makes it the world 's third - largest refugee population after Syria and Afghanistan. About 86 % of the refugees are women and children. Uganda, which took more refugees in 2016 than all of those who crossed the Mediterranean into Europe, has had a notably generous policy. Refugees are allowed to work and travel and families get a 30 - metre by 30 - metre plot of land to build a home with additional space for farming. In just six months since being built, the Bidi Bidi Refugee Settlement in Uganda became the single largest refugee settlement on earth. However, the Ugandan government is seen as an ally of Kiir 's crackdown on rebels, although with an increasing refugee population, Uganda has pressured Kiir to make peace. The largest contingent of the Refugee Olympic Team at the 2016 Summer Olympics came from South Sudan, including its flag bearer.
After the second Juba clashes, fighting intensified in the Equatoria region. As this is the agricultural heart of the country, the number of people facing starvation in the already food insecure nation soared to 6 million. In February 2017, famine was declared in Unity state by the government and the United Nations, the first declaration of famine anywhere in the world in six years. Days after the declaration of famine, the government raised the price of a business visa from $100 to $10,000, mostly aimed at aid workers, citing a need to increase government revenue.
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which of the following characterized the boom towns of the west | Boomtown - wikipedia
A boomtown is a community that undergoes sudden and rapid population and economic growth, or that is started from scratch. The growth is normally attributed to the nearby discovery of a precious resource such as gold, silver, or oil, although the term can also be applied to communities growing very rapidly for different reasons, such as a proximity to a major metropolitan area, huge construction project, or attractive climate.
Early boomtowns, such as Leeds, Liverpool, and Manchester, experienced a dramatic surge in population and economic activity during the Industrial Revolution at the turn of the 19th century. In pre-industrial England these towns had been relative backwaters, compared to the more important market towns of Bristol, Norwich, and York, but they soon became major urban and industrial centres. Although these boomtowns did not directly owe their sudden growth to the discovery of a local natural resource, the factories were set up there to take advantage of the excellent Midlands infrastructure and the availability of large seams of cheap coal for fuel.
In the mid-19th century, boomtowns based on natural resources began to proliferate as companies and individuals discovered new mining prospects across the world. The California Gold Rush of the Western United States stimulated numerous boomtowns in that period, as settlements seemed to spring up overnight in the river valleys, mountains, and deserts around what was thought to be valuable gold mining country. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, boomtowns called mill towns would quickly arise due to sudden expansions in the timber industry; they tended to last the decade or so it took to clearcut nearby forests. Modern - day examples of resource - generated boomtowns include Fort McMurray in Canada, as extraction of nearby oilsands requires a vast number of workers, and Johannesburg in South Africa, based on the gold and diamond trade. The biggest boomtown in the early 21st century is in North Dakota, where oil fields are being exploited.
Boomtowns are typically characterized as "overnight expansions '' in both population and money, as people stream into the community for mining prospects, high - paying jobs, attractive amenities or climate, or other opportunities. Typically, newcomers are drawn by high salaries or the prospect of "striking it rich '' in mining; meanwhile, numerous indirect businesses develop to cater to workers often eager to spend their large paychecks. Often, boomtowns are the site of both economic prosperity and social disruption, as the local culture and infrastructure, if any, struggles to accommodate the waves of new residents. General problems associated with this fast growth can include: doctor shortages, inadequate medical and / or educational facilities, housing shortages, sewage disposal problems, and a lack of recreational activities for new residents.
The University of Denver separates problems associated with a mining - specific boomtown into three categories:
The initial increasing population in Perth, Australia (considered to be a modern - day boomtown) gave rise to overcrowding of residential accommodation as well as squatter populations. "The real future of Perth is not in Perth 's hands but in Melbourne and London where Rio Tinto and BHP Billiton run their organizations '', indicating that some boomtowns ' growth and sustainability are controlled by an outside entity.
Boomtowns are typically extremely dependent on the single activity or resource that is causing the boom (e.g., one or more nearby mines, mills, or resorts), and when the resources are depleted or the resource economy undergoes a "bust '' (e.g., catastrophic resource price collapse), boomtowns can often decrease in size as fast as they initially grew. Sometimes, all or nearly the entire population can desert the town, resulting in a ghost town.
This can also take place on a planned basis. Since the late 20th century, mining companies have developed temporary communities to service a mine - site, building all the accommodation shops and services, using prefabricated housing or other buildings, making dormitories out of shipping containers, and removed all such structures as the resource was worked out.
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where was the movie menace to society filmed | Menace II Society - wikipedia
Menace II Society (pronounced Menace to Society) is a 1993 American teen hood drama film directed by Allen and Albert Hughes in their directorial debut, and starring Tyrin Turner, Jada Pinkett, Larenz Tate and Samuel L. Jackson. The film is set in Watts. The film follows the life of a young man named Kaydee "Caine '' Lawson and his close friends. It gained notoriety for its scenes of violence, profanity, and drug - related content. It was released in May 1993 to critical acclaim for its gritty portrayal of urban violence and its powerful underlying messages.
Caine Lawson and his best friend Kevin Anderson (who goes by the street name O - Dog) enter a local store to buy malt liquor, while a Korean storekeeper and his wife closely watch them and urge Caine and O - Dog to hurriedly choose their drinks, pay and leave. As they leave, the storekeeper insults and angers O - Dog by remarking about feeling sorry for his mother. A brief argument starts but ends deadly as O - Dog kills the couple. He then takes the store video surveillance tape, robs the dead storekeeper 's wallet, and empties the cash register. In a flashback, it is revealed that Caine 's father was a drug dealer who was killed in a drug deal when Caine was 10, his mother was a heroin addict who later died of a drug overdose, and that he was raised by his grandparents.
In the days that follow, O - Dog proudly shows off the liquor store security tape of him shooting the storekeeper to his friends, who are impressed. Caine, however, is disgusted at O - Dog for being careless and tells him to stop showing off the videotape, fearing he and O - Dog will one day get caught. O - Dog ignores Caine 's warning and tells Caine nothing will happen.
Caine and his cousin Harold are on their way to a party one night when they get carjacked. The carjackers kill Harold, wound Caine and steal Harold 's car. O - Dog discovers who the carjackers are and where to find them. O - Dog and Caine avenge Harold 's murder by killing the carjackers.
Caine and O - Dog are hired by a local hood, Chauncey, for a car theft insurance scheme but are caught and arrested by police. A detective attempts to link Caine to the store killings by matching fingerprints, but is unsuccessful and Caine is released. Caine 's grandfather and Mr. Butler (who is Sharif 's father and a school teacher) tell Caine to change his ways or he 'll end up either in prison or dead. Stacy and Sharif also try to keep Caine out of trouble by convincing him to leave with them to Kansas, but Caine ignores everyone 's advice.
Caine begins his hustler lifestyle by buying a new car from a chop shop and carjacking another young black man for his Dayton wheels. Caine then purchases a large quantity of cocaine to cook into crack cocaine in order to sell. Caine also meets a local girl named Ilena while with his crew at a BBQ and eventually has sex with her. Caine and Sharif are driving one night when the police stop and pull them over. The police brutally beat them and then dump them in alley in a Hispanic neighborhood; members of a Hispanic gang find Caine and Sharif, but instead of killing them as the police anticipated, the Hispanic gang members take them to a hospital.
While Caine is the hospital, his friend, Ronnie, tells him that she has found a job in Atlanta and invites him to come with her. Caine is hesitant at first, but agrees to go with Ronnie to Atlanta. At a party, a drunken Chauncey makes sexual moves towards Ronnie. Caine comes to her rescue and starts pistol - whipping Chauncey. Stacy and Sharif intervene and restrain Caine. Back at home, Ilena calls to inform him that she is pregnant. Caine refuses to believe that the child is his and dogs her. Chauncey retaliates by sending a copy of the store video surveillance tape to the police.
When coming home from visiting Pernell in prison, Ilena 's cousin approaches Caine outside his house and confronts Caine for dogging Ilena. Caine starts beating up Ilena 's cousin, when Caine 's grandfather comes outside to stop Caine and kick him out of the house shortly after. Ilena 's cousin gets some of his friends together to get revenge on Caine.
As Caine and Ronnie are preparing to leave for Atlanta, Georgia, Ilena 's cousin and his friends execute a drive by on the house. Sharif is killed and Caine is fatally wounded. As Caine slowly dies in Stacy 's arms, he sees flashbacks of the events that led to this final moment, and recalls his grandfather asking him if he cares whether he lives or dies; he realizes he does, but now it 's too late.
Originally, MC Ren was set to play A-Wax, but later turned down the role when he joined the Nation of Islam in late 1992. Rapper Spice 1 was set to play Caine, and Tupac Shakur to play Sharif, but they were later fired with director Allen Hughes stating that Shakur was causing trouble on the set. Shakur was angry for not being told why Sharif would turn Muslim. Six months after the firing, Shakur assaulted the director, resulting in Shakur being found guilty of assault and battery. Shakur did not want to play the role of Sharif, as he did not agree (in regards to the authenticity of such a role) that a Muslim could also be a gangbanger. He is quoted as saying the following in a video interview,
"I said okay, cool... fire me from this $100,000 movie, because I ai n't goin ' play no gangbanger who 's a Muslim. There ai n't no such thing, I refuse to play parts that do n't exist. I will be a young nigga, but will be a real young nigga. ''
Shakur wanted to play O - Dog. Shakur and Spice 1 were later replaced with Larenz Tate and Tyrin Turner, respectively.
Menace II Society received generally positive reviews from critics. The film scored an 85 % ' fresh ' rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 35 reviews. Chicago Reader critic Jonathan Rosenbaum stated, "This is a powerful, convincing, and terrifying look at teenage crime in contemporary Watts. '' Owen Gleiberman from Entertainment Weekly gave it a positive review, stating, "Menace II Society is bleak, brilliant, and unsparing. '' EmanuelLevy.com gave the film an A, saying it is "The most stunning feature debut in the new African American cinema, even more so than Boyz n the Hood to which the coming of age feature bears thematic resemblance. '' The film was placed on both Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert 's 10 best films of 1993 lists, with Ebert praising "the way the filmmakers tell Caine 's story without making him seem either the hero or victim ''.
However, the film has also received some negative reviews. Geoff Andrew of Time Out stated, "Regrettably, the Hughes Brothers ' first feature is a compendium of cliches. '' Stephen Holden of The New York Times stated, "If Menace II Society is terrific on ambiance, it is considerably less successful in revealing character. '' At the 1994 MTV Movie Awards, the film was awarded Best Movie, beating out the likes of Philadelphia, Jurassic Park and Schindler 's List. The film also won an Independent Spirit Award for Best Cinematography.
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when did the battle of gallipoli start and end | Gallipoli campaign - wikipedia
British Empire
Ottoman Empire Supported by:
5 divisions (initial) 15 divisions (final) Total: 489,000
Supported by
6 divisions (initial) 16 divisions (final)
British Empire: 160,790 battle casualties 3,778 + died of disease 90,000 evacuated sick French Empire: 27,169 battle casualties deaths from disease: unknown 20,000 evacuated sick
Ottoman Empire: 56,643 killed 97,007 wounded or injured 11,178 missing or PoW 64,440 evacuated sick 21,000 died of disease
* 1st Anzac Cove
The Gallipoli Campaign, also known as the Dardanelles Campaign, the Battle of Gallipoli, or the Battle of Çanakkale (Turkish: Çanakkale Savaşı), was a campaign of the First World War that took place on the Gallipoli peninsula (Gelibolu in modern Turkey) in the Ottoman Empire between 17 February 1915 and 9 January 1916. The peninsula forms the northern bank of the Dardanelles, a strait that provided a sea route to the Russian Empire, one of the Allied powers during the war. Intending to secure it, Russia 's allies, Britain and France, launched a naval attack followed by an amphibious landing on the peninsula, with the aim of capturing the Ottoman capital of Constantinople (modern Istanbul). The naval attack was repelled and after eight months ' fighting, with many casualties on both sides, the land campaign was abandoned and the invasion force was withdrawn to Egypt.
The campaign was the only major Ottoman victory of the war. In Turkey, it is regarded as a defining moment in the nation 's history, a final surge in the defence of the motherland as the Ottoman Empire crumbled. The struggle formed the basis for the Turkish War of Independence and the declaration of the Republic of Turkey eight years later, with Mustafa Kemal (Kemal Atatürk) as President, who rose to prominence as a commander at Gallipoli. The campaign is often considered to be the beginning of Australian and New Zealand national consciousness; 25 April, the anniversary of the landings, is known as "Anzac Day '', the most significant commemoration of military casualties and veterans in the two countries, surpassing Remembrance Day (Armistice Day).
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire had the reputation of being the "sick man of Europe '', weakened by political instability, military defeat and civil strife following a century of slow decline. Also, it had uprisings from minority nationalism. In 1908, a group of young officers, known as the Young Turks, seized power in Constantinople, while Mehmed V was later installed as a figurehead Sultan in 1909. The new régime implemented a program of reform to modernise the outdated political and economic system and to redefine the racial make - up of the empire. An enthusiastic supporter, Germany provided significant investment. German diplomats subsequently found increasing influence, despite Britain previously being the predominant power in the region, while German officers assisted in training and re-equipping the army.
Despite this support, the economic resources of the Ottoman Empire were depleted by the cost of the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 and the French, British and Germans had offered financial aid. A pro-German faction influenced by Enver Pasha, the former Ottoman military attaché in Berlin, opposed the pro-British majority in the Ottoman cabinet and tried to secure closer relations with Germany. In December 1913, the Germans sent a military mission to Constantinople, headed by General Otto Liman von Sanders. The geographical position of the Ottoman Empire meant that Russia and her allies France and Britain had a significant interest in Turkish neutrality in the event of war in Europe.
During the Sarajevo Crisis in 1914, German diplomats offered Turkey an anti-Russian alliance and territorial gains in Caucasia, north - west Iran and Trans - Caspia. The pro-British faction in the cabinet was isolated due to the British ambassador taking leave until 18 August. As the crisis deepened in Europe, Ottoman policy was to obtain a guarantee of territorial integrity and potential advantages, unaware that the British might enter a European war. On 30 July 1914, two days after the outbreak of the war in Europe, the Ottoman leaders agreed to form a secret Ottoman - German Alliance against Russia, although it did not require them to undertake military action.
On 2 August, the British requisitioned two modern battleships -- Sultân Osmân - ı Evvel and Reşadiye which British shipyards had started building for the Ottoman Navy -- for their own use, alienating pro-British elements in Constantinople, despite the offer of compensation if they remained neutral. This action strained diplomatic relations between the two empires and the German government offered SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau to the Ottoman Navy as replacements, in an attempt to gain influence. The Allies tried to intercept the ships, which escaped when the Ottoman government opened the Dardanelles to allow them passage to Constantinople, despite being required under international law, as a neutral party, to block military shipping. By allowing the German ships to enter the Dardanelles, the Ottomans confirmed their links to Germany.
In September, the British naval mission to the Ottomans, which had been established in 1912 under Admiral Arthur Limpus, was recalled due to increasing concern that Turkey would soon enter the war. Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon of the Imperial German Navy took over command of the Ottoman navy. Acting without orders from the Ottoman government, on 27 September the German commander of the Dardanelles fortifications ordered the passage closed, adding to the impression that the Ottomans were "in the German camp ''. The German naval presence and the success of German armies on all fronts, gave the pro-German faction in the Ottoman government enough influence to declare war on Russia.
On 27 October, Goeben and Breslau, having been renamed Yavûz Sultân Selîm and Midilli, sortied into the Black Sea, bombarded the Russian port of Odessa and sank several Russian ships. The Ottomans refused an Allied demand that they expel the German missions and on 31 October 1914, officially entered the war on the side of the Central Powers. Russia declared war on Turkey on 2 November. The next day, the British ambassador left Constantinople and a British naval squadron off the Dardanelles bombarded the outer defensive forts at Kum Kale on the northern Asian coast and Seddülbahir on the southern tip of the Gallipoli Peninsula. A shell hit a magazine, knocked the guns off their mounts and killed 86 soldiers.
Britain and France declared war on Turkey on 5 November and the Ottomans declared a jihad (holy war) later that month, launching an offensive in the Caucasus against the Russians to regain former Turkish provinces there. Fighting also began in Mesopotamia, following a British landing to occupy the oil facilities in the Persian Gulf. The Ottomans prepared to attack Egypt in early 1915, aiming to occupy the Suez Canal and cut the Mediterranean route to India and the Far East. The historian Hew Strachan wrote that in hindsight Ottoman belligerence was inevitable, once Goeben and Breslau were allowed into the Dardanelles and that delays after that were caused by Ottoman unreadiness for war and Bulgarian neutrality, rather than uncertainty about policy.
Before the Dardanelles operation was conceived, the British had planned to conduct an amphibious invasion near Alexandretta on the Mediterranean Sea, an idea originally presented by Boghos Nubar in 1914. This plan was developed by the Secretary of State for War, Field Marshal Earl Kitchener to sever the capital from Syria, Palestine and Egypt. Alexandretta was an area with a Christian population and was the strategic centre of the Empire 's railway network -- its capture would have cut the empire in two. Vice Admiral Sir Richard Peirse, East Indies Station, ordered Captain Frank Larkin of HMS Doris to Alexandretta on 13 December 1914. At the same time, in the same area, the Russian cruiser Askold and the French cruiser Requin were performing similar operations. Kitchener was working on the plan as late as March 1915. This plan was also the beginning of Britain 's successful effort to start an Arab Revolt. The Alexandretta landing was abandoned because militarily it would have required more resources than France could allocate and politically France did not want the British operating in their sphere of influence, a position to which Britain had agreed in 1912.
By late 1914 the war on the Western Front had become a stalemate; the Franco - British counter-offensive of the First Battle of the Marne had ended and the British had suffered many casualties in the First Battle of Ypres in Flanders. Lines of trenches had been dug by both sides, running from the Swiss border to the English Channel as the war of manoeuvre ended and trench warfare began. The German Empire and Austria - Hungary closed the overland trade routes between Britain and France in the west and Russia in the east. The White Sea in the arctic north and the Sea of Okhotsk in the Far East were icebound in winter and distant from the Eastern Front, the Baltic Sea was blockaded by the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial German Navy) and the entrance to the Black Sea through the Dardanelles was controlled by the Ottoman Empire. While the empire remained neutral supplies could still be sent to Russia through the Dardanelles but prior to the Ottoman entry into the war the straits had been closed and in November they began to mine the waterway.
French Minister of Justice Aristide Briand 's proposal in November to attack the Ottoman Empire was rejected and an attempt by the British to pay the Ottomans to join the Allied side also failed. Later that month, Winston Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, proposed a naval attack on the Dardanelles, based in part on erroneous reports of Ottoman troop strength. Churchill wanted to use a large number of obsolete battleships, which could not operate against the German High Seas Fleet, in a Dardanelles operation, with a small occupation force provided by the army. It was hoped that an attack on the Ottomans would also draw Bulgaria and Greece (both formerly ruled by the Ottomans) into the war on the Allied side. On 2 January 1915, Grand Duke Nicholas of Russia appealed to Britain for assistance against the Ottomans, who were conducting an offensive in the Caucasus. Planning began for a naval demonstration in the Dardanelles to divert troops from the Caucasian theatre of operations.
On 17 February 1915, a British seaplane from HMS Ark Royal flew a reconnaissance sortie over the Straits. Two days later, the first attack on the Dardanelles began when a strong Anglo - French task force, including the British battleship HMS Queen Elizabeth, began a long - range bombardment of Ottoman coastal artillery batteries. The British had intended to use eight aircraft from Ark Royal to spot for the bombardment but harsh conditions rendered all but one of these, a Short Type 136, unserviceable. A period of bad weather slowed the initial phase but by 25 February the outer forts had been reduced and the entrance cleared of mines. After this, Royal Marines were landed to destroy guns at Kum Kale and Seddülbahir, while the naval bombardment shifted to batteries between Kum Kale and Kephez.
Frustrated by the mobility of the Ottoman batteries, which evaded the Allied bombardments and threatened the minesweepers sent to clear the Straits, Churchill began pressuring the naval commander, Admiral Sackville Carden, to increase the fleet 's efforts. Carden drew up fresh plans and on 4 March sent a cable to Churchill, stating that the fleet could expect to arrive in Constantinople within 14 days. A sense of impending victory was heightened by the interception of a German wireless message that revealed the Ottoman Dardanelles forts were running out of ammunition. When the message was relayed to Carden, it was agreed a main attack would be launched on or around 17 March. It transpired that Carden, suffering from stress, was placed on the sick list by the medical officer and command was taken over by Admiral John de Robeck.
Panoramic view of the Allied fleet in the Dardanelles
On 18 March 1915, the main attack was launched by the Allied fleet, comprising 18 battleships with a supporting array of cruisers and destroyers, against the narrowest point of the Dardanelles, where the straits are 1 mile (1.6 km) wide. Despite some damage to the Allied ships engaging the forts caused by Ottoman fire, minesweepers were ordered to proceed along the straits. According to an account by the Ottoman General Staff, by 2: 00 p.m. "all telephone wires were cut, all communications with the forts were interrupted, some of the guns had been knocked out... in consequence the artillery fire of the defence had slackened considerably ''. The French battleship Bouvet was sunk by a mine, causing it to capsize with her crew of over 600 still aboard. Minesweepers manned by civilians, retreated under the constant fire of Ottoman guns, leaving the minefields largely intact. HMS Irresistible and HMS Inflexible were critically damaged by mines and sunk, although there was confusion during the battle about the cause of the damage -- some blamed torpedoes. HMS Ocean, sent to rescue the Irresistible, was also damaged by an explosion and eventually sank.
The French battleships Suffren and Gaulois were also damaged; the ships had sailed through a new line of mines placed secretly by the Ottoman minelayer Nusret ten days before. The losses forced de Robeck to sound the "general recall '' to protect what remained of his force. During the planning of the campaign, naval losses had been anticipated and so it was mainly obsolete battleships, which were unfit to face the German fleet, that had been sent. Some of the senior naval officers, such as the commander of Queen Elizabeth, Commodore Roger Keyes, felt that they had come close to victory, believing that the Ottoman guns had almost run out of ammunition but the views of de Robeck, the First Sea Lord Jackie Fisher and others prevailed. This ended Allied attempts to force the straits using naval power, due to unacceptable losses and bad weather. Planning to capture the Turkish defences by land began and two Allied submarines tried to traverse the Dardanelles but were lost to mines and the strong currents.
After the failure of the naval attacks, troops were assembled to eliminate the Ottoman mobile artillery, which was preventing the Allied minesweepers from clearing the way for the larger vessels. Kitchener appointed General Sir Ian Hamilton to command the 78,000 men of the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force (MEF). Soldiers from the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) and New Zealand Expeditionary Force (NZEF) were encamped in Egypt, undergoing training prior to being sent to France. The Australian and New Zealand troops were formed into the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC Corps, Lieutenant General Sir William Birdwood), comprising the volunteer 1st Australian Division and the New Zealand and Australian Division. The ANZAC troops were joined by the regular 29th Division and the Royal Naval Division. The French Corps expéditionnaire d'Orient (Orient Expeditionary Corps), consisting of metropolitan and colonial troops, was subsequently placed under Hamilton 's command.
Over the following month, Hamilton prepared his plan and the British and French divisions joined the Australians in Egypt. Hamilton chose to concentrate on the southern part of the Gallipoli peninsula at Cape Helles and Seddülbahir, where an unopposed landing was expected. The Allies initially discounted the fighting ability of the Ottoman soldiers. The naïveté of the Allied planners was illustrated by a leaflet that was issued to the British and Australians while they were still in Egypt,
Turkish soldiers as a rule manifest their desire to surrender by holding their rifle butt upward and by waving clothes or rags of any colour. An actual white flag should be regarded with the utmost suspicion as a Turkish soldier is unlikely to possess anything of that colour.
The underestimation of Ottoman military potential stemmed from a "sense of superiority '' among the Allies, because of the decline of the Ottoman Empire and its poor performance in Libya in 1911 and the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913. Allied intelligence failed to adequately prepare for the campaign, in some cases relying on information gained from Egyptian travel guides. The troops for the assault were loaded on transports in the order they were to disembark, causing a long delay which meant that many troops, including the French at Mudros, were forced to detour to Alexandria to embark on the ships that would take them into battle. A five - week delay until the end of April ensued, during which the Ottomans strengthened their defences on the peninsula; although bad weather during March and April might have delayed the landings anyway, preventing supply and reinforcement. Following preparations in Egypt, Hamilton and his headquarters staff arrived at Mudros on 10 April. The ANZAC Corps departed Egypt in early April and assembled on the island of Lemnos in Greece on 12 April, where a small garrison had been established in early March and practice landings were undertaken. The British 29th Division departed for Mudros on 7 April and the Royal Naval Division rehearsed on the island of Skyros, after arriving there on 17 April. That day, the British submarine HMS E15 (Captain T.S. Brodie), tried to run the straits but hit a submarine net, ran aground and was shelled by a Turkish fort, killing Brodie and six of the crew; the survivors were forced to surrender. The Allied fleet and British and French troops assembled at Mudros, ready for the landings but poor weather from 19 March grounded Allied aircraft for nine days and on 24 days only a partial programme of reconnaissance flights were possible.
The Ottoman force prepared to repel a landing on either side of the Straits was the 5th Army. This force, which initially consisted of five divisions with another en route, was a conscript force, commanded by von Sanders. Many of the senior officers in the 5th Army were also German. Ottoman commanders and senior German officers debated the best means of defending the peninsula. All agreed that the best defence was to hold the high ground on the ridges of the peninsula. There was disagreement as to where the enemy would land and hence where to concentrate forces. Lieutenant Colonel Mustafa Kemal was familiar with the Gallipoli peninsula from his operations against Bulgaria in the Balkan Wars and forecast that Cape Helles (the southern tip of the peninsula) and Gaba Tepe were the likely areas for landing.
Kemal believed that the British would use their naval power to command the land from every side at the tip of the peninsula; at Gaba Tepe, the short distance to the eastern coast meant that the Allies could easily reach the Narrows (the right - angled bend in the middle of the Dardanelles). Sanders considered Besika Bay on the Asiatic coast to be the most vulnerable to invasion, since the terrain was easier to cross and was convenient to attack the most important Ottoman batteries guarding the straits and a third of the 5th Army was assembled there. Two divisions were concentrated at Bulair at the north end of the Gallipoli peninsula, to protect supply and communication lines to the defences further down the peninsula. The 19th Division (Kemal) and the 9th Division were placed along the Aegean coast and at Cape Helles on the tip of the peninsula. Sanders kept the bulk of the Ottoman forces inland in reserve, leaving a minimum of troops guarding the coast. The 3rd Division and a cavalry brigade arrived from Constantinople in early April, bringing the front line strength of the Ottomans up to 60,000 -- 62,077 men, which Sanders concentrated in three groups. A maximum effort to improve land and sea communications was ordered to move reinforcements swiftly to danger points and troops moved at night to avoid Allied air reconnaissance. Sanders ' strategy was opposed by Ottoman commanders, including Kemal, who believed that the defenders were too widely dispersed to defeat the invasion on the beaches. Sanders was certain that a rigid system of defence would fail and that the only hope of success lay in the mobility of the three groups, particularly the 19th Division near Boghali, in general reserve, ready to move to Bulair, Gaba Tepe or the Asiatic shore.
The time needed by the British to organise the landings meant that Sanders, Colonel Hans Kannengiesser and other German officers, supported by III Corps commander Esat Pasha, had more time to prepare their defences. Sanders later noted, "the British allowed us four good weeks of respite for all this work before their great disembarkation... This respite just sufficed for the most indispensable measures to be taken. '' Roads were constructed, small boats built to carry troops and equipment across the Narrows, beaches were wired and improvised mines were constructed from torpedo warheads. Trenches and gun emplacements were dug along the beaches and troops went on route marches to avoid lethargy. Kemal, whose 19th Division was vital to the defensive scheme, observed the beaches and awaited signs of an invasion from his post at Boghali, near Maidos. The Ottomans created a small air force with German assistance and had four aircraft operating around Çanakkale in February, conducting reconnaissance and army co-operation sorties, From 11 April, an Ottoman aircraft made frequent flights over Mudros, keeping watch on the assembly of the British naval force and an airfield was established near Gallipoli.
The Allies planned to land and secure the northern shore, to capture the Ottoman forts and artillery batteries there so that a naval force could advance through the Narrows and the Sea of Marmara towards Constantinople. Scheduled for 23 April but postponed until 25 April due to bad weather, landings were to be made at six beaches on the peninsula. The 29th Division was to land at Helles on the tip of the peninsula and then advance upon the forts at Kilitbahir. The Anzacs, with the 3rd Infantry Brigade spearheading the assault, were to land north of Gaba Tepe on the Aegean coast, from where they could advance across the peninsula, cutting off the Ottoman troops in Kilitbahir. The small cove in and around which they landed became known as "Anzac Cove ''. This sector of the Gallipoli Peninsula became known as Anzac; the area held by the British and French became known as the Helles sector or Helles. The French made a diversionary landing at Kum Kale on the Asian shore before re-embarking, to hold the eastern area of the Helles sector. The Royal Naval Division simulated landing preparations at Bulair as a diversion and a New Zealand officer, Bernard Freyberg, swam ashore under fire to light flares, to distract the defenders from the real landings; Freyberg was later awarded the Distinguished Service Order.
Arrangements for naval gunfire support to the landings, had originally included bombarding the beaches and approaches but was changed to engagement of the ridges during the landings, with the beaches only to be shelled prior to the landings. No decision was ultimately made on the issue of close - support, and it was left up to the initiative of individual ships ' captains. A reluctance to approach the shore later impacted on landings at ' V ' and ' W ' beach where some of the heaviest losses among the infantry occurred, while naval gunfire was of some assistance at ' S ', ' X ' and Anzac. Even then its effectiveness was limited by the initial confusion ashore, the broken terrain, thick vegetation, and the lack of observation. Kitchener had ruled that air requirements must be met by the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) and the Allies employed a small force of seaplanes and other aircraft from 3 Squadron, RNAS (Commander Charles Samson) which arrived at Tenedos at the end of March. The aircraft were unopposed by the small Ottoman air force at first and during the planning, the force had been used to provide aerial reconnaissance, although this ultimately proved inadequate to meet the Allies ' intelligence needs and make up for the lack of adequate maps. After the landings, Allied aircraft conducted photographic reconnaissance, observed naval gunfire, reported on Ottoman troop movements and conducted a small number of bombing raids.
Allocated the northern landing, Birdwood 's force included the 1st Australian Division (Major General William Bridges) and the New Zealand and Australian Division (Major General Sir Alexander Godley), a force of about 25,000 men. The force was to land and advance inland to cut the lines of communication to the Ottoman forces in the south. The 1st Australian Division would land first, with the 3rd Infantry Brigade first as a covering force moving inland to establish positions on Gun Ridge. The 2nd Infantry Brigade was to follow and to capture the higher ground on Sari Bair. The 1st Infantry Brigade would land last as the divisional reserve. The New Zealand and Australian Division was to come ashore and form up to advance across the peninsula. The force was to assemble at night and land at dawn to surprise the defenders and on the evening of 24 April, the covering force embarked on battleships and destroyers, with the follow on forces in on transports. The troops would disembark from the transports into ships ' boats and be towed close to the shore by steamboats and then row ashore.
At 04: 00 on the morning of 25 April the first wave of troops from the 3rd Brigade began moving towards the shore on lighters and the ships ' boats. The covering force landed approximately 1.2 miles (2 km) too far north, in a bay just south of Ari Burnu, due to undetected currents or a navigational error. The landing was more difficult, over ground which rose steeply from the beaches, unlike the objective to the south, which was more open. The landing site was garrisoned by only two Ottoman companies but from positions on commanding ground the Ottomans inflict numerous casualties on the Australians before being overcome. The broken terrain prevented a coordinated drive inland, with the Australians on unfamiliar ground and with inaccurate maps. In the maze of steep ravines, spurs and dense scrub, Australian parties that got forward quickly lost contact and were broken up into small groups. Some Australian troops reached the second ridge but fewer still reached their objectives and having become dispersed, the covering force could provide little support to the follow - up force.
The 1st and 2nd Brigades, then the New Zealand and Australian Division, landed on the beaches around Ari Burnu but became entangled, which took time to reorganise. About four hours after the landings began, the bulk of the 1st Australian Division was ashore safely and its leading elements were pushing inland. By mid-morning Kemal had reorganised the defenders for a counter-attack on the commanding heights of Chunuk Bair and Sari Bair. The right flank of the small lodgement taken by the Australians was driven in at 10: 30 a.m., with most of 400 Plateau being lost. During the afternoon and evening the left flank was pushed back from Baby 700 and the Nek. By evening, Bridges and Godley recommended re-embarkation; Birdwood agreed but after advice from the navy that re-embarkation was impossible, Hamilton ordered the troops dig - in instead. The Ottoman counter-attack was eventually repulsed and the Australians established a perimeter roughly from Walker 's Ridge in the north to Shell Green in the south. Anzac casualties on the first day numbered around 2,000 men killed or wounded. The failure to secure the high ground led to a tactical stalemate, with the landings contained by the defenders in a perimeter less than 1.2 mi (2 km) long.
The Australian submarine HMAS AE2 (Lieutenant Commander Henry Stoker) penetrated the Straits on the night of 24 / 25 April. As landings began at Cape Helles and Anzac Cove at dawn on 25 April, AE2 reached Chanak by 06: 00 and torpedoed a Turkish gunboat believed to be a Peyk - i Şevket - class cruiser and evaded a destroyer. The submarine ran aground beneath a Turkish fort but the Ottoman gunners could not bring their guns to bear and AE2 was manoeuvred free. Shortly after refloating, the periscope was sighted by a Turkish battleship firing over the peninsula at Allied landing sites and the ship ceased fire and withdrew. AE2 advanced toward the Sea of Marmara and at 08: 30 Stoker decided to rest the boat on the seabed until nightfall. At around 21: 00, AE2 surfaced to recharge batteries and sent a wireless report to the fleet. The landing at Cape Helles was going well but the landing at Anzac Cove was not as successful and the Anzac commander, Lieutenant General Sir William Birdwood, contemplated the re-embarkation of his troops. The success of AE2 was a consideration in Birdwood deciding to persist and reports about AE2 were relayed to the soldiers ashore to improve morale. Stoker was ordered to "generally run amok '' and with no enemies in sight, he sailed into the Sea of Marmara, where AE2 cruised for five days to give the impression of greater numbers and made several attacks against Ottoman ships, which failed because of mechanical problems with the torpedoes.
The Helles landing was made by the 29th Division (Major General Aylmer Hunter - Weston). The division landed on five beaches in an arc about the tip of the peninsula, named ' S ', ' V ', ' W ', ' X ' and ' Y ' Beaches from east to west. On 1 May, the 29th Indian Brigade (including the 1 / 6th Gurkha Rifles) landed, took and secured Sari Bair above the landing beaches and was joined by the 1st / 5th and the 2nd / 10th Gurkha battalions; the Zion Mule Corps landed at Helles on 27 April. At ' Y ' Beach, during the first engagement, the First Battle of Krithia, the Allies landed unopposed and advanced inland. There were only a small number of defenders in the village but lacking orders to exploit the position, the ' Y ' Beach commander withdrew his force to the beach. It was as close as the Allies ever came to capturing the village as the Ottomans brought up a battalion of the 25th Regiment, checking any further movement.
The main landings were made at ' V ' Beach, beneath the old Seddülbahir fortress and at ' W ' Beach, a short distance to the west on the other side of the Helles headland. The covering force of Royal Munster Fusiliers and Hampshires landed from a converted collier, SS River Clyde, which was run aground beneath the fortress so that the troops could disembark along ramps. The Royal Dublin Fusiliers landed at ' V ' Beach and the Lancashire Fusiliers at ' W ' Beach in open boats, on a shore overlooked by dunes and obstructed with barbed wire. On both beaches the Ottoman defenders occupied good defensive positions and inflicted many casualties on the British infantry as they landed. Troops emerging one by one from sally ports on River Clyde were shot by machine - gunners at the Seddülbahir fort and of the first 200 soldiers to disembark, 21 men reached the beach.
The Ottoman defenders were too few to defeat the landing but inflicted many casualties and contained the attack close to the shore. By the morning of 25 April, out of ammunition and with nothing but bayonets to meet the attackers on the slopes leading up from the beach to the heights of Chunuk Bair, the 57th Infantry Regiment received orders from Kemal "I do not order you to fight, I order you to die. In the time which passes until we die, other troops and commanders can come forward and take our places. '' and every man of the regiment was either killed or wounded.
At ' W ' Beach, thereafter known as Lancashire Landing, the Lancashires were able to overwhelm the defenders despite the loss of 600 casualties from 1,000 men, about 70 percent casualties. Six awards of the Victoria Cross were made among the Lancashires at ' W ' Beach. A further six Victoria Crosses were awarded among the infantry and sailors at the ' V ' Beach landing and three more were awarded the following day as they fought their way inland. Five squads of Ottoman infantry led by Sergeant Yahya distinguished themselves by repulsing several attacks on their hilltop position, the defenders eventually disengaging under cover of darkness. After the landings, so few men remained from the Dublin and Munster Fusiliers that they were amalgamated into The Dubsters. Only one Dubliner officer survived the landing, while of the 1,012 Dubliners who landed, just 11 survived the Gallipoli campaign unscathed. After the landings, little was done by the Allies to exploit the situation, apart from a few limited advances inland by small groups of men. The Allied attack lost momentum and the Ottomans had time to bring up reinforcements and rally the small number of defending troops.
On the afternoon of 27 April, the 19th Division, reinforced by six battalions from the 5th Division, counter-attacked the six Allied brigades at Anzac. With the support of naval gunfire, the Allies held back the Ottomans throughout the night. The following day the British were joined by French troops transferred from Kum Kale on the Asiatic shore to the right of the line near ' S ' Beach at Morto Bay. On 28 April, the Allies fought the First Battle of Krithia to capture the village. Hunter - Weston made a plan which proved overly complex and was poorly communicated to the commanders in the field. The troops of the 29th Division were still exhausted and unnerved by the battles for the beaches and for Seddülbahir village, which was captured after much fighting on 26 April. The Ottoman defenders stopped the Allied advance halfway between the Helles headland and Krithia around 6: 00 p.m., having inflicted 3,000 casualties.
As Ottoman reinforcements arrived, the possibility of a swift Allied victory on the peninsula disappeared and the fighting at Helles and Anzac became a battle of attrition. On 30 April, the Royal Naval Division (Major General Archibald Paris) landed. The same day, Kemal, believing that the Allies were on the verge of defeat, began moving troops forward through Wire Gulley, near the 400 Plateau and Lone Pine. Eight battalions of reinforcements were dispatched from Constantinople a day later and that afternoon, Ottoman troops counter-attacked at Helles and Anzac. The Ottomans briefly broke through in the French sector but the attacks were repulsed by massed Allied machine - gun fire, which inflicted many casualties on the attackers. The following night, Birdwood ordered the New Zealand and Australian Division to attack from Russell 's Top and Quinn 's Post towards Baby 700. The Australian 4th Infantry Brigade (Colonel John Monash), the New Zealand Infantry Brigade and Royal Marines from the Chatham Battalion took part in the attack. Covered by a naval and artillery barrage, the troops advanced a short distance during the night but got separated in the dark. The attackers came under massed small - arms fire from their exposed left flank and were repulsed, having suffered about 1,000 casualties.
On 30 April, the submarine AE2 began to rise uncontrollably and surfaced near the Ottoman torpedo boat Sultanhisar, then dropped precipitously below the safe diving depth, then broke the surface again at the stern. Sultanhisar immediately fired on the submarine, puncturing the pressure hull. Stoker ordered the company to abandon ship, scuttled the submarine and the crew was taken prisoner. AE2 's achievements showed that it was possible to force the Straits and soon Ottoman communications were badly disrupted by British and French submarine operations. On 27 April, HMS E14 (Lieutenant Commander Edward Boyle), entered the Sea of Marmara on a three - week patrol, which became one of the most successful Allied naval actions of the campaign, in which four ships were sunk, including the transport Gul Djemal which was carrying 6,000 troops and a field battery to Gallipoli. While the quantity and value of the shipping sunk was minor, the effect on Ottoman communications and morale was significant; Boyle was awarded the Victoria Cross. Following the success of AE2 and E14, the French submarine Joule attempted the passage on 1 May but struck a mine and was lost with all hands. (Several weeks earlier another French boat, Saphir, had been lost after running aground near Nagara Point.)
On 5 May, the 42nd (East Lancashire) Division was dispatched from Egypt. Believing Anzac to be secure, Hamilton moved the Australian 2nd Infantry Brigade and the New Zealand Infantry Brigade, along with 20 Australian field guns, to the Helles front as reserves for the Second Battle of Krithia. Involving a force of 20,000 men, it was the first general attack at Helles and was planned for daylight. French troops were to capture Kereves Dere and the British, Australians and New Zealanders were assigned Krithia and Achi Baba. After 30 minutes of artillery preparation, the assault began at mid-morning on 6 May. The British and French advanced along the Gully, Fir Tree, Krithia and Kereves spurs which were separated by deep gullies, fortified by the Ottomans. As the attackers advanced, they became separated when trying to outflank Ottoman strongpoints and found themselves in unfamiliar terrain. Under artillery and then machine - gun fire from Ottoman outposts that had not been spotted by British aerial reconnaissance, the attack was stopped; next day, reinforcements resumed the advance.
The attack continued on 7 May and four battalions of New Zealanders attacked up Krithia Spur on 8 May; with the 29th Division the attackers managed to reach a position just south of the village. Late in the afternoon, the Australian 2nd Brigade advanced quickly over open ground to the British front line. Amidst small arms and artillery - fire, the brigade charged towards Krithia and gained 600 metres (660 yd), about 400 metres (440 yd) short of the objective, with 1,000 casualties. Near Fir Tree Spur, the New Zealanders managed to get forward and link up with the Australians, although the British were held up and the French were exhausted, despite having occupied a point overlooking their objective. The attack was suspended and the Allies dug in, having failed to take Krithia or Achi Baba.
A brief period of consolidation followed; the Allies had almost run out of ammunition, particularly for the artillery and both sides consolidated their defences. The Ottomans relieved troops opposite the Australian line, which was reinforced by the Australian Light Horse operating as infantry. Sporadic fighting continued, with sniping, grenade attacks and raids, the opposing trenches separated in places by only a few metres. The Australians lost a number of officers to sniping, including the commander of the 1st Division, Major General William Bridges, who was wounded while inspecting a 1st Light Horse Regiment position near "Steele 's Post '' and died of his injuries on the hospital ship HMHS Gascon on 18 May.
On 19 May, 42,000 Ottoman troops launched an attack at Anzac to push the 17,000 Australians and New Zealanders back into the sea. Short of artillery and ammunition, the Ottomans intended to rely on surprise and weight of numbers but on 18 May, the crews of a flight of British aircraft spotted the Ottoman preparations. The Ottomans suffered c. 13,000 casualties in the attack, of which 3,000 men were killed; Australian and New Zealand casualties were 160 killed and 468 wounded. The dead included a stretcher bearer, John Simpson Kirkpatrick, whose efforts to evacuate wounded men on a donkey while under fire became famous amongst the Australians at Anzac; afterwards, his story becoming part of the Australian narrative of the campaign. Ottoman losses were so severe that a truce was organised by Aubrey Herbert and others on 24 May, to bury the dead lying in no man 's land, which led to a camaraderie between the armies, much like the Christmas truce of 1914 on the Western Front. The truce was not repeated formally.
The British advantage in naval artillery diminished after the battleship HMS Goliath was torpedoed on 13 May by Ottoman destroyer Muâvenet - i Millîye. A German submarine, U-21, sank HMS Triumph on 25 May and HMS Majestic on 27 May. More British reconnaissance patrols were flown around Gallipoli and U-21 was forced to leave the area but ignorant of this, the Allies withdrew most of their warships to Imbros, where they were "protectively tethered '' between sorties, which greatly reduced Allied naval firepower, particularly in the Helles sector. The submarine HMS E11 (Lieutenant Commander Martin Nasmith, later awarded a Victoria Cross) passed through the Dardanelles on 18 May and sank or disabled eleven ships, including three on 23 May, before entering Constantinople harbour, firing on a transport alongside the arsenal, sinking a gunboat and damaging the wharf.
The Ottoman forces lacked artillery ammunition and field batteries were only able to fire c. 18,000 shells between early May and the first week of June. After the defeat of the counter-attack at Anzac in mid-May, the Ottoman forces ceased frontal assaults. Late in the month, the Ottomans began tunnelling around "Quinn 's Post '' in the Anzac sector and early in the morning of 29 May, despite Australian counter-mining, detonated a mine and attacked with a battalion from the 14th Regiment. The Australian 15th Battalion was forced back but counter-attacked and recaptured the ground later in the day, before being relieved by New Zealand troops. Operations at Anzac in early June returned to consolidation, minor engagements and skirmishing with grenades and sniper - fire.
In the Helles sector, which had been extensively entrenched by both sides, the Allies attacked Krithia and Achi Baba again, in the Third Battle of Krithia on 4 June, with the 29th Division, Royal Naval Division, 42nd Division and two French divisions. The attack was repulsed and with it, the possibility of a decisive breakthrough ended; trench warfare resumed, with objectives being measured in hundreds of yards. Casualties were approximately 25 percent on both sides; the British lost 4,500 from 20,000 men and the French 2,000 casualties from 10,000 troops. Ottoman losses were 9,000 casualties according to the Turkish Official History and 10,000 according to another account.
In June, a seaplane carrier HMS Ben - my - Chree arrived and the Allied air effort increased from a squadron to No. 3 Wing RNAS. The 52nd (Lowland) Division also landed at Helles in preparation for the Battle of Gully Ravine, which began on 28 June and achieved a local success, which advanced the British line along the left (Aegean) flank of the battlefield. Sanders credited the defence to two Ottoman officers, Faik Pasa and Albay Refet. On 30 June, the French commander, Henri Gouraud who had earlier replaced Albert d'Amade, was wounded and replaced by his divisional commander, Maurice Bailloud. Between 1 and 5 July, the Ottomans counter-attacked the new British line several times but failed to regain the lost ground. Ottoman casualties for the period were estimated at 14,000 men. On 12 July, two fresh brigades from the 52nd Division attacked at the centre of the line along Achi Baba Nullah (Bloody Valley), gained very little ground and lost 2,500 casualties out of 7,500 men; the Royal Naval Division had 600 casualties and French losses were 800 men. Ottoman losses were about 9,000 casualties and 600 prisoners.
At sea, the submarine E14 made two voyages into the Marmara. The third tour began on 21 July, when E14 passed through the straits despite a new anti-submarine net placed near the Narrows. The next attempt was made by Mariotte on 27 July, which was caught in the net, forced to the surface and bombarded by shore batteries; Mariotte was scuttled. On 8 August, E11 torpedoed the battleship Barbaros Hayreddin with the loss of 253 men and sank a gunboat, seven transports and 23 sailing vessels.
The failure of the Allies to capture Krithia or make any progress on the Helles front, led Hamilton to form a new plan to secure the Sari Bair Range of hills at the Battle of Sari Bair and capture high ground on Hill 971 in the Battle of Chunuk Bair. Both sides had been reinforced, the original five Allied divisions having been increased to fifteen and first six Ottoman divisions to sixteen. The Allies planned to land two fresh infantry divisions from IX Corps at Suvla, 5 miles (8.0 km) north of Anzac, followed by an advance on Sari Bair from the north - west. At Anzac, an offensive would be made against the Sari Bair range by advancing through rough and thinly defended terrain, north of the Anzac perimeter. This would be achieved by an attack on Baby 700 from the Nek by dismounted Australian light horsemen from the 3rd Light Horse Brigade, in concert with an attack on Chunuk Bair summit by New Zealanders from the New Zealand Infantry Brigade, who would traverse Rhododendron Ridge, the Apex and the Farm. Hill 971 would be attacked by Gurkhas of the 29th Indian Brigade and the Australians of the 4th Infantry Brigade. The Allies had 40 aircraft, mainly from 3 Wing RNAS at Imbros, which had replaced its Voisins with Farmans and Nieuport Xs; Escadrille MF98T had also been established at Tenedos. The Ottomans had 20 aircraft, of which eight were stationed at Çanakkale. Allied aircraft made reconnaissance flights, spotted for naval guns and conducted low - level bombing of Ottoman reserves as they were brought up to the battlefield. Allied aircraft also undertook anti-shipping operations in the Gulf of Saros, where a seaplane from HMS Ben - my - Chree sank an Ottoman tug with an air - launched torpedo.
The landing at Suvla Bay took place on the night of 6 August against light opposition; the British commander, Lieutenant General Frederick Stopford, had limited his early objectives and then failed to forcefully push his demands for an advance inland and little more than the beach was seized. The Ottomans were able to occupy the Anafarta Hills, preventing the British from penetrating inland, which contained the landings and reduced the Suvla front to static trench warfare. The offensive was preceded on the evening of 6 August by diversions, at Helles, where the Battle of Krithia Vineyard became another costly stalemate. At Anzac, the diversionary Battle of Lone Pine, led by the Australian 1st Infantry Brigade, captured the main Ottoman trench line, to divert Ottoman forces but the attacks at Chunuk Bair and Hill 971 failed.
The New Zealand Infantry Brigade came within 500 metres (550 yd) of the near peak of Chunuk Bair by dawn on 7 August but was not able to seize the summit until the following morning. On the morning of 7 August, the Australian 3rd Light Horse Brigade attacked on a narrow front at the Nek, to coincide with the New Zealand attack from Chunuk Bair against the rear of the Ottoman defences. The opening artillery barrage lifted seven minutes too soon, which alerted the Ottomans and the attack was a costly failure. An attack on Hill 971 never took place after the Australian 4th Infantry Brigade and an Indian brigade lost direction during the night. Attempts to resume the attack were easily repulsed by the Ottoman defenders, at great cost to the Allies. The New Zealanders held out on Chunuk Bair for two days before being relieved by two New Army battalions from the Wiltshire and Loyal North Lancashire Regiments but an Ottoman counterattack on 10 August, led by Mustafa Kemal, swept them from the heights. Of 760 men in the New Zealand Wellington Battalion who reached the summit, 711 became casualties. With the Ottoman recapture of the ground, the Allies ' best chance of victory was lost.
The Suvla landing was reinforced by the arrival of the 10th (Irish) Division on 7 August, the 53rd (Welsh) Division, which began landing on 8 August, the 54th (East Anglian) Division arriving late on 10 August and the dismounted yeomanry of the 2nd Mounted Division on 18 August. On 12 August the 54th Division attacked Kavak Tepe and Tekke Tepe, crossing the Anafarta Plain. The attack failed and Hamilton briefly considered the evacuation of Suvla and Anzac.
Elements of the new Australian 2nd Division began arriving at Anzac from Egypt with the 5th Infantry Brigade landing from 19 -- 20 August and the 6th Brigade and 7th Brigade arriving in early September. The 29th Division was also shifted from Helles to Suvla. The final British attempt to resuscitate the offensive came on 21 August, in the Battle of Scimitar Hill and the Battle of Hill 60. Control of the hills would have united the Anzac and Suvla fronts but the attacks failed. On 17 August, Hamilton had requested another 95,000 troops but a day earlier, the French had announced plans to Kitchener for an autumn offensive in France. A meeting of the Dardanelles Committee on 20 August determined that the French offensive would be supported by a maximum effort, which left only about 25,000 reinforcements for the Dardanelles. On 23 August, after news of the failure at Scimitar Hill, Hamilton went onto the defensive as Bulgarian entry into the war, which would allow the Germans to rearm the Turkish army, was imminent and left little opportunity for the resumption of offensive operations. On 20 September 1915, the Newfoundland Regiment was deployed at Suvla Bay with the 29th Division. On 25 September, Kitchener detached two British and one French division for service in Salonika in Greece, which was the beginning of the end of the Allied campaign at Gallipoli.
Alan Moorehead wrote that during the stalemate, an old Ottoman batman was regularly permitted to hang his platoon 's washing on the barbed wire undisturbed and that there was a "constant traffic '' of gifts being thrown across no - man 's land, dates and sweets from the Ottoman side and cans of beef and packs of cigarettes from the Allied side. Conditions at Gallipoli grew worse for everyone as summer heat and poor sanitation resulted in an explosion in the fly population. Eating became extremely difficult as unburied corpses became bloated and putrid. The precarious Allied lodgements were poorly situated, which caused supply and shelter problems. A dysentery epidemic spread through the Allied trenches at Anzac and Helles, while the Ottomans also suffered heavily from disease which resulted in many deaths.
The Serbian defeat in the Serbian Campaign in autumn 1915, prompted France and Britain to transfer troops from the Gallipoli Campaign to Greek Macedonia. The Macedonian Front was established to support the remnants of the Serbian army to conquer Vardar Macedonia. After the failure of the August Offensive, the Gallipoli campaign drifted. Ottoman success began to affect public opinion in Britain, with criticism of Hamilton 's performance being smuggled out by Keith Murdoch, Ellis Ashmead - Bartlett and other reporters. Stopford and other dissident officers also contributed to the air of gloom and the possibility of evacuation was raised on 11 October 1915. Hamilton resisted the suggestion, fearing the damage to British prestige but was sacked shortly afterwards and replaced by Lieutenant General Sir Charles Monro. Autumn and winter brought relief from the heat but also led to gales, blizzards and flooding, resulting in men drowning and freezing to death, while thousands suffered frostbite.
On 4 September, the submarine E7 was caught in the Ottoman anti-submarine net as it began another tour. Despite such reverses, by mid-September, Allied nets and mines had closed the eastern entrance to the Dardanelles to German U-boats and U-21 was thwarted when it tried to pass the straits to Constantinople on 13 September. The first French submarine to enter the Sea of Marmara was Turquoise but it was forced to turn back; on 30 October, when returning through the straits, it ran aground beneath a fort and was captured intact. The crew of 25 were taken prisoner and documents detailing planned Allied operations were discovered, including a scheduled rendezvous with HMS E20 on 6 November. The rendezvous was kept by the German U-boat U-14 instead, which torpedoed and sank E20, killing all but nine of the crew.
The situation at Gallipoli was complicated by Bulgaria joining the Central Powers. In early October 1915, the British and French opened a second Mediterranean front at Salonika, by moving three divisions from Gallipoli and reducing the flow of reinforcements. A land route between Germany and the Ottoman Empire through Bulgaria was opened and the Germans rearmed the Ottomans with heavy artillery capable of devastating Allied trenches, especially on the confined front at Anzac, modern aircraft and experienced crews. In late November, an Ottoman crew in a German Albatros C.I shot down a French aircraft over Gaba Tepe and the Austro - Hungarian 36. Haubitzbatterie and 9. Motormörserbatterie artillery units arrived, providing a substantial reinforcement of the Ottoman artillery. Monro recommended evacuation to Kitchener, who in early November visited the eastern Mediterranean. After consulting with the commanders of VIII Corps at Helles, IX Corps at Suvla and Anzac, Kitchener agreed with Monro and passed his recommendation to the British Cabinet, who confirmed the decision to evacuate in early December.
Due to the narrowness no man 's land and the harsh winter weather, many casualties were anticipated during the embarkation. The untenable nature of the Allied position was made apparent by a heavy rainstorm on 26 November 1915. The downpour at Suvla lasted for three days and there was a blizzard in early December. Rain flooded trenches, drowned soldiers and washed unburied corpses into the lines; the following snow killed still more men from exposure. Suvla and Anzac were to be evacuated in late December, the last troops leaving before dawn on 20 December. Troop numbers had been slowly reduced since 7 December and ruses, such as William Scurry 's self - firing rifle, which had been rigged to fire by water dripped into a pan attached to the trigger, were used to disguise the Allied departure. At Anzac Cove, troops maintained silence for an hour or more, until curious Ottoman troops ventured to inspect the trenches, whereupon the Anzacs opened fire. A mine was detonated at the Nek which killed 70 Ottoman soldiers. The Allied force was embarked, with the Australians suffering no casualties on the final night but large quantities of supplies and stores fell into Ottoman hands.
Helles was retained for a period but a decision to evacuate the garrison was made on 28 December. Unlike the evacuation from Anzac Cove, Ottoman forces were looking for signs of withdrawal. Having used the interval to bring up reinforcements and supplies, Sanders mounted an attack on the British at Gully Spur on 7 January 1916 with infantry and artillery but the attack was a costly failure. Mines were laid with time fuzes and that night and on the night of 7 / 8 January, under the cover of a naval bombardment, the British troops began to fall back 5 miles (8.0 km) from their lines to the beaches, where makeshift piers were used to board boats. The last British troops departed from Lancashire Landing around 04: 00 on 8 January 1916. The Newfoundland Regiment was part of the rearguard and withdrew on 9 January 1916. Among the first to land, remnants of The Plymouth Battalion, Royal Marine Light Infantry were the last to leave the Peninsula.
Despite predictions of up to 30,000 casualties, 35,268 troops, 3,689 horses and mules, 127 guns, 328 vehicles and 1,600 long tons (1,600 t) of equipment were removed. 508 mules which could not be embarked were killed so as not to fall into Ottoman hands and 1,590 vehicles were left behind with smashed wheels. As at Anzac, large amounts of supplies (including 15 British and six French unserviceable artillery pieces which were destroyed), gun carriages and ammunition were left behind; hundreds of horses were slaughtered to deny them to the Ottomans. A sailor was killed by débris from a magazine that exploded prematurely and a lighter and a picket boat were lost. Shortly after dawn, the Ottomans retook Helles. In the final days of the campaign, Ottoman air defences had been increased by a German -- Ottoman fighter squadron, which began operations over the peninsula and inflicted the first British flying losses a couple of days after the evacuation of Helles, when three Fokker Eindeckers shot down two RNAS aircraft.
Historians are divided about how they summarise the campaign 's result. Broadbent describes the campaign as "a close - fought affair '' that was a defeat for the Allies, while Carlyon views the overall result as a stalemate. Peter Hart disagrees, arguing that the Ottoman forces "held the Allies back from their real objectives with relative ease '', while Haythornthwaite calls it a "disaster for the Allies ''. The campaign did cause "enormous damage to... (Ottoman) national resources '', and at that stage of the war the Allies were in a better position to replace their losses than the Ottomans, but ultimately the Allied attempt at securing a passage through the Dardanelles proved unsuccessful. While it diverted Ottoman forces away from other areas of conflict in the Middle East the campaign also consumed resources the Allies could have employed on the Western Front, and also resulted in heavy losses on the Allied side.
The Allied campaign was plagued by ill - defined goals, poor planning, insufficient artillery, inexperienced troops, inaccurate maps, poor intelligence, overconfidence, inadequate equipment, and logistical and tactical deficiencies at all levels. Geography also proved a significant factor. While the Allied forces possessed inaccurate maps and intelligence and proved unable to exploit the terrain to their advantage, the Ottoman commanders were able to utilise the high ground around the Allied landing beaches to position well - sited defences that limited the Allied forces ' ability to penetrate inland, confining them to narrow beaches. The campaign 's necessity remains the subject of debate, and the recriminations that followed were significant, highlighting the schism that had developed between military strategists who felt the Allies should focus on fighting on the Western Front and those that favoured trying to end the war by attacking Germany 's "soft underbelly '', its allies in the east.
British and French submarine operations in the Sea of Marmara were the one significant area of success of the Gallipoli Campaign, forcing the Ottomans to abandon the sea as a transport route. Between April and December 1915, nine British and four French submarines carried out 15 patrols, sinking one battleship, one destroyer, five gunboats, 11 troop transports, 44 supply ships and 148 sailing vessels at a cost of eight Allied submarines sunk in the strait or in the Sea of Marmara. During the campaign there was always one British submarine in the Sea of Marmara, sometimes two; in October 1915, there were four Allied submarines in the region. E2 left the Sea of Marmara on 2 January 1916, the last British submarine in the region. Four E-class and five B - class submarines remained in the Mediterranean Sea following the evacuation of Helles. By this time the Ottoman navy had been all but forced to cease operations in the area, while merchant shipping had also been significantly curtailed. The official German naval historian, Admiral Eberhard von Mantey, later concluded that had the sea - lanes of communication been completely severed the Ottoman 5th Army would likely have faced catastrophe. As it was these operations were a source of significant anxiety, posing a constant threat to shipping and causing heavy losses, effectively dislocating Ottoman attempts to reinforce their forces at Gallipoli and shelling troop concentrations and railways.
Gallipoli marked the end for Hamilton and Stopford but Hunter - Weston went on to lead VIII Corps on the first day of the Battle of the Somme. The competence of Australian brigade commanders, John Monash (4th Infantry Brigade) and Harry Chauvel (1st Light Horse Brigade, New Zealand and Australian Division), was recognised by promotion to divisional and corps command. The influence of Kitchener waned after the coalition government was formed in May 1915, partly because of the growing sense of failure in the Dardanelles and culminated in Kitchener being over-ruled on support for the French at Salonika in early December 1915, when his influence on the Cabinet was at its lowest. The campaign gave confidence to the Ottomans in their ability to defeat the Allies. In Mesopotamia, the Turks surrounded a British expedition at Kut Al Amara, forcing their surrender in April 1916. Ottoman forces in southern Palestine were poised to launch an attack against the Suez Canal and Egypt. Defeat at the Battle of Romani and lack of materials to complete the military railway, necessary for such an operation, marked the end of that ambition. The optimism which came from the victory at Gallipoli was replaced by a gathering sense of despair and the British remained on the offensive in the Middle East for the rest of the war.
The lessons of the campaign were studied by military planners prior to amphibious operations such as the Normandy Landings in 1944 and during the Falklands War in 1982. The lessons of the campaign influenced US Marine Corps amphibious operations during the Pacific War and continues to influence US amphibious doctrine. In 1996, Theodore Gatchel wrote that between the wars, the campaign "became a focal point for the study of amphibious warfare '' in Britain and United States. In 2008, Glenn Wahlert wrote that Gallipoli involved "all four types of amphibious operations: the raid, demonstration, assault and withdrawal ''.
Russell Weigley wrote that analysis of the campaign before the Second World War led to "a belief among most of the armed forces of the world '' that amphibious assaults could not succeed against modern defences and that despite landings in Italy, Tarawa and the Gilberts, arguably this perception continued until Normandy in June 1944. Hart wrote that despite the pessimistic analyses after 1918, the situation after 1940 meant that landings from the sea were unavoidable and it was only after Normandy that the belief that opposed landings were futile, was overcome. The memory of Gallipoli weighed heavily upon the Australians during the planning of the Huon Peninsula campaign in late 1943. In September, the Australians made their first opposed amphibious landing since Gallipoli at the Battle of Finschhafen in New Guinea. The landing was hampered by navigational errors and troops came ashore on the wrong beaches but they had been trained according to the lessons of Gallipoli and quickly reorganised to push inland.
Political repercussions in Britain had begun during the battle, Fisher resigned in May after bitter conflict with Churchill. The crisis that followed after the Conservatives learned that Churchill would be staying, forced the Prime Minister H.H. Asquith to end his Liberal Government and form a Coalition Government with the Conservative Party. The Asquith government responded to the disappointment and outrage over Gallipoli and Kut by establishing commissions of inquiry into both episodes, which had done much to "destroy its faltering reputation for competence ''. The Dardanelles Commission was set up to investigate the failure of the expedition, the first report being issued in 1917, with the final report published in 1919. Following the failure of the Dardanelles expedition, Sir Ian Hamilton, commander of the MEF, was recalled to London in October 1915, ending his military career. Churchill was demoted from First Lord of the Admiralty as a condition of Conservative entry to the coalition but remained in the Cabinet in the sinecure of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. Churchill resigned in November 1915 and left London for the Western Front, where he commanded an infantry battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers early in 1916.
Asquith was partly blamed for Gallipoli and other disasters and was overthrown in December 1916, when David Lloyd George proposed a war council under his authority, with the Conservatives in the coalition threatening to resign unless the plan was implemented. After failure to reach agreement, Lloyd George and then Asquith resigned, followed by Lloyd George becoming Prime Minister. Lloyd George formed a new government, from which Churchill, active again in the House of Commons from June 1916, was excluded because of Conservative opposition. In the summer of 1917, Churchill was eventually appointed to the cabinet - level post of Minister of Munitions but not to the War Cabinet. The final report of the Commission was issued in 1919, concluding that with the forces available, success was dependent on the government giving priority to the expedition and leaving the British Expeditionary Force in France to make do. The Commissioners found that Hamilton had been over-optimistic from the beginning and had added to Stopford 's difficulties on 8 August 1915. Hamilton emerged from the investigation more favourably than perhaps was justified, partly because he made devious attempts to gain collusion from witnesses and obtain leaks from the deliberations of the Commission; Hamilton was never given another army appointment.
Casualty figures for the campaign vary between sources but in 2001, Erickson wrote that that in the Gallipoli Campaign over 100,000 men were killed, including 56,000 -- 68,000 Ottoman and around 53,000 British and French soldiers. Using the Ottoman Archives, Erickson estimated that Ottoman casualties in the Gallipoli Campaign were 56,643 men died from all causes, 97,007 troops were wounded or injured and 11,178 men went missing or were captured. In 2000, McGibbon wrote that 2,721 New Zealanders had been killed, about a quarter of those who had initially landed on the peninsula. In 2001, Carlyon gave figures of 43,000 British killed or missing, including 8,709 Australians. There were nearly 500,000 casualties during the campaign, with the British Official History listing losses including sick as 205,000 British, 47,000 French and 251,000 Ottoman troops (with some Turkish (sic) sources referring to 350,000 casualties.) Ottoman casualties have been disputed and in 2001, Travers gave casualty figures of 2,160 officers and 287,000 other ranks (battle and non-battle); included among this may be 87,000 killed. The New Zealand official history contained an estimate of 251,000 Ottoman battle casualties including 86,692 dead. Sanders estimated that the Ottomans had 218,000 casualties, including 66,000 dead and that 42,000 wounded returned to duty.
Many soldiers became sick due to insanitary conditions, especially from typhoid, dysentery and diarrhoea. The British Official History estimated that 90,000 British Empire soldiers and 20,000 French were evacuated for sickness during the campaign. A total of 145,154 British troops fell sick during the campaign, not counting troops from the Dominions or India; of these, 3,778 died, exclusive of those evacuated. The sick were transported from Gallipoli to hospitals in Egypt and Malta as quickly as possible as bases in the area of operations were insufficient. Approximately 2.84 percent of men removed as non-battle casualties died, against 0.91 percent in France and Flanders. The proportion of disease casualties to battle casualties was considerably higher in the Gallipoli Campaign than it was on the campaigns of the Western Front. The number of Ottoman troops evacuated sick is given in the British Official History as 64,440. The largest cause of non-battle admissions to hospital for British troops was dysentery, with 29,728 men infected and another 10,383 men having diarrhoea. Other notable conditions were frostbite with 6,602 hospitalisations, gonorrhea 1,774 cases and rheumatic fever 6,556 cases.
Allegations were made that Allied forces had attacked or bombarded Ottoman hospitals and hospital ships on several occasions between the start of the campaign and September 1915. By July 1915, 25 Ottoman hospitals had been build with 10,700 beds and three hospital ships were in the area. The French Government disputed these complaints through the Red Cross and the British response was that if it happened then it was accidental. Russia in turn claimed that the Ottomans had attacked two of their hospital ships, the Portugal and the Vperiod but the Ottoman Government responded that the vessels had been the victims of mines. No chemical weapons were used at Gallipoli, although the Allies debated their use throughout the campaign and transported quantities of gas to the theatre, which was used against Ottoman troops in the Middle Eastern theatre two years later, during the Second and Third battles of Gaza in 1917.
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) is responsible for permanent cemeteries for all Commonwealth of Nations forces. There are 31 CWGC cemeteries on the Gallipoli peninsula: six at Helles (plus the only solitary grave, that of Lieutenant Colonel Charles Doughty - Wylie VC, Royal Welch Fusiliers), four at Suvla and 21 at Anzac. For many of those killed or died on hospital ships and were buried at sea, there is no known grave; their names are recorded on one of five "memorials to the missing ''. The Lone Pine Memorial commemorates Australians killed in the Anzac sector, as well as New Zealanders with no known grave or who were buried at sea, while the Lone Pine, Hill 60 and Chunuk Bair memorials commemorate New Zealanders killed at Anzac. The Twelve Tree Copse Memorial commemorates the New Zealanders killed in the Helles sector, while British, Indian and Australian troops who died there are commemorated on the Helles Memorial at Cape Helles. British naval casualties who were lost or buried at sea are listed on memorials in the United Kingdom.
There are three more CWGC cemeteries on the Greek island of Lemnos, the first one for the 352 Allied soldiers in Portianou, the second one for the 148 Australian and 76 New Zealander soldiers in the town of Moudros and the third one for the Ottoman soldiers (170 Egyptian and 56 Turkish soldiers). Lemnos was the hospital base for the Allied forces and most of the buried were among the men who died of their wounds. There is a French cemetery on the Gallipoli Peninsula, located at Seddülbahir. There are no large Ottoman / Turkish military cemeteries on the peninsula but there are numerous memorials, the main ones being the Çanakkale Martyrs ' Memorial at Morto Bay, Cape Helles (near ' S ' Beach), the Turkish Soldier 's Memorial on Chunuk Bair and the memorial and open - air mosque for the 57th Regiment near Quinn 's Post (Bomba Sirt). There are a number of memorials and cemeteries on the Asian shore of the Dardanelles, demonstrating the greater emphasis that Turkish historians place on the victory of 18 March over the subsequent fighting on the peninsula.
Allied troops were withdrawn to Lemnos and then to Egypt. French forces (renamed the "Corps Expeditionnaire des Dardanelles '' in late October) were subsumed into the Army of the Orient and later employed at Salonika. In Egypt, the British Imperial and Dominion troops from the Dardanelles along with fresh divisions from the United Kingdom and those at Salonika, became the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force (MEF), commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Archibald Murray. They joined the Force in Egypt to become the strategic reserve for the British Empire, consisting of 13 infantry and mounted divisions with 400,000 men. In March 1916, Murray took command of both these forces, forming them into the new Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF) and reorganising the units for service in Europe, Egypt and elsewhere in the Middle East. While the ANZAC was disbanded, the AIF was expanded with three new Australian divisions being raised and a New Zealand Division was also formed. These units moved to the Western Front in mid-1916.
The British yeomanry units that had fought dismounted at Gallipoli were reinforced and reorganised, forming the 74th (Yeomanry) Division and a portion of the 75th Division. Along with the Australian Light Horsemen and New Zealand Mounted Rifles remounted and reorganised into the Anzac Mounted Division, infantry from the 52nd (Lowland) Division, 42nd (East Lancashire) Division, 53rd (Welsh) Division and 54th (East Anglian) Division, later joined by additional remounted Australian Light Horsemen and British yeomanry from the Australian Mounted Division, participated in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign. The Egyptian Sinai was reoccupied in 1916, while Palestine and the northern Levant were captured from the Ottoman Empire during 1917 and 1918, before the Armistice of Mudros ended hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre on 31 October. The Allies subsequently occupied Gallipoli and Constantinople and partitioned the Ottoman Empire. The occupation ended in 1923.
The significance of the Gallipoli Campaign is felt strongly in both New Zealand and Australia, despite their being a small minority of the Allied forces; the campaign is regarded in both nations as a "baptism of fire '' and had been linked to their emergence as independent states. Approximately 50,000 Australians served at Gallipoli and from 14,000 to 17,000 New Zealanders. It has been argued that the campaign proved significant in the emergence of a unique Australian identity following the war, which has been closely linked to popular conceptualisations of the qualities of the soldiers that fought during the campaign, which became embodied in the notion of an "Anzac spirit ''.
The landing on 25 April is commemorated every year in both countries as "Anzac Day ''. The first iteration was celebrated unofficially in 1916, at churches in Melbourne, Brisbane and London, before being officially recognised as a public holiday in all Australian states in 1923. The day also became a national holiday in New Zealand in the 1920s. Organised marches by veterans began in 1925, in the same year a service was held on the beach at Gallipoli; two years later the first official dawn service took place at the Sydney Cenotaph. During the 1980s, it became popular for Australian and New Zealand tourists to visit Gallipoli to attend the dawn service there and since then thousands have attended. Over 10,000 people attended the 75th anniversary along with political leaders from Turkey, New Zealand, Britain and Australia. Dawn services are also held in Australia; in New Zealand, dawn services are the most popular form of observance of this day. Anzac Day remains the most significant commemoration of military casualties and veterans in Australia and New Zealand, surpassing Remembrance Day (Armistice Day).
Along with memorials and monuments established in towns and cities, many streets, public places and buildings were named after aspects of the campaign, especially in Australia and New Zealand. Some examples include Gallipoli Barracks at Enoggera in Queensland, and the Armed Forces Armoury in Corner Brook, Newfoundland which is named the Gallipoli Armouries. Gallipoli also had a significant impact on popular culture, including in film, television and song. In 1971, Scottish - born Australian folk singer - songwriter Eric Bogle wrote a song called And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda which consisted of an account from a young Australian soldier who was maimed during the Gallipoli Campaign. The song has been praised for its imagery, evoking the devastation at the Gallipoli landings. It remains widely popular and is considered by some to be the iconic anti-war song.
In Turkey, the battle is thought of as a significant event in the state 's emergence, although it is primarily remembered for the fighting that took place around the port of Çanakkale, where the Royal Navy was repulsed in March 1915. For the Turks, 18 March has a similar significance as 25 April to Australians and New Zealanders, it is not a public holiday but is commemorated with special ceremonies. The campaign 's main significance to the Turkish people lies in the role it played in the emergence of Mustafa Kemal, who became the first president of the Republic of Turkey after the war. "Çanakkale geçilmez '' (Çanakkale is impassable) became a common phrase to express the state 's pride at repulsing the attack and the song "Çanakkale içinde '' (A Ballad for Chanakkale) commemorates the Turkish youth who fell during the battle. Turkish filmmaker Sinan Cetin, created a movie called "Children of Canakkale ''.
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Coordinates: 40 ° 22 ′ 2 '' N 26 ° 27 ′ 18 '' E / 40.36722 ° N 26.45500 ° E / 40.36722; 26.45500
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who hit the first mlb interleague home run in 1997 | Interleague play - wikipedia
Interleague play in Major League Baseball refers to regular - season baseball games played between an American League (AL) team and a National League (NL) team. Interleague play was first introduced in the 1997 Major League Baseball season. Prior to that, matchups between AL teams and NL teams occurred only during spring training, the All - Star Game, other exhibition games (such as the Hall of Fame Game in Cooperstown, New York), and the World Series. Unlike modern interleague play, none of these contests, except for the World Series, counted toward official team or league records.
Regular season interleague play was discussed for baseball 's major leagues as early as 1903, when the two major leagues made peace and formed the National Commission as governing body. The first National Commission Chairman, Cincinnati president August Herrmann (who had already been a proponent of interleague play), proposed an ambitious scheme in late - 1904. Herrmann 's plan would have seen the two leagues ending their seasons earlier, after approximately 116 games, "and then have every National League team play two games in every American League city, and have every American League team play two games in every National League city. '' Another interleague play idea was floated around the same time by Boston Americans owner John Taylor, whose plan was for each league to play its full 154 - game schedule, to be followed by not just a championship series between the two league winners, but also by series ' between the two second - place finishers, the two third - place teams, and all other corresponding finishers.
In August 1933, several owners reacted favorably to a proposal by Chicago Cubs president William Veeck to have teams play four interleague games in the middle of the season, beginning in 1934. In December 1956, Major League owners considered a proposal by Cleveland general manager and minority - owner Hank Greenberg to implement limited interleague play beginning in 1958. Under Greenberg 's proposal, each team would continue to play a 154 - game season, with 126 within that team 's league, and 28 against the eight clubs in the other league. The interleague games would be played immediately following the All - Star Game. Notably, under Greenberg 's proposal, all results would count in regular season game standings and league statistics. While this proposal was not adopted, the current system shares many elements. Bill Veeck predicted in 1963 that Major League Baseball would someday have interleague play. While the concept was again considered in the 1970s, it was not implemented until the 1990s, at least in part as an effort to renew the public 's interest in MLB following the 1994 players ' strike.
MLB 's first regular - season interleague game took place on June 12, 1997, as the Texas Rangers hosted the San Francisco Giants at The Ballpark in Arlington. There were four interleague games on the schedule that night, but the other three were played on the West Coast, so the Giants -- Rangers matchup started a few hours earlier than the others. Texas 's Darren Oliver threw the game 's first pitch and San Francisco outfielder Glenallen Hill was the first designated hitter used in a regular - season game by a National League team. San Francisco 's Darryl Hamilton got the first base hit in interleague play, while Stan Javier hit the first home run, leading the Giants to a 4 -- 3 victory over the Rangers.
From 1997 to 2001, teams from the American League West played teams from the National League West, teams from the American League Central played teams from the National League Central, and so on, typically scheduled to alternate between home and away in consecutive years. In 2002, however, the league began alternating which divisions played which divisions, and thus in 2002 the American League East played the National League West, the American League Central played the National League East, and the American League West played the National League Central. Matchups which had been of particular interest prior to this format -- mainly geographic rivals -- were preserved. This is expected to be the continuing format of the interleague schedule. Corresponding divisions were skipped once when this rotation began, but were put back in the rotation in 2006.
From 2002 to 2012, all interleague games were played prior to the All - Star Game (with the exception of games postponed by weather that were made up after the All - Star Game). Most games were played in June and early July, although beginning in 2005, interleague games were played during one weekend in mid-May.
The designated hitter (DH) rule is applied in the same manner as in the World Series (and the All - Star Game prior to 2010). In an American League ballpark, both teams have the option to use a DH. In a National League ballpark, both teams ' pitchers must bat. Some baseball observers feel it might be of better interest to reverse this (in other words, always follow the DH rule of the visiting team instead of the home team). This would expose the fans of the home team to the other league 's rules. Fans of AL teams could see the strategy involved in having the pitchers bat, while fans of NL teams could see career - designated hitters such as Travis Hafner bat more than once a game in a pinch - hitting role. Teams from both leagues have both benefited and have been at a disadvantage when it comes to the DH rule in interleague play. For instance, Barry Bonds, who spent his entire career in the National League and actually won eight Gold Gloves earlier in his career, was used strictly as a DH later in his career when the San Francisco Giants played away interleague games due to his poor fielding. Conversely, Boston Red Sox slugger David Ortiz, who spent his entire career in the American League and was the Red Sox 's regular DH, was forced to play first base when the Red Sox had away interleague games, forcing the Sox to give up good defensive fielding in favor of retaining Ortiz 's power hitting.
After the 2010 interleague play, the American League holds an all - time series advantage of 1,808 -- 1,652 and has finished with the better record in interleague play for 7 straight seasons, dating back to 2004. 2006 was the most lopsided season in interleague history, with American League teams posting a 154 -- 98 record against their National League counterparts. The team with the best all - time record in interleague play is the New York Yankees of the AL at 144 -- 102 (. 585), followed by the Chicago White Sox at 143 -- 104 (. 579). The Miami Marlins holds the NL 's best interleague record at 127 -- 107 (. 543), followed by the St. Louis Cardinals at 109 -- 96 (. 532).
In 2007, two teams -- the Los Angeles Dodgers and the Baltimore Orioles -- played six games with more than one interleague opponent. The Dodgers played both the Toronto Blue Jays and the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim while the Orioles played both the Arizona Diamondbacks and the Washington Nationals. This happened again in 2012 as the New York Yankees played both the New York Mets and the Atlanta Braves for six games. The Miami Marlins also did this, playing both the Tampa Bay Rays and Boston Red Sox for six games each.
The first Civil Rights Game was an exhibition interleague game between the Cleveland Indians and St. Louis Cardinals at AutoZone Park in Memphis on March 31, 2007. The first regular season Civil Rights Game was an interleague game between the Chicago White Sox and Cincinnati Reds at Great American Ball Park on June 20, 2009.
Since the introduction of interleague play, two teams have shifted leagues: the Milwaukee Brewers from the American League to the National League in 1998, and the Houston Astros from the National League to the American League in 2013. As a result, a 2013 interleague series between the two teams made it the first time that two teams faced each other in an interleague series after both teams previously faced each other in an interleague series representing opposite leagues: the two teams met from September 1 -- 3, 1997 (Houston in NL, Milwaukee in AL), then again from June 18 -- 20, 2013 (Houston in AL, Milwaukee in NL). In both instances, the series took place in Houston, with the team representing the American League winning 2 - 1. From 1998 to 2012, both teams were division opponents in the National League Central.
The following is the text of Major League Baseball 's policy regarding the compilation of statistics as a result of Interleague Play:
"For the first time in the history of Major League Baseball, Interleague games are to be played during the regular season. Breaking tradition always brings about controversy and the matter of baseball records is no exception. ''
"It is the opinion of Major League Baseball that there is no justification for compiling a new volume of records based on Interleague Play. On the contrary, the sovereignty of each league 's records will be retained, and if a player or a team breaks a record against an Interleague opponent it will be considered a record in that league. In cases where two teams -- as Interleague opponents -- break a league or Major League record, that record will be annotated with the phrase ' Interleague game. ' Streaks by both teams and individual will continue (or be halted) when playing Interleague opponents in the same manner as if playing against an intraleague opponent. In essence, records will be defined by who made them rather than against whom they were made. ''
"The official statistics of both leagues will be kept separately as they have in the past. This means statistics for each team and their individual players will reflect their performance in games within the league and also in Interleague games without differentiation. ''
A list of leaders in the following categories is available on the MLB.com website.
Certain interleague matchups are highly anticipated each year, due to the geographic proximity of the teams involved. Many cities, metropolitan areas and states contain at least one team in each league. In of each of these "rivalry '' matchups, the two teams meet annually for four games, two in each ballpark. Prior to 2013, and in 2015, there were six games between the two teams, three per ballpark:
In 2014, the five AL teams that qualified for the postseason (Angels, Athletics, Orioles, Royals, and Tigers) all had geographical rivals among the five NL teams who qualified for the postseason (Dodgers, Giants, Nationals, Cardinals, and Pirates, respectively).
Four teams in the East and West form a "split rivalry '' where the rivalry pairings alternate in odd - and even - numbered years.
In the East:
In the West:
In years in which the AL East plays the NL East and the AL West plays the NL West (2015, 2018, etc.), the teams play their assigned "rival '' for the year six times and the other "rival '' either three or four times.
From 1997 through 2012, each team in the American League played 18 interleague games a year, but because the National League had two more teams than the American, only four NL teams would play a full 18 - game interleague schedule, with the remaining twelve teams playing only 15. With the exception of the two NL teams playing each other, all teams were involved in interleague play at the same time (originally in June and July), playing only interleague opponents until the interleague schedule was complete for the year. The schedule was later changed to occur only in June; in 2005, it was changed again to allow for more weekend interleague games, with each team playing one series during the third weekend in May and the rest in mid-to - late June (occasionally stretching into early July).
In 2013, the Houston Astros joined the American League, giving each league 15 teams and thereby necessitating that interleague games be played throughout the season, including on Opening Day and during key division races all the way to the end of the season. This did not require expanding the total number of interleague games, because the probability of an interleague game during the era in which the Astros played in the NL was 252 / 2430 or about 1 in 9.6 games (this number is not an integer because not all teams had the same number of interleague games). With an odd number of teams in each league, one team in each league would be the "odd man out '' and have to play an interleague game to fill out the schedule, meaning as few as 1 in 15 games could be interleague (14 AL teams in 7 AL games, 14 NL teams in 7 NL games and 1 AL and 1 NL team in an interleague game). Despite this, there have been proposals to increase interleague play to 30 games. While the increase to 30 games is highly unlikely for the foreseeable future, a smaller increase took place immediately, having every team to play 20 interleague games.
Since the 2013 season, the 20 interleague games are played in eight series. Each team plays one three - game series against four teams from one division in the other league, and two two - game series (one home, one away) against the remaining team in that division. Since 2002, this has been on a rotating basis. The remaining four games are played against a team 's "natural rival '' in two back - to - back two - game series. Should a team 's natural rival be a member of the division they are scheduled to play as part of the yearly rotation (this first occurred for all teams in 2015), the team will play home - and - home three game series against the natural rival, home - and - home two game series against two other opponents, and single three game series against the last two (one home, one away). For 2013, the natural rivalry games were played from May 27 -- 30. Teams played in one city on May 27 and 28, then traveled to the other city for games on May 29 and 30. This dynamic was repeated from June 15 -- 18, 2015, except that no pairs of natural rivals played each other during this time. For 2014, however, these natural rivalry games were spread out over the season, between early May and early August. They were spread out even further in 2016, ranging from the second week of the season in April through late August. Because the requirement for nearly daily interleague play (the only exception being if not all teams are playing) spreads out interleague play throughout the year, not every team will be in interleague play on the same day. Due to the new CBA lengthening the schedule by four days, 2018 was the first year during which no team was required to play back - to - back home - and - home two game series against any other team.
Most days, there will be either one or three interleague games as the average number of interleague games per day will be 1.68 ((20 interleague games per team x 30 teams in MLB) / (179 total days in baseball season (including off days and excluding the All - Star break)) / 2 teams per game). With 15 teams in each league, the number of interleague games is almost always odd, with exceptions based on when teams from each of the AL and NL have the same off day. Doubleheaders and make - up games also apply should a rainout or other extended delay requires a game (or games) to be postponed.
On April 1, 2013, for the first time in major league baseball history, an interleague game was played on Opening Day, between the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim and the Cincinnati Reds at Great American Ball Park, with the Angels claiming the distinction of winning that game 3 - 1 in 13 innings. The Reds, however, would win the next two contests by scores of 5 - 4. Also, on September 29, 2013, for the first time in major league baseball history, an interleague game was played on the last day of the regular season, between the Miami Marlins and the Detroit Tigers at Marlins Park. The Marlins not only claimed the distinction of winning that game 1 - 0 in walk - off fashion, but also saw their pitcher Henderson Álvarez pitch a no - hitter, marking just the 7th time a no - hitter was tossed in an interleague contest.
On April 3, 2016, for the first time in MLB history, the previous year 's World Series participants faced off on Opening Day the following year. The Kansas City Royals hosted the New York Mets at Kauffman Stadium in a nationally televised game and won 4 - 3. The Mets would not only return the favor two days later with a 2 - 0 win to split the two game series, but also sweep two more from the Royals in Citi Field on June 21 - 22 that year.
By 2012, every major league team had had at least one interleague series with each team in the opposing league. By 2013, every major league team had at least one victory against each team in the opposing league; the Pittsburgh Pirates ′ 5 - 0 victory over the Oakland Athletics on July 10, 2013 marked the first time the Pirates defeated the A 's. Entering that game, A 's - Pirates had been the only interleague series (and subsequently, the only MLB series overall) in which one team had won every game.
Every team has also hosted and visited every other team at least once. The last such series occurred in July 2016 when the San Diego Padres made their first trip to Toronto. The two teams had previously played in San Diego in 2004, 2010, and 2013.
Since its introduction, regular - season interleague play has continued to be a source of controversy among baseball fans and others involved with the sport. Among the arguments used in favor of and in opposition to interleague play are the following:
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