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who is the football coach at penn state | Penn State Nittany Lions Football - wikipedia
The Penn State Nittany Lions team represents the Pennsylvania State University in college football. The Nittany Lions compete in the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision as a member of the Big Ten Conference, which they joined in 1993 after playing as an Independent from their founding through 1992.
Established in 1887, the Nittany Lions have achieved numerous on - field successes, the most notable of which include two consensus national championships (1982 and 1986), four Big Ten Conference Championships (in 1994, 2005, 2008, and 2016), and 48 appearances in college bowl games, with a postseason bowl record of 29 -- 17 -- 2. The team is also # 8 all - time in total - wins, one game behind Oklahoma and Alabama. The Nittany Lions play their home games at Beaver Stadium, located on - campus in University Park, Pennsylvania. With an official seating capacity of 106,572, Beaver Stadium is the second - largest stadium in the western hemisphere, behind only Michigan Stadium in Ann Arbor, Michigan. The team is currently coached by James Franklin.
The first recorded game in Penn State football history occurred on November 12, 1881, when Penn State traveled to Lewisburg, Pennsylvania to play Bucknell, known until 1886 as the University of Lewisburg. Penn State won 9 -- 0, which was nine goals to none. At the time, this was really a game of "American rugby. '' The father of American football, Walter Camp, did not develop the "scrimmage '', the "first down '' and the "gridiron '' (yard markings) until 1882. Although this game was reported in two State College newspapers and the Mirror (University of Lewisburg campus newspaper), Bucknell denies that this game ever happened. Penn State did not field teams from 1882 through 1886. Penn State played its first season in 1887, but had no head coach for their first five years, from 1887 -- 1891. The teams played its home games on the Old Main lawn on campus in State College, Pennsylvania. They compiled a 12 -- 8 -- 1 record in these seasons, playing as an independent from 1887 -- 1890. In 1891, the Pennsylvania Intercollegiate Football Association (PIFA) was formed. It consisted of Bucknell (University of Lewisburg), Dickinson, Franklin & Marshall, Haverford, Penn State and Swarthmore. Lafayette and Lehigh were excluded because it was felt they would dominate the Association. Penn State won the championship with a 4 -- 1 -- 0 record. Bucknell 's record was 3 -- 1 -- 1 (losing to Franklin & Marshall and tying Dickinson). The Association was dissolved prior to the 1892 season. In 1894, the Penn State football team played the Muncy, Pennsylvania high school team. Penn State took an early 24 -- 0 lead, whereupon Muncy was allowed 14 players rather than the usual 11. That helped, but at half time the score was 42 -- 0. Muncy was then granted 7 downs instead of four. With 14 players, 7 downs, and Penn State letting its youngest players finish out the game, the final score was only 54 -- 0.
George W. Hoskins was the first head football coach at Penn State. He posted a 17 -- 4 -- 4 record in his four seasons from 1892 -- 1895 as head coach, and his. 760 winning percentage ranks highest in program history. His first team played its home game on the Old Main lawn on campus in State College, Pennsylvania, before the 500 - seat Beaver Field opened in 1893. He was succeeded by Samuel B. Newton, who posted a 12 -- 14 (. 462) record in three seasons, 1896 -- 1898. Sam Boyle coached for only one year in 1899 and compiled a 4 -- 6 -- 1 record (. 409). Pop Golden coached the Nittany Lions for three seasons from 1900 -- 1902, tallying a record of 16 -- 12 -- 1 (. 569). Daniel A. Reed took over for the 1903 season and went 5 -- 3 (. 625).
Tom Fennell coached the Nittany Lions for five seasons from 1904 -- 1908, posting a 33 -- 17 -- 1 (. 657) record. In 1907 the school adopted the Nittany Lion mascot, a mountain lion named after nearby Mount Nittany. An early mascot was "Old Coaly '', a mule that hauled stone for the original Old Main (completed in 1863 and demolished in 1929). Bill Hollenback took over the Nittany Lions as head coach for the 1909 season and went undefeated at 5 -- 0 -- 2, but left for Missouri for 1910. Bill 's older brother Jack Hollenback took over for the 1910 season and went 5 -- 2 -- 1 (. 688), but Bill returned to Penn State for 1911 -- 1914. Bill went 23 -- 9 -- 2 in his second tenure for a combined record of 28 -- 9 -- 4 (. 732). In 1911 and 1912, his teams went 8 -- 0 -- 1 and 8 -- 0 and were awarded retroactive national championships by the National Championship Foundation which are recognized by the NCAA. Head coach Dick Harlow brought a new form of defense, trying to go in - between or around offensive blockers rather than try to overpower them. Harlow 's Nittany Lions compiled a 20 -- 8 (. 714) record in his three seasons (1915 -- 1917) and was later inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame as a coach for his accomplishments.
Hugo Bezdek was Penn State 's head football coach for 12 seasons and was the Nittany Lions ' first athletics director. Bezdek posted a 65 -- 30 -- 11 record, which included two undefeated seasons and a berth in the 1922 Rose Bowl, a game they lost. Bezdek 's Nittany Lions posted a losing record in only two of Bezdek 's seasons, going 1 -- 2 -- 1 in 1918 and 3 -- 5 -- 1 in 1928. Bezdek retired after the 1929 season and was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame as a coach in 1954. Bob Higgins returned to his alma mater and served as Penn State 's head football coach for 19 seasons. He compiled a 91 -- 57 -- 11 overall record, which included 11 winning seasons and only five losing seasons. Higgins ' 1947 team tied SMU in the Cotton Bowl. Higgins was forced to retire due to poor health following the 1948 season. He was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame as a coach in 1954. For one season, Joe Bedenk, also a Penn State alum, served as the Nittany Lions ' head football coach. He was promoted from offensive line coach after the retirement of his predecessor. Bedenk posted a 5 -- 4 record in his 1949, his lone season as head coach, before requesting to return to his previous post as offensive line coach.
Rip Engle came to Penn State from Brown. Engle posted a 104 -- 48 -- 4 record during his 16 season tenure as head coach and developed a game known as Angleball as a way for his players to maintain fitness in the off - season. Engle never had a losing season at Penn State, and his 5 -- 5 final season was his only non-winning season. His 1959 and 1960 Nittany Lions teams won the Liberty Bowl, while his 1961 and 1962 teams reached the Gator Bowl, winning the first and losing the second. Engle retired following the 1965 season and was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame as a coach in 1973.
Penn State assistant Joe Paterno was promoted to head coach following the retirement of Engle. Paterno spent 46 seasons as the head football coach, the longest tenure of any head coach in the FBS, and 16 more seasons as an assistant, making his 62 total years coaching at Penn State the most of any coach at any school. Under Paterno, Penn State played as an Independent from 1966 -- 1992, and he continued to coach them when they joined the Big Ten Conference in 1993 -- 2011. He also served as Penn State 's athletic director from 1980 -- 1982. His final record is 409 -- 136 -- 3. His teams won national championships in 1982 and 1986, posted non-losing records in all seasons but five, and appeared in 37 bowl games with 24 wins. His teams also won the Orange Bowl in 1968, 1969, 1973 and 2005; the Fiesta Bowl in 1977, 1980, 1981, 1986, 1991 and 1996; the Sugar Bowl in 1982; and the Rose Bowl in 1994. In June 1990, Penn State 's athletics program, after a century as a Division I-A independent, joined the Big Ten Conference. Beaver Stadium was expanded six times during Paterno 's tenure. He was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame in 2006 and was a major reason why the longtime rule of waiting until retirement to be inducted into the Hall of Fame was changed to any coach over 75 years of age. Players including Kerry Collins, Charlie Zapiec, Matt Millen, Shane Conlan, Jack Ham, Dennis Onkotz, Franco Harris, Greg Buttle, Keith Dorney, John Cappelletti, Curt Warner, Larry Johnson, LaVar Arrington and Ted Kwalick played collegiately for him. He won numerous coaching and sportsman honors during his long run at Penn State.
Paterno has the most wins in FBS football and in college sports (409).
As a result of the Penn State child sex abuse scandal involving longtime assistant Jerry Sandusky, Paterno was fired in November 2011, and all of the team 's wins from 1998 -- 2011 were forfeited. Paterno 's statue outside Beaver Stadium was also taken down. Defensive coordinator Tom Bradley finished out the 2011 season as interim head coach after Paterno 's ouster. The lost wins dropped Paterno from first to twelfth on the all - time wins list, but on January 16, 2015, the NCAA restored Paterno 's vacated wins, again making him the winningest FBS football coach.
New England Patriots offensive coordinator Bill O'Brien was hired as the 15th head football coach at Penn State, taking over the scandal - ridden Nittany Lions football program in January 2012. Early in O'Brien's tenure, the NCAA sanctioned Penn State with a four - season postseason ban and a loss of 40 scholarships due to the child sex abuse scandal. O'Brien posted an 8 -- 4 record in his first season as head coach of the Nittany Lions, a much better record than most anticipated.
O'Brien's 2013 Nittany Lions team posted a 7 -- 5 record in the second of four years they were ineligible for the postseason. In January 2014, Bill O'Brien left Penn State to accept the head coaching position with the NFL 's Houston Texans.
On January 11, 2014, Vanderbilt head coach James Franklin was hired as the 16th Penn State head football coach. He is the first African American head football coach at Penn State. In Franklin 's first year, the NCAA lifted Penn State 's postseason ban and the Nittany Lions were bowl eligible. The Nittany Lions were named to the Pinstripe Bowl where they won against the Boston College Eagles on December 27, 2014 at Yankee Stadium.
To start off the 2015 season, Penn State lost to Temple 27 -- 10, its first loss to the Owls since 1941. The loss was followed by victories against Buffalo, Rutgers, San Diego State, Army and Indiana. The Nittany Lions then lost to Ohio State 38 -- 10 in Columbus before winning, 31 -- 30, at Maryland. The victory against Maryland brought the Nittany Lions to six wins, making them bowl eligible for the second year since the postseason ban was lifted. Penn State then shut out the Illinois Fighting Illini 39 -- 0 in the second to last home game of the 2015 season. They then lost to Michigan in Happy Valley 28 -- 16 and to Michigan State 55 -- 16 at MSU. The win - loss record for Penn State in the 2015 regular season was 7 -- 5, and 7 -- 6 after a loss to Georgia in the Taxslayer Bowl in Jacksonville.
The 2016 season marked the arrival of offensive coordinator Joe Moorhead and included an upset over # 2 Ohio State during a "White - Out '' in State College. Following the win, Penn State was ranked 24th in the AP Poll, its first ranking since 2011. Penn State finished the regular season 10 -- 2, 8 -- 1 in Big Ten play. After winning a tiebreaker against rivals Ohio State, Penn State went on to claim the Big Ten East title and a spot in the Big Ten Championship game in Indianapolis against Big Ten West champion Wisconsin, which they won after trailing 28 -- 14 in the first half. They outscored the Badgers 24 -- 3 in the second half to take home the Nittany Lions ' fourth Big Ten Title. On August 18, 2017, Penn State announced that Franklin signed a six - year contract extension worth $5.738 million a year. That deal includes retention bonuses paid at the end of each year of the contract. "My family and I are very thankful to be a part of the Penn State community, '' Franklin said in a statement. "I am pleased with the progress our program has made in the community, in the classroom and on the field. I look forward to diligently working with President Barron and Director of Athletics Sandy Barbour on implementing a plan that puts our University and our student - athletes in the best position to compete on the field and in life. '' In addition to the guaranteed money, Franklin 's contract extension has incentives including $800,000 for a national title, $400,000 for a College Football Playoff appearance and $350,000 for winning the Big Ten Championship Game. His incentives are capped at $1 million per year.
Penn State went to 7 -- 0 to begin the 2017 season, before losing on consecutive weekends to Ohio State and Michigan State. Penn State finished the regular season with wins over Rutgers, Nebraska and Maryland. Penn State capped the 2017 season at the Fiesta Bowl, beating Washington, 35 -- 28. After the 2017 season, offensive coordinator Joe Moorhead left PSU to take the head coaching position at Mississippi State.
Penn State has won two consensus national championships, both under Joe Paterno 's tenure as coach.
Penn State played as an independent from 1887 through 1890.
On September 26, 1891, the Pennsylvania Intercollegiate Football Association (PIFA) was formed. The PIFA consisted of Bucknell, Dickinson, Franklin and Marshall, Haverford, Penn State and Swarthmore. Penn State won the championship with a 4 -- 1 -- 0 PIFA record losing only to Bucknell (Bucknell 's record was 3 -- 1 -- 1). The PIFA dissolved prior to the 1892 season.
Penn State then played as an independent again until joining the Big Ten Conference in 1990 and beginning play in 1993. Penn State then won its first Big Ten championship in 1994, they won two more in 2005 and 2008, and they won a fourth under James Franklin in 2016.
Penn State has had seven undefeated, untied seasons since the program started in 1887:
Penn State has earned invitations to 48 bowl games. The Nittany Lions have compiled a bowl record of 29 -- 17 -- 2 (. 625), including a 15 -- 6 -- 1 (. 705) record in the major bowls (Rose, Orange, Sugar, Fiesta, and Cotton).
Coach Joe Paterno was responsible for most of these bids and victories, compiling more appearances (37) than any other coach in college football en route to his bowl record of 24 -- 12 -- 1 (. 662). Paterno also has a record of 14 -- 5 (. 737) in "major '' bowls and is the only coach to have won all five major college bowls during his career.
"Nittanyville '', originally known as Paternoville, is the name attributed to the student tradition of camping out in front of Beaver Stadium prior to a home football game. Each week before a home game, students camp out in front of the stadium in order to hold their positions in line for front - row seats. Football players, the Blue Band, local food vendors and even the coaching staff frequently visit Nittanyville, pepping up the students as game days draw near. Nittanyville is governed by the student - run Nittanyville Coordination Committee. The tradition was established during the 2005 football season, when students began setting up tents and "camping '' in front of Beaver Stadium one week before the game with rival school Ohio State on October 8.
Joe Paterno was widely known for his "grand experiment '' in which he challenged his players to be successful both on the field and in the classroom. In 2011, the Nittany Lion football team posted an 87 % graduation rate, tied with Stanford for No. 10 overall among the nation 's 120 Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) institutions, above the national average of 67 %.
The June 2012 conviction of former assistant coach Jerry Sandusky on multiple counts of child sexual abuse marred the "Success with Honor '' image. President Rodney Erickson, athletics director Dave Joyner, and head football coach Bill O'Brien, all of whom accepted their jobs in the wake of the scandal, have made statements in which they express commitment to maintaining integrity at the university and within the athletics programs.
In 2012, a group of alumni and supporters established a non-profit organization (501 (c) (3) and registered trademark) that will build upon the "Success with Honor '' motto. Their mission is to promote and support charitable endeavors as well as to inspire others to "Get in the Game. '' Success with Honor is a Social Network Community that has identified more than 60 + charities. Success with Honor helps individuals to identify and connect with causes they 'd like to volunteer their skills, time, and / or money to. Similarly, SWH assists charities in finding individuals to meet their current needs.
The team is widely noted for their simple game uniforms. They only wear white pants, and the jerseys are simple blue for home games, and white for away games. The team is only allowed to wear simple black Nike shoes with white calf socks for game days, though blue tights are permitted underneath the white socks for cold weather games. The helmet is white with a blue stripe down the center, and a blue on white "Penn State '' sticker covers up the forehead helmet logo. No team logos, conference logos, numbers, or other stickers are permitted on the helmet, though two Nike logos are on facemask visors that some players choose to wear. Penn State has started to wear bowl decals only starting with 1997 Fiesta Bowl. Before that, Penn State always declined the decals so they can play out of their simple game uniforms. The blue and white uniforms replaced pink and black ones in 1890.
The uniforms became even simpler for the 2011 season, as the white cuffs and collars on the home jerseys and the corresponding blue cuffs and collars on the road jerseys were eliminated, leaving the jerseys solid blue and white, respectively.
In 2012 Penn State started wearing names on their uniforms for the first time as a way to note the players who stuck with the school through the scandal and a blue ribbon in support the victims of child abuse.
In 2013, the Nittany Lion logo was added to the base of the jersey collar along with the Big Ten logo on the right side of the jersey.
Starting in 2015, the names that were added throughout the 2012 -- 14 seasons to honor those who stayed with the program were removed and the team reverted to the traditional nameless jerseys while still retaining the Nittany Lion logo at the base of the jersey collar. The team also began sporting new Nike Elite 51 jerseys which feature a new design on the collars. In addition, the team added the words "Nittany Lions '' onto the back of the football helmets.
For the 2017 homecoming game against the Indiana Hoosiers, Penn State broke tradition by donning throwback jerseys in what was dubbed the "Generations of Greatness '' game. These uniforms integrated elements from past uniforms, including: numbers on helmets ' sides, block uniform numbers, white stripes on sleeves, blue stripes on pants, striped socks, gray facemasks, white cleats, and a few other subtle changes.
Captains are chosen by the team, with the head coach 's approval. Being named a captain is an honor almost always given to a senior, but there are some notable exceptions: Linebacker Sean Lee was named a captain in the beginning of Spring practice in 2008, the beginning of his 4th year with the team. However, he suffered a torn ACL during spring practice, redshirted in 2008, and returned as a captain again in 2009. The most recent example of a "true '' junior being named was Paul Posluszny, who was named a captain in both 2005 and 2006, his junior and senior years, respectively. The last time a junior was named captain before Posluszny was in 1968, when Steve Smear and Mike Reid were named captains during their junior years. In 2014, Christian Hackenberg became the first true sophomore to be named team captain.
Penn State is often referred to as Linebacker U for its reputation of producing outstanding linebackers.
The Penn State child sex abuse scandal centered on then retired Pennsylvania State University football assistant coach Jerry Sandusky 's sexual assault of two underage boys on or near university property. After an extensive grand jury investigation, Sandusky was indicted on 52 counts of child molestation dating from 1994 The trial of Jerry Sandusky on 52 charges of sexual crimes against children started on June 11, 2012, at the Centre County Courthouse in Bellefonte, Pennsylvania and ended on the evening of June 22, 2012, when the jury found Sandusky guilty on 45 of the 48 counts against him.
Several high - level school officials were charged with perjury, suspended, or dismissed for allegedly covering up the incidents or failing to notify authorities. In the wake of the scandal, school president Graham Spanier was forced to resign, and head football coach Joe Paterno was fired without cause late in the season, while Sandusky maintained his innocence.
Former FBI director Louis Freeh, whose firm was hired by the Penn State Board of Trustees to conduct an independent investigation into the scandal, concluded, after, ostensibly, conducting over 400 interviews and reviewing over 3.5 million documents, that Paterno, Spanier, Curley and Schultz had "repeatedly concealed critical facts relating to Sandusky 's child abuse from the authorities, the Board of Trustees, Penn State community, and the public at large. '' In an interview conducted by Showtime 's 60 Minutes Sports, the former Chief Deputy Attorney General of Pennsylvania, Frank Fina, who investigated and prosecuted Jerry Sandusky, stated that he found no evidence that Joe Paterno participated in a cover - up.
On July 23, 2012, NCAA announced that it had fined the Penn State football program $60 million, levied a four - year ban from bowl games and vacated all of the program 's 112 wins from 1998 to 2011. They were originally scheduled to lose 10 scholarships from the incoming classes in 2013, 2014, 2015 and 2016, which would have been a loss of 40 total scholarships. They were set to have a maximum of 75 players on scholarship in 2013, then be down to 65 total scholarships for 2014, 2015 and 2016, before increasing back up to 75 in 2017 and return to a full allotment of 85 scholarships for the 2018 season.
On September 24, 2013, the NCAA announced they were restoring 25 of the 40 scholarships to Penn State "(d) ue to Penn State University 's continued progress toward ensuring athletics integrity ''. After losing 10 scholarships from the 2013 -- 2014 incoming class (bringing in 15 players instead of the normal 25) and only having 75 total players on scholarship, Penn State gained five scholarships back for 2014 -- 15, bringing in 20 new players with 80 total players on scholarship. Full scholarships were regained for 2016 -- 17, two years ahead of schedule. In total they lost only 15 scholarships, compared to the original penalty of 40 scholarships.
The decision to return the scholarships was the result of a unanimous decision of the executive committee of the NCAA following a recommendation from the former US Sen. George Mitchell. The NCAA had appointed Mitchell to monitor the progress of Penn State and adopting recommended reforms to enhance their "security, ethics, governance and compliance structure ''. The decision to accept the recommendation was based upon the belief that the restored scholarships would provide benefits to student - athletes.
Several lawsuits were filed against NCAA related to the levy of penalties. In September 2014 the NCAA, under the auspices of favorable reports from Mitchell, announced that Penn State would be eligible for the 2014 postseason and all scholarships restored in 2015. The team 's wins and records that had previously been vacated due to the scandal were restored, pending full approval, as part of a legal settlement in January 2015.
Since 1993, Penn State has played Michigan State for the Land Grant Trophy. Michigan State currently holds possession of the trophy after winning the 2017 contest. Beginning with the league 's expansion and new division format in 2011, the two teams were in different divisions and did not play annually, however this series renewed in the 2014 season and continue yearly as they will both be in the Big Ten 's Eastern Division. Penn State has a 14 -- 8 record in these trophy games. Michigan State currently leads the series 16 -- 15 -- 1.
Since 1993, Penn State has played Minnesota for the Governor 's Victory Bell sporadically in their Big Ten schedule.
Due to the latest changes in the Big Ten 's scheduling procedures, the series will be held approximately two times every seven years starting in 2014; this will change to three times every seven years when the Big Ten adds another conference game effective 2016. Penn State won the most recent meeting 29 -- 26 in overtime on October 1, 2016 in State College. The next game is scheduled for November 9, 2019 in Minnesota. Penn State currently leads the all - time series 9 -- 5.
This is a long - standing series between in - state rivals Penn State and Pittsburgh. Once considered the fiercest and most important college football rivalry north of the Mason -- Dixon line, this rivalry was first played in 1893 when Penn State won 32 -- 0. The most recent game in the series was played in 2017 with Penn State winning over Pittsburgh 33 - 14 at Beaver Stadium.
The Pitt - Penn State game is scheduled to continue annually through 2019, with the 2017 and 2019 contests taking place at Beaver Stadium in State College and the 2018 contest taking place at Heinz Field in Pittsburgh. Penn State has not played more games against any other opponent, whereas Pitt has only played more against West Virginia University. The game scheduled for 2019 in State College will mark their 100th matchup.
Penn State currently holds a 51 -- 43 -- 4 record in the series
The rivalry began before Penn State was a member of the Big Ten. The first four meetings in the series were stretched out over the course of 53 seasons between 1912 and 1964 which Penn State won all of. Then Ohio State won in 1975 in a game held in Columbus, Ohio and again in 1976 during the first ever match - up between the two teams in State College, Pennsylvania. Penn State and Ohio State would meet again in 1980 in their first and only postseason bowl, the 1980 Fiesta Bowl, which Penn State won. After the Fiesta Bowl, the two teams would not meet again until Penn State joined the Big Ten in 1993. Since then, the Nittany Lions and Buckeyes have played each other annually. Ohio State currently leads the series 18 -- 14.
Penn State and West Virginia have played each other 59 times. The first game was in 1904 when Penn state won that game 34 - 0. The two teams announced on September 19, 2013 that a home and home series has been scheduled for 2023 and 2024. This series has been dominated by the Nittany Lions, currently leading the series 48 - 9 - 2.
The rivalry started in 1922, when Syracuse fought Penn State to a 0 -- 0 tie. But it was during the 1950s and 1960s that the rivalry intensified, as it enjoyed a competitive and often controversial string of contests. Syracuse football was led by Ben Schwartzwalder, and Penn State by Rip Engle, then Joe Paterno. From 1950 to 1970, Syracuse won 11 games to Penn State 's 10.
After Schwartzwalder retired in 1973, Syracuse floundered. Penn State won 16 straight from 1971 to 1986. Conference realignment and scheduling disagreements also dampened the intensity of the rivalry. Penn State fans and players increasingly turned their attention to the rivalry with Pittsburgh.
In 1987, Coach Dick MacPherson finally led Syracuse to a resounding 48 -- 21 victory over the Nittany Lions in the Dome. Syracuse won again the following year in Happy Valley but lost the last two games before the series was suspended in 1991. The rivalry has since been renewed three times since the series suspension -- in 2008, 2009, and 2013. The Nittany Lions won all three of these contests. Penn State leads the series 43 -- 23 -- 5.
Though the Crimson Tide are not as much of a traditional opponent for the Nittany Lions, the two teams are still often considered among the best in the country, claim a combined 18 national titles, and have met in a bowl game three times. The series began on December 19, 1959 in that year 's edition of the Liberty Bowl, a 7 -- 0 win for # 12 Penn State. Sixteen years later, the Nittany Lions and Crimson Tide met in the 1975 Sugar Bowl, resulting in a 13 -- 6 Tide victory in New Orleans. Perhaps the most notable game between these two teams came four years later, in a 1979 Sugar Bowl rematch, resulting in another Alabama victory. The rivalry was intensified during the 1980s, when the Lions and Tide met in 10 consecutive seasons, all during regular season play. After this time, the rivalry went dormant for two decades before being renewed for a 2 - game home - and - home series in 2010 and 2011. In all, Alabama leads the series, 10 -- 5.
Penn State and Maryland met in briefly interrupted stretches between 1917 and 1993, with a near - consecutive run played all but three years (1976, 1981, and 1983) between 1960 and 1993. However, the one - sided record belies what was often a competitive match - up until its final years. While Maryland only compiled one win and one tie, numerous games were narrowly lost by missed field goals and turnovers. In 1975, a field goal attempt by kicker Mike Sochko hit the upright with under a minute left, and Maryland lost 15 -- 13. Ten years later, the Terps missed three field goals to eventually lose 20 -- 18. After the Nittany Lions ' move to the Big Ten Conference in 1993, the series was cancelled. However, Maryland ended up joining the Big Ten as well, in 2014, reinstating the rivalry after more than 2 decades of being dormant. They are scheduled to play annually as part of the conference schedule. Both schools compete aggressively for recruits in the Baltimore -- Washington metropolitan area and Delaware Valley.
Staff as of March 2018.
Penn State is one of 11 schools with five or more inductees in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
Including former head coach Joe Paterno, 24 Nittany Lion players and coaches have been selected for the College Football Hall of Fame.
Announced schedules as of September 4, 2017
The Penn State football team has worked in coordination with Uplifting Athletes, a non-profit organization, to raise awareness and funds for the Kidney Cancer Association. In 2003 the team turned their annual weight - lifting competition into a fund - raiser when a player 's father was diagnosed with Kidney Cancer. The event that is now known as Lift for Life, has raised more than $225,000 since its inception.
List of Penn State Nittany Lions Head Football Coaches
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when did the unicorn became the national animal of scotland | National symbols of Scotland - wikipedia
The national symbols of Scotland are flags, icons or cultural expressions that are emblematic, representative or otherwise characteristic of Scotland or Scottish culture. As a rule, these national symbols are cultural icons that have emerged from Scottish folklore and tradition, meaning few have any official status. However, most if not all maintain recognition at a national or international level, and some, such as the Royal Arms of Scotland, have been codified in heraldry, and are established, official and recognised symbols of Scotland.
Although officially subsumed into the heraldry of the British Royal Family in 1707, the historic Royal Arms featuring the lion rampant continues to represent Scotland on several coins of the pound sterling, forms the basis of several emblems of Scottish national sports teams (such as the Scotland national football team), and endures as one of the most recognisable national symbols of Scotland
See also the 16 people in the Hall of Heroes at the Wallace Monument in Stirling.
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the wto agreement on trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights (trips) | TRIPS agreement - wikipedia
The Agreement on Trade - Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) is an international legal agreement between all the member nations of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It sets down minimum standards for the regulation by national governments of many forms of intellectual property (IP) as applied to nationals of other WTO member nations. TRIPS was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1994 and is administered by the WTO.
The TRIPS agreement introduced intellectual property law into the international trading system for the first time and remains the most comprehensive international agreement on intellectual property to date. In 2001, developing countries, concerned that developed countries were insisting on an overly narrow reading of TRIPS, initiated a round of talks that resulted in the Doha Declaration. The Doha declaration is a WTO statement that clarifies the scope of TRIPS, stating for example that TRIPS can and should be interpreted in light of the goal "to promote access to medicines for all. ''
Specifically, TRIPS requires WTO members to provide copyright rights, covering content producers including performers, producers of sound recordings and broadcasting organizations; geographical indications, including appellations of origin; industrial designs; integrated circuit layout - designs; patents; new plant varieties; trademarks; trade dress; and undisclosed or confidential information. TRIPS also specifies enforcement procedures, remedies, and dispute resolution procedures. Protection and enforcement of all intellectual property rights shall meet the objectives to contribute to the promotion of technological innovation and to the transfer and dissemination of technology, to the mutual advantage of producers and users of technological knowledge and in a manner conducive to social and economic welfare, and to a balance of rights and obligations.
TRIPS was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1994. Its inclusion was the culmination of a program of intense lobbying by the United States, supported by the European Union, Japan and other developed nations. Campaigns of unilateral economic encouragement under the Generalized System of Preferences and coercion under Section 301 of the Trade Act played an important role in defeating competing policy positions that were favored by developing countries like Brazil, but also including Thailand, India and Caribbean Basin states. In turn, the United States strategy of linking trade policy to intellectual property standards can be traced back to the entrepreneurship of senior management at Pfizer in the early 1980s, who mobilized corporations in the United States and made maximizing intellectual property privileges the number one priority of trade policy in the United States (Braithwaite and Drahos, 2000, Chapter 7).
After the Uruguay round, the GATT became the basis for the establishment of the World Trade Organization. Because ratification of TRIPS is a compulsory requirement of World Trade Organization membership, any country seeking to obtain hard access to the numerous international markets opened by the World Trade Organization must enact the strict intellectual property laws mandated by TRIPS. For this reason, TRIPS is the most important multilateral instrument for the globalization of intellectual property laws. States like Russia and China that were very unlikely to join the Berne Convention have found the prospect of WTO membership a powerful enticement.
Furthermore, unlike other agreements on intellectual property, TRIPS has a powerful enforcement mechanism. States can be disciplined through the WTO 's dispute settlement mechanism.
TRIPS requires member states to provide strong protection for intellectual property rights. For example, under TRIPS:
Many of the TRIPS provisions on copyright were copied from the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works and many of its trademark and patent provisions were modeled on the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property. It is the case of the protection of software and database.
Article 10 of the treaty stipulates:
"1. Computer programs, whether in source or object code, shall be protected as literary works under the Berne Convention (1971). 2. Compilations of data or other material, whether in machine readable or other form, which by reason of the selection or arrangement of their contents constitute intellectual creations shall be protected as such. Such protection, which shall not extend to the data or material itself, shall be without prejudice to any copyright subsisting in the data or material itself. ''
The most visible conflict has been over AIDS drugs in Africa. Despite the role that patents have played in maintaining higher drug costs for public health programs across Africa, this controversy has not led to a revision of TRIPS. Instead, an interpretive statement, the Doha Declaration, was issued in November 2001, which indicated that TRIPS should not prevent states from dealing with public health crises. After Doha, PhRMA, the United States and to a lesser extent other developed nations began working to minimize the effect of the declaration.
A 2003 agreement loosened the domestic market requirement, and allows developing countries to export to other countries where there is a national health problem as long as drugs exported are not part of a commercial or industrial policy. Drugs exported under such a regime may be packaged or colored differently in order to prevent them from prejudicing markets in the developed world.
In 2003, the Bush administration also changed its position, concluding that generic treatments might in fact be a component of an effective strategy to combat HIV. Bush created the PEPFAR program, which received $15 billion from 2003 -- 2007, and was reauthorized in 2008 for $48 billion over the next five years. Despite wavering on the issue of (compulsory licensing), PEPFAR began to distribute generic drugs in 2004 - 5.
Another controversy has been over the TRIPS Article 27 requirements for patentability "in all fields of technology '', and whether or not this necessitates the granting of software and business method patents.
According to article 10 of the TRIPS Agreement the appropriate instrument to protect software protection is author right. The importance of this instrument has recently been confirmed by the US Supreme Court (Oracle America, Inc. v. Google, Inc.).
The obligations under TRIPS apply equally to all member states, however developing countries were allowed extra time to implement the applicable changes to their national laws, in two tiers of transition according to their level of development. The transition period for developing countries expired in 2005. The transition period for least developed countries to implement TRIPS was extended to 2013, and until 1 January 2016 for pharmaceutical patents, with the possibility of further extension.
It has therefore been argued that the TRIPS standard of requiring all countries to create strict intellectual property systems will be detrimental to poorer countries ' development. It has been argued that it is, prima facie, in the strategic interest of most if not all underdeveloped nations to use the flexibility available in TRIPS to legislate the weakest IP laws possible.
This has not happened in most cases. A 2005 report by the WHO found that many developing countries have not incorporated TRIPS flexibilities (compulsory licensing, parallel importation, limits on data protection, use of broad research and other exceptions to patentability, etc.) into their legislation to the extent authorized under Doha.
This is likely caused by the lack of legal and technical expertise needed to draft legislation that implements flexibilities, which has often led to developing countries directly copying developed country IP legislation, or relying on technical assistance from the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), which, according to critics such as Cory Doctorow, encourages them to implement stronger intellectual property monopolies.
Banerjee and Nayak shows that TRIPS has a positive effect on R&D expenditure of Indian pharmaceutical firms.
In addition to the baseline intellectual property standards created by the TRIPS agreement, many nations have engaged in bilateral agreements to adopt a higher standard of protection. These collection of standards, known as TRIPS+ or TRIPS - Plus, can take many forms. General objectives of these agreements include:
According to WTO 10th Anniversary, Highlights of the first decade, Annual Report 2005 page 142, in the first ten years, 25 complaints have been lodged leading to the panel reports and appellate body reports on TRIPS listed below.
The WTO website has a gateway to all TRIPS disputes (including those that did not lead to panel reports) here (1).
Since TRIPS came into force, it has been subject to criticism from developing countries, academics, and non-governmental organizations. Though some of this criticism is against the WTO generally, many advocates of trade liberalisation also regard TRIPS as poor policy. TRIPS 's wealth concentration effects (moving money from people in developing countries to copyright and patent owners in developed countries) and its imposition of artificial scarcity on the citizens of countries that would otherwise have had weaker intellectual property laws, are common bases for such criticisms. Other criticism has focused on the failure of TRIPS to accelerate investment and technology flows to low - income countries, a benefit advanced by WTO members in the lead - up to the agreement 's formation. Statements by the World Bank indicate that TRIPS has not led to a demonstrable acceleration of investment to low - income countries, though it may have done so for middle - income countries. Lengthy patent periods under TRIPs have been scrutinised for unduly slowing the entry of generic substitutes and competition to the market. In particular, the illegality of pre-clinical trials or submission of samples for approval until a patent expires have been blamed for driving the growth of a few multinationals, rather than developing country producers.
Daniele Archibugi and Andrea Filippetti argue that the importance of TRIPS in the process of generation and diffusion of knowledge and innovation has been overestimated by its supporters. This point has been supported by United Nations findings indicating many countries with weak protection routinely benefit from strong levels of foreign direct investment (FDI). Analysis of OECD countries in the 1980s and 1990s (during which the patent life of drugs was extended by 6 years) showed that while total number of products registered increased slightly, the mean innovation index remained unchanged. In contrast to that, Jörg Baten, Nicola Bianchi and Petra Moser (2017) find historical evidence that under certain circumstances compulsory licensing -- a key mechanism to weaken intellectual property rights that is covered by Article 31 of the TRIPS -- may indeed be effective in promoting invention by increasing the threat of competition in fields with low pre-existing levels of competition. They argue, however, that the benefits from weakening intellectual property rights strongly depend on whether the governments can credibly commit to using it only in exceptional cases of emergencies since firms may invest less in R&D if they expect repeated episodes of compulsory licensing.
The 2002 Doha Declaration affirmed that the TRIPS agreement should not prevent members from taking measures necessary to protect public health. Despite this recognition, less - developed countries have argued that TRIPS 's flexible provisions, such as compulsory licensing, are near - on impossible to exercise. In particular, less developed countries have cited their infant domestic manufacturing and technology industries as evidence of the policy 's bluntness.
TRIPS - plus conditions mandating standards beyond TRIPS have also been the subject of scrutiny. These FTA agreements contain conditions that limit the ability of governments to introduce competition for generic producers. In particular, the United States has been criticised for advancing protection well beyond the standards mandated by TRIPS. The United States Free Trade Agreements with Australia, Morocco and Bahrain have extended patentability by requiring patents be available for new uses of known products. The TRIPS agreement allows the grant of compulsory licenses at a nation 's discretion. TRIPS - plus conditions in the United States FTA 's with Australia, Jordan, Singapore and Vietnam have restricted the application of compulsory licenses to emergency situations, antitrust remedies, and cases of public non-commercial use.
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when does lexie come in grey's anatomy | Lexie Grey - wikipedia
Alexandra Caroline "Lexie '' Grey, M.D. is a fictional character from ABC 's medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy, portrayed by actress Chyler Leigh. Created by series producer Shonda Rhimes, the character was introduced in season three as protagonist Meredith Grey 's younger half - sister, who has transferred to Seattle Grace Hospital as a new surgical intern after her mother 's sudden death. Lexie is eventually named a surgical resident in season six. Leigh was originally contracted to appear for a multi-episode story arc, but ultimately received star billing from seasons four to eight.
Characterized by Rhimes as a dork with issues expressing her feelings, Lexie 's focal storyline in the series involved her romantic relationship with plastic surgeon Mark Sloan (Eric Dane). Both she and Mark sustained life - threatening injuries after an aviation accident in the eighth - season finale, which resulted in their deaths. Seattle Grace is later renamed Grey - Sloan Memorial Hospital in their memory. The reason given for Lexie 's departure was Leigh 's desire to spend more time with her family.
Both the character and Leigh 's performance have received positive feedback and acclaim, as Lexie has been cited as a favorite of critics and fans alike. Leigh was among the cast to receive a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2007.
Alexandra Caroline "Lexie '' Grey is the daughter of Susan (Mare Winningham) and Thatcher Grey (Jeff Perry), and the elder sister of Molly Grey - Thompson (Mandy Siegfried). Throughout her childhood, Lexie remained unaware that she also had an older half - sister, Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), born to Thatcher and his first wife Ellis (Kate Burton), a famed surgeon. As a child, Lexie was bright and skipped third grade. When she turned seven, her parents threw her a surprise party, which she always remembered as one of her best birthdays. She was very popular in high school, having a great group of friends, being crowned prom queen, and being class valedictorian.
In contrast to Meredith, Lexie came from a loving home with a happy and idealistic upbringing. Meredith once said of her: "She was raised right. With parents and rules and smiley face posters on her wall. '' Despite this, Meredith and Lexie ultimately form a wonderful familial bond with Lexie eventually moving into Meredith 's house.
Lexie has an eidetic memory, which is often used as a valuable resource and earns Lexie the nickname "Lexipedia ''. She has a high aptitude for both plastics and neurosurgery and is generally seen as one of the better young surgeons at the hospital often being asked to assist on many of the higher profile surgeries.
Near the end of Meredith 's intern year, Thatcher and Molly mention to Meredith that Lexie is a student at Harvard Medical School and that she soon had to choose a residency spot. Lexie graduates from medical school and is accepted to take her surgical internship at Mass General hospital, but following her mother 's sudden death from complications stemming from the hiccups, Lexie instead opts to move back to Seattle to be closer to her father, taking up an internship at Seattle Grace Hospital, one year behind Meredith who is due to begin her residency. After Susan 's death, Thatcher takes to drinking and soon becomes an alcoholic. Despite this, Lexie stays with her father and continues to care for him, even though he often unreasonably and randomly lashes out at Lexie. On the day of her mother 's funeral, Lexie waits in the car while Thatcher, accompanied by Molly, goes to tell Meredith that she is n't welcome at Susan 's funeral, again missing the opportunity to meet her older half - sister. Later that night, before her internship at Seattle Grace Hospital begins, Lexie meets Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) at Joe 's Bar, mirroring Shepard 's initial meeting with Meredith. The pair flirt and Lexie forwardly offers to buy Derek a drink, but Derek says that he is there with some friends and declines. Upon arriving at the hospital 's intern locker room, Lexie meets George O'Malley (T.R. Knight) during the end of his first year as an intern. After Lexie introduces herself, George quickly realizes her identity as Meredith 's half - sister.
Lexie promises to keep George 's secret that he is repeating his internship after failing his intern exam and the pair strike up a friendship. Lexie is assigned to be Cristina Yang 's (Sandra Oh) intern, and is dubbed "three '' by Cristina, who does n't take the time to learn her name. Lexie is eager to get to know her half - sister Meredith, but receives a hostile response when she introduces herself, and her later frequent attempts to bond with Meredith are similarly rebuffed. Lexie begins a brief sexual relationship with Alex Karev (Justin Chambers), who discovers that Thatcher has descended into alcoholism following Susan 's death. When Meredith scolds Lexie for not looking after Thatcher, she finally retaliates and decides to stop pursuing a relationship with Meredith. Lexie bonds with patient Nick Hanscom (Seth Green), and is present when his exposed artery blows, causing him to suffer massive blood loss. She manages to stop the bleeding, but is distraught when Nick later dies anyway. Feeling sympathy for Lexie, Cristina invites her to join her and Meredith in drinking and dancing, causing the sisters relationship to begin to thaw. The following morning, Meredith goes out of her way to make Lexie breakfast, which she politely eats despite an allergy to eggs, resulting in her having to be treated at the hospital. Lexie and George agree to move in together, but they can only afford a dilapidated apartment which Lexie attempts to improve by stealing decorations from the hospital. She begins to develop romantic feelings for George, and discovers that he had only failed his intern exam by one point, encouraging him to try and convince the Chief that he deserves a second chance.
Lexie continues to harbor romantic feelings for George, oblivious to the fact that he does n't view her in the same way; their relationship is a mirror foil of George 's previous infatuation with the oblivious Meredith. She prioritizes helping George study over taking part in a rare surgery with her attending, Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), but feels betrayed when George fails to even request that she become one of his interns after he passes his exam. Finally realizing that George does n't feel the same way, Lexie gives up on her feelings for him and the pair 's friendship begins to fizzle out. She later begins a flirtation with Mark and the pair enter an unlikely romantic relationship, though they are forced to keep it a secret when Meredith and Derek warn Mark away from Lexie. Lexie discovers that some of her fellow interns have secretly been performing simple procedures on each other and begins taking part to prove she 's "hardcore ''. Sadie Harris (Melissa George) joins the society, and seeking a more daring procedure, suggests removing her appendix. Though Lexie agrees, she quickly finds herself out of her depth, resulting in Meredith and Cristina having to intervene to save Sadie 's life. Lexie and the other interns are put on probation. Derek finds Lexie distraught at the day 's events and allows her to move into the attic at his and Meredith 's house. Mark comes clean to Derek about his relationship with Lexie, resulting in the two men getting into a fist fight. The pair continue to feud, resulting in Lexie beginning to stress eat until they eventually reconcile. Lexie is delighted when Meredith asks her to be a bridesmaid at her and Derek 's wedding, though they eventually give the ceremony to Alex and cancer - stricken Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl). Mark decides to purchase a house and invites Lexie to move in with him, however she declines, concerned about how fast their relationship is progressing.
Lexie feels guilt following George 's death, having abandoned their friendship after he failed to reciprocate her romantic feelings towards him. Mark comforts her, and she eventually agrees to move into his new apartment with him. Thatcher is admitted into the hospital with liver failure stemming from his former alcoholism. When Lexie is found to not be a suitable transplant candidate, Meredith steps in and donates part of her liver, not to help Thatcher, but to spare Lexie the grief of losing her father and because Lexie inappropriately pulled Meredith 's medical files and begged her to. Mark and Lexie receive a shock when a pregnant teenage girl named Sloan Riley shows up claiming to be Mark 's daughter, and her parentage is soon confirmed. Mark quickly agrees to let her and the baby move in permanently without consulting Lexie, resulting in her ending their relationship when Mark asks her not to force him to choose between Lexie and his child and grandchild, because he 'd have to choose them instead of her. She engages in a one - night stand with Alex, but feels guilty and confesses to Mark when he attempts to restart their relationship once his daughter leaves. Mark is furious with her, officially ending their relationship. Despite secretly suppressing her feelings for Mark, Lexie and Alex assume a casual relationship, that Lexie begins to take too seriously and flaunts to make Mark jealous. Lexie is able to use her eiditic memory to help Alex with several of his cases. Meanwhile, Mark and Lexie never seem to get their timing right, with Lexie disinterested and angry at Mark when he wishes to reconcile, or Mark being caught sleeping with a flavor of the day when Lexie wants to rekindle their relationship. Lexie takes part in a surgery on a patient named Alison Clark (Caroline Williams) and informs her husband Gary Clark (Michael O'Neill) that it was a success. However, moments later Alison suffers a stroke and falls into a coma that she is deemed unlikely to wake from. As Alison had signed a DNR form, Lexie is forced to turn off the machine keeping her alive, despite Gary begging her to stop. After failing in an attempt to sue the hospital, a grief - stricken Mr. Clark later returns to the hospital with a gun, seeking revenge on Lexie, Derek and Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.). After witnessing Mr. Clark shoot a nurse dead, Mark shields Lexie during the shooting and the pair attempt to save a critically wounded Alex. Seeking supplies, Lexie heads out into the hospital and comes face to face with Mr Clark who attempts to shoot her, but she is saved by a SWAT team member who wounds Clark at the last moment allowing her to escape. Lexie and Mark proceed to save Alex 's life, but Lexie is disappointed and when a delirious Alex calls for his ex-wife, Izzie, while nearly dying instead of Lexie. After a showdown with Richard, Gary Clark eventually commits suicide, having killed eleven people and wounding another seven, as well as causing Meredith to suffer a miscarriage.
Lexie has a psychotic breakdown after the shooting due to PTSD and a lack of sleep. She is admitted to the hospital 's psychiatric facility and is sedated for over fifty hours, with Meredith remaining by her side. Alex, on the other hand, breaks off his and Lexie 's relationship because he can not handle having to help and care for a person going through PTSD and he enjoys sleeping with women that find having been shot, attractive. Lexie, after getting healthy, confronts Alex and knocks him down a peg by telling him the reason he is alive is because of her. She also no longer gives him her "Lexipedia '' talents to help on cases. Lexie is irritated that others may view her as fragile and incompetent due to her PTSD and works hard to repair her image, doing so by saving a woman from being paralyzed when no one else saw an issue. She continues to gain her confidence throughout the season and helps an attending discover a cure for hospital fistulas. After both realize they continue to have feelings for each other, Lexie and Mark resume their relationship, but their brief happiness is over when Lexie discovers that during their breakup, Mark had impregnated his best friend Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) and she again ends their relationship because she is not ready for children, nor does she want to share a child with another couple. Eager to win Lexie back, Mark recruits his protégé Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) to try to bring him back into Lexie 's favour, but his plan backfires when Jackson and Lexie develop romantic feelings for each other, resulting in them starting a relationship of their own. Mark is furious and tries to win Lexie back, but shortly after, Callie is involved in a car accident and Lexie consoles Mark. The next episode, Lexie explains that she will go back to Mark if he continues to pursue her, but she believes they ultimately are n't suited and will be unhappy. Mark agrees to let her go, giving her and Jackson his blessing.
Although initially happy in her relationship with Jackson, Lexie is distraught when she learns that Mark has begun a relationship with a woman named Julia. At a charity softball match, her jealousy gets the better of her, resulting in her throwing a ball at Julia. Sensing that Lexie is still in love with Mark, Jackson calls off their relationship. Lexie begins working with Derek 's service and becomes increasingly proficient in neurosurgery, helping Derek with a set of "hopeless cases '' - high risk surgeries for patients who had otherwise run out of options. During a surgery, Derek is called away on an emergency, leaving Lexie and Meredith to carry out the procedure on their own. Though Derek had instructed them to merely reduce the patient 's brain tumour, Meredith allows Lexie to remove it completely, despite not being authorized by either the patient or Derek to do so. The sisters celebrate the successful surgery, but when the patient wakes up, Lexie is devastated to discover that the patient suffered severe brain damage, losing the ability to speak. Alex, Jackson and April Kepner (Sarah Drew) move out of Meredith 's house without inviting Lexie to join them, and with Derek and Meredith settling down with baby Zola, Lexie begins to feel increasingly lonely and isolated. After being left babysitting Zola on Valentine 's Day, she decides to try to salvage her relationship with Mark. However, after plucking up the courage to visit his apartment, she finds Mark studying with Jackson and loses her nerve, instead claiming that she was visiting to set up a play date for Zola and Sofia. When Mark confides in Derek that he and Julia have been discussing having a baby, Derek warns Lexie not to miss her chance again, resulting in her professing her love to a shell - shocked Mark, who merely thanks her for her candour. He later confesses to Derek that he feels the same way, but is unsure about how to go about things. Days later, Lexie is named as part of a team of surgeons that will be sent to Boise to separate conjoined twins, along with Mark, Meredith, Derek, Cristina and Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw); however, while flying to their destination, the doctors ' plane crashes in the wilderness. Lexie is crushed under debris from the plane, but manages to alert Mark and Cristina to help her. The pair try in vain to free Lexie, who realises that she is suffering from a hemothorax and is unlikely to survive. While Cristina tries to find an oxygen tank and water for to try and save Lexie, Mark takes Lexie by the hand and professes his love for her, telling her that they were "meant to be ''. While fantasizing about the future that she and Mark could have had together, Lexie succumbs to her injuries, and dies moments before Meredith arrives. The remaining doctors are left in the woods waiting for rescue, with Mark refusing to let go of Lexie 's hand.
The remaining surgeons are rescued from the woods days later, and Lexie 's body is returned to Seattle. Weeks later, a traumatized Cristina reminisces to Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) about her time in the woods, telling him that she had fought with wild animals to keep them away from Lexie 's body. Weeks after the crash, Meredith comes across a young girl presenting with injuries identical to Lexie 's, and tirelessly works to save the girls life, with the experience eventually causing her to come to terms with her sister 's death. Despite making it home from the woods, Mark later died from the injuries he sustained in the crash. When the survivors of the plane crash pool their compensation money to purchase the hospital, they agree to rename the hospital to "Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital '' in tribute to Lexie and Mark.
Leigh on her early days at Grey 's Anatomy
Leigh first appeared on the show during the last two episodes of the third season as Meredith 's half - sister, Lexie Grey. Following Isaiah Washington 's departure who portrayed Preston Burke, it was reported that show 's executives were planning on adding new cast members, such as Lexie. She was officially upgraded to a series ' regular on July 11, 2007, for the fourth season. On casting Chyler Leigh as Lexie, Grey 's Anatomy creator Shonda Rhimes said: "We met with a lot of young actresses, but Chyler stood out -- she had a quality that felt right and real to me. It felt like she could be Meredith 's sister, but she had a depth that was very interesting. ''
In September 2011, Leigh requested an extended summer hiatus to spend more time with her family. This was granted by Rhimes, though the actress returned in mid-October. Leigh 's character died in the eighth - season finale. In May 2012, Rhimes revealed why she decided to have Lexie die: "I love Chyler and I love the character of Lexie Grey. She was an important member of my Grey 's family. This was not an easy decision. But it was a decision that Chyler and I came to together. We had a lot of thoughtful discussion about it and ultimately we both decided this was the right time for her character 's journey to end. As far as I 'm concerned, Chyler will always remain a part of the Shondaland family and I ca n't wait to work with her again in the future. '' Following the death of her character, Leigh released a statement saying:
Rhimes on Lexie 's personality
Leigh 's character has been called "reliable, trustworthy, timid, and apprehensive '' by Grey 's Anatomy executives. In her early appearances, it was learned that Lexie has a photographic memory, which she applied to her surgical career. This led her to being nicknamed "Lexipedia '' by Alex Karev. The character has also been described as an "innocent young intern '' by Alex Keen of The Trades.
Of the character, Leigh said: "She 's a very vulnerable person from a very healthy background -- she knows how to make good relationships but at this point (season four), she 's coming into so much opposition she 's trying to adjust to it. '' Debbie Chang of BuddyTV commented on Lexie 's early characterization, including her sexual relationship with Karev:
Similarities have been established between Lexie and Meredith. Series writer, Stacy McKee, commented on this:
"Lexie 's struggling to be hardcore herself. I do n't know if I 'd go so far as to say, perhaps, this kind of struggle must run in the family, but... Okay. Fine. It must run in the family -- because Lexie, though she 's very different from Meredith in many many ways, in this one way -- they seem to be exactly alike. Meredith and Lexie both want to succeed. They want to be strong. They want to feel normal. They want, so much, to be whole. But it 's a struggle -- a genuine struggle for them. Being hardcore does n't come naturally. Sometimes, they have to fake it. ''
Lexie entertained several relationships throughout her time on Grey 's Anatomy. In her early appearances, she maintained a friendship with George O'Malley, until developing romantic feelings towards him. Rhimes offered the insight: "I love them as friends. They make good friends. We all have that friend we met in school or the gym or somewhere -- we just hit it off right away. And right away there was no pretense or airs. Just pure honesty. That 's Lexie and George. They 're really good friends and I can see the friendship evolving into something even greater. At least, that 's what Lexie is hoping. She is my kind of girl. The girl who likes the guy because he is a GOOD guy and that 's what George is. He is a good guy and that 's something that Lexie could use now. She 's going through her own challenges what with Meredith and losing her own mother and trying to keep things afloat. I 'm rooting for Lexie. She 's my kind of girl and I hope that she gets what she deserves: love. And more kisses. There should always be that. '' Lexie 's most significant relationship was with Mark Sloan. Following her death, Rhimes said:
While reception to Lexie Grey was initially mixed, both the character and Chyler Leigh 's performance garnered positive feedback and acclaim as her role on the series progressed, and Lexie soon became a favorite of critics and fans of the show. People, less than impressed with Lexie initially, criticized the way Leigh 's character first approached her sister, calling it "rude ''. Lexie was strongly criticized by Laura Burrows from IGN, being called "awful ''. Burrows also wrote: "Everything she says and does is obnoxious and does harm to someone. Lexie is an idiot and should be shot or drowned or exploded. '' Jennifer Armstrong of Entertainment Weekly was also critical of Leigh 's early appearances, referring to her as "awkward ''. However, Armstrong later noted that the "sparkling '' friendship development between Lexie and O'Malley "won her over ''.
The character 's transition from season four to five was positively reviewed, with Keen of The Trades writing: "Her presence and confidence have increased quite a bit since last season, and actress, Chyler Leigh, does a fantastic job of making this progression feel seamless. Since the series has defused the tension between Little Grey and Big Grey (aka Meredith), Lexie has clear sailing through the season and steals the show as one of the best current characters on the series. '' The character 's relationship with Eric Dane 's Mark Sloan has also been well received, with Chris Monfette of IGN writing: "Sloan 's honest relationship with Lexie helped to make both characters infinitely more interesting and mature. '' Leigh served as a primary vocalist in "Song Beneath the Song '', the Grey 's Anatomy music event, and was well received, with the Boston Herald 's Mark Perigard praising her performance. Leigh 's performance in the season eight finale, which was also her character 's final appearance, was deemed as "phenomenal '' by Digital Spy 's Ben Lee.
The character was listed in Wetpaint 's "10 Hottest Female Doctors on TV ''. In 2007, at the 14th Screen Actors Guild Awards, Leigh and the rest of the cast of Grey 's Anatomy, received a nomination for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series.
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where did a fifth of alcohol come from | Fifth (unit) - wikipedia
A fifth is a unit of volume formerly used for distilled beverages in the United States, equal to one fifth of a US liquid gallon, ⁄ quart, or 25 ⁄ US fluid ounces (757 ml); it has been superseded by the metric bottle size of 750 ml, sometimes called a metric fifth, which is the standard capacity of wine bottles world - wide and is approximately 1 % smaller.
In the late 19th century, liquor was often sold in bottles which appeared to hold a quart 32 US fl oz (950 ml) but in fact contained less than a quart and were called "fifths '', or commercial quarts.
One fifth of a gallon was a common legal threshold for the difference between selling by the drink and selling by the bottle or at wholesale, and thus the difference between a drinking saloon or barroom and a dry - goods store.
The fifth was the usual size of bottle for distilled beverages in the United States until 1980. Other authorized units based on the fifth included ⁄ pint and ⁄ pint.
During the 1970s, there was a push for metrication of U.S. government standards. In 1975, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms, in cooperation with the Distilled Spirits Council of the United States, proposed six metric - standard bottle sizes to take effect in January 1979 and these standards were incorporated into Title 27 of the Code of Federal Regulations. These sizes are 50, 100, 200, 375 (355 for cans), 500 (until June 1989), 750, 1000, and 1750 ml.
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who participated in the election of vice president | Vice President of India - wikipedia
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The Vice-President of India is the second - highest constitutional office in India after the President. Article 63 of Indian Constitution states that "there shall be a Vice-President of India. '' The Vice-President acts as President in the absence of the President due to death, resignation, impeachment, or other situations.
The Vice-President of India is also ex officio Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha. When a bill is introduced in Rajya Sabha, vice-president decides whether it is a financial bill or not. If he is of the opinion, a bill introduced in the Rajya Sabha is a money bill, he would refer the case to the Speaker of the Lok Sabha for deciding it.
Article 66 of the Indian Constitution states the manner of election of the Vice-President. The Vice-President is elected indirectly by members of an electoral college consisting of the members of both Houses of Parliament in accordance with the system of Proportional Representation by means of the Single transferable vote and the voting is by secret ballot conducted by election commission.
Venkaiah Naidu is the current Vice President of India. He defeated UPA 's candidate Gopalkrishna Gandhi on 5 August 2017 election.
As in the case of the President, in order to be qualified to be elected as Vice-President, a person must:
While in order to be a President, a person must be qualified for election as a member of the Lok Sabha (House of Peoples), the Vice-President must be qualified for election as a member of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States). This difference is because the Vice-President is to act as the ex officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
The Vice-President is elected indirectly, by an electoral college consisting of members (elected as well as nominated) of both houses of the Parliament. The election of the Vice-President is slightly different from the election of the President as the members of state legislatures are not part of the electoral college but the nominated members of both the houses are part of electoral college for the vice-presidential election.
The nomination of a candidate for election to the office of the Vice-President must be subscribed by at least 20 electors as proposers and 20 electors as seconders. Every candidate has to make a security deposit of Rs. 15,000 in the Reserve Bank of India. The Election Commission of India, which is a constitutional autonomous body, conducts the election. The election is to be held no later than 60 days of the expiry of the term of office of the outgoing Vice-President. A Returning Officer is appointed for the election, usually the Secretary - General of either House of the Parliament, by rotation. The Returning Officer issues a public notice of the intended election, inviting nomination of candidates. Any person qualified to be elected and intending to stand for election is required to be nominated by at least twenty Members of Parliament as proposers, and at least twenty other Members of Parliament as seconders. The nomination papers are scrutinized by the Returning Officer, and the names of all eligible candidates are added to the ballot.
The election is proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote by secret ballot. Voters stack - rank the candidates, assigning 1 to their first preference, 2 to their second preference, and so on. The number of votes required by a candidate to secure the election is calculated by dividing the total number of votes by two, and adding one to the quotient by disregarding any remainder. If no candidate obtains the required number of first - preference votes, the candidate with the least number of first - preference votes is eliminated and his / her second - preference votes are transferred. The process is repeated until a candidate obtains the requisite number of votes. Nominated members can also participate in the election.
After the election has been held and the votes counted, the Returning Officer declares the result of the election to the electoral college. Thereafter, he / she reports the result to the Central Government (Ministry of Law and Justice) and the Election Commission of India and the Central Government publishes the name of the person elected as Vice-President, in the Official Gazette.
The Vice-President may resign his office by submitting his resignation to the President. The resignation becomes effective from the day it is accepted.
All disputes arising in connection with the election of the Vice-President are petitioned to the Supreme Court of India, which inquires into the matter. The petition is heard by a five - member bench of the Supreme Court, which decides on the matter. The decision of the Supreme Court is final.
Supreme Court shall inquire and decide regarding doubts and disputes arising out of or in connection with the election of a Vice-President per Article 71 (1) of the constitution. Supreme Court can remove the Vice-President for the electoral malpractices or upon being not eligible to be Rajya Sabha member under the Representation of the People Act, 1951. Subject to Article 71 (3), Parliament made applicable rules / procedure to petition the Supreme Court for resolving the disputes only that arise during the election process of the vice-president but not the doubts that arise from his unconstitutional actions / deeds or changing Indian citizenship during the tenure of vice-president which may violate the requisite election qualifications. Supreme Court shall also expeditiously decide any doubt raised by which the elected vice-president could be ineligible to be Rajya Sabha member for the unconstitutional acts committed before becoming vice-president.
The article 69 of the Constitution of India provides the Oath or Affirmation for the Office of Vice President as follows: - "I, ________ do swear in the name of God / solemnly affirm that I will bear true faith and allegiance to solemnly affirm the Constitution of India as by law established and that I will faithfully discharge the duty upon which I am about to enter. '' The President administers the oath of office and secrecy to the Vice-President.
The Vice-President holds office for five years. The Vice-President can be re-elected any number of times. However, the office may be terminated earlier by death, resignation or removal. The Constitution does not provide a mechanism of succession to the office of Vice-President in the event of an extraordinary vacancy, apart from a re-election. However, the Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha can perform the Vice-President's duties as the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha in such an event.
The Constitution states that the Vice-President can be removed by a resolution of the Rajya Sabha passed by an effective majority (50 % of effective strength of house, here effective strength equals the total number strength minus the number of vacancies) and a simple majority (50 % of total members who are present and voting) of the Lok Sabha (Article 67 (b)). But no such resolution may be moved unless at least 14 days ' advance notice has been given. Notably, the Constitution does not list grounds for removal. No Vice-President or ex officio Vice-President has ever faced removal proceedings.
The omissions in the procedure committed by the chairman or the deputy chairman in the Rajya Sabha can not be challenged in the court of law per Article 122
There is no provision for the salary of the Vice-President of India in that capacity. He or she receives a salary in the capacity as the ex officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States), which is currently Rs. 4, 00,000 per month. In addition, he or she is entitled to a daily allowance, free furnished residence, medical, travel and other facilities. The constitution provides that when the ex officio Vice-President acts as the President or discharges the duties of the President, he or she is entitled to the salary and privileges of the President. The pension for the Vice-President is 50 % of the salary.
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who led the revolt of 1857 at barreily | Bareilly - Wikipedia
Dr. Arun Kumar (city)
Bareilly (/ bəˈrɛli / (listen)) is a city in Bareilly district in the northern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Located on the Ramganga, it is the capital of Bareilly division and the geographical region of Rohilkhand. The city is 252 kilometres (157 mi) north of the state capital, Lucknow, and 250 kilometres (155 mi) east of the national capital, New Delhi. Bareilly is the fourth city in Uttar Pradesh with compressed natural gas (CNG) filling stations (after Lucknow, Kanpur and Agra). It is the Eight largest metropolis in Uttar Pradesh and the 50th - largest city in India. Bareilly also figured amongst the PM Narendra Modi 's ambitious 100 Smart City list in India.
The city is also known by the name Fairy. (known for the four Shiva temples located in four corners of the region - Dhopeshwar Nath, Madni Nath, Alakha Nath and Trivati Nath), Ala Hazrat, Shah Sharafat Miyan and Khankahe Niyazia (derived the famous Muslim Mausoleum), Zari nagari and historically as Sankasya (where the Buddha descended from Tushita to earth). The city is a centre for furniture manufacturing and trade in cotton, cereal and sugar. Its status grew with its inclusion in the "counter magnets '' list of the National Capital Region (NCR), a list also including Hissar, Patiala, Kota and Gwalior. The city is also known as Bans - Bareilly. Although Bareilly is a production centre for cane (bans) furniture, "Bans Bareilly '' is not derived from the bans market; it was named for two princes: Bansaldev and Baraldev, sons of Jagat Singh Katehriya, who founded the city in 1537.
Parsakhera is a major industrial area
According to the epic Mahābhārata, Bareilly region (Panchala) is said to be the birthplace of Draupadi, who was also referred to as ' Panchali ' (one from the kingdom of Panchāla) by Kṛṣṇā (Lord Krishna). When Yudhishthira becomes the king of Hastinapura at the end of the Mahābhārata, Draupadi becomes his queen. The folklore says that Gautama Buddha had once visited the ancient fortress city of Ahichchhatra in Bareilly. The Jain Tirthankara Parshva is said to have attained Kaivalya at Ahichchhatra.
In the 12th century, the kingdom was under the rule by different clans of Kshatriya Rajputs. Then the region became part of the Muslim Turkic Delhi Sultanate for 325 years before getting absorbed in the emerging Mughal Empire. The foundation of the modern City of Bareilly foundation was laid by Mughal governor Mukrand Rai in 1657 during the rule of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
Later the region became the capital of Rohilkhand region before getting handed over to Nawab Vazir of Awadh and then to East India Company (transferred to the British India) and later becoming an integral part of India. The region has, also, acted as a mint for a major part of its history.
From archaeological point of view the district of Bareilly is very rich. The extensive remains of Ahichchhatra, the Capital town of Northern Panchala have been discovered near Ramnagar village of Aonla Tehsil in the district. It was during the first excavations at Ahichchhatra (1940 -- 44) that the painted grey ware, associated with the advent of the Aryans in the Ganges -- Yamuna Valley, was recognised for the first time in the earliest levels of the site. Nearly five thousand coins belonging to periods earlier than that of Guptas have been yielded from Ahichchhatra. It has also been one of the richest sites in India from the point of view of the total yield of terracotta. Some of the masterpieces of Indian terracotta art are from Ahichchhatra. In fact the classification made of the terracotta human figurines from Ahichchhatra on grounds of style and to some extent stratigraphy became a model for determining the stratigraphy of subsequent excavations at other sites in the Ganges Valley. On the basis of the existing material, the archaeology of the region helps us to get an idea of the cultural sequence from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC up to the 11th century AD. Some ancient mounds in the district have also been discovered by the Deptt. of Ancient History and culture, Rohilkhand University, at Tihar - Khera (Fatehganj West), Pachaumi, Rahtuia, Kadarganj and Sainthal.
Bareilly was founded in 1537 by Basdeo, a Katehriya Rajput. The city was first mentioned by the historian Budayuni, who wrote that Husain Quli Khan was appointed the governor of "Bareilly and Sambhal '' in 1568. The divisions and revenue of the district "being fixed by Todar Mal '' were recorded by Abul Fazl in 1596. The foundation of the modern city of Bareilly was laid by Mughal governor Mukrand Rai in 1657. In 1658, Bareilly became the headquarters of the province of Budaun.
The Mughal policy of encouraging Afghan settlements to control the Katehriyas succeeded if the central government was strong. After Aurangzeb 's death, the Afghans (who had become local potentates) began to seize and occupy neighbouring villages.
After the fall of the Mughal Empire, many Pathans migrated from Rohilkhand. Bareilly (like other cities in Uttar Pradesh) experienced economic stagnation and poverty, leading to the migration of Rohilla Muslim Pathans to Suriname and Guyana as indentured labour.
Under Barech at the 1761 Third Battle of Panipat, Rohilkhand blocked the expansion of the Maratha Empire into northern India. In 1772 it was invaded by the Marathas, repulsing the invasion with the aid of the Nawab of Awadh. After the war, Nawab Shuja - ud - Daula demanded payment for the nawabs ' help from Barech. When his demand was refused, the nawab joined the British (under Governor Warren Hastings and his Commander - in - Chief, Alexander Champion) to invade Rohilkhand. The combined forces of Daula and the Company defeated Barech (who was killed in battle at Miranpur Katra, ending Rohilla rule) in 1774.
Rohilkhand was handed over to Daula, and from 1774 to 1800 the province was ruled by the Nawab of Awadh. By 1801, subsidies due under the treaties to support a British force had fallen into arrears. To pay the debt, Nawab Saadat Ali Khan surrendered Rohilkhand to the East India Company in a treaty signed on 10 November 1801.
During the reign of Shah Alam II, Bareilly was the headquarters of Rohilla Sardar Hafiz Rehmat Khan and many coins were minted. The city was later in the possession of Awadh Nawab Asaf - ud - Daulah, and his coins had Bareilly, Bareilly Aasfabad and the Bareilly kite and fish as identification marks. Coins were then minted by the East India Company.
After the Rohilla War, the change in the power structure increased discontent throughout the district. Increased taxation from 1812 to 1814 increased resentment of the British: "Business stood still, shops were shut and multitudes assembled near the courthouse to petition for the abolition of the tax. '' The Magistrate Dembleton, already unpopular, ordered the assessment to be made by a Kotwal. A skirmish between rebels and the sepoys (under Captain Cunningham) cost 300 -- 400 lives. In 1818, Robert Glyn was posted as Acting Judge and Magistrate of Bareilly and the Joint Magistrate of Bulundshahr.
Robert Glyn asked Ghulam Yahya to write an account of "craftsmen, the names of tools of manufacture and production and their dress and manners ''. The most popular trades in and around Bareilly during the 1820s were manufacturing glass, jewellery, glass and lac bangles and gold and silver thread, crimping, bean drying, wire drawing, charpoy weaving, keeping a grocer 's shop and selling kebabs.
Bareilly was a centre of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The rebellion began as a mutiny of native soldiers (sepoys), employed by the British East India Company 's army, against race - and religion - based injustices and inequities on 10 May 1857 in Meerut. It expanded into other mutinies and civilian rebellions, primarily in the major north - central Indian river valleys; local episodes extended northwest to Peshawar (on the northwest frontier with Afghanistan) and southeast (beyond Delhi). There were riots in many parts of Uttar Pradesh, and Muslims in Bareilly, Bijnor and Moradabad called for the revival of a Muslim kingdom.
The Rohillas actively opposed the British, but were disarmed. Khan Bahadur Khan Rohilla, grandson of Hafiz Rahmat Khan, formed his own government in Bareilly in 1857 and a widespread popular revolt in Awadh, Bundelkhand and Rohilkhand took place. In 1857, Khan Bhadur Khan issued silver coins from Bareilly as an independent ruler. When the rebellion failed, Bareilly was subjugated. Khan Bahadur Khan was sentenced to death, and hanged in the police station on 24 February 1860.
Bareilly Central Jail housed a number of political prisoners during the British Raj, including Yashpal (who married while imprisoned on 7 August 1936 was the first such ceremony in an Indian jail). The rules were changed, preventing future prison marriages.
Bareilly is in northern India, at 28 ° 10 ′ N 78 ° 23 ′ E / 28.167 ° N 78.383 ° E / 28.167; 78.383. On its east are Pilibhit and Shahjahanpur, Rampur on the west, Udham Singh Nagar (Uttarakhand) to the north and Badaun to the south. The city is level and well - watered, sloping towards the south. Its soil is fertile, with groves of trees. A rain forest in the north, known as the tarai, contains tigers, bears, deer and wild pigs. The river Sarda (or Gogra) forms the eastern boundary and is the principal waterway. The Ramganga receives most of the drainage from the Kumaon mountains, and the Deoha also receives many small streams. The Gomati (or Gumti) is also nearby.
Bareilly is on the Ganges plain, with fertile alluvial soil; however, the lower plain is flood - prone. The city is on the Ramganga, with seven other rivers passing through the district. The lower Himalayas are 40 kilometres (25 mi) north of the river.
Bareilly City had a population of 898,167 according to 2011 census. In the 2001 census, when the district recorded a 27.66 percent increase over 1991. Provisional 2011 data suggests a density of 1,084 inhabitants per square kilometre (2,810 / sq mi) compared with 879 inhabitants per square kilometre (2,280 / sq mi) in 2001. Bareilly district ranks 9th in terms of population in the state.
The literacy rate according to 2011 census is 58.5, which is lower than the state average 67.7 percent. Bareilly district ranks 44th in terms of sex ratio 887, which is lower than the state average of 912 females per thousand males. The predominant languages are Hindi and Urdu. Other lesser spoken languages are Punjabi and Kumaoni. Some Muslims of Bareilly migrated to Pakistan after the independence in 1947 while large number of Punjabi Khatris and Aroras from Pakistan settled in the city.
There were 669,681 children under age six (352,479 boys and 317,202 girls) in 2011, a decline of 6.9 percent from the 2001 census. They comprised 15 percent of the population, down from 19.88 percent in 2001. The district is home to 2.24 percent of the total Uttar Pradesh population, unchanged from 2001.
In 2001, Hindus were 64.81 percent of the population in Bareilly district. Muslims constitute 33.89 percent of the population (90 percent Sunni Hanafi and 10 percent Shia Ithnā'ashariyyah). Sikhs comprise 0.8 percent of population, Christians 0.2 percent, Jains 0.02 percent and others 0.28 percent.
Here are some newspaper companies working and give online news services to the news readers including Amar Ujala, Dainik Jagran and Dainik Bhaskar. List of single screen cinema in bareilly ° 1. NATRAJ ° 2. PRABHA ° 3. KUMAR ° 4. HIND ° 5. JAGAT ° 6. PRASAD ° 7. KAMAL (2 - SCREEN) ° 8. GITA PALACE (NOW CLOSED) ° 9. BASANT (NOW CLOSED) ° 10. IMPERIAL (NOW CLOSED) '
Phoenix United Mall with SRS Multiplex, Pilibhit Road.
Amrapali Mall, C.B Gunj
City Centre L.A, Chowki Chauraha (Under Construction)
The predominant languages are Hindi and Urdu. Other lesser spoken languages are Punjabi and Kumaoni.
Dargah e Shah Sharafat one of the prominent Place for Sunni Muslims of the Barelvi movement. The famous mausoleum of Imam Ahmed Raza Khan, a Sufi mystic, religious poet and supreme Mufti of Barelvi Sunnis is situated in Bareilly.
Bareilly is home to a number of Hindu temples. Bareilly is also known as ' Nathnagari ' by the locals. A Nath (Shiva) temple is located at each of the city 's four corners.
All the above Temples are true state of art with mesmerising beauty.
Bareilly has arts and cultural organisations, art galleries and theatres. The annual Craft Fair at YugVeena Library showcases artists. Influenced by the migrants from nearby regions, Bareilly has a varied culture: Brij (of Mathura), Awadhi (of Lucknow), Pahaari (of the Kumaun region of Uttrakhand) and Harayanvi (of northwest Uttar Pradesh). The city hosts a number of fashion shows. The Bollywood film Aligarh casting Manoj Bajpai and Woh 5 Din, a suspense thriller, was shot in Bareilly and in 2005 's Main, Meri Patni Aur Woh, Rajpal Yadav 's wife Veena comes from the city. Bollywood actress and former Miss World Priyanka Chopra is from Bareilly. Parents of Mahanayak Amitabh Bacchan met for the first time in Bareilly College, Bareilly. Besides this notable Bollywood actor Rati Agnihotri was born in the city later shifted to Mumbai. Kavita Seth, famous Sufi and Bollywodd singer was born and brought up in the city. An upcoming movie Bareilly Ki Barfi is coming having its name in it.
Bareilly has a number of restaurants which follow the tradition of naming a cuisine after its creator. The city is known for its Seekh Kabaabs, which are sold throughout the old city. Minced meat (primarily lamb), mixed with spices and aromatic herbs, is grilled on skewers over tamarind charcoal.
Bareilly has three sports stadiums and one cricket academy:
The city is represented in sports tournaments by club teams and teams representing schools and colleges. Most colleges have home fields on campus.
The city has a combined amusement and water park, Fun City Boond Amusement and Water Park and a number of clubs including its oldest Bareilly Club.
Other parks include:
Several Bollywood songs have references to Bareilly and its musical genres, such as jhumka and kajra.
The 16th Lok Sabha Election for the Bareilly MP was won by Santosh Gangwar of the Bharatiya Janta Party. He defeated Praveen Singh Aron by huge margin to retain his stronghold. Bareilly has been a traditional battleground between the INC and the saffron parties. Regional parties such as the Samajwadi Party, led by Veerpal Singh Yadav, and the Bahujan Samaj Party have a limited influence.
Bareilly was a stronghold of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) for 20 years (1989 -- 2009), when both the Member of Parliament (MP) and the Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) was from the BJP. The city saw the emergence of Hindu nationalism during the last two decades, accompanied by the growth of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, Vishva Hindu Parishad and Bajrang Dal in the region.
Santosh Gangwar was a Member of Parliament for Bareilly for 20 years (1989 -- 2009). He was a former Minister of State for Petroleum and Natural Gas, with an additional charge of Parliament Affairs in the 13th Lok Sabha. Before this, Gangwar was Minister of State of Science and Technology with an additional charge of Parliamentary Affairs from October to November 1999 and chief whip of the BJP in the 14th Lok Sabha. He was narrowly defeated in the 15th Lok Sabha elections in 2009.
Since India began liberalising its economy, Bareilly has experienced rapid growth. Commerce has diversified with mall culture, although the area 's rural economy remains agrarian, handicraft (zari - zardosi embroidery work on cloth material), bamboo and cane furniture. The city is equidistant from New Delhi and Lucknow, the capital of Uttar Pradesh.
Bareilly has very productive land (Tarai) for growing Sugarcane, Rice, pulses & wheat. Hindustan Unilever has begun growing rice in Bareilly and the Punjab, but the company desires legal reforms and facility construction.
In 2009, Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Limited (UPPCL) awarded pilot contracts to supply power to nine cities to companies who will collect revenue for the state government. Bareilly, Agra, Kanpur, Moradabad and Gorakhpur will be part of the first phase.
The Indian government initiated a 10 - percent - ethanol - blending programme on a pilot basis in Bareilly and Belgaum in Karnataka. The city also has CNG and liquid petroleum gas (LPG) outlets. Bareilly district was the first to implement India 's bio-fuel standard. * I
Other Institutes
Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izzatnagar
Bareilly lies on the National Highway 30 (New renumbered National Highway system) (NH 30) (according to the new National Highway system in India). The newly numbered highway connects Sitarganj in Udham Singh Nagar district, Uttarakhand with Ibrahimpatnam in Andhra Pradesh. The 2040 km (1267.5 mi) highway starts at the junction of NH 9 at Sitarganj passes through Pilibhit, Bareilly, Shahjahanpur, Sitapur, Lucknow, Raebareli, Allahabad, Rewa, Jabalpur, Raipur, Dhamtari, Keskal, Jagdalpur, Konta, Nellipaka, Bhadrachalam, Kothagudem, Tiruvuru and ends at the junction of NH 65 in Ibrahimpatnam.
The street system in Bareilly is traditional, with most roads oriented towards different cities. The city centre is the intersection of Nainital Road and Bada Bazaar -- Shahamat Ganj Road at a street known as Kutubkhana. It is a congested street, and the entry of cars or heavy vehicles is prohibited during the day. The Ayyub Khan Choraha -- Chaupla and Chowki Chauraha -- Chaupla Roads run from Lucknow Road to Delhi Road (Old National Highway 24). Government of Uttar Pradesh has proposed 200 km six lane expressway from Faridpur near Bareilly to Pariyar in Unnao district (near Bithoor) to connect Bareilly with Kanpur and reduce distance between both cities from 10 hours to 3 hours. Nainital Road (including the old National Highway 74 or Pilibhit By - pass Road) and Badaun Road began at Kutubkhana. Heavy traffic is allowed on these roads only from Koharapeer Sabji - Mandi and Chaupla Crossroads.
Arterial streets include:
The inter-city satellite bus stand is just outside the city, at the intersection of Old National Highway 24 (Delhi - Lucknow Highway) and the Pilibhit By - pass Road. The old bus stand in Civil Lines still well - used by state - owned buses to Delhi.
As part of the expansion of Old National Highway 24 (connecting Lucknow to New Delhi via Shahjahanpur, Bareilly, Rampur, Moradabad and Ghaziabad) to four lanes, two contracts were awarded on a Design, Build, Finance, Operate and Transfer (DBFOT) basis for the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI). Bareilly Ring Road (Bypass) provides an excellent platform for setting up of industries, MNCs, residential townships, shopping malls, school and colleges, hospitals, airport, railways, etc.
Bareilly has been connected to the rest of India by rail since the 19th century, and a 1909 map shows that Bareilly was a railway junction during the early 20th century. Six rail lines intersect in the city. In 1890 the Bengal and North Western Railway leased the Tirhoot State Railway to increase the latter 's revenue, and the Lucknow - Sitapur - Seramow Provincial State Railway merged with the Bareilly - Pilibheet Provincial State Railway to form the Lucknow - Bareilly Railway on 1 January 1891. The Lucknow - Bareilly Railway was owned by the Government of India, and operated by the Rohilkund and Kumaon Railway.
The Oudh and Tirhut Railway was formed on 1 January 1943 by the merger of the Bengal and North Western Railway, the Tirhut Railway (BNW operated), the Mashrak - Thawe Extension Railway (BNW operated), the Rohilkund and Kumaon Railway and the Lucknow - Bareilly Railway (R&K operated). The Oudh and Tirhut Railway was later renamed the Oudh Tirhut Railway; it merged with the Assam Railway and the Kanpur - Achnera section of the Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway to form North Eastern Railway (headquartered in Gorakhpur, with a divisional headquarters in Izzatnagar), one of the 16 zones of the Indian Railways.
Six railway stations serve the city:
Bareilly is on the Moradabad - Lucknow route. Trains from the north (including Jammu Tawi and Amritsar) and Delhi running east and northeast (to Gorakhpur, Barauni, Howrah, Guwahati and Dibrugarh) pass through Bareilly, and the city is also on the route from Uttarakhand to Agra and Mathura via Budaun. Many trains to railway stations in Uttarakhand pass through Bareilly.
The Indian Air Force has a base at Izzatnagar, on the outskirts of Bareilly. Although it is not open to civilian aviation (except for high government officials), the Airport Authority of India has accepted the proposal for the construction of a civilian terminal adjacent to the runway. The UPRNN has already begun the work and the construction work will be complete by next year.
In addition to the air - force base, Bareilly is the regimental centre and a major settlement of the Jat Regiment (one of the longest - serving and most - decorated infantry regiments of the Indian Army. The regiment won 19 battle honours from 1839 to 1947, and five battle honours, eight Mahavir Chakra, eight Kirti Chakra, 32 Shaurya Chakras, 39 Vir Chakras and 170 Sena Medals since independence.
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tu aashiqui new serial song download mp3 mr jatt | List of songs recorded by KK - wikipedia
Krishnakumar Kunnath (born 23 August 1968), popularly known as KK or Kay Kay, is an Indian playback singer. He has recorded more than 500 songs in Hindi films. He is a prominent singer in Hindi, Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam films.
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how many seasons of jack ryan are there on amazon prime | Jack Ryan (TV series) - Wikipedia
Tom Clancy 's Jack Ryan, or simply Jack Ryan, is an American action political thriller web television series, based on characters from the fictional "Ryanverse '' created by Tom Clancy, that premiered on August 31, 2018 on Amazon Video. The series was created by Carlton Cuse and Graham Roland. Cuse serves as an executive producer alongside John Krasinski, Michael Bay and Mace Neufeld, among others. Krasinski also stars in the series as the titular character, making him the fifth actor to portray the character after Alec Baldwin, Harrison Ford, Ben Affleck and Chris Pine from the film series. In April 2018, it was announced that Amazon had renewed the series for a second season.
The first season follows the titular CIA analyst as he is wrenched from the security of his desk job into the field after discovering a string of dubious bank transfers, which are being carried out by a rising Islamic terrorist named Suleiman.
The upcoming second season has been described as following Ryan as he confronts "the forces in power in a dangerous, declining democratic regime in South America. ''
On September 22, 2015, it was announced that Carlton Cuse and Graham Roland were developing a television series adaptation of Tom Clancy 's Jack Ryan series of novels. The potential series was described as "a new contemporary take on the character using the novels as source material ''. Production companies involved with the project were slated to include Paramount Television, Platinum Dunes and Skydance Media. A week later, following a bidding war among multiple television networks, it was announced that streaming service Amazon Video had purchased the rights to the series.
Amazon proceeded to put the production into development during which time they ordered three scripts written by Cuse and Roland. On August 16, 2016, it was announced that the production had been given a straight - to - series order for a first season consisting of ten episodes.
In January 2017, it was announced that Morten Tyldum would direct the pilot and that Daniel Sackheim would direct multiple episodes and produce the series.
On April 24, 2018, it was reported that Amazon had renewed the series. The second season will be set in South America, where Ryan takes on "a dangerous, declining democratic regime. '' On May 14, 2018, it was reported that Richard Rutkowski had served as cinematographer for the pilot and that Checco Varese had acted in the role for the following seven episodes of season one. On August 14, 2018, it was announced that Phil Abraham was joining the series as an executive producer and would direct the first two episodes of the second season. On September 4, 2018, it was reported that Dennie Gordon would direct three episodes of season two and serve as an executive producer.
On April 29, 2016, it was announced that John Krasinski had been cast in the series ' title role. On November 3, 2016, it was reported that Abbie Cornish had been cast as Ryan 's fiancee Cathy Mueller. On December 16, 2016, it was announced that Wendell Pierce, Ali Suliman, and Dina Shihabi had been cast in series regular roles. In March 2017, it was announced that Peter Fonda, Mena Massoud, Timothy Hutton, and Al Sapienza had been cast in recurring roles. On June 5, 2017, it was reported that Amir El - Masry had joined the series in a supporting role.
Alongside the announcement of the series ' renewal, it was confirmed that Krasinski and Pierce would return for the second season. On May 4, 2018, it was reported John Hoogenakker had been promoted to a series regular for season two after previously appearing in season one in a recurring capacity. On July 20, 2018, it was announced during Amazon 's San Diego Comic - Con panel that Noomi Rapace had joined the main cast for season two. In August 2018, it was announced that Michael Kelly, Jovan Adepo, Jordi Molla, Cristina Umaña, and Francisco Denis had joined the cast of season two as series regulars. On September 25, 2018, it was reported that Tom Wlaschiha had been cast in a recurring role for season two.
Jack Ryan was filmed in multiple locations. On May 10, 2017, Krasinski was spotted filming his scenes in Washington, D.C. For the next several days the TV series was also shot in Maryland, Virginia, Quebec, and Morocco. Production for season two is set to begin in the summer of 2018 in Europe, South America, and the United States.
During September 2017, a series of promotional teasers were uploaded across the TV series 's official social media accounts, culminating with the final teaser showing first footage of John Krasinski as Jack Ryan which was released on October 3, 2017. On October 7, 2017, the series made its debut at the New York Comic Con coinciding with the release of a new teaser trailer. Krasinski, Cornish and creators Cuse and Roland attended the NYCC panel, where they also debuted the first seven minutes of the pilot episode.
On January 30, 2018, the Super Bowl trailer for the series was released online, five days before the football event and marking the first time that Prime Video has released a Super Bowl ad for one of its original shows. In a statement, Amazon Studios ' head of marketing Mike Benson said, "Given the colossal scope and scale of the series coupled with the popularity of Tom Clancy 's novels, we knew Tom Clancy 's Jack Ryan would be a natural fit for Prime Video 's first Super Bowl ad. The global nature of the audience provides us with a unique opportunity to give viewers a look at this thrilling new series coming to Prime. '' It also announced the show 's release date for August 31. On June 11, 2018, the official trailer for the series was released. On July 4, 2018, a trailer entitled "Presidents '', featuring quotes from U.S. Presidents Bill Clinton, Donald Trump, and John F. Kennedy, was released in tandem with U.S. Independence Day.
On June 16, 2018, the series held its world premiere at the 58th Annual Monte - Carlo Television Festival at the Grimaldi Forum in Monte Carlo, Monaco. The event included a screening of the series ' pilot episode that was attended by cast members John Krasinski, Dina Shihabi and Wendell Pierce, alongside series creators, showrunners and executive producers Carlton Cuse and Graham Roland.
The series has been met with a positive critical response upon its premiere. On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds an approval rating of 74 % with an average rating of 6.22 out of 10, based on 73 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Though not as thematically rich as some of its geopolitical predecessors, Jack Ryan is a satisfying addition to the genre buoyed by exceptional action sequences and a likable cast. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the series a score of 66 out of 100 based on 28 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
In a positive review, RogerEbert.com 's Nick Allen praised the series saying, "Expertly plotted by creators Carlton Cuse and Graham Roland, Tom Clancy 's Jack Ryan is all the more impactful for its restraint and scope, offering excellent character - based drama that 's concerned with much more than just its namesake. '' Similarly favorable, The Gazette 's Terry Terrones awarded the series a grade of "A − '' and directed specific approval towards Krasinski 's performance saying, "This version of Jack Ryan is relatable, but also admirable because the actor portraying him can balance so many aspects of the character with ease. Krasinski plays him so naturally I could n't tell where he ended and Ryan began. '' In another enthusiastic appraisal, Rolling Stone 's Alan Sepinwall accorded the series three and a half stars out of five and complimented it saying, "Like Jack Ryan himself, the Amazon show is smart and confident and thorough. That 's enough to get the job done. ''
In a more mixed assessment, TVLine 's Dave Nemetz gave the series a grade of "C + '' and offered the series restrained commendation saying, "Amazon 's awkwardly titled Tom Clancy 's Jack Ryan is at its best when things are exploding, delivering a number of impressively high - octane action sequences on a scale rarely seen on television. The rest of the series, though, is disappointingly mediocre... and its choice of leading man may be a major stumbling block. '' In a negative critique, Vanity Fair 's Sonia Saraiya chastised the show saying "Tom Clancy 's Jack Ryan is hysterical. Hysterical as in histrionic; hysterical as in somehow funny; hysterical as in you wish its team had worked harder to take the temperature of the world around us before sending this highly charged and obscenely blinkered James Bond manqué into the world. '' Equally dismissive, Paste 's Amy Amatangelo criticized the series saying, "But more often than not, the show plods along with no real sense of urgency. I often had to restrain myself from scrolling through my phone. I was that bored while I was watching. Those indoctrinated into the Jack Ryan canon via the books or the movies will find the eight - episode series is faithful to the spirit of all that preceded it. I 'm just not sure we needed it at all. ''
The series has been criticized for a scene in the episode "Black 22 '' that features the use of a transphobic slur and, as alleged by LGBT activist Eliel Cruz, treats a major cause of violence against trans women as "a throwaway joke. '' Similarly, the series has also received criticism in French publications for its depiction of the country, specifically in the episodes "French Connection '' and "Black 22 '', where various scenes have been condemned. Stéphanie Guerrin of Le Parisien expressed her concern for the dialogue spoken by and about the French saying, "This series of dangerously caricatural comments leaves one wondering. '' Le Point 's Bastien Haugel specifically took grievance, in an otherwise positive review, with the portrayal of a French policeman who espoused anti-Muslim views calling it a "dangerously caricatural ''.
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where does the time go sandy denny lyrics | Sandy Denny - wikipedia
Alexandra Elene MacLean Denny (6 January 1947 -- 21 April 1978) was an English singer - songwriter who was lead singer of the British folk rock band Fairport Convention. She has been described as "the pre-eminent British folk rock singer ''.
After briefly working with the Strawbs, Denny joined Fairport Convention in 1968, remaining with them until 1969. She formed the short - lived band Fotheringay in 1970, before focusing on a solo career. Between 1971 and 1977, Denny released four solo albums: The North Star Grassman and the Ravens, Sandy, Like an Old Fashioned Waltz, and Rendezvous. She also duetted with Robert Plant on "The Battle of Evermore '' for Led Zeppelin 's album Led Zeppelin IV in 1971.
Music publications Uncut and Mojo have called Denny Britain 's finest female singer - songwriter. Her composition "Who Knows Where the Time Goes? '' has been recorded by Judy Collins, Eva Cassidy, Nina Simone, 10,000 Maniacs and Cat Power.
Denny was born on 6 January 1947 at Nelson Hospital, Kingston Road, Merton Park, London. She studied classical piano as a child.
Her Scottish grandmother was a singer of traditional songs. At an early age Denny showed an interest in singing, although her strict parents were reluctant to believe there was a living to be made from it. Sandy Denny attended Coombe Girls ' School in New Malden. After leaving school, she started training as a nurse at the Royal Brompton Hospital.
Her nursing career proved short - lived. In the meantime she had secured a place on a foundation course at Kingston College of Art, which she took up in September 1965, becoming involved with the folk club on campus. Her contemporaries at the college included guitarist and future member of Pentangle, John Renbourn.
After her first public appearance at the Barge in Kingston upon Thames Denny started working the folk club circuit in the evenings with an American - influenced repertoire, including songs by Tom Paxton, together with traditional folk songs. Denny made the first of many appearances for the BBC at Cecil Sharp House on 2 December 1966 on the Folk Song Cellar programme where she accompanied herself on two traditional songs: "Fhir a Bhata '' and "Green Grow the Laurels ''.
Her earliest professional recordings were made a few months later in mid-1967 for the Saga label, featuring traditional songs and covers of folk contemporaries including her boyfriend of this period, the American singer - songwriter Jackson C. Frank. They were released on the albums Alex Campbell and His Friends and Sandy and Johnny with Johnny Silvo. These songs were collected on the 1970 album It 's Sandy Denny where the tracks from Sandy and Johnny had been re-recorded with more accomplished vocals and guitar playing. The complete Saga studio recordings were issued on the 2005 compilation Where The Time Goes.
By this time she had abandoned her studies at art college and was devoting herself full - time to music. While she was performing at The Troubadour folk club, a member of the Strawbs heard her, and in 1967, she was invited to join the band. She recorded one album with them in Denmark which was released belatedly in 1973 credited to Sandy Denny and the Strawbs: All Our Own Work. The album includes an early solo version of her best - known (and widely recorded) composition, "Who Knows Where the Time Goes? '' A demo of that song found its way into the hands of American singer Judy Collins, who chose to cover it as the title track of an album of her own, released in November 1968, thus giving Denny international exposure as a songwriter before she had become widely known as a singer.
After making the Saga albums with Alex Campbell and Johnny Silvo, Denny looked for a band that would allow her to stretch herself as a vocalist, reach a wider audience, and have the opportunity to display her songwriting. She said, "I wanted to do something more with my voice. '' After working briefly with the Strawbs, Denny remained unconvinced that they could provide that opportunity, and so she ended her relationship with the band.
Fairport Convention conducted auditions in May 1968 for a replacement singer following the departure of Judy Dyble after their debut album, and Denny became the obvious choice. According to group member Simon Nicol, her personality and musicianship made her stand out from the other auditionees "like a clean glass in a sink full of dirty dishes ''.
Beginning with What We Did on Our Holidays, the first of three albums she made with the band in the late sixties, Denny is credited with encouraging Fairport Convention to explore the traditional British folk repertoire, and is thus regarded as a key figure in the development of British folk rock. She brought with her the traditional repertoire she had refined in the clubs, including "A Sailor 's Life '' featured on their second album together Unhalfbricking. Framing Denny 's performance of this song with their own electric improvisations, her bandmates discovered what then proved to be the inspiration for an entire album, the influential Liege & Lief (1969).
Denny left Fairport Convention in December 1969 to develop her own songwriting more fully. To this end, she formed her own band, Fotheringay, which included her future husband, Australian Trevor Lucas, formerly of the group Eclection.
They created one self - titled album, which included an eight - minute version of the traditional "Banks of the Nile '', and several Denny originals, among them "The Sea '' and "Nothing More ''. The latter marked her first composition on the piano, which was to become her primary instrument from then on. Fotheringay started to record a second album in late 1970, but it remained unfinished after Denny announced that she was leaving the group and producer Joe Boyd left to take up a job at Warner Brothers in California. Denny would later blame Boyd 's hostility towards the group for its demise.
She then turned to recording her first solo album The North Star Grassman and the Ravens. Released in 1971, it is distinguished by its elusive lyrics and unconventional harmonies. Highlights included "Late November '', inspired by a dream and the death of Fairport band member Martin Lamble, and "Next Time Around '' a cryptogram about Jackson C. Frank, one of her many portraits in song.
Sandy with a cover photograph by David Bailey followed in 1972 and was the first of her albums to be produced by Trevor Lucas. As well as introducing eight new original compositions, the album also marked her last recording of a traditional song, "The Quiet Joys of Brotherhood '' (words by Richard Fariña), with Denny 's ambitious multi-tracked vocal arrangement inspired by the Ensemble of the Bulgarian Republic.
Melody Maker readers twice voted her the "Best British Female Singer '' in 1970 and 1971 and, together with contemporaries including Richard Thompson and Ashley Hutchings, she participated in a one - off project called the Bunch to record a collection of rock and roll era standards released under the title of Rock On. During this period, Denny also appeared in a brief cameo on Lou Reizner 's version of the Who 's rock opera, Tommy, and duetted with Robert Plant on "The Battle of Evermore '' from Led Zeppelin 's 1971 album (Led Zeppelin IV), becoming the only guest vocalist ever to appear on a Led Zeppelin album.
In 1973, she married long term boyfriend and producer Trevor Lucas and recorded a third solo album, Like an Old Fashioned Waltz. The songs continued to detail many of her personal preoccupations: loss, loneliness, fear of the dark, the passing of time and the changing seasons. The album contained one of her best loved compositions, "Solo '', and featured a cover image by Gered Mankowitz.
In 1974, she returned to Fairport Convention (of which her husband was by then a member) for a world tour (captured on the 1974 album Fairport Live Convention) and a studio album, Rising for the Moon in 1975. Although her development as a soloist and songwriter had taken her further away from the folk roots direction that the band had pursued since Liege & Lief, seven of the eleven tracks on Rising for the Moon were either written or co-written by her.
Denny and Lucas left Fairport Convention at the end of 1975 and embarked on what was to become her final album Rendezvous. Released in 1977, the album sold poorly and Denny was subsequently dropped by Island Records. Having relocated to the village of Byfield in Northamptonshire in the mid-seventies, Denny gave birth to her only child, a daughter named Georgia in July 1977.
A UK tour to promote Rendezvous in the autumn of 1977 marked her final public appearances. The closing night at the Royalty Theatre in London on 27 November 1977 was recorded for a live album, Gold Dust, which, because of technical problems in the recording of the electric guitar, was belatedly released in 1998 after most of the guitars had been re-recorded by Jerry Donahue.
Linda Thompson told The Guardian that shortly after Denny 's daughter Georgia 's birth, Denny "was crashing the car and leaving the baby in the pub and all sorts of stuff ''. Thompson also noted that the child was born prematurely, yet Denny seemed to have little concern for her new baby.
In late March 1978, while on holiday with her parents and baby Georgia in Cornwall, Denny was injured when she fell down a staircase and hit her head on concrete. Following the incident, she suffered from intense headaches; a doctor prescribed her the painkiller dextropropoxyphene, a drug known to have fatal side effects when mixed with alcohol.
On 1 April, several days after the fall, Denny performed a charity concert at Byfield. On 13 April, concerned about his wife 's erratic behaviour and fearing for his daughter 's safety, Trevor Lucas left the UK and returned to his native Australia with their child, leaving Sandy without telling her.
On 17 April, Denny collapsed and fell into a coma while at friend Miranda Ward 's home. Four days later, she died at Atkinson Morley Hospital in Wimbledon. Her death was ruled to be the result of a traumatic mid-brain haemorrhage and blunt force trauma to her head.
The funeral took place on 27 April 1978 at Putney Vale Cemetery. After the vicar had read Denny 's favourite psalm, Psalm 23, a piper played "Flowers of the Forest '', a traditional song commemorating the fallen of Flodden Field. The inscription on her headstone reads:
The Lady Alexandra Elene MacLean Lucas (Sandy Denny) 6.1. 47 -- 21.4. 78.
Although Denny had a devoted following in her lifetime, she did not achieve mass market success. In the years since her death, her reputation has grown. A four - album box set entitled Who Knows Where the Time Goes? (1985) was produced by her widower Trevor Lucas and Joe Boyd and included many rare and previously unreleased tracks. This was the first public indication that a large cache of unreleased material existed. In 1991, Joe Boyd issued a new version of Denny 's All Our Own Work album with the Strawbs called Sandy Denny and the Strawbs on his Hannibal Records label. The album had strings added to some tracks including "Who Knows Where the Time Goes? '' and further tracks with Denny on lead vocal.
The Australian label Raven Records issued a CD in 1995 called Sandy Denny, Trevor Lucas and Friends: The Attic Tracks 1972 -- 1984 that included 12 previously unreleased Denny songs including the original piano version of "No End '', demos recorded at home in Byfield, Rendezvous album session outtakes (including her final studio recording, a cover of Bryn Haworth 's "Moments '') and three songs from the final concert at the Royalty Theatre.
A one - disc compilation of Denny 's solo BBC recordings was released on Strange Fruit Records as The BBC Sessions 1971 -- 1973 in 1997 that due to rights issues was withdrawn on the day of release, thereby creating a highly collectible disc (up until the release of the comprehensive Live at the BBC box set in 2007). This release was quickly followed in 1998 when Denny 's final performance at the Royalty Theatre, entitled Gold Dust, was issued on CD.
In 2005, remastered versions of all her solo albums came out with bonus tracks. Prior to their release, in 2004 a second comprehensive five - CD box set was released on the Fledg'ling record label called A Boxful of Treasures that included many unreleased recordings, in particular a whole disc of acoustic demos, many recorded at her home in Byfield that was highly prized amongst fans and critics alike, who had long asserted that her solo performances showed her work in its best light, revealing the true quality of her vocal style and compositions. When the Live at the BBC box set came out in September 2007 it was rapturously praised by The Sun newspaper.
In 2008, Jerry Donahue completed the unfinished second Fotheringay album begun in the autumn of 1970. It was released to general acclaim as Fotheringay 2 and contained some notable Denny performances, in particular earlier versions of two Denny compositions "Late November '' and "John the Gun '', and performances of the traditional songs "Gypsy Davey '' and "Wild Mountain Thyme ''.
In 2010, a complete retrospective box set, simply titled Sandy Denny, was released by Universal / Island Records in a limited edition of 3000. It contained Denny 's entire catalogue of studio recordings, including her work with the Strawbs, Fairport Convention, Fotheringay, and as a solo artist. The comprehensive 19 - CD release also included a large number of outtakes, demos, live recordings, radio sessions and interviews.
The box set was released to good reviews, including a 5 - star review in Uncut and a 4 - star review in The Guardian among others.
Further recordings were released in 2011 including a German recording of Fotheringay in concert released as Essen 1970 on the Garden of Delights label. The performance was remastered by original band member Jerry Donahue. This release was followed by 19 Rupert Street, a home recording of a rehearsal featuring Sandy and Alex Campbell recorded at his flat in August 1967. This release is notable for the fact that Sandy performs a number of tracks that are not available in any other versions, including a cover of "Fairytale Lullaby '' by John Martyn. This CD was put out by Sandy 's former Strawbs bandmate Dave Cousins on his Witchwood label.
In late 2010, Thea Gilmore was commissioned by Sandy 's estate, in conjunction with Island Records, to write melodies to unrecorded lyrics found in Sandy 's paperwork. The resulting album Do n't Stop Singing was released in November 2011 to generally good notices, including 4 - star reviews in The Independent and The Guardian among others. On 21 April 2012, the single "London '' was released as an exclusive Record Store Day 7 '' single.
After relocating to Australia and remarrying, Trevor Lucas died of a heart attack in 1989. Denny 's estate is now managed by Lucas ' widow, Elizabeth Hurtt - Lucas. A number of otherwise unreleased recordings of Sandy Denny from his collection have subsequently been the basis for posthumous releases of Denny 's work including those on The Attic Tracks and elsewhere.
Sandy Denny 's daughter, Georgia, has rarely spoken about her mother in a public forum and in the mid-2000s declined an invitation to write the liner notes for Sandy Denny Live at the BBC. However, in 2006 she flew to Britain from Australia to accept on her mother 's behalf the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards award for Most Influential Folk Album of All Time, which was given for Fairport Convention 's Liege and Lief. Georgia gave birth to twin daughters on 29 April 1997, and a tribute album, Georgia on Our Mind, featuring many of Sandy Denny 's former bandmates and friends, was compiled in the children 's honour. She also administers a Facebook page "Sandy Denny and Family '' dedicated to her mother 's memory and more recently, under the name Georgia Katt, has released some of her own DJ - based music.
Since her death, many tributes have been made to Denny, both in music and elsewhere. Dave Pegg of Fairport Convention recorded the tribute "Song for Sandy '' on his 1983 solo album The Cocktail Cowboy Goes It Alone. Dave Cousins of Strawbs wrote "Ringing Down the Years '' in memory of Sandy Denny shortly after her death. Songs more specific to the death were Bert Jansch 's "Where Did My Life Go '' and Richard Thompson 's "Did She Jump or Was She Pushed? ''. Fellow Brit folk pioneers Spriguns changed the title of their 1978 album to Magic Lady after hearing of Denny 's death while recording. In 1998, a variety of Daylily was named after her.
Denny 's songs have been covered by numerous artists in the years since her death. Some of the notable acts to have covered her music include Yo La Tengo, former Marillion frontman Fish, who covered "Solo '' on his album Songs from the Mirror, Cat Power, Judy Collins, and Nina Simone. Kate Bush mentioned Denny in the lyric of "Blow Away (For Bill) '', a track on her 1980 album Never for Ever. In 1984, Clann Eadair released the single "A tribute to Sandy Denny '', featuring Phil Lynott on vocals.
Several radio specials have been produced about Denny 's life and music, including BBC Radio 2 's The Sandy Denny Story: Who Knows Where the Time Goes. In 2007, Denny 's song "Who Knows Where the Time Goes? '' also received BBC Radio 2 's 2007 Folk Award for "Favourite Folk Track of All Time. '' In 2010, she was recognized by NPR in their 50 Great Voices special series.
In April 2008, a tribute concert was held at The Troubadour in London, to mark the thirtieth anniversary of Denny 's death. Those taking part included Martin Carthy, Linda Thompson and Joe Boyd.
A more extensive tribute was given later that year in December at the Southbank in the Queen Elizabeth Hall called The Lady: A Tribute to Sandy Denny with a band composed of members of Bellowhead, the evening featured a mix of young folk acts like Jim Moray and Lisa Knapp alongside those that had known and worked with Denny such as Dave Swarbrick and Jerry Donahue. These acts were joined by performers from outside the world of folk like PP Arnold and Marc Almond. The concert -- which primarily featured songs written by Denny -- received a four - star review in The Guardian. In May 2012 the Southbank concert was expanded into an eight date UK tour called The Lady: A Homage to Sandy Denny. The tour showcased Sandy 's entire songbook taking in her work with Fairport Convention, Fotheringay, her solo career and the new songs completed by Thea Gilmore on her album Do n't Stop Singing.
The band was once more composed of members of Bellowhead. Other acts performing included the aforementioned Thea Gilmore, up and coming folk acts Lavinia Blackwall of Trembling Bells, Blair Dunlop and Sam Carter, alongside more established folk stars Maddy Prior, Dave Swarbrick and Jerry Donahue. The line - up was completed with performers not normally associated with the folk scene; Green Gartside, Joan Wasser aka Joan As Police Woman and PP Arnold. The tour was well received, getting a four - star review in the Times. The London concert at the Barbican was filmed for BBC4 and broadcast in a 90 - minute programme called ' The Songs of Sandy Denny ' in November 2012.
In the 2012 Irish film Silence (Harvest Films & South Wind Blows), "Who Knows Where the Time Goes '' is used during the film and final credits.
In April 2016 Denny was inducted into the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards Hall of Fame.
Alela Diane recorded the tribute "Song for Sandy '' on her album "Cusp '' released in February 2018. The song reflects on Denny 's final tragic days and her orphaned baby daughter.
Denny 's collaborations with other artists, including with Alex Campbell, The Strawbs, Fairport Convention, Fotheringay, together with numerous posthumous releases and compilation albums, are detailed further on the Sandy Denny discography page.
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what does the queen of englands crown look like | Imperial State crown - wikipedia
The Imperial State Crown is one of the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom and symbolises the sovereignty of the monarch.
It has existed in various forms since the 15th century. The current version was made in 1937 and is worn by the monarch after a coronation (St Edward 's Crown having been used to crown the monarch) and used at the annual State Opening of Parliament.
The crown is adorned with 2,901 precious stones, including the Cullinan II diamond, St Edward 's Sapphire, the Stuart Sapphire, and the Black Prince 's Ruby.
St Edward 's Crown, used to crown English monarchs, was considered to be a holy relic, kept in the saint 's shrine at Westminster Abbey and therefore not worn by monarchs at any other time. Instead, a "great crown '' with crosses and fleurs - de-lis, but without arches (an open crown), was a king 's usual headgear at state occasions until the time of Henry V, who is depicted wearing an imperial crown of state with gold arches (a closed crown). Arches were a symbol of sovereignty, and by this point in history, the king of England was being celebrated as rex in regno suo est imperator -- an emperor of his own domain -- owing obedience to no one but God, unlike some continental rulers, who owed fealty to more powerful kings or the Holy Roman Emperor.
Henry VII or his son and successor Henry VIII may have commissioned a more elaborate version of the state crown which is first described in detail in an inventory of royal jewels in 1521, and again in 1532, 1550, 1574 and 1597, and was included in a painting by Daniel Mytens of Charles I in 1631. The Tudor Crown had more pearls and jewels than its medieval predecessor, and the centre petals of each of the fleurs - de-lis had images of Christ, the Virgin Mary and St George. The crown weighed 3.3 kg (7 lb 6 oz) and was set with 168 pearls, 58 rubies, 28 diamonds, 19 sapphires and 2 emeralds. Following the abolition of the monarchy and the execution of Charles I in 1649, the Tudor Crown was broken up and its valuable components sold for £ 1,100.
Upon the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, a new state crown was made for Charles II by Sir Robert Vyner. About 10 versions of the crown have existed since the restoration. The one made for Queen Victoria in 1838 is the basis for today 's crown. Made by Rundell and Bridge in 1838 using old and new jewels, it had a crimson velvet cap with ermine border and a lining of white silk. It weighed 39.25 troy ounces (43.06 oz; 1,221 g) and was decorated with 1,363 brilliant - cut, 1,273 rose - cut and 147 table - cut diamonds, 277 pearls, 17 sapphires, 11 emeralds, 4 rubies, and the Black Prince 's Ruby (a spinel). At the State Opening of Parliament in 1845, the Duke of Argyll was carrying the crown before Queen Victoria when it fell off the cushion and broke. Victoria wrote in her diary, "it was all crushed and squashed like a pudding that had sat down ''.
The gems in the crown were remounted for the coronation of George VI in 1937 by Garrard & Co. The crown was adjusted for Queen Elizabeth II 's coronation in 1953, with the head size reduced and the arches lowered by 25 mm (1 inch) to give it a more feminine appearance.
The Imperial State Crown is 31.5 cm (12.4 in) tall and weighs 1.06 kg (2.3 lb), and has four fleurs - de-lis and four crosses pattée, supporting two arches topped by a monde and cross pattée. Its purple velvet cap is trimmed with ermine. The frame is made of gold, silver and platinum, and decorated with 2,868 diamonds, 273 pearls, 17 sapphires, 11 emeralds, and 5 rubies.
Notable stones are St Edward 's Sapphire on the top cross, reputedly taken from the ring of Edward the Confessor when he was re-interred at Westminster Abbey in 1163, and the Black Prince 's Ruby (a large spinel) on the front cross. In 1909, the 104 - carat (21 g) Stuart Sapphire, set in the front of the crown, was moved to the back and replaced by the 317 - carat (63 g) Cullinan II. Below the monde hang four pearls, three of which are often said to have belonged to Queen Elizabeth I, but the association is almost certainly erroneous.
The crown is worn by the monarch on leaving Westminster Abbey at the end of his or her coronation. It is also worn or carried at the annual State Opening of Parliament, although in 1974 and 2017, when snap general elections were held, Queen Elizabeth II chose to wear a hat. Usually, the crown is taken to the Palace of Westminster under armed guard in its own carriage and placed in the Robing Room, where the Queen dons her robes and puts on the crown before giving her speech to Parliament. If a State Opening occurs before a coronation, the crown is placed on a cushion beside the monarch. In 1689, one week after being proclaimed king, William III wore his crown in Parliament to pass the Crown and Parliament Recognition Act 1689. When not in use, the Imperial State Crown is on public display in the Jewel House at the Tower of London.
The front of George I 's State Crown, 1714
Queen Victoria 's crown made in 1838
George V wearing the crown in 1911
Elizabeth II after her coronation in 1953
Back of the crown in 2012
Imperial Crown of India
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what does it mean to tune an engine | Engine tuning - wikipedia
Engine tuning is an adjustment, modification of the internal combustion engine, or modification to its control unit, otherwise known as its ECU (Engine Control Unit). It is adjusted to yield optimal performance, to increase an engine 's power output, economy, or durability. These goals may be mutually exclusive, and an engine may be detuned with respect to output (work) in exchange for better economy or longer engine life due to lessened stress on engine components.
It has a long history, almost as long as the development of the automobile in general, originating with the development of early racing cars, and later, with the post-war hot - rod movement. Tuning can describe a wide variety of adjustments and modifications, from the routine adjustment of the carburetor and ignition system to significant engine overhauls. At the other end of the scale, performance tuning of an engine can involve revisiting some of the design decisions taken at quite an early stage in the development of the engine.
Setting the idle speed, fuel / air mixture, carburetor balance, spark plug and distributor point gaps, and ignition timing were regular maintenance items for all older engines and the final but essential steps in setting up a racing engine. On modern engines, equipped with electronic ignition and fuel injection, some or all of these tasks are automated, although they still require periodic calibration.
A tune - up usually refers to the routine servicing of the engine to meet the manufacturer 's specifications. Tune - ups are needed periodically as according to the manufacturer 's recommendations to ensure an automobile runs as expected. Modern automobiles now typically require only a small number of tune - ups (relative to older automobiles) over the course of an approximate 250,000 - kilometre (160,000 mi) or a 10 - year lifespan, this can be attributed to improvements in the production process with imperfections and errors reduced by computer automation and also significant improvement in the quality of consumables such as fully synthetic engine oil now being available.
Tune - ups may include the following:
In early days, mechanics finishing the tune - up of a performance car such as a Ferrari would take it around a track several times to burn out any built - up carbon; this is known as an Italian tuneup.
Modern engines are equipped with an engine management system (EMS) / Engine Control Unit (ECU) which can be modified to different settings, producing different performance levels. Manufacturers often produce a few engines which are used in a wider range of models and platforms, and this allows the manufacturers to sell automobiles in various markets with different regulations without having to spend money developing and designing different engines to fit these regulations. This also allows for a single engine to be used by several different brands, tuned to suit their particular buyer 's market.
Remapping is the latest and simplest form of first stage Engine Tuning done mostly on turbocharged vehicles running with modern ECUs. Most of the latest cars run on ECUs mainly supplied by Bosch / Delphi which has a firmware controlling various parameters for the fuel injection engines to run. The factory firmware is developed achieving a balance between Fuel consumption, power, torque, fuel emissions, reliability, service intervals etc. All the factory firmware versions would never be utilizing the total potential of the engines and would be fairly under tuned to achieve the above mentioned factors.
Now many manufacturers build one engine and use various firmware 's aka maps to achieve different power levels to differentiate products (cars) like the VAG 2.0 TDI available in 140PS and 170PS essentially having similar internals.
This gives users an opportunity to unlock more potential from the engine with few changes in the factory software.
There are many in performance tuning industry who does this. This is done by reading the factory firmware from the car by using special tools from OBD port. Some of the main tool suppliers are CMD, Alientech, Magic Motorsports etc. The tools can be hooked on to the OBD port on any car to read the factory file. This file is saved on to the computer and various software 's are available to read this specific type of files.
These files are tweaked under various parameters like fuel injection, boost pressure, rail pressure, fuel pump pressure, ignition timing, raising the speed, rev and torque limiters, water temperature correction, smoke limiters, EGR deletion etc.
These parameters are tweaked to safe limits which is set from testing and experience by an expert so that the unlocked performance is generated under safe levels of reliability, fuel consumption and emissions.
These tweaks can be made in such a way that we can control the fueling and boost at required rpms thereby achieving the expected results. Accordingly the map maybe customized for a better low end for city use or a better high end for on track performance, or an overall map giving power all through out the band in a linear manner.
Once the tweaks are done, the edited file is wrote back on the ECU with the same tools used for reading. Once that is done the engine is cranked up and tested for performance, smoke levels and any other glitches. Any fine tuning is done according to the feedback and thereby producing a better performing and efficient engine.
Once a remap is done, suggestion is to reduce oil change intervals. Oil is a main factor for reliability, You treat your engine with fully synthetic fresh oil on a decent interval, the engine will run for miles and miles.
The exhaust gas temperatures would be higher now so dont do WOT runs for a long period of time and do regular idling before shutting down for the turbo to cool off.
Performance tuning focuses on tuning an engine for motorsport, although many such automobiles never compete but rather are built for show or leisure driving. In this context, the power output, torque, and responsiveness of the engine are of premium importance, but reliability and fuel efficiency are also relevant. In races, the engine must be strong enough to withstand the additional stress placed upon it, and so is often far stronger than any mass - produced design on which it may be based, and also that the automobile must carry sufficient fuel. In particular, the transmission, driveshaft and any other load - transmitting powertrain components may need to be modified in order to withstand the load from the increased power.
In almost all cases, people are interested in increasing the power output of an engine. Many well tried and tested techniques have been devised to achieve this, but all essentially operate to increase the rate (and to a lesser extent efficiency) of combustion in a given engine. This is achieved by putting more air / fuel mixture into the engine, increasing compression ratio (requires higher octane gas) burning it more rapidly, and getting rid of the waste products more rapidly - this increases volumetric efficiency. In order to check the amount of the air / fuel mixture, air fuel ratio meters are often used. The weight of this fuel will affect the overall performance of the automobile, so fuel economy is a competitive advantage. This also means that the performance tuning of an engine should take place in the context of the development of the overall automobile.
The specific ways to increase power include:
The choice of modification depends greatly on the degree of performance enhancement desired, budget, and the characteristics of the engine to be modified. Intake, exhaust, and chip upgrades are usually amongst the first modifications made as they are the cheapest, make reasonably general improvements, whereas a different camshaft, for instance, requires trading off smoothness at low engine speeds for improvements at high engine speeds.
Furthermore, tuners may also use analytical tools to help evaluate and predict the effect of modifications on the performance of the vehicle.
An overhauled engine is an engine which has been removed, disassembled (torn down), cleaned, inspected, repaired as necessary and tested using factory service manual approved procedures. The procedure generally involves honing, new piston rings, bearings, gaskets, oil seals. When done by a competent engine builder the engine will perform as new. The engine may be overhauled to ' new limits ' or ' service limits ', or a combination of the two using used parts, new original equipment manufacturer (OEM) parts, or new aftermarket parts. The engine 's previous operating history is maintained and it is returned with zero hours since major overhaul.
Many times aftermarket part manufacturers are the OEM part suppliers to major engine manufacturers (e.g. Ishino manufactures both the OEM and the aftermarket cylinder head and valve cover gaskets for the Nissan VG30E. Often the Nissan logo is imprinted on the OEM part while the OEM suppliers brand will be imprinted on the same exact part when offered aftermarket.)
A top overhaul only covers the replacement of components inside the cylinder head without removing the engine from the vehicle, such as valve and rocker arm replacement. It may or may not include a valve job. A major overhaul however covers the whole engine assembly, which requires the engine to be removed from the vehicle and transferred to an engine stand. An overhauled engine refers to a major overhaul. By comparison, a major overhaul costs more than a top overhaul.
' New limits ' are the factory service manual 's approved fits and tolerances that a new engine is manufactured to. This may be accomplished by using standard or approved undersized and oversized tolerances. ' Service limits ' are the factory service manual 's allowable wear fits and tolerances that a new limit part may deteriorate to and still be a usable component. This may also be accomplished using standard and approved undersized and oversized tolerances.
A ' rebuilt engine ' is an engine that has been overhauled using new and used parts to new limits by the manufacturer or an entity approved by the manufacturer. The engine 's previous operating history is eradicated and it comes with zero hours total time in service, even though the engine may have had used components installed that have many hours of previous operating history. Production rebuilders or marketing material sometimes use the word ' remanufactured ' to describe these engines.
Remanufacturing is a term to mean an engine put together to match factory specifications e.g. "as new ''. Although often a buyer may take this to mean all - new parts are used, this is not always the case. At the very least, the cylinder block will be used, as may most other parts. High - quality rebuilds will often include new pistons and line - boring of the crankshaft and camshaft bores.
To blueprint an engine means to build it to exact design specs, limits and tolerances created by its oem engineers or other users, such as high performance racing or heavy duty industrial equipment. It is similar to how many other kinds of mechanical machinery are researched, designed and built, such as a submarine or a hydraulic press.
Because few have the capability to actually blueprint, and because of the monetary incentive of claiming one has performed the work, many people have come to believe blueprinting only means that all the specifications are double - checked. Serious efforts at blueprinting result in better - than - factory tolerances, possibly with custom specifications appropriate for the application. Common goals include engine re-manufacturing to achieve the rated power for its manufacturer 's design (because not all mass - production engines put out the rated power), and to rebuild the engine to make more power from a given design than otherwise intended (because custom engines can often be redesigned to different specifications). Blueprinted components allow for a more exact balancing of reciprocating parts and rotating assemblies so that less power is lost through excessive engine vibrations and other mechanical inefficiencies.
Ideally, blueprinting is performed on components removed from the production line before normal balancing and finishing. If finished components are blueprinted, there is the risk that the further removal of material will weaken the component. While it has nothing to do with blueprinting per se, lightening components is generally an advantage provided balance and adequate strength are both maintained, and more precise machining will in general strengthen a part by removing stress points, so in many cases performance tuners are able to work with finished components.
For example, an engine manufacturer may list a piston ring end - gap specification of 0.003 to 0.006 inches for general use in a consumer automobile application. For an endurance racing engine which runs at consistently high temperatures, a "blueprinted '' specification of 0.0045 '' to 0.0050 '' may be desired. For a drag - racing engine which runs only in short bursts, a tighter tolerance of 0.0035 to 0.0040 inch is optimal. Thus "blueprint '' can mean tighter or looser clearances, depending on the goal.
The ' Igniscope ' electronic ignition tester was produced by English Electric during the 1940s, originally as ' type UED ' for military use during World War II. The post-war version, ' type ZWA ' electronic ignition tester, was advertised as "the first of its kind, employing an entirely new technique ''.
The Igniscope used a cathode ray tube, giving an entirely visual method of diagnosis. It was invented by D. Napier & Son, a subsidiary of English Electric, and British Patents 495478, 495547 and 563502 applied. The Igniscope was capable of diagnosing latent and actual faults in both coil and magneto ignition systems, including poor battery supply bonding, points and condenser problems, distributor failure and spark plug gap. One feature was a "loading '' control which made latent faults more visible.
The UED manual includes the spark plug firing order of the tanks and cars used by the British armed forces
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when does world cup start and end 2018 | 2018 FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
The 2018 FIFA World Cup was the 21st FIFA World Cup, an international football tournament contested by the men 's national teams of the member associations of FIFA once every four years. It took place in Russia from 14 June to 15 July 2018.
This was the first World Cup to be held in Eastern Europe, and the 11th time that it had been held in Europe. At an estimated cost of over $14.2 billion, it is the most expensive World Cup ever. It was also the first World Cup to use the video assistant referee (VAR) system.
The finals involved 32 teams, of which 31 came through qualifying competitions, while the host nation qualified automatically. Of the 32 teams, 20 had also appeared in the last tournament in 2014, while both Iceland and Panama made their first appearances at a FIFA World Cup. A total of 64 matches were played in 12 venues across 11 cities. The final took place on 15 July at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, with France and Croatia competing for the World Cup. France won the match 4 -- 2 to claim their second World Cup title, and this result marked the fourth consecutive title won by a European team, after Italy in 2006, Spain in 2010 and Germany in 2014.
The bidding procedure to host the 2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cup tournaments began in January 2009, and national associations had until 2 February 2009 to register their interest. Initially, nine countries placed bids for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, but Mexico later withdrew from proceedings, and Indonesia 's bid was rejected by FIFA in February 2010 after the Indonesian government failed to submit a letter to support the bid. During the bidding process, the three remaining non-UEFA nations (Australia, Japan, and the United States) gradually withdrew from the 2018 bids, and the UEFA nations were thus ruled out of the 2022 bid. As such, there were eventually four bids for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, two of which were joint bids: England, Russia, Netherlands / Belgium, and Portugal / Spain.
The 22 - member FIFA Executive Committee convened in Zürich on 2 December 2010 to vote to select the hosts of both tournaments. Russia won the right to be the 2018 host in the second round of voting. The Portugal / Spain bid came second, and that from Belgium / Netherlands third. England, which was bidding to host its second tournament, was eliminated in the first round.
The voting results were as follows:
The English Football Association and others raised concerns of bribery on the part of the Russian team and corruption from FIFA members. They claimed that four members of the executive committee had requested bribes to vote for England, and Sepp Blatter had said that it had already been arranged before the vote that Russia would win. The 2014 Garcia Report, an internal investigation led by Michael J. Garcia, was withheld from public release by Hans - Joachim Eckert, FIFA 's head of adjudication on ethical matters. Eckert instead released a shorter revised summary, and his (and therefore FIFA 's) reluctance to publish the full report caused Garcia to resign in protest. Because of the controversy, the FA refused to accept Eckert 's absolving of Russia from blame, with Greg Dyke calling for a re-examination of the affair and David Bernstein calling for a boycott of the World Cup.
For the first time in the history of the FIFA World Cup, all eligible nations -- the 209 FIFA member associations minus automatically qualified hosts Russia -- applied to enter the qualifying process. Zimbabwe and Indonesia were later disqualified before playing their first matches, while Gibraltar and Kosovo, who joined FIFA on 13 May 2016 after the qualifying draw but before European qualifying had begun, also entered the competition. Places in the tournament were allocated to continental confederations, with the allocation unchanged from the 2014 World Cup. The first qualification game, between Timor - Leste and Mongolia, began in Dili on 12 March 2015 as part of the AFC 's qualification, and the main qualifying draw took place at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, on 25 July 2015.
Of the 32 nations qualified to play at the 2018 FIFA World Cup, 20 countries competed at the previous tournament in 2014. Both Iceland and Panama qualified for the first time, with the former becoming the smallest country in terms of population to reach the World Cup. Other teams returning after absences of at least three tournaments include: Egypt, returning to the finals after their last appearance in 1990; Morocco, who last competed in 1998; Peru, returning after 1982; and Senegal, competing for the second time after reaching the quarter - finals in 2002. It is the first time three Nordic countries (Denmark, Iceland and Sweden) and four Arab nations (Egypt, Morocco, Saudi Arabia and Tunisia) have qualified for the World Cup.
Notable countries that failed to qualify include four - time champions Italy (for the first time since 1958), three - time runners - up and third placed in 2014 the Netherlands (for the first time since 2002), and four reigning continental champions: 2017 Africa Cup of Nations winners Cameroon, two - time Copa América champions and 2017 Confederations Cup runners - up Chile, 2016 OFC Nations Cup winners New Zealand, and 2017 CONCACAF Gold Cup champions United States (for the first time since 1986). The other notable qualifying streaks broken were for Ghana and Ivory Coast, who had both made the previous three tournaments.
Note: Numbers in parentheses indicate positions in the FIFA World Rankings at the time of the tournament.
The draw was held on 1 December 2017 at 18: 00 MSK at the State Kremlin Palace in Moscow. The 32 teams were drawn into 8 groups of 4, by selecting one team from each of the 4 ranked pots.
For the draw, the teams were allocated to four pots based on the FIFA World Rankings of October 2017. Pot 1 contained the hosts Russia (who were automatically assigned to position A1) and the best seven teams, pot 2 contained the next best eight teams, and so on for pots 3 and 4. This was different from previous draws, when only pot 1 was based on FIFA rankings while the remaining pots were based on geographical considerations. However, teams from the same confederation still were not drawn against each other for the group stage, except that two UEFA teams could be in each group.
Russia (65) (hosts) Germany (1) Brazil (2) Portugal (3) Argentina (4) Belgium (5) Poland (6) France (7)
Spain (8) Peru (10) Switzerland (11) England (12) Colombia (13) Mexico (16) Uruguay (17) Croatia (18)
Denmark (19) Iceland (21) Costa Rica (22) Sweden (25) Tunisia (28) Egypt (30) Senegal (32) Iran (34)
Serbia (38) Nigeria (41) Australia (43) Japan (44) Morocco (48) Panama (49) South Korea (62) Saudi Arabia (63)
Initially, each team had to name a preliminary squad of 30 players but, in February 2018, this was increased to 35. From the preliminary squad, the team had to name a final squad of 23 players (three of whom must be goalkeepers) by 4 June. Players in the final squad may be replaced for serious injury up to 24 hours prior to kickoff of the team 's first match and such replacements do not need to have been named in the preliminary squad.
For players named in the 35 - player preliminary squad, there was a mandatory rest period between 21 and 27 May 2018, except for those involved in the 2018 UEFA Champions League Final played on 26 May.
On 29 March 2018, FIFA released the list of 36 referees and 63 assistant referees selected to oversee matches. On 30 April 2018, FIFA released the list of 13 video assistant referees, who solely acted in this capacity in the tournament.
Referee Fahad Al - Mirdasi of Saudi Arabia was removed in 30 May 2018 over a match - fixing attempt, along with his two assistant referees, compatriots Mohammed Al - Abakry and Abdulah Al - Shalwai. A new referee was not appointed, but two assistant referees, Hasan Al Mahri of the United Arab Emirates and Hiroshi Yamauchi of Japan, were added to the list. Assistant referee Marwa Range of Kenya also withdrew after the BBC released an investigation conducted by a Ghanaian journalist which implicated Marwa in a bribery scandal.
Shortly after the International Football Association Board 's decision to incorporate video assistant referees (VARs) into the Laws of the Game, on 16 March 2018, the FIFA Council took the much - anticipated step of approving the use of VAR for the first time in a FIFA World Cup tournament.
VAR operations for all games are operating from a single headquarters in Moscow, which receives live video of the games and are in radio contact with the on - field referees. Systems are in place for communicating VAR - related information to broadcasters and visuals on stadiums ' large screens are used for the fans in attendance.
VAR had a significant impact in several games. On 15 June 2018, Diego Costa 's goal against Portugal became the first World Cup goal based on a VAR decision; the first penalty as a result of a VAR decision was awarded to France in their match against Australia on 16 June and resulted in a goal by Antoine Griezmann. A record number of penalties were awarded in the tournament, with this phenomenon being partially attributed to VAR. Overall, the new technology has been both praised and criticised by commentators. FIFA declared the implementation of VAR a success after the first week of competition.
Russia proposed the following host cities: Kaliningrad, Kazan, Krasnodar, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Rostov - on - Don, Saint Petersburg, Samara, Saransk, Sochi, Volgograd, Yaroslavl, and Yekaterinburg. Most cities are in European Russia, while Sochi and Yekaterinburg are very close to the Europe - Asia border, to reduce travel time for the teams in the huge country. The bid evaluation report stated: "The Russian bid proposes 13 host cities and 16 stadiums, thus exceeding FIFA 's minimum requirement. Three of the 16 stadiums would be renovated, and 13 would be newly constructed. ''
In October 2011, Russia decreased the number of stadiums from 16 to 14. Construction of the proposed Podolsk stadium in the Moscow region was cancelled by the regional government, and also in the capital, Otkrytiye Arena was competing with Dynamo Stadium over which would be constructed first.
The final choice of host cities was announced on 29 September 2012. The number of cities was further reduced to 11 and number of stadiums to 12 as Krasnodar and Yaroslavl were dropped from the final list. Of the 12 stadiums used for the tournament, 3 (Luzhniki, Yekaterinburg and Sochi) have been extensively renovated and the other 9 stadiums to be used are brand new; $11.8 billion has been spent on hosting the tournament.
Sepp Blatter stated in July 2014 that, given the concerns over the completion of venues in Russia, the number of venues for the tournament may be reduced from 12 to 10. He also said, "We are not going to be in a situation, as is the case of one, two or even three stadiums in South Africa, where it is a problem of what you do with these stadiums ''.
In October 2014, on their first official visit to Russia, FIFA 's inspection committee and its head Chris Unger visited St Petersburg, Sochi, Kazan and both Moscow venues. They were satisfied with the progress.
On 8 October 2015, FIFA and the Local Organising Committee agreed on the official names of the stadiums used during the tournament.
Of the twelve venues used, the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow and the Saint Petersburg Stadium -- the two largest stadiums in Russia -- were used most, both hosting seven matches. Sochi, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod and Samara all hosted six matches, including one quarter - final match each, while the Otkrytiye Stadium in Moscow and Rostov - on - Don hosted five matches, including one round - of - 16 match each. Volgograd, Kaliningrad, Yekaterinburg and Saransk all hosted four matches, but did not host any knockout stage games.
A total of twelve stadiums in eleven Russian cities have been built and renovated for the FIFA World Cup.
Base camps were used by the 32 national squads to stay and train before and during the World Cup tournament. On 9 February 2018, FIFA announced the base camps for each participating team.
At an estimated cost of over $14.2 billion as of June 2018, it is the most expensive World Cup in history, surpassing the cost of the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil.
The Russian government had originally earmarked a budget of around $20 billion which was later slashed to $10 billion for the preparations of the World Cup, of which half is spent on transport infrastructure. As part of the program for preparation to the 2018 FIFA World Cup, a federal sub-program "Construction and Renovation of Transport Infrastructure '' was implemented with a total budget of 352.5 billion rubles, with 170.3 billion coming from the federal budget, 35.1 billion from regional budgets, and 147.1 billion from investors. The biggest item of federal spending was the aviation infrastructure (117.8 billion rubles). Construction of new hotels was a crucial area of infrastructure development in the World Cup host cities. Costs continued to balloon as preparations were underway.
Platov International Airport in Rostov - on - Don was upgraded with automated air traffic control systems, modern surveillance, navigation, communication, control, and meteorological support systems. Koltsovo Airport in Yekaterinburg was upgraded with radio - engineering tools for flight operation and received its second runway strip. Saransk Airport received a new navigation system; the city also got two new hotels, Mercure Saransk Centre (Accor Hotels) and Four Points by Sheraton Saransk (Starwood Hotels) as well as few other smaller accommodation facilities. In Samara, new tram lines were laid. Khrabrovo Airport in Kaliningrad was upgraded with radio navigation and weather equipment. Renovation and upgrade of radio - engineering tools for flight operation was completed in the airports of Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Volgograd, Samara, Yekaterinburg, Kazan and Sochi. On 27 March, the Ministry of Construction Industry, Housing and Utilities Sector of Russia reported that all communications within its area of responsibility have been commissioned. The last facility commissioned was a waste treatment station in Volgograd. In Yekaterinburg, where four matches are hosted, hosting costs increased to over 7.4 billion rubles, over-running the 5.6 billion rubles originally allocated from the state and regional budget.
Volunteer applications to the Russia 2018 Local Organising Committee opened on 1 June 2016. The 2018 FIFA World Cup Russia Volunteer Program received about 177,000 applications, and engaged a total of 35,000 volunteers. They received training at 15 Volunteer Centres of the Local Organising Committee based in 15 universities, and in Volunteer Centres in the host cities. Preference, especially in the key areas, was given to those with knowledge of foreign languages and volunteering experience, but not necessarily to Russian nationals.
Free public transport services were offered for ticketholders during the World Cup, including additional trains linking between host cities, as well as services such as bus service within them.
The full schedule was announced by FIFA on 24 July 2015 (without kick - off times, which were confirmed later). On 1 December 2017, following the final draw, six kick - off times were adjusted by FIFA.
Russia was placed in position A1 in the group stage and played in the opening match at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow on 14 June against Saudi Arabia, the two lowest ranked teams of the tournament at the time of the final draw. The Luzhniki Stadium also hosted the second semi-final on 11 July and the final on 15 July. The Krestovsky Stadium in Saint Petersburg hosted the first semi-final on 10 July and the third place play - off on 14 July.
The opening ceremony took place on Thursday, 14 June 2018, at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, preceding the opening match of the tournament between hosts Russia and Saudi Arabia.
Former Brazilian World Cup - winning striker Ronaldo walked out with a child wearing a Russia 2018 shirt. English pop singer Robbie Williams then performed two songs before he and Russian soprano Aida Garifullina performed a duet while other performers emerged, dressed in the flags of all 32 teams and carrying a sign bearing the name of each nation. Dancers were also present. Ronaldo returned with the official match ball of the 2018 World Cup which was sent into space with the International Space Station crew in March and came back to Earth in early June.
Competing countries were divided into eight groups of four teams (groups A to H). Teams in each group played one another in a round - robin basis, with the top two teams of each group advancing to the knockout stage. Ten European teams and four South American teams progressed to the knockout stage, together with Japan and Mexico.
For the first time since 1938, Germany (reigning champions) did not advance past the first round. For the first time since 1982, no African team progressed to the second round. For the first time, the fair play criteria came into use, when Japan qualified over Senegal due to having received fewer yellow cards. Only one match, France v Denmark, was goalless. Until then there were a record 36 straight games in which at least one goal was scored.
All times listed below are local time.
The ranking of teams in the group stage is determined as follows:
In the knockout stages, if a match is level at the end of normal playing time, extra time is played (two periods of 15 minutes each) and followed, if necessary, by a penalty shoot - out to determine the winners.
If a match went into extra time, each team was allowed to make a fourth substitution, the first time this had been allowed in a FIFA World Cup tournament.
There were 169 goals scored in 64 matches, for an average of 2.64 goals per match.
Twelve own goals were scored during the tournament, doubling the record of six set in 1998.
6 goals
4 goals
3 goals
2 goals
1 goal
1 own goal
Source: FIFA
A player is automatically suspended for the next match for the following offences:
The following suspensions were served during the tournament:
The following awards were given at the conclusion of the tournament. The Golden Boot, Golden Ball and Golden Glove awards were all sponsored by Adidas.
Prize money amounts were announced in October 2017.
The tournament logo was unveiled on 28 October 2014 by cosmonauts at the International Space Station and then projected onto Moscow 's Bolshoi Theatre during an evening television programme. Russian Sports Minister Vitaly Mutko said that the logo was inspired by "Russia 's rich artistic tradition and its history of bold achievement and innovation '', and FIFA President Sepp Blatter stated that it reflected the "heart and soul '' of the country. For the branding, a typeface called Dusha (from душа, Russian for soul) was created by Portuguese design agency Brandia Central in 2014.
The official mascot for the tournament was unveiled 21 October 2016, and selected through a design competition among university students. A public vote was used to select from three finalists -- a cat, a tiger, and a wolf. The winner, with 53 % of approximately 1 million votes, was Zabivaka -- an anthropomorphic wolf dressed in the colours of the Russian national team. Zabivaka 's name is derived from the Russian word забивать, "to score '', and his official backstory states that he is an aspiring football player who is "charming, confident and social ''.
The first phase of ticket sales started on 14 September 2017, 12: 00 Moscow Time, and lasted until 12 October 2017.
The general visa policy of Russia did not apply to participants and spectators, who were able to visit Russia without a visa right before and during the competition regardless of their citizenship. Spectators are nonetheless required to register for a "Fan - ID '', a special photo identification pass. A Fan - ID is required to enter the country visa - free, while a ticket, Fan - ID and a valid passport are required to enter stadiums for matches. Fan - IDs also grant World Cup attendees free access to public transport services, including buses, and train service between host cities. Fan - ID is administered by the Ministry of Digital Development, Communications and Mass Media, who may revoke these accreditations at any time to "ensure the defence capability or security of the state or public order ''.
The official match ball of the 2018 World Cup group stage was "Telstar 18 '', based on the name and design of the first Adidas World Cup ball from 1970. It was introduced on 9 November 2017.
Since the group stage, "Telstar Mechta '' has been used for the knockout stage. The word mechta (Russian: мечта) means dream or ambition. The difference between Telstar 18 and Mechta is the red details on the design.
On 30 April 2018, EA announced a free expansion for FIFA 18 based on the 2018 FIFA World Cup, featuring all 32 participating teams and all 12 stadiums used at the 2018 FIFA World Cup.
The official song of the tournament is "Live It Up '', with vocals from Will Smith, Nicky Jam and Era Istrefi, released on 25 May. The FIFA World Cup Official Music Video was released on 8 June.
Thirty - three footballers who are alleged to be part of the steroid program are listed in the McLaren Report. On 22 December 2017, it was reported that FIFA fired a doctor who had been investigating doping in Russian football. On 22 May 2018 FIFA confirmed that the investigations concerning all Russian players named for the provisional squad of the FIFA World Cup in Russia had been completed, with the result that insufficient evidence was found to assert an anti-doping rule violation. FIFA 's medical committee also decided that Russian personnel would not be involved in performing drug testing procedures at the tournament; the action was taken to reassure teams that the samples would remain untampered.
The choice of Russia as host has been challenged. Controversial issues have included the level of racism in Russian football, and discrimination against LGBT people in wider Russian society. Russia 's involvement in the ongoing conflict in Ukraine has also caused calls for the tournament to be moved, particularly following the annexation of Crimea. In 2014, FIFA President Sepp Blatter stated that "the World Cup has been given and voted to Russia and we are going forward with our work ''.
Allegations of corruption in the bidding processes for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups caused threats from England 's FA to boycott the tournament. FIFA appointed Michael J. Garcia, a US attorney, to investigate and produce a report on the corruption allegations. Although the report was never published, FIFA released a 42 - page summary of its findings as determined by German judge Hans - Joachim Eckert. Eckert 's summary cleared Russia and Qatar of any wrongdoing, but was denounced by critics as a whitewash. Garcia criticised the summary as being "materially incomplete '' with "erroneous representations of the facts and conclusions '', and appealed to FIFA 's Appeal Committee. The committee declined to hear his appeal, so Garcia resigned in protest of FIFA 's conduct, citing a "lack of leadership '' and lack of confidence in the independence of Eckert.
On 3 June 2015, the FBI confirmed that the federal authorities were investigating the bidding and awarding processes for the 2018 and 2022 World Cups. In an interview published on 7 June 2015, Domenico Scala, the head of FIFA 's Audit And Compliance Committee, stated that "should there be evidence that the awards to Qatar and Russia came only because of bought votes, then the awards could be cancelled ''. Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and former British Prime Minister David Cameron attended a meeting with FIFA vice-president Chung Mong - joon in which a vote - trading deal for the right to host the 2018 World Cup in England was discussed.
In response to the March 2018 poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal, British Prime Minister Theresa May announced that no British ministers or members of the royal family would attend the World Cup, and issued a warning to any travelling England fans. Iceland diplomatically boycotted the World Cup. Russia responded to the comments from the UK Parliament claiming that "the west are trying to deny Russia the World Cup ''. The Russian Foreign Ministry denounced Boris Johnson 's statements that compared the event to the 1936 Olympics held in Nazi Germany as "poisoned with venom of hate, unprofessionalism and boorishness '' and "unacceptable and unworthy '' parallel towards Russia, a "nation that lost millions of lives in fighting Nazism ''.
The British Foreign Office and MPs had repeatedly warned English football fans and "people of Asian or Afro - Caribbean descent '' travelling to Russia of "racist or homophobic intimidation, hooligan violence and anti-British hostility ''. English football fans who have travelled have said they have received a warm welcome from ordinary citizens after arriving in Russia.
FIFA, through several companies, sold the broadcasting rights for the 2018 FIFA World Cup to various local broadcasters.
In the United States, the 2018 World Cup was the first men 's World Cup whose English rights were held by Fox Sports, and Spanish rights held by Telemundo. The elimination of the US national team in qualifying led to concerns that US interest and viewership of this World Cup would be reduced (especially among "casual '' viewers interested in the US team), especially noting how much Fox paid for the rights, and that US games at the 2014 World Cup peaked at 16.5 million viewers. During a launch event prior to the elimination, Fox stated that it had planned to place a secondary focus on the Mexican team in its coverage to take advantage of their popularity among US viewers (factoring Hispanic and Latino Americans). Fox stated that it was still committed to broadcasting a significant amount of coverage for the tournament.
In February 2018, Ukrainian rightsholder UA: PBC stated that it would not broadcast the World Cup. This came in the wake of growing boycotts of the tournament among the Football Federation of Ukraine and sports minister Ihor Zhdanov. However, the Ukrainian state TV still broadcast the World Cup, and more than 4 million Ukrainians watched the opening match. Additionally, the Football Federation of Ukraine refused to accredit journalists for the World Cup and waived their quota of tickets.
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when did man i feel like a woman come out | Man! I Feel Like a Woman! - Wikipedia
"Man! I Feel Like a Woman! '' is a song recorded by Canadian singer - songwriter Shania Twain taken from her third studio album, Come On Over (1997). Written by Twain with her longtime collaborator and then - husband Robert John "Mutt '' Lange, who also produced the track, the song was released first to North American country radio stations in March 1999 as the seventh single from the album, and later it was released worldwide in September 1999. "Man! I Feel Like a Woman! '' is a country pop song with lyrics about female empowerment.
The song received generally favorable reviews from music critics, who praised the song 's attitude and hook as well as Twain 's vocals. Commercially, the song was also successful, reaching the top - ten in six countries, while reaching the top - twenty in Canada and number 23 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart. It was even more successful on the Hot Country Songs chart, reaching the top - five and was certified Platinum by the RIAA for 1,000,000 digital downloads. The song also won a Grammy for Best Female Country Vocal Performance in 2000.
The accompanying music video for "Man! I Feel Like a Woman! '' was released on March 3, 1999, and it pays homage to Robert Palmer 's "Addicted to Love '' and Tone Lōc 's "Wild Thing '' music videos, featuring Twain dancing with buffed and blank - eyed male models. The song was the opening song on both Twain 's Come On Over Tour and the Up! Tour as well as Twain 's headline on the Super Bowl XXXVII Halftime show. It was also used to comic effect in a 2004 Chevy Colorado TV commercial, as well as being on the soundtrack of Brazilian telenovela Laços de Família. The song was also performed by American Idol winner Carrie Underwood during the fourth season, and by Britney Spears in her first movie Crossroads (2002).
The title and thus the lyrics of the song were based on Twain 's experience while working at Deerhurst Resort in Huntsville, Ontario to provide for her brothers and sisters after their parents died in a car crash. Twain recalls seeing some drag performers working at the resort and credits them as the source of her inspiration. Later in 1993, after being signed to Mercury Nashville and releasing her first album Shania Twain, Twain met Robert John "Mutt '' Lange, whom she would collaborate extensively with and marry at the end of the year. In 1994, while composing songs for what would become her second studio album The Woman in Me, Lange played to Twain a riff he had been working on and Twain sang lyrics for what would become "Man! I Feel Like a Woman! ''. Speaking of the writing of the song, she stated "There was no time to waste on ideas that would n't make the album, but something like (the song) was just there. I was inspired right off the bat with that one, for example, by a riff Mutt had going, and the lyrics and phrasing just came out of the blue. ''
After reaching domestic success in the United States, and selling over fifteen million copies with The Woman in Me, Twain was determined to become an international star and decided to do whatever was necessary to achieve her goal. In order to achieve a worldwide success, Twain recorded her third studio album, Come On Over, with the intention of being "international ''. After completing the album and delivering to Mercury, Lange spent four months remixing 70 percent of the album for its international edition, diluting and removing the twang elements. While writing for the album, Twain and Lange revisited "Man! I Feel Like a Woman! '' and insisted on having the track on the album. The song is the opening track of the U.S. edition of "Come On Over '', however, the international edition starts with "You 're Still the One '', since the song has country elements. Initially, "Man! I Feel Like a Woman! '' was only released to country radio as the album 's seventh single in the United States in March 1999. However, after the song 's success, it was eventually released to mainstream radio in the U.S. and worldwide in September 1999.
"Man! I Feel Like a Woman! '' was written by Shania Twain and Robert "Mutt '' Lange, who also produced the track. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group, the song was written in the key of Bb major, with a moderate tempo of 126 beats per minute. Twain 's vocals span from the low - note of F3 to the high - note of Db5. "Man! I Feel Like a Woman! '' is a country pop song, with a guitar riff that conjures Norman Greenbaum 's "Spirit in the Sky '', as noted by both Chuck Taylor of Billboard and J.D. Considine of Entertainment Weekly. It starts with Twain exclaiming, "Let 's go girls ''. Lyrically, the song is a female empowerment track, with Twain insisting that "the best thing about being a woman is the prerogative to have a little fun '' as well as promising to wear a "men 's shirt '' with a "short skirt. '' In an interview for Billboard, Twain further explained the song 's lyrical meaning, elaborating:
That song started with the title, then it kind of wrote itself. The whole expression is a celebration of being a woman these days, I think we 're kind of spoiled in a lot of ways, with the advantages we have. Feminists may not feel that way, but I do. It 's pretty darn fun to be a woman. A lot of the stuff I do has such a feminine, female perspective, but a powerful one. It 's not only girl power, it 's gay power. I think that song really stands for both.
The song received generally favorable reviews from music critics. Writing for Billboard, Chuck Taylor commented that "there 's no reason that ' Man! ', with its coquettish turn of phrase, should n't have the same kind of appeal as her earlier ' That Do n't Impress Me Much ', '' also noting that the song has "plenty of tasty ingredients that radio traditionally searches out - great tempo, attitude, a hook that sells like ice cream in summer, and the instantly recognizable vocals of a woman who is a found acquaintance of so many millions out there now. '' Taylor ultimately called it "country crossover at its best. '' Chuck Eddy of Rolling Stone noted that "Man! I Feel Like a Woman! '' and other high - gloss songs "open with a bubblegum - glam cheerleader shout, then blasts into radio - ready rapture with offhand vocal interjections -- doot - doot - doot scatting, do - si - do rapping, sexy squeaks, sarcastic Alanis Morissette asides. ''
The staff from the Sputnikmusic website praised the track, calling it "a high point of the album with it being a classic example of upbeat feel - good power - pop, which is notable both for the production, something that is notably strong throughout the album, but also for the instrumental quality present. It 's possible almost to feel the enjoyment that was present in making this song when listening to it, and there 's even a guitar solo, which again pulls the listener in. '' While reviewing both Twain 's "Come on Over '' and "Greatest Hits '' albums, Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic picked the song as one of the compilation 's highlights, while Nick Reynolds of BBC Music named it "the sound of a thousand Saturday nights in clubs all over the Western World. '' Brian James wrote for PopMatters that the song "has a title - word - to - exclamation - point ratio that would make the headline writer at ' The National Enquirer ' blush. ''
"Man! I Feel Like a Woman! '' earned Shania Twain her second Grammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance in its 42nd edition, which also saw her winning another award for Best Country Song for the song "Come On Over ''. The song also won both BMI Songwriter Awards and SOCAN 'S for "One of the Most Performed Songs of the Year ''. Kay Savage of CMT picked the track as one of her "10 Prime Hits '', asking: "Is there any better song to start a Friday night than ' Man! I Feel Like a Woman! '?. '' Savage also wrote that the "Grammy - winning song brings out (her) best Southern qualities for a really - go - wild, doing - it - in - style, country good time. Shania even took the pain out of girls ' usual conferences of ' what should I wear tonight ' by providing a simple answer: men 's shirts and short skirts. Genius. '' Laura McClellan of Taste of Country picked the song as her "All - Time Best Song '', writing that "the track 's iconic intro lick and catchy singalong vibe won this song a Grammy and a No. 4 slot on the country charts. The most staunch pop purists can still sing along to this one years later, even if they mumble the chorus a bit in the middle. ''
While listing the "Top 10 Girl Power Songs '', The Boot website placed it at number ten, praising Shania for "embrac (ing) her inner feminist in this Grammy - winning single, '' calling it "music to any man 's ears. '' In the same vein, Fatima Bhojani of Mother Jones magazine picked the line, "We do n't need romance, we only wan na dance / We 're gon na let our hair hang down, '' as the best lyric of the song. Writing for NPR Music, Ann Powers commented that the song "connects crossover country to the rock world in no uncertain terms, expanding the genre 's heritage in ways that directly reflect the eclectic tastes of its younger audience. '' The A.V. Club editors, while analysing the "17 well - intended yet misguided feminist anthems '', concluded that:
"Man! I Feel Like a Woman! '' debuted on the US Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart the week of March 13, 1999 at number 53, becoming the highest debut of the week. The single spent 20 weeks on the chart and climbed to a peak position of number four on June 12, 1999, where it remained for two weeks. The single became Twain 's 11th (and seventh consecutive) top - ten on the country charts. On the US Billboard Hot 100, it debuted at number 93 on the week of April 17, 1999. It spent 28 weeks on the chart and peaked at number 23 for one week on November 13, 1999. In the same week, the song peaked at number 18 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart. Come on Over 's fifth US adult contemporary release, "Man! I Feel Like a Woman! '' debuted at number 29 the week of October 2, 1999, the highest debut of the week. The single spent 26 weeks on the chart and climbed to a peak position of number 16 on December 18, 1999, where it remained for one week. While on the Adult Top 40, it debuted at number 30 and peaked at number 12. On the Top 40 Tracks, the song debuted at number 32 and peaked at number 20. The song has sold 853,000 digital copies in the US as of September 2015.
The song was even more successful elsewhere. "Man! I Feel Like a Woman! '' became her second consecutive number - one in New Zealand, where it debuted at the top spot, and was certified platinum, making it her biggest single in that country. In Australia, the song debuted at number 5 and peaked at number 4 a week later, becoming her fifth consecutive top - five single. In France, the song became her first and only top - ten single, spending 31 weeks on the charts, while spending 13 weeks inside the top - ten and three weeks at its peak position at number 3. In the UK, "Man! I Feel Like a Woman! '' became Twain 's second highest selling single, being certified Silver. The song debuted at its peak position at number three, on October 2, 1999, where it remained for two weeks. It remained in the top ten for another two weeks. It remained on the entire chart for 18 weeks. "Man! I Feel Like a Woman! '' became Twain 's fourth top - ten (and third consecutive) in the UK.
The music video for "Man! I Feel Like a Woman! '' was shot in New York City and directed by Paul Boyd. It was filmed on January 11, 1999 and debuted on March 3, 1999 on CMT. The video is a role - reversed version of Robert Palmer 's "Addicted to Love '' and "Simply Irresistible '' music videos. In the music video, she stands in front of a group of men, all dressed alike, complete with buffed and blank - eye, meant to imitate the women from Palmer 's videos. Twain starts the video dressed in a long coat, but throughout the video she strips off items of clothing until she is left wearing a black corset, mini skirt, thigh - high boots, and a black choker.
The video won the MuchMoreMusic Video of the Year award at the MuchMusic Video Awards in 2000. The video uses the alternate mix, which tones down the guitar and synth parts and blends them into the background. The original version of the video is available on Twain 's DVD The Platinum Collection, though an alternate version of the video using the international version was used as a backdrop for Twain 's performance of the song on her Top of the Pops special in 1999.
Shania Twain performed the song on her "Come On Over Tour '' (1998), "Up! Tour '' (2003) and on her "Shania: Still the One '' residency show (2012 - 2014). While on the latter, the song was part of the encore, on the first two the song was the opening song. It was also the opening song of her "Shania Twain Live '', "Winter Break '' and "Up! Live in Chicago '' live video albums, as well as on her headline on the Super Bowl XXXVII halftime show. The song was also performed by American Idol winner Carrie Underwood during the fourth season.
The song was featured in a 2005 episode of America 's Funniest Home Videos in a montage showing clips of women. The song was part of the soundtrack of Brazilian successful telenovela Laços de Família. American recording artist Britney Spears and actresses Zoe Saldana and Taryn Manning sang along to the track during Spears ' first movie Crossroads (2002). In that same year, it was performed by Molly Shannon in the form of a Christmas spoof in The Santa Clause 2. It was used to comic effect in a 2004 Chevy Colorado TV commercial, in which a group of men are traveling in one of the vehicles, and one of them begins singing along very enthusiastically with Twain 's recording (from the female narrative), much to the discomfort of his friends. It also appeared to comedic effect in an episode of Limmy 's Show, in which Limmy aka Brian Limond plays a woman dressed in leopard print halter top and leather skirt, attempting to corral the viewer into declaring "Let 's Go Girls! '' following the song 's opening riff. On the third attempt, the camera appears to accelerate towards this character, striking her and propelling her across the Glasgow skyline. The woman finally falls to the ground after colliding with a tall building, revealing in the process that she is wearing a "strap on '' dildo beneath her skirt. The scene ends with the woman lying in great pain and embarrassment. The song was featured in an episode of The Big Bang Theory (Season 3, Episode 3), in which a character named Penny is shown dancing to and singing along in an opening scene.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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where were the rams before they went to los angeles | History of the Los Angeles Rams - wikipedia
The Los Angeles Rams are a professional American football team that play in the National Football League (NFL). The Rams franchise was founded in 1936 as the Cleveland Rams in the short - lived second American Football League before joining the NFL the next year. In 1946, the franchise moved to Los Angeles. The Rams franchise remained in the metro area until 1994, when they moved to St. Louis, and were known as the St. Louis Rams from 1995 to 2015. The Rams franchise returned to Los Angeles in 2016. This article chronicles the franchise 's history during their time in Los Angeles, from playing at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum between 1946 and 1979, to playing at Anaheim Stadium (now known as Angel Stadium of Anaheim) in Anaheim from 1980 to 1994, and its return to Southern California beginning with the 2016 season.
On January 12, 1946, Dan Reeves was denied a request by the other National Football League (NFL) owners to move his team, the Cleveland Rams to Los Angeles and the then - 103,000 - seat Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. Reeves threatened to end his relationship with the NFL and get out of the professional football business altogether unless the Rams transfer to Los Angeles was permitted. A settlement was reached and, as a result, Reeves was allowed to move his team to Los Angeles. Consequently, the NFL became the first professional coast - to - coast sports entertainment industry.
From 1933, when Joe Lillard left the Chicago Cardinals, through 1946, there were no Black players in American professional football. After the Rams had received approval to move to Los Angeles, the Rams entered into negotiations to lease the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. The Rams were advised that a precondition to them getting a lease was that they would have to integrate the team with at least one African - American; the Rams agreed to this condition. Subsequently, the Rams signed Kenny Washington on March 21, 1946. The signing of Washington caused "all hell to break loose '' among the owners of the NFL franchises. The Rams added a second black player, Woody Strode, on May 7, 1946, giving them two black players going into the 1946 season.
The Rams were the first team in the NFL to play in Los Angeles (the 1926 Los Angeles Buccaneers were strictly a road team), but they were not the only professional football team to play its home games in the Coliseum between 1946 and 1949. The upstart All - America Football Conference had the Los Angeles Dons compete there as well. Reeves was taking a gamble that Los Angeles was ready for its own professional football team -- and suddenly there were two in the City of Angels. Reeves was proved to be correct when the Rams played their first pre-season game against the Washington Redskins in front of a crowd of 95,000 fans. The team finished their first season in L.A. with a 6 -- 4 -- 1 record, second place behind the Chicago Bears. At the end of the season Walsh was fired as head coach. The Coliseum would be the home of the Rams for more than 30 years (the Dons merged with them in late 1949), but the facility was already over 20 years old on the day of the first kickoff. In 1948, halfback Fred Gehrke painted horns on the Rams ' helmets, making the first modern helmet emblem in pro football.
The Rams ' play - by - play announcer from 1937 through 1965 was Robert J. "Bob '' Kelley, known as "The Voice of the Rams '', also broadcast for NCAA teams Notre Dame and Michigan football as well as the Los Angeles Angels Pacific Coast League team and American League team. Kelley had an early evening talk show on L.A. radio station KMPC, that was considered by most sports enthusiasts as highly entertaining. Kelley was generally considered a Legend and a true professional, one of the great radio, play - by - play announcers of our time. At the beginning of the 1951 World Championship game after the kickoff, Kelley was able to cite every player on the field prior to the first snap from scrimmage, an 80 - yard touchdown ("and I think he 's going to go all the way '').
The Rams ' first heyday in Southern California was from 1949 to 1955, when they played in the pre-Super Bowl era NFL Championship Game four times, winning once in the 1951. During this period, they had the best offense in the NFL, even though there was a quarterback change from Bob Waterfield to Norm Van Brocklin in 1951. The defining Offensive players of this period were wide receiver Elroy Hirsch, Van Brocklin and Waterfield. Teamed with fellow Hall of Famer Tom Fears, Hirsch helped create the style of Rams football as one of the first big play receivers. During the 1951 Championship season, Hirsch posted a then stunning 1,495 receiving yards with 17 touchdowns. The popularity of this wide - open offense enabled the Los Angeles Rams to become the first pro football team to have all their games televised in 1950.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Los Angeles Rams went from being the only major professional sports franchise in Southern California and Los Angeles to being one of five. The Los Angeles Dodgers moved from Brooklyn in 1958, the Los Angeles Chargers of the upstart AFL was established in 1960, the Los Angeles Lakers moved from Minneapolis in 1960, and the Los Angeles Angels were awarded to Gene Autry in 1961. In spite of this, the Rams continued to thrive in Southern California. In the first two years after the Dodgers moved to California, the Rams drew an average of 83,681 in 1958 and 74,069 in 1959. The Rams were so popular in Los Angeles that the upstart Chargers chose to relocate to San Diego rather than attempt to compete with the immensely popular Rams. The Los Angeles Times put the Chargers plight as such: "Hilton (the Chargers owner at the time) quickly realized that taking on the Rams in L.A. was like beating his head against the wall. ''
During this time, the Rams were not as successful on the field as they had been during their first decade. The team 's combined record from 1957 to 1964 was 24 -- 35 -- 1 (. 407), but the Rams continued to fill the cavernous Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum on a regular basis. While the National Football League 's average attendance ranged from the low 30,000 s to the low 40,000 s during this time, the Rams were drawing anywhere from 10,000 to 40,000 fans more than the league average. In 1957, the Rams set the all - time NFL attendance record that stood until 2006 and broke the 100,000 mark twice during the 1958 campaign.
The Rams posted losing records in all but two seasons between 1956 and 1966. In those two seasons, the club finished with a 6 and 6 record in 1957 followed by an 8 and 4 mark and a strong second place showing the next year. Led by business executive Pete Rozelle 's shrewd understanding of how to use television as a (then -) revolutionary promotional device, the Rams remained a business success despite the team 's poor record. In a 1957 game against the San Francisco 49ers, the Rams set a record for attendance for a regular - season NFL game (102,368 people). The Rams drew over 100,000 fans twice the following year.
The 1960s were defined by the Rams great defensive line of Rosey Grier, Merlin Olsen, Deacon Jones, and Lamar Lundy, dubbed the "Fearsome Foursome. '' It was this group of players who restored the on - field luster of the franchise in 1967 when the Rams reached (but lost) the conference championship under legendary coach George Allen. That 1967 squad would become the first NFL team to surpass one million spectators in a season, a feat the Rams would repeat the following year. In each of those two years, the L.A. Rams drew roughly double the number of fans that could be accommodated by their current stadium for a full season.
George Allen led the Rams from 1966 to 1970 and introduced many innovations, including the hiring of a young Dick Vermeil as one of the first special teams coaches. Though Allen would enjoy five straight winning seasons and win two divisional titles in his time with the Rams he never won a playoff game with the team, losing in 1967 to Green Bay 28 -- 7 and in 1969 23 -- 20 to Minnesota. Allen would leave after the 1970 season to take the head coaching job for the Washington Redskins.
Quarterback Roman Gabriel played eleven seasons for the Rams dating from 1962 -- 72. From 1967 -- 71, Gabriel led the Rams to either a first - or second - place finish in their division every year. He was voted the MVP of the entire NFL in 1969, for a season in which he threw for 2,549 yards and 24 TDs while leading the Rams to the playoffs. During the 1970 season, Gabriel combined with his primary receiver Jack Snow for 51 receptions totaling 859 yards. This would prove to be the best season of their eight seasons as teammates.
In 1972, Chicago industrialist Robert Irsay purchased the Rams for $19 million and then traded the franchise to Carroll Rosenbloom for his Baltimore Colts and cash. The Rams remained solid contenders in the 1970s, winning seven straight NFC West championships between 1973 -- 79. Though they clearly were the class of the NFC in the 1970s along with the Dallas Cowboys and Minnesota Vikings, they lost the first four conference championship games they played in that decade, losing twice each to Minnesota (1974, 1976) and Dallas (1975, 1978) and failing to win a league championship.
The Rams ' coach for this run was Chuck Knox, who led the team through 1977. The Chuck Knox - coached Rams featured an unremarkable offense carried into the playoffs annually by an elite defensive unit. The defining player of the 1970s L.A. Rams was Jack Youngblood. Youngblood was called the ' Perfect Defensive End ' by fellow Hall of Famer Merlin Olsen. His toughness was legendary, notably playing on a broken leg during the Rams ' run to the 1980 Super Bowl. His blue - collar ethic stood in opposition to the perception that the Rams were a soft ' Hollywood ' team. However, several Rams players from this period took advantage of their proximity to Hollywood and crossed over into acting after their playing careers ended. Most notable of these was Fred Dryer, who starred in the TV series Hunter from 1984 to 1991, as well as Olsen, who retired after 1976. During the 1977 offseason, the Rams, looking for a veteran quarterback, acquired Joe Namath from the Jets. In spite of a 2 -- 1 start to the regular season, Namath 's bad knees rendered him nearly immobile and after a Monday night defeat in Chicago, he never played again. With Pat Haden at the helm, the Rams won the division and advanced to the playoffs, but lost at home to Minnesota. Chuck Knox left for the Bills in 1978, after which Ray Malavasi became head coach. Going 12 -- 4, the team won the NFC West for the sixth year in a row and defeated the Vikings, thus avenging their earlier playoff defeat. However, success eluded them again as they were shut out in the NFC Championship by the Cowboys.
Ironically, it was the Rams ' weakest divisional winner (an aging 1979 team that only achieved a 9 -- 7 record) that would achieve the team 's greatest success in that period. Led by third - year quarterback Vince Ferragamo, the Rams shocked the heavily favored and two - time defending NFC champion Dallas Cowboys 21 -- 19 in the Divisional Playoffs, then shut out the upstart Tampa Bay Buccaneers 9 -- 0 in the conference championship game to win the NFC and reach their first Super Bowl. Along with Ferragamo, key players for the Rams were halfback Wendell Tyler, offensive lineman Jackie Slater, and Pro Bowl defenders Jack Youngblood and Jack "Hacksaw '' Reynolds.
The Rams ' opponent in their first Super Bowl was the defending champion Pittsburgh Steelers. The game would be a virtual home game for the Rams as it was played in Pasadena at the Rose Bowl. Although some oddsmakers set the Rams as a 101⁄2 point underdog, the Rams played Pittsburgh very tough, leading at halftime 13 -- 10 and at the end of the third quarter 19 -- 17. In the end, however, the Steelers finally asserted themselves, scoring two touchdowns in the 4th quarter and completely shutting down the Rams offense to win their fourth Super Bowl, 31 -- 19.
Prior to the 1979 NFL season, owner Carroll Rosenbloom died in a drowning accident, and his widow, Georgia Frontiere, inherited 70 percent ownership of the team. Frontiere then fired stepson Steve Rosenbloom and assumed total control of Rams operations. As had been planned prior to Rosenbloom 's death, the Rams moved from their longtime home at the Coliseum to Anaheim Stadium in nearby Orange County in 1980.
The reason for the move was twofold. First, the NFL 's blackout rule forbade games from being shown on local television if they did not sell out within 72 hours of the opening kickoff. As the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum seated 92,604 at the time, it was rarely possible to sell that many tickets even in the Rams ' best years, and so most Rams home games were blacked out. Second, this move was following the population pattern in Southern California. During the 1970s and 1980s, the decline of manufacturing industries in the northeastern United States combined with the desire of many people to live in a warmer climate caused a large - scale population shift to the southern and western states. As a result, many affluent new suburbs were built in the Los Angeles area. Anaheim Stadium was originally built in 1966 to be the home of the California Angels. To accommodate the Rams ' move, the ballpark was reconfigured and enclosed to accommodate a capacity of 69,008 in the football configuration. With their new, smaller home, the Rams had no problem selling out games.
In 1980, the team posted an 11 -- 5 record, but only managed a wild card spot and were sent packing after a loss to the Cowboys. Age and injuries finally caught up with the Rams in 1981, as they only won six games and missed the playoffs for the first time in nine years. After the 1982 season was shortened to nine games by a strike, the Rams went 2 -- 7, the worst record ever in NFL.
In 1982, the Oakland Raiders moved to Los Angeles and took up residence in the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. The combined effect of these two moves was to divide the Rams ' traditional fanbase in two. This was coupled with the early 1980s being rebuilding years for the club, while the Raiders were winners of Super Bowl XVIII in the 1983 season. Meanwhile, the Los Angeles Lakers won championships in 1980 and 1982 en route to winning five titles in that decade, the Los Angeles Dodgers won the World Series in 1981 and 1988, and even the Los Angeles Kings made a deep run in the playoffs in 1982. As a result, the Rams declined sharply in popularity during the 1980s.
The hiring of coach John Robinson in 1983 provided a needed boost for pro football in Orange County. The former USC coach began by cutting the aged veterans left over from the 1970s teams. His rebuilding program began to show results when the team rebounded to 9 -- 7 in 1983 and defeated Dallas in the playoffs. However, the season ended after a rout at the hands of the soon - to - be champion Redskins. Another trip to the playoffs in 1984 saw them lose to the Giants. They made the NFC Championship Game in 1985 after winning the division, where they would be shut out by the eventual champion Chicago Bears 24 -- 0.
The most notable player for the Rams during that period was running back Eric Dickerson, who was drafted in 1983 out of SMU and won Rookie of the Year. In 1984, Dickerson rushed for 2,105 yards, setting a new NFL record. Dickerson would end his five hugely successful years for the Rams in 1987 by being traded to the Indianapolis Colts for a number of players and draft picks after a bitter contract dispute, shortly after the players ' strike that year ended. Dickerson was the Rams ' career rushing leader until 2010, with 7,245 yards. Despite this trade, the Rams remained contenders due to the arrival of the innovative offensive leadership of Ernie Zampese. Zampese brought the intricate timing routes he had used in making the San Diego Chargers a state - of - the - art offense. Under Zampese, the Rams rose steadily from 28th rated offense in 1986 to 3rd in 1990. The late 1980s Rams featured a gifted young QB in Jim Everett, a solid rushing attack and a fleet of talented WRs led by Henry Ellard.
After a 10 -- 6 season in 1986, the Rams were booted from the playoffs by Washington. After one game of the 1987 season was lost to the players ' strike, the NFL employed substitutes, most of which were given derogatory nicknames (in this case the Los Angeles Shams). After a 2 -- 1 record, the Rams ' regulars returned, but the team only went 6 -- 9 and did not qualify for the postseason.
The Rams managed to return in 1988 with a 10 -- 6 record, but then were defeated by Minnesota in the wild card round. Los Angeles won the first five games of 1989, including a sensational defeat of the defending champion 49ers. They beat the Eagles in the wild card game, then beat the Giants in overtime before suffering a 30 -- 3 flogging at the hands of the 49ers in the NFC Championship Game.
Although it was n't apparent at the time, the 1989 NFC Championship Game was the end of an era. The Rams did not have another winning season in their first stint in Los Angeles. They crumbled to 5 -- 11 in 1990, followed by a 3 -- 13 season in 1991.
Robinson was fired at the end of the 1991 season. The return of Chuck Knox as head coach, after Knox 's successful stints as head coach of the Buffalo Bills and Seattle Seahawks, would not boost the Rams ' fortunes. His run - oriented offense marked the end of the Zampese tenure in 1993. Knox ' game plans called for an offense that would be steady, if unspectacular. Unfortunately for the Rams, Knox 's offense was not only aesthetically unpleasing but dull as well, especially by 1990s standards. The Rams finished last in the NFC West during all three years of Knox ' second stint, and were never a serious contender during this time.
As the losses piled up and the team was seen as playing uninspired football, the Rams ' already dwindling fan base was reduced even further. By 1994, support for the Rams had withered to the point where they were barely part of the Los Angeles sports landscape. With sellouts becoming fewer and far between, the Rams saw more of their games blacked out in Southern California. One of the few bright spots during this time was Jerome Bettis, a bruising running back from Notre Dame. Bettis flourished in Knox ' offense, running for 1,429 yards as a rookie, and 1,025 in his sophomore effort.
As it has become increasingly common with sports franchises, the Rams began to blame much of their misfortune on their stadium situation. With Orange County mired in a deep recession resulting largely from defense sector layoffs, the Rams were unable to secure a new or improved stadium in the Los Angeles area, which ultimately cast their future in Southern California into doubt.
The first half of the 1990s featured four straight 10 - loss seasons, no playoff appearances, and waning fan interest. The return of Chuck Knox as head coach (after his successful stints as head coach of the Buffalo Bills and Seattle Seahawks), would not boost the Rams ' fortunes. His run - oriented offense brought the end of Zampese 's tenure, in 1993. John Shaw, the team 's general manager, was perceived by some to continually squander NFL Draft picks on sub-standard talent. The offensive scheme was not only unspectacular to watch, but dull by 1990s standards -- further alienating fans.
Team management traded quarterback Jim Everett, and released All - Pro linebacker Kevin Greene, which set the once - proud franchise further back. At this point, Georgia Frontiere blamed the poor front office decisions on their stadium situation. However, neither Orange County nor the city of Los Angeles were prepared to build a taxpayer - financed stadium just for the Rams. Claiming that Southern California was so unprofitable that the Rams would go bankrupt without a new stadium, Mrs. Frontiere decided to move the team.
Georgia Frontiere initially attempted to relocate the Rams to Baltimore, but her fellow owners turned that proposal down. Mrs. Frontiere then sought to relocate the team to St. Louis. This move was initially voted down as well. The other owners (led by Buffalo 's Ralph Wilson, the Jets ' Leon Hess, the Giants ' Wellington Mara, Washington 's Jack Kent Cooke, Arizona 's Bill Bidwill and Minnesota 's John Skoglund) believed that the Rams ' financial problems were due to the Frontieres ' mismanagement. When Georgia Frontiere threatened to sue the league, Commissioner Paul Tagliabue acquiesced to Frontiere 's demands.
As part of the relocation deal, the city of St. Louis agreed to build a taxpayer - financed stadium, the Trans World Dome (now the Dome at America 's Center) and guaranteed that the stadium 's amenities would be maintained in the top 25 percent of all NFL stadiums. Frontiere waived the clause after a 10 - year threshold period passed, as the city implemented a later plan to improve the stadium.
The move left many in the Los Angeles area, and many of those indifferent to the whole situation, embittered toward the NFL. That sentiment was best expressed by Fred Dryer, who at the time said "I hate these people (the organization and its owner) for what they did, taking the Rams logo with them when they moved to St. Louis. That logo belonged to Southern California. '' Steve Rosenbloom, the general manager of the team during Carroll Rosenbloom 's tenure, opined that teams come and go, but for a team to leave Los Angeles -- the second largest media market in America -- for St. Louis (approximately the 18th - largest) was simply irresponsible and foolish, in spite of the notoriously fickle support of Los Angeles fans. With the Raiders moving from Los Angeles back to Oakland only a few months later, the NFL would have no franchise in Los Angeles for the first time in 50 seasons.
By 1995, the Rams franchise had withered to a mere shadow of its former self. Accusations and excuses were constantly thrown back and forth between the Rams fan base, ownership, and local politicians. Many in the fan base blamed the ownership of Georgia Frontiere for the franchise 's woes, while ownership cited the out - dated stadium and withering fan support.
Frontiere finally gave up and decided to move the Rams to St. Louis. However, on March 15, 1995, the other league owners rejected Frontiere 's bid to move the franchise by a 21 -- 3 -- 6 vote. Then - Commissioner Paul Tagliabue stated after rejecting the move, "This was one of the most complex issues we have had to approach in years. We had to balance the interest of fans in Los Angeles and in St. Louis that we appreciate very much. In my judgment, they did not meet the guidelines we have in place for such a move. '' The commissioner also added: "Once the bridges have been burned and people get turned off on a sports franchise, years of loyalty is not respected and it is difficult to get it back. By the same token, there are millions of fans in that area who have supported the Rams in an extraordinary way. The Rams have 50 years of history and the last 5 or so years of difficult times can be corrected. ''
Frontiere, however, responded with a thinly veiled threat at a lawsuit. The owners eventually acquiesced to her demands, wary of going through a long, protracted legal battle. Tagliabue simply stated that "The desire to have peace and not be at war was a big factor '' in allowing the Rams move to go forward. In a matter of a month, the vote had gone from 21 -- 6 opposed to 23 -- 6 in favor. Jonathan Kraft, son of Patriots owner Robert Kraft, elaborated on the commissioner 's remarks by saying that "about five or six owners did n't want to get the other owners into litigation, so they switched their votes. '' Only six teams remained in opposition to the Rams move from Los Angeles: the Pittsburgh Steelers, New York Giants, New York Jets, Buffalo Bills, Arizona Cardinals, and Washington Redskins. After the vote was over, Steelers owner Dan Rooney publicly stated that he opposed the move of the Los Angeles Rams because "I believe we should support the fans who have supported us for years. ''
While in St. Louis, the Rams played their first few home games at Busch Memorial Stadium before the Trans World Dome (now known as the Dome at America 's Center) was completed during the middle of the 1995 season. Aided by an offense nicknamed "The Greatest Show on Turf '', a period of success occurred between 1999 and 2004 when the team qualified for the playoffs in five out of those six seasons, including a win in Super Bowl XXXIV against the Tennessee Titans, and a loss to the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XXXVI. Other than that period of success, the St. Louis Rams repeatedly suffered losing seasons.
Within months of the moves of the Rams and Raiders, several NFL teams were rumored to be replacements. They included the Cleveland Browns, the Cincinnati Bengals, the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, and the Seattle Seahawks. However, the Browns moved to become the Baltimore Ravens in 1996 amid major controversy, and a new Browns team occupied a new stadium in 1999. The Bengals, Buccaneers and Seahawks, meanwhile, used L.A. 's vacancy as leverage to convince their cities to help finance new stadiums. Meanwhile, various entities proposed new stadiums in Los Angeles in an attempt to lure a team to the market.
The closest Los Angeles had come to getting a new NFL franchise was prior to 2016 was the Seattle Seahawks. In March 1996, Seahawks owner Ken Behring moved office equipment and some athletic gear to the elementary school in Anaheim that once held Rams practices, hoping to get approval for a permanent move to Southern California. He also had plans to change the team 's name and colors if a move to Los Angeles was successful. Because of an owners ' revolt, Behring halted the process and moved the equipment back to Seattle. Eventually, Paul Allen bought the team and kept it in Seattle by building Seahawks Stadium, now known as CenturyLink Field.
Los Angeles again came close to regaining an NFL team in 1999, when the NFL approved a new franchise, the league 's 32nd, for Los Angeles, on the condition that the city and NFL agree on a stadium site and stadium financing. Those agreements were never reached, and on October 6, 1999, the franchise was awarded to a Houston ownership group instead, which formed the Houston Texans.
During the Rams ' 21 - year absence from Los Angeles, the market had been used on many different occasions as leverage to finance new stadiums or upgrade existing venues. An excellent example of this was when Indianapolis Colts owner Jim Irsay 's airplane appeared at Van Nuys Airport, presumably for meetings with local officials on moving his team to Los Angeles. He eventually signed a deal to build a new venue in Indianapolis and Los Angeles continued to be without representation in the National Football League.
On January 31, 2014, both the Los Angeles Times and the St. Louis Post-Dispatch reported that Rams owner Stan Kroenke had purchased approximately 60 acres of land adjacent to the Forum in Inglewood, California. The purchase price was rumored to have been between $90 million and $100 million. Commissioner Roger Goodell represented that Mr. Kroenke informed the league of the purchase. As an NFL owner, any purchase of land in which a potential stadium could be built must be disclosed to the league. Kroenke subsequently announced plans to build an NFL stadium on the site, in connection with the owners of the adjacent 238 - acre Hollywood Park site, Stockbridge Capital Group. This development has further fueled rumors that the Rams intend to return its management and football operations to Southern California. The land was initially targeted for a Walmart Supercenter but Walmart could not get the necessary permits to build it. Kroenke is married to Ann Walton Kroenke who is a member of the Walton family and many of Kroenke 's real estate deals have involved Walmart properties.
On January 5, 2015, the Los Angeles Times reported that Kroenke Sports & Entertainment and Stockbridge Capital Group were partnering up in developing a new NFL stadium on the Inglewood property owned by Kroenke. The project will include a stadium of 80,000 seats and a performance venue of 6,000 seats while reconfiguring the previously approved Hollywood Park plan for up to 890,000 square feet of retail, 780,000 square feet of office space, 2,500 new residential units, a 300 - room hotel and 25 acres of public parks, playgrounds, open space and pedestrian and bicycle access. The stadium would likely be ready by 2018. In lieu of this, St. Louis countered with a stadium plan for the north riverfront area of downtown, with the hope of keeping the Rams in the city. On February 24, 2015, the Inglewood City Council approved the stadium plan and the initiative with construction on the stadium planned to begin in December 2015. On December 21, 2015, Construction was officially underway for the stadium on the Hollywood Park site.
The Rams and the St. Louis CVC began negotiating deals to get the Rams home stadium, the Edward Jones Dome into the top 25 percent of stadiums in the league (i.e., top eight teams of the 32 NFL teams in reference to luxury boxes, amenities and overall fan experience). Under the terms of the lease agreement, the St. Louis CVC was required to make modifications to the Edward Jones Dome in 2005. However, then - owner, Georgia Frontiere, waived the provision in exchange for cash that served as a penalty for the city 's noncompliance. The city of St. Louis, in subsequent years, made changes to the scoreboard and increased the natural lighting by replacing panels with windows, although the overall feel remains dark. The minor renovations which totaled about $70 million did not bring the stadium within the specifications required under the lease agreement; thus, keeping the Dome in a state of uncertainty.
On February 1, 2013, an Arbitrator (3 panel) selected to preside over the arbitration process found that the Edward Jones Dome was not in the top 25 percent of all NFL venues as required under the terms of the lease agreement between the Rams and the CVC. The Arbitrator (three panel) further found that the estimated $700 million in proposed renovations by the Rams was not unreasonable given the terms of the lease agreement. Finally, the city of St. Louis was ordered to pay the Rams attorneys ' fees which totaled a reported $2 million.
Publicly, city, county and state officials expressed no interest in providing further funding to the Edward Jones Dome in light of those entities, as well as taxpayers, continuing to owe approximately $300 million more on that facility. As such, if a resolution was not reached by the end of the 2014 NFL season and the city of St. Louis remained non-compliant in its obligations under the lease agreement, the Rams would be free to nullify their lease and go to a year - to - year lease. Months later, the Rams scheduled to play in London, which violates the Edward Jones Dome 's terms of lease.
On January 4, 2016, the St. Louis Rams filed for relocation to move to the Los Angeles area for the 2016 NFL season. They were among the three teams (the Rams, Oakland Raiders, and the San Diego Chargers) that filed for relocation to Los Angeles. All three franchises previously played in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. Weeks later, the NFL owners gathered in Houston for a meeting on January 11 and January 12, a meeting that decided the end of the Los Angeles race. A few days before the scheduled owners meeting, Dallas Cowboys owner Jerry Jones suggested that the Rams and Chargers should share Stan Kroenke 's Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park. This suggestion was taken as a possible option discussed in the Houston meetings. During the Los Angeles meeting, the Committee on Los Angeles Opportunities, which consists of six NFL owners, favored the Carson project over the Rams ' Inglewood project. Despite this, thanks to Jerry Jones ' pitch, the first round of voting during the meeting, the Rams got the greater amount of votes, conquering the Carson project 21 -- 11. However, the Rams did not meet the required 24 votes in the second round of voting the Rams Inglewood project received 20 votes while the Chargers and Raiders Carson project received only 12 votes. After hours of searching to find a compromise, it was determined that the Rams would relocate to Los Angeles and the Chargers would have the option to join them, while the Raiders would have the option to join the Rams if the Chargers elected not to move. The Chargers used their option in January 2017 becoming the Los Angeles Chargers.
Until the Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park has finished construction and is ready for use, the Rams are playing their home games at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, which had been home to the team for 33 seasons (1946 -- 1979), and is currently also the home of the USC Trojans college football team.
The Rams move to Los Angeles is also being used to help expand the league 's presence around the globe. In 2016, the Rams faced the New York Giants in London at Twickenham Stadium, as part of the NFL 's International Series. The Rams are also expected to play a game in China in time for the 2018 NFL season. Kevin Demoff, the team 's Executive Vice President of Football Operations / Chief Operating Officer, told The Guardian that he sees L.A. as a gateway to Asia and says being in L.A. will help sell the brand, more so, than in St. Louis.
On February 4, 2016, the Los Angeles Rams selected Oxnard, California to be the site of their minicamp, offseason team activities, and offseason program that began on April 18. In March, it was announced that the Rams would be featured on HBO 's Hard Knocks. On March 30, California Lutheran University and the Rams reached an agreement that allowed the team to have regular - season training operations at CLU 's campus for the next two years. The Rams paid for two practice fields, paved parking, and modular buildings constructed on the northwestern corner of the campus.
On April 13, 2016, the Los Angeles Rams traded their 2016 first - round pick, two second - round picks, a third - round pick, and their 2017 first - round and third - round picks to the Tennessee Titans in exchange for the number one pick, alongside their fourth - round pick and a sixth - round pick. The Rams waited until after Lakers guard Kobe Bryant 's last game before announcing the blockbuster trade.
On April 28, 2016, the Rams selected quarterback Jared Goff from California, with the 1st overall pick in the 1st round, along with tight end Tyler Higbee and wide receiver Pharoh Cooper in the 4th round with the 110th and 117th picks, tight end Temarrick Hemingway, linebacker Josh Forrest, and wide receiver Mike Thomas in the 6th round with the 190th, 193th, and 206th picks. In June 2016, it was reported that the Rams had sold 63,000 season tickets, which was short of their goal of 70,000. Later on July 12, 2016, it was reported that they had sold 70,000 tickets, reaching their goal. In July 2016, the Rams signed a three - year agreement with UC Irvine to use the university 's facilities for training camp, with an option to extend it to two more years. On July 29, 2016, the Los Angeles Times reported that the Rams would host their first training - camp practice and "Rams Family Day '' on Saturday, August 6 at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, which was open to the public.
The Rams played their first game in the Los Angeles area since 1994, a 22 - year absence, with a preseason opener against the Dallas Cowboys at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum on August 13. The Rams defeated the Cowboys 28 -- 24 in front of a crowd of 89,140, a record attendance for a pre-season game.
On September 12, 2016, the Rams played their first regular season game since returning to Los Angeles, where they lost to the San Francisco 49ers 28 -- 0 at Levi 's Stadium. On September 18, in front of over 91,000 fans at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, The Rams played their first home game on September 18, 2016, defeating the Seattle Seahawks 9 - 3
On December 12, 2016, the team fired head coach Jeff Fisher after starting the season 4 − 9. The team announced later that day that John Fassel would be taking over as interim head coach. Fassel is the son of former NFL head coach Jim Fassel and has been the Rams special teams coach since the 2012 season.
On January 12, 2017 (the same day the Chargers moved to the Los Angeles area as the team did) the Rams hired Sean McVay for the teams head coaching vacancy. McVay has become the youngest head coach in NFL history. McVay was the offensive coordinator the Redskins, working under coach Jay Gruden. Quarterback Jared Goff had began to come into his own as a an elite quarterback under McVay and running back Todd Gurley had return to dominance. In 2017, the Rams would also having a winning season for the first time since the 2003 season.
* Between 1946 and 1994, the Los Angeles Rams Played a total of 679 Regular Season Games and 32 Playoff Games (711 Games)
* Between 1946 and 1994, the Los Angeles Rams had a total record of 364 - 297 (Regular), 12 - 20 (Postseason), and 376 - 317 (Total)
Former Los Angeles Rams in the Pro Football Hall of Fame include Jerome Bettis (36), Joe Namath (12), Ollie Matson (33), Andy Robustelli (84), Dick "Night Train '' Lane (81), and general manager Tex Schramm. GM and later NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle and coach Sid Gillman are also members of the Hall of Fame, but were elected on the basis of their performances with other teams or (in the case of Rozelle) NFL administration.
Numbers that have been retired by the Rams. This list includes players who have played most of their career in Los Angeles Only.
The Rams were the first NFL team to televise their home games; in a sponsorship arrangement with Admiral television, all home games of the 1950 NFL season were shown locally. The Rams also televised games in the early 1950s. The 1951 NFL Championship Game was the first championship game televised coast - to - coast (via the DuMont Network). During the team 's years in Los Angeles all games were broadcast on KMPC radio (710 AM); play - by - play announcers were Bob Kelley (who accompanied the team from Cleveland and worked until his death in 1966), Dick Enberg (1966 -- 77), Al Wisk (1978 -- 79), Bob Starr (1980 -- 89, 1993), Eddie Doucette (1990), Paul Olden (1991 -- 92), and Steve Physioc (1994). Analysts included Gil Stratton, Steve Bailey, Dave Niehaus (1968 -- 72), Don Drysdale (1973 -- 76), Dick Bass (1977 -- 86), Jack Youngblood (1987 -- 91), Jack Snow (1992 -- 94), and Deacon Jones (1994). Today, Pac - 12 Network broadcaster J.B. Long is the current play - by - play announcer with former running back Maurice Jones - Drew as the side analyst.
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what religious development in europe reflected enlightenment ideals | Age of Enlightenment - wikipedia
The Enlightenment (also known as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason; in French: le Siècle des Lumières, lit. ' "the Century of Lights '' ' in German: Aufklärung, "Enlightenment '', in Italian: L'Illuminismo, "Enlightenment '' and in Spanish: La Ilustración, "Enlightenment '') was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, "The Century of Philosophy ''.
The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on reason as the primary source of authority and legitimacy and came to advance ideals like liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional government and separation of church and state. In France, the central doctrines of the Enlightenment philosophers were individual liberty and religious tolerance, in opposition to an absolute monarchy and the fixed dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church. The Enlightenment was marked by an emphasis on the scientific method and reductionism, along with increased questioning of religious orthodoxy -- an attitude captured by the phrase Sapere aude, "Dare to know ''.
French historians traditionally place the Enlightenment between 1715 (the year that Louis XIV died) and 1789 (the beginning of the French Revolution). Some recent historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start of the scientific revolution. Les philosophes (French for "the philosophers '') of the period widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons, coffee houses and in printed books and pamphlets. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Church and paved the way for the political revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. A variety of 19th - century movements, including liberalism and neo-classicism, trace their intellectual heritage to the Enlightenment.
The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution. Earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Bacon, Descartes, Locke, and Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Beccaria, Diderot, Hume, Kant, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Adam Smith, and Voltaire. Some European rulers, including Catherine II of Russia, Joseph II of Austria and Frederick II of Prussia, tried to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance, which became known as enlightened absolutism. Benjamin Franklin visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of Independence (1776). One of his peers, James Madison, incorporated these ideals into the United States Constitution during its framing in 1787.
The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie (Encyclopaedia). Published between 1751 and 1772 in thirty - five volumes, it was compiled by Diderot, d'Alembert (until 1759) and a team of 150 scientists and philosophers. It helped spread the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe and beyond. Other landmark publications were Voltaire 's Dictionnaire philosophique (Philosophical Dictionary; 1764) and Letters on the English (1733); Rousseau 's Discourse on Inequality (1754) and The Social Contract (1762); Adam Smith 's The Wealth of Nations (1776); and Montesquieu 's The Spirit of the Laws (1748). The ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by the intellectual movement known as Romanticism.
René Descartes ' rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking. His attempt to construct the sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his method of doubt applied in philosophic areas leading to a dualistic doctrine of mind and matter. His skepticism was refined by John Locke 's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) and David Hume 's writings in the 1740s. His dualism was challenged by Spinoza 's uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his Tractatus (1670) and Ethics (1677).
These laid down two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: first, the moderate variety, following Descartes, Locke and Christian Wolff, which sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith, and second, the radical enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression and eradication of religious authority. The moderate variety tended to be deistic, whereas the radical tendency separated the basis of morality entirely from theology. Both lines of thought were eventually opposed by a conservative Counter-Enlightenment, which sought a return to faith.
In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philosophic movement was led by Voltaire and Jean - Jacques Rousseau, who argued for a society based upon reason rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil order based on natural law, and for science based on experiments and observation. The political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. While the Philosophes of the French Enlightenment were not revolutionaries and many were members of the nobility, their ideas played an important part in undermining the legitimacy of the Old Regime and shaping the French Revolution.
Francis Hutcheson, a moral philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words, "the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers ''. Much of what is incorporated in the scientific method (the nature of knowledge, evidence, experience and causation) and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a major figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy.
Immanuel Kant (1724 -- 1804) tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the public sphere through private and public reason. Kant 's work continued to shape German thought and indeed all of European philosophy, well into the 20th century. Mary Wollstonecraft was one of England 's earliest feminist philosophers. She argued for a society based on reason and that women as well as men should be treated as rational beings. She is best known for her work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1791).
Science played an important role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought. Scientific progress during the Enlightenment included the discovery of carbon dioxide (fixed air) by the chemist Joseph Black, the argument for deep time by the geologist James Hutton and the invention of the steam engine by James Watt. The experiments of Lavoisier were used to create the first modern chemical plants in Paris and the experiments of the Montgolfier Brothers enabled them to launch the first manned flight in a hot - air balloon on 21 November 1783 from the Château de la Muette, near the Bois de Boulogne.
Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. The study of science, under the heading of natural philosophy, was divided into physics and a conglomerate grouping of chemistry and natural history, which included anatomy, biology, geology, mineralogy and zoology. As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen universally: Rousseau criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier. Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and academies, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population. Philosophes introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the Encyclopédie and the popularization of Newtonianism by Voltaire and Émilie du Châtelet. Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in the history of science. However, the century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics and physics; the development of biological taxonomy; a new understanding of magnetism and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry.
Scientific academies and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge in contrast to the scholasticism of the university. During the Enlightenment, some societies created or retained links to universities, but contemporary sources distinguished universities from scientific societies by claiming that the university 's utility was in the transmission of knowledge while societies functioned to create knowledge. As the role of universities in institutionalized science began to diminish, learned societies became the cornerstone of organized science. Official scientific societies were chartered by the state in order to provide technical expertise. Most societies were granted permission to oversee their own publications, control the election of new members and the administration of the society. After 1700, a tremendous number of official academies and societies were founded in Europe and by 1789 there were over seventy official scientific societies. In reference to this growth, Bernard de Fontenelle coined the term "the Age of Academies '' to describe the 18th century.
The influence of science also began appearing more commonly in poetry and literature during the Enlightenment. Some poetry became infused with scientific metaphor and imagery, while other poems were written directly about scientific topics. Sir Richard Blackmore committed the Newtonian system to verse in Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books (1712). After Newton 's death in 1727, poems were composed in his honour for decades. James Thomson (1700 -- 1748) penned his "Poem to the Memory of Newton '', which mourned the loss of Newton, but also praised his science and legacy.
Some enligtenment philosopher as Thomas Hobbes had their own point of view of the type of government that ruled them
Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a "science of man '', which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement and Hume 's philosophical concepts that directly influenced James Madison (and thus the U.S. Constitution) and as popularised by Dugald Stewart, would be the basis of classical liberalism.
In 1776, Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations, often considered the first work on modern economics as it had an immediate impact on British economic policy that continues into the 21st century. It was immediately preceded and influenced by Anne - Robert - Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune drafts of Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth (Paris, 1766). Smith acknowledged indebtedness and possibly was the original English translator.
Cesare Beccaria, a jurist, criminologist, philosopher and politician and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece Of Crimes and Punishments (1764), later translated into 22 languages, which condemned torture and the death penalty and was a founding work in the field of penology and the Classical School of criminology by promoting criminal justice. Another prominent intellectual was Francesco Mario Pagano, who wrote important studies such as Saggi Politici (Political Essays, 1783), one of the major works of the Enlightenment in Naples; and Considerazioni sul processo criminale (Considerations on the criminal trial, 1787), which established him as an international authority on criminal law.
The Enlightenment has long been hailed as the foundation of modern Western political and intellectual culture. The Enlightenment brought political modernization to the West, in terms of introducing democratic values and institutions and the creation of modern, liberal democracies. This thesis has been widely accepted by Anglophone scholars and has been reinforced by the large - scale studies by Robert Darnton, Roy Porter and most recently by Jonathan Israel..
John Locke, one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, based his governance philosophy in social contract theory, a subject that permeated Enlightenment political thought. The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes ushered in this new debate with his work Leviathan in 1651. Hobbes also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between civil society and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative '' and based on the consent of the people; and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid.
Both Locke and Rousseau developed social contract theories in Two Treatises of Government and Discourse on Inequality, respectively. While quite different works, Locke, Hobbes and Rousseau agreed that a social contract, in which the government 's authority lies in the consent of the governed, is necessary for man to live in civil society. Locke defines the state of nature as a condition in which humans are rational and follow natural law, in which all men are born equal and with the right to life, liberty and property. However, when one citizen breaks the Law of Nature both the transgressor and the victim enter into a state of war, from which it is virtually impossible to break free. Therefore, Locke said that individuals enter into civil society to protect their natural rights via an "unbiased judge '' or common authority, such as courts, to appeal to. Contrastingly, Rousseau 's conception relies on the supposition that "civil man '' is corrupted, while "natural man '' has no want he can not fulfill himself. Natural man is only taken out of the state of nature when the inequality associated with private property is established. Rousseau said that people join into civil society via the social contract to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom. This is embodied in the sovereignty of the general will, the moral and collective legislative body constituted by citizens.
Locke is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty and Property '' and his belief that the natural right to property is derived from labor. Tutored by Locke, Anthony Ashley - Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury wrote in 1706: "There is a mighty Light which spreads its self over the world especially in those two free Nations of England and Holland; on whom the Affairs of Europe now turn ''. Locke 's theory of natural rights has influenced many political documents, including the United States Declaration of Independence and the French National Constituent Assembly 's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
The philosophes argued that the establishment of a contractual basis of rights would lead to the market mechanism and capitalism, the scientific method, religious tolerance and the organization of states into self - governing republics through democratic means. In this view, the tendency of the philosophes in particular to apply rationality to every problem is considered the essential change.
Though much of Enlightenment political thought was dominated by social contract theorists, both David Hume and Adam Ferguson criticized this camp. Hume 's essay Of the Original Contract argues that governments derived from consent are rarely seen and civil government is grounded in a ruler 's habitual authority and force. It is precisely because of the ruler 's authority over-and - against the subject, that the subject tacitly consents and Hume says that the subjects would "never imagine that their consent made him sovereign '', rather the authority did so. Similarly, Ferguson did not believe citizens built the state, rather polities grew out of social development. In his 1767 An Essay on the History of Civil Society, Ferguson uses the four stages of progress, a theory that was very popular in Scotland at the time, to explain how humans advance from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without "signing '' a social contract.
Both Rousseau and Locke 's social contract theories rest on the presupposition of natural rights, which are not a result of law or custom, but are things that all men have in pre-political societies and are therefore universal and inalienable. The most famous natural right formulation comes from John Locke in his Second Treatise, when he introduces the state of nature. For Locke, the law of nature is grounded on mutual security or the idea that one can not infringe on another 's natural rights, as every man is equal and has the same inalienable rights. These natural rights include perfect equality and freedom, as well as the right to preserve life and property. Locke also argued against slavery on the basis that enslaving yourself goes against the law of nature because you can not surrender your own rights, your freedom is absolute and no one can take it from you. Additionally, Locke argues that one person can not enslave another because it is morally reprehensible, although he introduces a caveat by saying that enslavement of a lawful captive in time of war would not go against one 's natural rights.
As a spillover of the Enlightenment, nonsecular beliefs expressed first by Quakers and then by Protestant evangelicals in Britain and the United States emerged. To these groups, slavery became "repugnant to our religion '' and a "crime in the sight of God. '' These ideas added to those expressed by Enlightenment thinkers, leading many in Britain to believe that slavery was "not only morally wrong and economically inefficient, but also politically unwise. '' As these notions gained more adherents, Britain was forced to end its participation in the slave trade.
The leaders of the Enlightenment were not especially democratic, as they more often look to absolute monarchs as the key to imposing reforms designed by the intellectuals. Voltaire despised democracy and said the absolute monarch must be enlightened and must act as dictated by reason and justice -- in other words, be a "philosopher - king ''.
In several nations, rulers welcomed leaders of the Enlightenment at court and asked them to help design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger states. These rulers are called "enlightened despots '' by historians. They included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Leopold II of Tuscany and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing many reforms that had little support so that revolts broke out and his regime became a comedy of errors and nearly all his programs were reversed. Senior ministers Pombal in Portugal and Johann Friedrich Struensee in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model constitution of 1791 expressed Enlightenment ideals, but was in effect for only one year before the nation was partitioned among its neighbors. More enduring were the cultural achievements, which created a nationalist spirit in Poland.
Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, saw himself as a leader of the Enlightenment and patronized philosophers and scientists at his court in Berlin. Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government, was eager to accept Frederick 's invitation to live at his palace. Frederick explained: "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit ''.
The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the French Revolution of 1789. One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the "consent of the governed '' philosophy as delineated by Locke in Two Treatises of Government (1689) represented a paradigm shift from the old governance paradigm under feudalism known as the "divine right of kings ''. In this view, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused by the fact that this governance paradigm shift often could not be resolved peacefully and therefore violent revolution was the result. Clearly a governance philosophy where the king was never wrong was in direct conflict with one whereby citizens by natural law had to consent to the acts and rulings of their government.
Alexis de Tocqueville proposed the French Revolution as the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment. These men of letters constituted a sort of "substitute aristocracy that was both all - powerful and without real power ''. This illusory power came from the rise of "public opinion '', born when absolutist centralization removed the nobility and the bourgeoisie from the political sphere. The "literary politics '' that resulted promoted a discourse of equality and was hence in fundamental opposition to the monarchical regime. De Tocqueville "clearly designates... the cultural effects of transformation in the forms of the exercise of power ''.
Enlightenment era religious commentary was a response to the preceding century of religious conflict in Europe, especially the Thirty Years ' War. Theologians of the Enlightenment wanted to reform their faith to its generally non-confrontational roots and to limit the capacity for religious controversy to spill over into politics and warfare while still maintaining a true faith in God. For moderate Christians, this meant a return to simple Scripture. John Locke abandoned the corpus of theological commentary in favor of an "unprejudiced examination '' of the Word of God alone. He determined the essence of Christianity to be a belief in Christ the redeemer and recommended avoiding more detailed debate. In the Jefferson Bible, Thomas Jefferson went further and dropped any passages dealing with miracles, visitations of angels and the resurrection of Jesus after his death, as he tried to extract the practical Christian moral code of the New Testament.
Enlightenment scholars sought to curtail the political power of organized religion and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war. Spinoza determined to remove politics from contemporary and historical theology (e.g., disregarding Judaic law). Moses Mendelssohn advised affording no political weight to any organized religion, but instead recommended that each person follow what they found most convincing. They believed a good religion based in instinctive morals and a belief in God should not theoretically need force to maintain order in its believers, and both Mendelssohn and Spinoza judged religion on its moral fruits, not the logic of its theology.
A number of novel ideas about religion developed with the Enlightenment, including deism and talk of atheism. According to Thomas Paine, deism is the simple belief in God the Creator, with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source. Instead, the deist relies solely on personal reason to guide his creed, which was eminently agreeable to many thinkers of the time. Atheism was much discussed, but there were few proponents. Wilson and Reill note: "In fact, very few enlightened intellectuals, even when they were vocal critics of Christianity, were true atheists. Rather, they were critics of orthodox belief, wedded rather to skepticism, deism, vitalism, or perhaps pantheism ''. Some followed Pierre Bayle and argued that atheists could indeed be moral men. Many others like Voltaire held that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined. That is, since atheists gave themselves to no Supreme Authority and no law and had no fear of eternal consequences, they were far more likely to disrupt society. Bayle (1647 -- 1706) observed that, in his day, "prudent persons will always maintain an appearance of (religion), '' and he believed that even atheists could hold concepts of honor and go beyond their own self - interest to create and interact in society. Locke said that if there were no God and no divine law, the result would be moral anarchy: every individual "could have no law but his own will, no end but himself. He would be a god to himself, and the satisfaction of his own will the sole measure and end of all his actions. ''
The "Radical Enlightenment '' promoted the concept of separating church and state, an idea that is often credited to English philosopher John Locke (1632 -- 1704). According to his principle of the social contract, Locke said that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience, as this was something rational people could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience, which he said must therefore remain protected from any government authority.
These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with the social contract, became particularly influential in the American colonies and the drafting of the United States Constitution. Thomas Jefferson called for a "wall of separation between church and state '' at the federal level. He previously had supported successful efforts to disestablish the Church of England in Virginia and authored the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. Jefferson 's political ideals were greatly influenced by the writings of John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton, whom he considered the three greatest men that ever lived.
The Enlightenment took hold in most European countries, often with a specific local emphasis. For example, in France it became associated with anti-government and anti-Church radicalism, while in Germany it reached deep into the middle classes, where it expressed a spiritualistic and nationalistic tone without threatening governments or established churches. Government responses varied widely. In France, the government was hostile, and the philosophes fought against its censorship, sometimes being imprisoned or hounded into exile. The British government, for the most part, ignored the Enlightenment 's leaders in England and Scotland, although it did give Isaac Newton a knighthood and a very lucrative government office.
The very existence of an English Enlightenment has been hotly debated by scholars. The majority of textbooks on British history make little or no mention of an English Enlightenment. Some surveys of the entire Enlightenment include England and others ignore it, although they do include coverage of such major intellectuals as Joseph Addison, Edward Gibbon, John Locke, Isaac Newton, Alexander Pope, Joshua Reynolds and Jonathan Swift. Roy Porter argues that the reasons for this neglect were the assumptions that the movement was primarily French - inspired, that it was largely a-religious or anti-clerical, and that it stood in outspoken defiance to the established order. Porter admits that, after the 1720s, England could claim few thinkers to equal Diderot, Voltaire or Rousseau. Indeed, its leading intellectuals such as Edward Gibbon, Edmund Burke and Samuel Johnson were all quite conservative and supportive of the standing order. Porter says the reason was that Enlightenment had come early to England and had succeeded so that the culture had accepted political liberalism, philosophical empiricism, and religious toleration of the sort that intellectuals on the continent had to fight for against powerful odds. Furthermore, England rejected the collectivism of the continent and emphasized the improvement of individuals as the main goal of enlightenment.
In the Scottish Enlightenment, Scotland 's major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions such as universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums and masonic lodges. The Scottish network was "predominantly liberal Calvinist, Newtonian, and ' design ' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment ''. In France, Voltaire said that "we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization ''. The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of William Cullen, physician and chemist; James Anderson, an agronomist; Joseph Black, physicist and chemist; and James Hutton, the first modern geologist.
Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics. The cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment ran in both directions across the Atlantic. Thinkers such as Paine, Locke and Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of natural freedom. The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu. As deists, they were influenced by ideas of John Toland (1670 -- 1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656 -- 1733). During the Enlightenment there was a great emphasis upon liberty, republicanism and religious tolerance. There was no respect for monarchy or inherited political power. Deists reconciled science and religion by rejecting prophecies, miracles and Biblical theology. Leading deists included Thomas Paine in The Age of Reason and by Thomas Jefferson in his short Jefferson Bible -- from which all supernatural aspects were removed.
Prussia took the lead among the German states in sponsoring the political reforms that Enlightenment thinkers urged absolute rulers to adopt. There were important movements as well in the smaller states of Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover and the Palatinate. In each case, Enlightenment values became accepted and led to significant political and administrative reforms that laid the groundwork for the creation of modern states. The princes of Saxony, for example, carried out an impressive series of fundamental fiscal, administrative, judicial, educational, cultural and general economic reforms. The reforms were aided by the country 's strong urban structure and influential commercial groups and modernized pre-1789 Saxony along the lines of classic Enlightenment principles.
Before 1750, the German upper classes looked to France for intellectual, cultural and architectural leadership, as French was the language of high society. By the mid-18th century, the Aufklärung (The Enlightenment) had transformed German high culture in music, philosophy, science and literature. Christian Wolff (1679 -- 1754) was the pioneer as a writer who expounded the Enlightenment to German readers and legitimized German as a philosophic language.
Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744 -- 1803) broke new ground in philosophy and poetry, as a leader of the Sturm und Drang movement of proto - Romanticism. Weimar Classicism (Weimarer Klassik) was a cultural and literary movement based in Weimar that sought to establish a new humanism by synthesizing Romantic, classical and Enlightenment ideas. The movement (from 1772 until 1805) involved Herder as well as polymath Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749 -- 1832) and Friedrich Schiller (1759 -- 1805), a poet and historian. Herder argued that every folk had its own particular identity, which was expressed in its language and culture. This legitimized the promotion of German language and culture and helped shape the development of German nationalism. Schiller 's plays expressed the restless spirit of his generation, depicting the hero 's struggle against social pressures and the force of destiny.
German music, sponsored by the upper classes, came of age under composers Johann Sebastian Bach (1685 -- 1750), Joseph Haydn (1732 -- 1809) and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756 -- 1791).
In remote Königsberg, philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724 -- 1804) tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority. Kant 's work contained basic tensions that would continue to shape German thought -- and indeed all of European philosophy -- well into the 20th century.
The German Enlightenment won the support of princes, aristocrats and the middle classes and it permanently reshaped the culture. However, there was a conservatism among the elites that warned against going too far.
In the 1780s, Lutheran ministers Johann Heinrich Schulz and Karl Wilhelm Brumbey got in trouble with their preaching as they were attacked and ridiculed by Immanuel Kant, Wilhelm Abraham Teller and others. In 1788, Prussia issued an "Edict on Religion '' that forbade preaching any sermon that undermined popular belief in the Holy Trinity and the Bible. The goal was to avoid skepticism, deism and theological disputes that might impinge on domestic tranquility. Men who doubted the value of Enlightenment favoured the measure, but so too did many supporters. German universities had created a closed elite that could debate controversial issues among themselves, but spreading them to the public was seen as too risky. This intellectual elite was favoured by the state, but that might be reversed if the process of the Enlightenment proved politically or socially destabilizing.
The Enlightenment played a distinctive, if small, role in the history of Italy. Although most of Italy was controlled by conservative Habsburgs or the pope, Tuscany had some opportunities for reform. Leopold II of Tuscany abolished the death penalty in Tuscany and reduced censorship. From Naples, Antonio Genovesi (1713 -- 69) influenced a generation of southern Italian intellectuals and university students. His textbook "Diceosina, o Sia della Filosofia del Giusto e dell'Onesto '' (1766) was a controversial attempt to mediate between the history of moral philosophy on the one hand and the specific problems encountered by 18th - century commercial society on the other. It contained the greater part of Genovesi 's political, philosophical and economic thought -- guidebook for Neapolitan economic and social development. Science flourished as Alessandro Volta and Luigi Galvani made break - through discoveries in electricity. Pietro Verri was a leading economist in Lombardy. Historian Joseph Schumpeter states he was "the most important pre-Smithian authority on Cheapness - and - Plenty ''. The most influential scholar on the Italian Enlightenment has been Franco Venturi.
In Russia, the government began to actively encourage the proliferation of arts and sciences in the mid-18th century. This era produced the first Russian university, library, theatre, public museum and independent press. Like other enlightened despots, Catherine the Great played a key role in fostering the arts, sciences and education. She used her own interpretation of Enlightenment ideals, assisted by notable international experts such as Voltaire (by correspondence) and in residence world class scientists such as Leonhard Euler and Peter Simon Pallas. The national Enlightenment differed from its Western European counterpart in that it promoted further modernization of all aspects of Russian life and was concerned with attacking the institution of serfdom in Russia. The Russian enlightenment centered on the individual instead of societal enlightenment and encouraged the living of an enlightened life. A powerful element was prosveshchenie which combined religious piety, erudition and commitment to the spread of learning. However, it lacked the skeptical and critical spirit of the European Enlightenment.
Enlightenment ideas (oświecenie) emerged late in Poland, as the Polish middle class was weaker and szlachta (nobility) culture (Sarmatism) together with the Polish - Lithuanian Commonwealth political system (Golden Liberty) were in deep crisis. The political system was built on republicanism, but was unable to defend itself against powerful neighbors Russia, Prussia and Austria as they repeatedly sliced off regions until nothing was left of independent Poland. The period of Polish Enlightenment began in the 1730s -- 1740s and especially in theatre and the arts peaked in the reign of King Stanisław August Poniatowski (second half of the 18th century). Warsaw was a main centre after 1750, with an expansion of schools and educational institutions and the arts patronage held at the Royal Castle. Leaders promoted tolerance and more education. They included King Stanislaw II Poniatowski and reformers Piotr Switkowski, Antoni Poplawski, Josef Niemcewicz and Jósef Pawlinkowski, as well as Baudouin de Cortenay, a Polonized dramatist. Opponents included Florian Jaroszewicz, Gracjan Piotrowski, Karol Wyrwicz and Wojciech Skarszewski.
The movement went into decline with the Third Partition of Poland (1795) -- a national tragedy inspiring a short period of sentimental writing -- and ended in 1822, replaced by Romanticism.
The Enlightenment has always been contested territory. According to Keith Thomas, its supporters "hail it as the source of everything that is progressive about the modern world. For them, it stands for freedom of thought, rational inquiry, critical thinking, religious tolerance, political liberty, scientific achievement, the pursuit of happiness, and hope for the future. '' Thomas adds that its detractors accuse it of shallow rationalism, naïve optimism, unrealistic universalism and moral darkness. From the start, conservative and clerical defenders of traditional religion attacked materialism and skepticism as evil forces that encouraged immorality. By 1794, they pointed to the Terror during the French Revolution as confirmation of their predictions. As the Enlightenment was ending, Romantic philosophers argued that excessive dependence on reason was a mistake perpetuated by the Enlightenment because it disregarded the bonds of history, myth, faith, and tradition that were necessary to hold society together.
The term "Enlightenment '' emerged in English in the later part of the 19th century, with particular reference to French philosophy, as the equivalent of the French term Lumières (used first by Dubos in 1733 and already well established by 1751). From Immanuel Kant 's 1784 essay "Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung? '' ("Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment? ''), the German term became Aufklärung (aufklären = to illuminate; sich aufklären = to clear up). However, scholars have never agreed on a definition of the Enlightenment, or on its chronological or geographical extent. Terms like les Lumières (French), illuminismo (Italian), ilustración (Spanish) and Aufklärung (German) referred to partly overlapping movements. Not until the late nineteenth century did English scholars agree they were talking about "the Enlightenment ''.
Enlightenment historiography began in the period itself, from what Enlightenment figures said about their work. A dominant element was the intellectual angle they took. D'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse of l'Encyclopédie provides a history of the Enlightenment which comprises a chronological list of developments in the realm of knowledge -- of which the Encyclopédie forms the pinnacle. In 1783, Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn referred to Enlightenment as a process by which man was educated in the use of reason. Immanuel Kant called Enlightenment "man 's release from his self - incurred tutelage '', tutelage being "man 's inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another ''. "For Kant, Enlightenment was mankind 's final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance ''. The German scholar Ernst Cassirer called the Enlightenment "a part and a special phase of that whole intellectual development through which modern philosophic thought gained its characteristic self - confidence and self - consciousness ''. According to historian Roy Porter, the liberation of the human mind from a dogmatic state of ignorance is the epitome of what the Age of Enlightenment was trying to capture.
Bertrand Russell saw the Enlightenment as a phase in a progressive development which began in antiquity and that reason and challenges to the established order were constant ideals throughout that time. Russell said that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of the Protestant reaction against the Catholic counter-reformation and that philosophical views such as affinity for democracy against monarchy originated among 16th - century Protestants to justify their desire to break away from the Catholic Church. Though many of these philosophical ideals were picked up by Catholics, Russell argues that by the 18th century the Enlightenment was the principal manifestation of the schism that began with Martin Luther.
Jonathan Israel rejects the attempts of postmodern and Marxian historians to understand the revolutionary ideas of the period purely as by - products of social and economic transformations. He instead focuses on the history of ideas in the period from 1650 to the end of the 18th century and claims that it was the ideas themselves that caused the change that eventually led to the revolutions of the latter half of the 18th century and the early 19th century. Israel argues that until the 1650s Western civilization "was based on a largely shared core of faith, tradition and authority ''.
There is little consensus on the precise beginning of the Age of Enlightenment, though the beginning of the 18th century (1701) or the middle of the 17th century (1650) are often used as epochs. French historians usually place the period, called the Siècle des Lumières ("Century of Enlightenments ''), between 1715 and 1789, from the beginning of the reign of Louis XV until the French Revolution. If taken back to the mid-17th century, the Enlightenment would trace its origins to Descartes ' Discourse on the Method, published in 1637. In France, many cited the publication of Isaac Newton 's Principia Mathematica in 1687. It is argued by several historians and philosophers that the beginning of the Enlightenment is when Descartes shifted the epistemological basis from external authority to internal certainty by his cogito ergo sum published in 1637. As to its end, most scholars use the last years of the century, often choosing the French Revolution of 1789 or the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars (1804 -- 1815) as a convenient point in time with which to date the end of the Enlightenment.
In the 1944 book Dialectic of Enlightenment, Frankfurt School philosophers Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno argued:
Enlightenment, understood in the widest sense as the advance of thought, has always aimed at liberating human beings from fear and installing them as masters. Yet the wholly enlightened earth radiates under the sign of disaster triumphant.
In the 1970s, study of the Enlightenment expanded to include the ways Enlightenment ideas spread to European colonies and how they interacted with indigenous cultures and how the Enlightenment took place in formerly unstudied areas such as Italy, Greece, the Balkans, Poland, Hungary and Russia.
Intellectuals such as Robert Darnton and Jürgen Habermas have focused on the social conditions of the Enlightenment. Habermas described the creation of the "bourgeois public sphere '' in 18th - century Europe, containing the new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange. Habermas said that the public sphere was bourgeois, egalitarian, rational and independent from the state, making it the ideal venue for intellectuals to critically examine contemporary politics and society, away from the interference of established authority. While the public sphere is generally an integral component of the social study of the Enlightenment, other historians have questioned whether the public sphere had these characteristics.
In contrast to the intellectual historiographical approach of the Enlightenment, which examines the various currents or discourses of intellectual thought within the European context during the 17th and 18th centuries, the cultural (or social) approach examines the changes that occurred in European society and culture. This approach studies the process of changing sociabilities and cultural practices during the Enlightenment.
One of the primary elements of the culture of the Enlightenment was the rise of the public sphere, a "realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture '', in the late 17th century and 18th century. Elements of the public sphere included that it was egalitarian, that it discussed the domain of "common concern, '' and that argument was founded on reason. Habermas uses the term "common concern '' to describe those areas of political / social knowledge and discussion that were previously the exclusive territory of the state and religious authorities, now open to critical examination by the public sphere. The values of this bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to be supreme, considering everything to be open to criticism (the public sphere is critical), and the opposition of secrecy of all sorts.
The creation of the public sphere has been associated with two long - term historical trends: the rise of the modern nation state and the rise of capitalism. The modern nation state, in its consolidation of public power, created by counterpoint a private realm of society independent of the state, which allowed for the public sphere. Capitalism also increased society 's autonomy and self - awareness, as well as an increasing need for the exchange of information. As the nascent public sphere expanded, it embraced a large variety of institutions and the most commonly cited were coffee houses and cafés, salons and the literary public sphere, figuratively localized in the Republic of Letters. In France, the creation of the public sphere was helped by the aristocracy 's move from the King 's palace at Versailles to Paris in about 1720, since their rich spending stimulated the trade in luxuries and artistic creations, especially fine paintings.
The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the Industrial Revolution: "Economic expansion, increasing urbanization, rising population and improving communications in comparison to the stagnation of the previous century ''. Rising efficiency in production techniques and communication lowered the prices of consumer goods and increased the amount and variety of goods available to consumers (including the literature essential to the public sphere). Meanwhile, the colonial experience (most European states had colonial empires in the 18th century) began to expose European society to extremely heterogeneous cultures, leading to the breaking down of "barriers between cultural systems, religious divides, gender differences and geographical areas ''.
The word "public '' implies the highest level of inclusivity -- the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their conception of the "public '' with that of the people: Condorcet contrasted "opinion '' with populace, Marmontel "the opinion of men of letters '' with "the opinion of the multitude '' and d'Alembert the "truly enlightened public '' with "the blind and noisy multitude ''. Additionally, most institutions of the public sphere excluded both women and the lower classes. Cross-class influences occurred through noble and lower class participation in areas such as the coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges.
Because of the focus on reason over superstition, the Enlightenment cultivated the arts. Emphasis on learning, art and music became more widespread, especially with the growing middle class. Areas of study such as literature, philosophy, science, and the fine arts increasingly explored subject matter to which the general public, in addition to the previously more segregated professionals and patrons, could relate.
As musicians depended more and more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers ' and composers ' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience. Handel, for example, epitomized this with his highly public musical activities in London. He gained considerable fame there with performances of his operas and oratorios. The music of Haydn and Mozart, with their Viennese Classical styles, are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals.
The desire to explore, record and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on music publications. Jean - Jacques Rousseau 's Dictionnaire de musique (published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris) was a leading text in the late 18th century. This widely available dictionary gave short definitions of words like genius and taste and was clearly influenced by the Enlightenment movement. Another text influenced by Enlightenment values was Charles Burney 's A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period (1776), which was a historical survey and an attempt to rationalize elements in music systematically over time. Recently, musicologists have shown renewed interest in the ideas and consequences of the Enlightenment. For example, Rose Rosengard Subotnik 's Deconstructive Variations (subtitled Music and Reason in Western Society) compares Mozart 's Die Zauberflöte (1791) using the Enlightenment and Romantic perspectives and concludes that the work is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment ''.
As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Women were already engaged in professional roles as singers and increased their presence in the amateur performers ' scene, especially with keyboard music. Music publishers begin to print music that amateurs could understand and play. The majority of the works that were published were for keyboard, voice and keyboard and chamber ensemble. After these initial genres were popularized, from the mid-century on, amateur groups sang choral music, which then became a new trend for publishers to capitalize on. The increasing study of the fine arts, as well as access to amateur - friendly published works, led to more people becoming interested in reading and discussing music. Music magazines, reviews and critical works which suited amateurs as well as connoisseurs began to surface.
The philosophes spent a great deal of energy disseminating their ideas among educated men and women in cosmopolitan cities. They used many venues, some of them quite new.
The term "Republic of Letters '' was coined in 1664 by Pierre Bayle in his journal Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres. Towards the end of the 18th century, the editor of Histoire de la République des Lettres en France, a literary survey, described the Republic of Letters as being:
In the midst of all the governments that decide the fate of men; in the bosom of so many states, the majority of them despotic... there exists a certain realm which holds sway only over the mind... that we honour with the name Republic, because it preserves a measure of independence, and because it is almost its essence to be free. It is the realm of talent and of thought.
The Republic of Letters was the sum of a number of Enlightenment ideals: an egalitarian realm governed by knowledge that could act across political boundaries and rival state power. It was a forum that supported "free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation ''. Immanuel Kant considered written communication essential to his conception of the public sphere; once everyone was a part of the "reading public '', then society could be said to be enlightened. The people who participated in the Republic of Letters, such as Diderot and Voltaire, are frequently known today as important Enlightenment figures. Indeed, the men who wrote Diderot 's Encyclopédie arguably formed a microcosm of the larger "republic ''.
Many women played an essential part in the French Enlightenment, due to the role they played as salonnières in Parisian salons, as the contrast to the male philosophes. The salon was the principal social institution of the republic and "became the civil working spaces of the project of Enlightenment ''. Women, as salonnières, were "the legitimate governors of (the) potentially unruly discourse '' that took place within. While women were marginalized in the public culture of the Old Regime, the French Revolution destroyed the old cultural and economic restraints of patronage and corporatism (guilds), opening French society to female participation, particularly in the literary sphere.
In France, the established men of letters (gens de lettres) had fused with the elites (les grands) of French society by the mid-18th century. This led to the creation of an oppositional literary sphere, Grub Street, the domain of a "multitude of versifiers and would - be authors ''. These men came to London to become authors, only to discover that the literary market simply could not support large numbers of writers, who in any case were very poorly remunerated by the publishing - bookselling guilds.
The writers of Grub Street, the Grub Street Hacks, were left feeling bitter about the relative success of the men of letters and found an outlet for their literature which was typified by the libelle. Written mostly in the form of pamphlets, the libelles "slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself ''. Le Gazetier cuirassé by Charles Théveneau de Morande was a prototype of the genre. It was Grub Street literature that was most read by the public during the Enlightenment. According to Darnton, more importantly the Grub Street hacks inherited the "revolutionary spirit '' once displayed by the philosophes and paved the way for the French Revolution by desacralizing figures of political, moral and religious authority in France.
The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social '' Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices, encouraging the spread of books, pamphlets, newspapers and journals -- "media of the transmission of ideas and attitudes ''. Commercial development likewise increased the demand for information, along with rising populations and increased urbanisation. However, demand for reading material extended outside of the realm of the commercial and outside the realm of the upper and middle classes, as evidenced by the Bibliothèque Bleue. Literacy rates are difficult to gauge, but in France the rates doubled over the course of the 18th century. Reflecting the decreasing influence of religion, the number of books about science and art published in Paris doubled from 1720 to 1780, while the number of books about religion dropped to just one - tenth of the total.
Reading underwent serious changes in the 18th century. In particular, Rolf Engelsing has argued for the existence of a Reading Revolution. Until 1750, reading was done intensively: people tended to own a small number of books and read them repeatedly, often to small audience. After 1750, people began to read "extensively '', finding as many books as they could, increasingly reading them alone. This is supported by increasing literacy rates, particularly among women.
The vast majority of the reading public could not afford to own a private library and while most of the state - run "universal libraries '' set up in the 17th and 18th centuries were open to the public, they were not the only sources of reading material. On one end of the spectrum was the Bibliothèque Bleue, a collection of cheaply produced books published in Troyes, France. Intended for a largely rural and semi-literate audience these books included almanacs, retellings of medieval romances and condensed versions of popular novels, among other things. While some historians have argued against the Enlightenment 's penetration into the lower classes, the Bibliothèque Bleue represents at least a desire to participate in Enlightenment sociability. Moving up the classes, a variety of institutions offered readers access to material without needing to buy anything. Libraries that lent out their material for a small price started to appear and occasionally bookstores would offer a small lending library to their patrons. Coffee houses commonly offered books, journals and sometimes even popular novels to their customers. The Tatler and The Spectator, two influential periodicals sold from 1709 to 1714, were closely associated with coffee house culture in London, being both read and produced in various establishments in the city. This is an example of the triple or even quadruple function of the coffee house: reading material was often obtained, read, discussed and even produced on the premises.
It is extremely difficult to determine what people actually read during the Enlightenment. For example, examining the catalogs of private libraries gives an image skewed in favor of the classes wealthy enough to afford libraries and also ignores censured works unlikely to be publicly acknowledged. For this reason, a study of publishing would be much more fruitful for discerning reading habits.
Across continental Europe, but in France especially, booksellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness. For example, the Encyclopédie narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by Malesherbes, the man in charge of the French censure. Indeed, many publishing companies were conveniently located outside France so as to avoid overzealous French censors. They would smuggle their merchandise across the border, where it would then be transported to clandestine booksellers or small - time peddlers. The records of clandestine booksellers may give a better representation of what literate Frenchmen might have truly read, since their clandestine nature provided a less restrictive product choice. In one case, political books were the most popular category, primarily libels and pamphlets. Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about criminals and political corruption than they were in political theory itself. The second most popular category, "general works '' (those books "that did not have a dominant motif and that contained something to offend almost everyone in authority '') demonstrated a high demand for generally low - brow subversive literature. However, these works never became part of literary canon and are largely forgotten today as a result.
A healthy, and legal, publishing industry existed throughout Europe, although established publishers and book sellers occasionally ran afoul of the law. For example, the Encyclopédie condemned not only by the King, but also by Clement XII, nevertheless found its way into print with the help of the aforementioned Malesherbes and creative use of French censorship law. However, many works were sold without running into any legal trouble at all. Borrowing records from libraries in England, Germany and North America indicate that more than 70 percent of books borrowed were novels. Less than 1 percent of the books were of a religious nature, indicating the general trend of declining religiosity.
A genre that greatly rose in importance was that of scientific literature. Natural history in particular became increasingly popular among the upper classes. Works of natural history include René - Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur 's Histoire naturelle des insectes and Jacques Gautier d'Agoty 's La Myologie complète, ou description de tous les muscles du corps humain (1746). Outside ancien régime France, natural history was an important part of medicine and industry, encompassing the fields of botany, zoology, meteorology, hydrology and mineralogy. Students in Enlightenment universities and academies were taught these subjects to prepare them for careers as diverse as medicine and theology. As shown by Matthew Daniel Eddy, natural history in this context was a very middle class pursuit and operated as a fertile trading zone for the interdisciplinary exchange of diverse scientific ideas.
The target audience of natural history was French polite society, evidenced more by the specific discourse of the genre than by the generally high prices of its works. Naturalists catered to polite society 's desire for erudition -- many texts had an explicit instructive purpose. However, natural history was often a political affair. As Emma Spary writes, the classifications used by naturalists "slipped between the natural world and the social... to establish not only the expertise of the naturalists over the natural, but also the dominance of the natural over the social ''. The idea of taste (le goût) was a social indicator: to truly be able to categorize nature, one had to have the proper taste, an ability of discretion shared by all members of polite society. In this way natural history spread many of the scientific developments of the time, but also provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class. From this basis, naturalists could then develop their own social ideals based on their scientific works.
The first scientific and literary journals were established during the Enlightenment. The first journal, the Parisian Journal des Sçavans, appeared in 1665. However, it was not until 1682 that periodicals began to be more widely produced. French and Latin were the dominant languages of publication, but there was also a steady demand for material in German and Dutch. There was generally low demand for English publications on the Continent, which was echoed by England 's similar lack of desire for French works. Languages commanding less of an international market -- such as Danish, Spanish and Portuguese -- found journal success more difficult and more often than not a more international language was used instead. French slowly took over Latin 's status as the lingua franca of learned circles. This in turn gave precedence to the publishing industry in Holland, where the vast majority of these French language periodicals were produced.
Jonathan Israel called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture. They shifted the attention of the "cultivated public '' away from established authorities to novelty and innovation and instead promoted the "enlightened '' ideals of toleration and intellectual objectivity. Being a source of knowledge derived from science and reason, they were an implicit critique of existing notions of universal truth monopolized by monarchies, parliaments and religious authorities. They also advanced Christian enlightenment that upheld "the legitimacy of God - ordained authority '' -- the Bible -- in which there had to be agreement between the biblical and natural theories.
Although the existence of dictionaries and encyclopedias spanned into ancient times, the texts changed from simply defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words in 18th - century encyclopedic dictionaries. The works were part of an Enlightenment movement to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite. As the 18th century progressed, the content of encyclopedias also changed according to readers ' tastes. Volumes tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology.
Along with secular matters, readers also favoured an alphabetical ordering scheme over cumbersome works arranged along thematic lines. Commenting on alphabetization, the historian Charles Porset has said that "as the zero degree of taxonomy, alphabetical order authorizes all reading strategies; in this respect it could be considered an emblem of the Enlightenment ''. For Porset, the avoidance of thematic and hierarchical systems thus allows free interpretation of the works and becomes an example of egalitarianism. Encyclopedias and dictionaries also became more popular during the Age of Enlightenment as the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply. In the later half of the 18th century, the number of dictionaries and encyclopedias published by decade increased from 63 between 1760 and 1769 to approximately 148 in the decade proceeding the French Revolution (1780 -- 1789). Along with growth in numbers, dictionaries and encyclopedias also grew in length, often having multiple print runs that sometimes included in supplemented editions.
The first technical dictionary was drafted by John Harris and entitled Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. Harris ' book avoided theological and biographical entries and instead it concentrated on science and technology. Published in 1704, the Lexicon technicum was the first book to be written in English that took a methodical approach to describing mathematics and commercial arithmetic along with the physical sciences and navigation. Other technical dictionaries followed Harris ' model, including Ephraim Chambers ' Cyclopaedia (1728), which included five editions and was a substantially larger work than Harris '. The folio edition of the work even included foldout engravings. The Cyclopaedia emphasized Newtonian theories, Lockean philosophy and contained thorough examinations of technologies, such as engraving, brewing and dyeing.
In Germany, practical reference works intended for the uneducated majority became popular in the 18th century. The Marperger Curieuses Natur -, Kunst -, Berg -, Gewerkund Handlungs - Lexicon (1712) explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education. Jablonksi Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) was better known than the Handlungs - Lexicon and underscored technical subjects rather than scientific theory. For example, over five columns of text were dedicated to wine while geometry and logic were allocated only twenty - two and seventeen lines, respectively. The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1771) was modelled along the same lines as the German lexicons.
However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the age of Enlightenment were universal encyclopedias rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work. The most well - known of these works is Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert 's Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. The work, which began publication in 1751, was composed of thirty - five volumes and over 71 000 separate entries. A great number of the entries were dedicated to describing the sciences and crafts in detail and provided intellectuals across Europe with a high - quality survey of human knowledge. In d'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot, the work 's goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences is outlined:
As an Encyclopédie, it is to set forth as well as possible the order and connection of the parts of human knowledge. As a Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades, it is to contain the general principles that form the basis of each science and each art, liberal or mechanical, and the most essential facts that make up the body and substance of each.
The massive work was arranged according to a "tree of knowledge ''. The tree reflected the marked division between the arts and sciences, which was largely a result of the rise of empiricism. Both areas of knowledge were united by philosophy, or the trunk of the tree of knowledge. The Enlightenment 's desacrilization of religion was pronounced in the tree 's design, particularly where theology accounted for a peripheral branch, with black magic as a close neighbour. As the Encyclopédie gained popularity, it was published in quarto and octavo editions after 1777. The quarto and octavo editions were much less expensive than previous editions, making the Encyclopédie more accessible to the non-elite. Robert Darnton estimates that there were approximately 25 000 copies of the Encyclopédie in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution. The extensive, yet affordable encyclopedia came to represent the transmission of Enlightenment and scientific education to an expanding audience.
One of the most important developments that the Enlightenment era brought to the discipline of science was its popularization. An increasingly literate population seeking knowledge and education in both the arts and the sciences drove the expansion of print culture and the dissemination of scientific learning. The new literate population was due to a high rise in the availability of food. This enabled many people to rise out of poverty, and instead of paying more for food, they had money for education. Popularization was generally part of an overarching Enlightenment ideal that endeavoured "to make information available to the greatest number of people ''. As public interest in natural philosophy grew during the 18th century, public lecture courses and the publication of popular texts opened up new roads to money and fame for amateurs and scientists who remained on the periphery of universities and academies. More formal works included explanations of scientific theories for individuals lacking the educational background to comprehend the original scientific text. Sir Isaac Newton 's celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education in the classics until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze the text in the vernacular.
The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular and with the entertainment of readers in mind, was Bernard de Fontenelle 's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686). The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works. These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles Leadbetter 's Astronomy (1727) was advertised as "a Work entirely New '' that would include "short and easie (sic) Rules and Astronomical Tables ''. The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the Principia was Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, published by Voltaire in 1738. Émilie du Châtelet 's translation of the Principia, published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton 's theories beyond scientific academies and the university. Writing for a growing female audience, Francesco Algarotti published Il Newtonianism per le dame, which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by Elizabeth Carter. A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by Henry Pemberton. His A View of Sir Isaac Newton 's Philosophy was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class. During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular scientific works themselves. Sarah Trimmer wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782), which was published for many years after in eleven editions.
Most work on the Enlightenment emphasizes the ideals discussed by intellectuals, rather than the actual state of education at the time. Leading educational theorists like England 's John Locke and Switzerland 's Jean Jacques Rousseau both emphasized the importance of shaping young minds early. By the late Enlightenment, there was a rising demand for a more universal approach to education, particularly after the American and French Revolutions.
The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries was associationism, the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. In addition to being conducive to Enlightenment ideologies of liberty, self - determination and personal responsibility, it offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society. Children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphic methods that originated during the Renaissance.
Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on Britain 's North American colonies and later the American Republic. Within the natural sciences, Edinburgh 's medical school also led the way in chemistry, anatomy and pharmacology. In other parts of Europe, the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France, the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.
The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the Academy of Science, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists. It helped promote and organize new disciplines and it trained new scientists. It also contributed to the enhancement of scientists ' social status, considering them to be the "most useful of all citizens ''. Academies demonstrate the rising interest in science along with its increasing secularization, as evidenced by the small number of clerics who were members (13 percent). The presence of the French academies in the public sphere can not be attributed to their membership, as although the majority of their members were bourgeois, the exclusive institution was only open to elite Parisian scholars. They perceived themselves as "interpreters of the sciences for the people ''. For example, it was with this in mind that academicians took it upon themselves to disprove the popular pseudo-science of mesmerism.
The strongest contribution of the French Academies to the public sphere comes from the concours académiques (roughly translated as "academic contests '') they sponsored throughout France. These academic contests were perhaps the most public of any institution during the Enlightenment. The practice of contests dated back to the Middle Ages and was revived in the mid-17th century. The subject matter had previously been generally religious and / or monarchical, featuring essays, poetry and painting. However, by roughly 1725 this subject matter had radically expanded and diversified, including "royal propaganda, philosophical battles, and critical ruminations on the social and political institutions of the Old Regime ''. Topics of public controversy were also discussed such as the theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women 's education and justice in France.
More importantly, the contests were open to all and the enforced anonymity of each submission guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging. Indeed, although the "vast majority '' of participants belonged to the wealthier strata of society ("the liberal arts, the clergy, the judiciary and the medical profession ''), there were some cases of the popular classes submitting essays and even winning. Similarly, a significant number of women participated -- and won -- the competitions. Of a total of 2,300 prize competitions offered in France, women won 49 -- perhaps a small number by modern standards, but very significant in an age in which most women did not have any academic training. Indeed, the majority of the winning entries were for poetry competitions, a genre commonly stressed in women 's education.
In England, the Royal Society of London also played a significant role in the public sphere and the spread of Enlightenment ideas. It was founded by a group of independent scientists and given a royal charter in 1662. The Society played a large role in spreading Robert Boyle 's experimental philosophy around Europe and acted as a clearinghouse for intellectual correspondence and exchange. Boyle was "a founder of the experimental world in which scientists now live and operate '' and his method based knowledge on experimentation, which had to be witnessed to provide proper empirical legitimacy. This is where the Royal Society came into play: witnessing had to be a "collective act '' and the Royal Society 's assembly rooms were ideal locations for relatively public demonstrations. However, not just any witness was considered to be credible: "Oxford professors were accounted more reliable witnesses than Oxfordshire peasants ''. Two factors were taken into account: a witness 's knowledge in the area and a witness 's "moral constitution ''. In other words, only civil society were considered for Boyle 's public.
It was the place in which philosophes got reunited and talked about old, actual or new ideas. Salons were the place where intellectual and enlightened ideas were built.
Coffeehouses were especially important to the spread of knowledge during the Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life gathered and shared ideas. They were frequently criticized by nobles who feared the possibility of an environment in which class and its accompanying titles and privileges were disregarded. Such an environment was especially intimidating to monarchs who derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people. If classes were to join together under the influence of Enlightenment thinking, they might recognize the all - encompassing oppression and abuses of their monarchs and because of their size might be able to carry out successful revolts. Monarchs also resented the idea of their subjects convening as one to discuss political matters, especially those concerning foreign affairs -- rulers thought political affairs to be their business only, a result of their supposed divine right to rule.
Coffeehouses represent a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities. Coffeeshops became homes away from home for many who sought, for the first time, to engage in discourse with their neighbors and discuss intriguing and thought - provoking matters, especially those regarding philosophy to politics. Coffeehouses were essential to the Enlightenment, for they were centers of free - thinking and self - discovery. Although many coffeehouse patrons were scholars, a great deal were not. Coffeehouses attracted a diverse set of people, including not only the educated wealthy but also members of the bourgeoisie and the lower class. While it may seem positive that patrons, being doctors, lawyers, merchants, etc. represented almost all classes, the coffeeshop environment sparked fear in those who sought to preserve class distinction. One of the most popular critiques of the coffeehouse claimed that it "allowed promiscuous association among people from different rungs of the social ladder, from the artisan to the aristocrat '' and was therefore compared to Noah 's Ark, receiving all types of animals, clean or unclean. This unique culture served as a catalyst for journalism when Joseph Addison and Richard Steele recognized its potential as an audience. Together, Steele and Addison published The Spectator (1711), a daily publication which aimed, through fictional narrator Mr. Spectator, both to entertain and to provoke discussion regarding serious philosophical matters.
The first English coffeehouse opened in Oxford in 1650. Brian Cowan said that Oxford coffeehouses developed into "penny universities '', offering a locus of learning that was less formal than structured institutions. These penny universities occupied a significant position in Oxford academic life, as they were frequented by those consequently referred to as the virtuosi, who conducted their research on some of the resulting premises. According to Cowan, "the coffeehouse was a place for like - minded scholars to congregate, to read, as well as learn from and to debate with each other, but was emphatically not a university institution, and the discourse there was of a far different order than any university tutorial ''.
The Café Procope was established in Paris in 1686 and by the 1720s there were around 400 cafés in the city. The Café Procope in particular became a center of Enlightenment, welcoming such celebrities as Voltaire and Rousseau. The Café Procope was where Diderot and D'Alembert decided to create the Encyclopédie. The cafés were one of the various "nerve centers '' for bruits publics, public noise or rumour. These bruits were allegedly a much better source of information than were the actual newspapers available at the time.
The debating societies are an example of the public sphere during the Enlightenment. Their origins include:
In the late 1770s, popular debating societies began to move into more "genteel '' rooms, a change which helped establish a new standard of sociability. The backdrop to these developments was "an explosion of interest in the theory and practice of public elocution ''. The debating societies were commercial enterprises that responded to this demand, sometimes very successfully. Some societies welcomed from 800 to 1,200 spectators a night.
The debating societies discussed an extremely wide range of topics. Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revolved around "confessional '' -- that is, Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist) or Anglican issues and the main aim of these debates was to establish which bloc of faith ought to have the "monopoly of truth and a God - given title to authority ''. After this date, everything thus previously rooted in tradition was questioned and often replaced by new concepts in the light of philosophical reason. After the second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century, a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in '' and confessional disputes were reduced to a secondary status in favor of the "escalating contest between faith and incredulity ''.
In addition to debates on religion, societies discussed issues such as politics and the role of women. However, it is important to note that the critical subject matter of these debates did not necessarily translate into opposition to the government. In other words, the results of the debate quite frequently upheld the status quo. From a historical standpoint, one of the most important features of the debating society was their openness to the public, as women attended and even participated in almost every debating society, which were likewise open to all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee. Once inside, spectators were able to participate in a largely egalitarian form of sociability that helped spread Enlightenment ideas.
Historians have long debated the extent to which the secret network of Freemasonry was a main factor in the Enlightenment. The leaders of the Enlightenment included Freemasons such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Lessing, Pope, Horace Walpole, Sir Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin and George Washington. Norman Davies said that Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of liberalism in Europe from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists.
During the Age of Enlightenment, Freemasons comprised an international network of like - minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. They promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment and helped diffuse these values across Britain and France and other places. Freemasonry as a systematic creed with its own myths, values and set of rituals originated in Scotland around 1600 and spread first to England and then across the Continent in the eighteenth century. They fostered new codes of conduct -- including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability -- "liberty, fraternity and equality ''. Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of fraternity which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism. Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France -- by 1789, there were perhaps as many as 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations. The Freemasons displayed a passion for secrecy and created new degrees and ceremonies. Similar societies, partially imitating Freemasonry, emerged in France, Germany, Sweden and Russia. One example was the Illuminati founded in Bavaria in 1776, which was copied after the Freemasons, but was never part of the movement. The Illuminati was an overtly political group, which most Masonic lodges decidedly were not.
Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self - government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections and representatives ''. In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles. Furthermore, freemasons all across Europe explicitly linked themselves to the Enlightenment as a whole. For example, in French lodges the line "As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened '' was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initiate the unenlightened ''. This did not necessarily link lodges to the irreligious, but neither did this exclude them from the occasional heresy. In fact, many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe.
German historian Reinhart Koselleck claimed: "On the Continent there were two social structures that left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges ''. Scottish professor Thomas Munck argues that "although the Masons did promote international and cross-social contacts which were essentially non-religious and broadly in agreement with enlightened values, they can hardly be described as a major radical or reformist network in their own right ''. Many of the Masons values seemed to greatly appeal to Enlightenment values and thinkers. Diderot discusses the link between Freemason ideals and the enlightenment in D'Alembert's Dream, exploring masonry as a way of spreading enlightenment beliefs. Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspiring enlightened political thought. On the negative side, Daniel Roche contests claims that Masonry promoted egalitarianism and he argues that the lodges only attracted men of similar social backgrounds. The presence of noble women in the French "lodges of adoption '' that formed in the 1780s was largely due to the close ties shared between these lodges and aristocratic society.
The major opponent of Freemasonry was the Roman Catholic Church so that in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between what Davies calls the reactionary Church and enlightened Freemasonry. Even in France, Masons did not act as a group. American historians, while noting that Benjamin Franklin and George Washington were indeed active Masons, have downplayed the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution because the Masonic order was non-political and included both Patriots and their enemy the Loyalists.
The art produced during the Enlightenment was about a search for morality that was absent from previous art. At the same time, the Classical art of Greek and Rome became interesting to people again, since archaeological teams discovered Pompeii and Herculaneum. People took inspiration from it and revived the classical art into neo-classical art. This can be especially seen in early American art, where, throughout their art and architecture, they used arches, goddesses, and other classical architectural designs.
For up to Descartes... a particular sub-iectum... lies at the foundation of its own fixed qualities and changing circumstances. The superiority of a sub-iectum... arises out of the claim of man to a... self - supported, unshakeable foundation of truth, in the sense of certainty. Why and how does this claim acquire its decisive authority? The claim originates in that emancipation of man in which he frees himself from obligation to Christian revelational truth and Church doctrine to a legislating for himself that takes its stand upon itself.
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who is considered to be the father of the idea of pakistan | Two - nation theory - wikipedia
The two - nation theory is the ideology that the primary identity and unifying denominator of Muslims in the Indian subcontinent is their religion, rather than their language or ethnicity, and therefore Indian Hindus and Muslims are two distinct nations, regardless of ethnic or other commonalities. The two - nation theory was a founding principle of the Pakistan Movement (i.e. the ideology of Pakistan as a Muslim nation - state in South Asia), and the partition of India in 1947.
The ideology that religion is the determining factor in defining the nationality of Indian Muslims was undertaken by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who termed it as the awakening of Muslims for the creation of Pakistan. It is also a source of inspiration to several Hindu nationalist organisations, with causes as varied as the redefinition of Indian Muslims as non-Indian foreigners and second - class citizens in India, the expulsion of all Muslims from India, establishment of a legally Hindu state in India, prohibition of conversions to Islam, and the promotion of conversions or reconversions of Indian Muslims to Hinduism.
There are varying interpretations of the two - nation theory, based on whether the two postulated nationalities can coexist in one territory or not, with radically different implications. One interpretation argued for sovereign autonomy, including the right to secede, for Muslim - majority areas of the Indian subcontinent, but without any transfer of populations (i.e. Hindus and Muslims would continue to live together). A different interpretation contends that Hindus and Muslims constitute "two distinct, and frequently antagonistic ways of life, and that therefore they can not coexist in one nation. '' In this version, a transfer of populations (i.e. the total removal of Hindus from Muslim - majority areas and the total removal of Muslims from Hindu - majority areas) is a desirable step towards a complete separation of two incompatible nations that "can not coexist in a harmonious relationship ''.
Opposition to the theory has come from two sources. The first is the concept of a single Indian nation, of which Hindus and Muslims are two intertwined communities. This is a founding principle of the modern, officially secular, Republic of India. Even after the formation of Pakistan, debates on whether Muslims and Hindus are distinct nationalities or not continued in that country as well. The second source of opposition is the concept that while Indians are not one nation, neither are the Muslims or Hindus of the subcontinent, and it is instead the relatively homogeneous provincial units of the subcontinent which are true nations and deserving of sovereignty; this view has been presented by the Baloch, Sindhi, and Pashtun sub-nationalities of Pakistan and the Assamese and Punjabi sub-nationalities of India.
In general, the British - run government and British commentators made "it a point of speaking of Indians as the people of India and avoid speaking of an Indian nation. '' This was cited as a key reason for British control of the country: since Indians were not a nation, they were not capable of national self - government. While some Indian leaders insisted that Indians were one nation, others agreed that Indians were not yet a nation but there was "no reason why in the course of time they should not grow into a nation. ''
Similar debates on national identity existed within India at the linguistic, provincial and religious levels. While some argued that Indian Muslims were one nation, others argued they were not. Some, such as Liaquat Ali Khan (later prime minister of Pakistan) argued that Indian Muslims were not yet a nation, but could be forged into one.
According to the Pakistan studies curriculum, Muhammad bin Qasim is often referred to as the first Pakistani. While Prakash K. Singh attributes the arrival of Muhammad bin Qasim as the first step towards the creation of Pakistan. Muhammad Ali Jinnah considered the Pakistan movement to have started when the first Muslim put a foot in the Gateway of Islam.
The movement for Muslim self - awakening and identity was started by the Muslim modernist and reformer Syed Ahmad Khan (1817 -- 1898). Many Pakistanis describe him as the architect of the two - nation theory.
The poet philosopher Muhammad Iqbal (1877 -- 1938) provided the philosophical exposition and Barrister Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1871 -- 1948) translated it into the political reality of a nation - state. Allama Iqbal 's presidential address to the Muslim League on 29 December 1930 is seen by some as the first exposition of the two - nation theory in support of what would ultimately become Pakistan.
The scholar Al - Biruni (973 -- 1048) had observed, at the beginning of the eleventh century, that Hindus and Muslims differed in all matters and habits. On 23 March 1940, Jinnah made a speech in Lahore which was very similar to Al - Biruni 's thesis in theme and tone. Jinnah stated that Hindus and Muslims belonged to two different religious philosophies, with different social customs and literature, with no intermarriage and based on conflicting ideas and concepts. Their outlook on life and of life was different and despite 1000 years of history, the relations between the Hindus and Muslims could not attain the level of cordiality.
In 1948, Jinnah said:
Islam has taught us this and I think you will agree with me, for whatever you may be and wherever you are, you are a Muslim. You belong to a nation now. You have carved out a territory, a vast territory, it is all yours; it does not belong to a Punjabi or a Sindhi or a Pathan or a Bengali, it is yours.
The All - India Muslim League, in attempting to represent Indian Muslims, felt that the Muslims of the subcontinent were a distinct and separate nation from the Hindus. At first they demanded separate electorates, but when they came to the conclusion that Muslims would not be safe in a Hindu - dominated India, they began to demand a separate state. The League demanded self - determination for Muslim - majority areas in the form of a sovereign state promising minorities equal rights and safeguards in these Muslim majority areas.
The theory asserted that India was not a nation. It also asserted that Indian Hindus and Indian Muslims were each a nation, despite great variations in language, culture and ethnicity within each of those groups. To counter critics who said that a community of radically varying ethnicities and languages who were territorially intertwined with other communities could not be a nation, the theory said that the concept of nation in the East was different from that in the West. In the East, religion was "a complete social order which affects all the activities in life '' and "where the allegiance of people is divided on the basis of religion, the idea of territorial nationalism has never succeeded. ''
It asserted that "a Muslim of one country has far more sympathies with a Muslim living in another country than with a non-Muslim living in the same country. '' Therefore, "the conception of Indian Muslims as a nation may not be ethnically correct, but socially it is correct. ''
Muhammad Iqbal had also championed the notion of pan-Islamic nationhood (see: Ummah) and strongly condemned the concept of a territory - based nation as anti-Islamic: "In tāzah xudā'ōn mēn, baṙā sab sē; waṭan hai: Jō pairahan is kā hai; woh maẕhab kā, kafan hai... (Of all these new (false) gods, the biggest; is the motherland (waṭan): Its garment; is (actually) the death - shroud, of religion...) '' He had stated the dissolution of ethnic nationalities into a unified Muslim society (or millat) as the ultimate goal: "Butān - e ranŋg ō - xūn kō tōṙ kar millat mēn gum hō jā; Nah Tūrānī rahē bāqī, nah Īrānī, nah Afġānī (Destroy the idols of color and blood ties, and merge into the Muslim society; Let no Turanians remain, neither Iranians, nor Afghans) ''.
In his 1945 book Pakistan, or The Partition of India, Indian statesman and Buddhist Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar wrote a sub-chapter titled "If Muslims truly and deeply desire Pakistan, their choice ought to be accepted ''. He asserted that, if the Muslims were bent on the creation of Pakistan, the demand should be conceded in the interest of the safety of India. He asks whether Muslims in the army could be trusted to defend India in the event of Muslims invading India or in the case of a Muslim rebellion. "(W) hom would the Indian Muslims in the army side with? '' he questioned. According to him, the assumption that Hindus and Muslims could live under one state if they were distinct nations was but "an empty sermon, a mad project, to which no sane man would agree ''.
Muhammad Iqbal 's statement explaining the attitude of Muslim delegates to the London round - table conference issued in December 1933 was a rejoinder to Jawaharlal Nehru 's statement. Nehru had said that the attitude of the Muslim delegation was based on "reactionarism ''. Iqbal concluded his rejoinder with:
In conclusion, I must put a straight question to Pandit Jawaharlal, how is India 's problem to be solved if the majority community will neither concede the minimum safeguards necessary for the protection of a minority of 80 million people, nor accept the award of a third party; but continue to talk of a kind of nationalism which works out only to its own benefit? This position can admit of only two alternatives. Either the Indian majority community will have to accept for itself the permanent position of an agent of British imperialism in the East, or the country will have to be redistributed on a basis of religious, historical and cultural affinities so as to do away with the question of electorates and the communal problem in its present form.
In Muhammad Ali Jinnah 's All India Muslim League presidential address delivered in Lahore, on 22 March 1940, he explained:
It is extremely difficult to appreciate why our Hindu friends fail to understand the real nature of Islam and Hinduism. They are not religions in the strict sense of the word, but are, in fact, different and distinct social orders, and it is a dream that the Hindus and Muslims can ever evolve a common nationality, and this misconception of one Indian nation has troubles and will lead India to destruction if we fail to revise our notions in time. The Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religious philosophies, social customs, litterateurs. They neither intermarry nor interdine together and, indeed, they belong to two different civilizations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions. Their aspect on life and of life are different. It is quite clear that Hindus and Mussalmans derive their inspiration from different sources of history. They have different epics, different heroes, and different episodes. Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other and, likewise, their victories and defeats overlap. To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority, must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built for the government of such a state.
In 1944, Jinnah said:
We maintain and hold that Muslims and Hindus are two major nations by any definition or test of a nation. We are a nation of hundred million and what is more, we are a nation with our own distinctive culture and civilization, language and literature, art and architecture, names and nomenclature, sense of values and proportions, legal laws and moral codes, customs and calendar, history and tradition, and aptitude and ambitions. In short, we have our own outlook on life and of life.
In an interview with the British journalist Beverley Nichols, he said in 1943:
Islam is not only a religious doctrine but also a realistic code of conduct in terms of every day and everything important in life: our history, our laws and our jurisprudence. In all these things, our outlook is not only fundamentally different but also opposed to Hindus. There is nothing in life that links us together. Our names, clothes, food, festivals, and rituals, all are different. Our economic life, our educational ideas, treatment of women, attitude towards animals, and humanitarian considerations, all are very different.
In May 1947, he had an entirely different emphasis when he told Mountbatten, who was in charge of British India 's transition to independence:
Your Excellency does n't understand that the Punjab is a nation. Bengal is a nation. A man is a Punjabi or a Bengali first before he is a Hindu or a Muslim. If you give us those provinces you must, under no condition, partition them. You will destroy their viability and cause endless bloodshed and trouble.
Mountbatten replied:
Yes, of course. A man is not only a Punjabi or a Bengali before he is a Muslim or Hindu, but he is an Indian before all else. What you 're saying is the perfect, absolute answer I 've been looking for. You 've presented me the arguments to keep India united.
The Hindu Maha Sabha under the presidency of Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, presented a stance of complete opposition to the formation of Pakistan. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar summarises Savarkar 's position, in his Pakistan or The Partition of India as follows,
Mr. Savarkar... insists that, although there are two nations in India, India shall not be divided into two parts, one for Muslims and the other for the Hindus; that the two nations shall dwell in one country and shall live under the mantle of one single constitution;... In the struggle for political power between the two nations the rule of the game which Mr. Savarkar prescribes is to be one man one vote, be the man Hindu or Muslim. In his scheme a Muslim is to have no advantage which a Hindu does not have. Minority is to be no justification for privilege and majority is to be no ground for penalty. The State will guarantee the Muslims any defined measure of political power in the form of Muslim religion and Muslim culture. But the State will not guarantee secured seats in the Legislature or in the Administration and, if such guarantee is insisted upon by the Muslims, such guaranteed quota is not to exceed their proportion to the general population.
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, also known as "Frontier Gandhi '' or "Sarhadi Gandhi '', was not convinced by the two - nation theory and wanted a single united India as home for both Hindus and Muslims. He was from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, in present - day Pakistan. He believed that the partition would be harmful to the Muslims of the subcontinent. Post partition, Ghaffar Khan was a strong advocate of the Pashtunistan movement.
Gandhi was against the division of India on the basis of religion. He once wrote:
I find no parallel in history for a body of converts and their descendants claiming to be a nation apart from the parent stock.
The two nation theory was opposed by the Deobandi scholars, a departure from the position of their predecessors Shah Waliullah, Syed Ahmed and Muhammad Ismail. The principal of Darul Ulum Deoband, Maulana Hussain Ahmad Madni, not only opposed the two nation theory but sought to redefine Indian Muslim nationhood. He advocated Indian nationalism, believing that nations in modern times were formed on the basis of land, culture, and history. He and other leading Deobandi ulama endorsed territorial nationalism, arguing that Islam permitted it. Despite opposition from most Deobandi scholars, Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi and Mufti Muhammad Shafi instead opted to justify the two nation theory and concept of Pakistan. Likewise, the Barelwi ulama supporting the Muslim League and its Pakistan demand, argued that befriending ' unbelievers ' was forbidden in Islam.
Since the partition, the theory has been subjected to animated debates and different interpretations on several grounds. In his memoirs entitled Pathway to Pakistan (1961), Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman, the first president of the Pakistan Muslim League, has written: "The two - nation theory, which we had used in the fight for Pakistan, had created not only bad blood against the Muslims of the minority provinces, but also an ideological wedge, between them and the Hindus of India. ''. He further wrote: "He (Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy) doubted the utility of the two - nation theory, which to my mind also had never paid any dividends to us, but after the partition, it proved positively injurious to the Muslims of India, and on a long - view basis for Muslims everywhere. ''
According to Khaliquzzaman, on 1 August 1947, Jinnah invited the Muslim League members of India 's constituent assembly to a farewell meeting at his Delhi house.
Mr. Rizwanullah put some awkward questions concerning the position of Muslims, who would be left over in India, their status and their future. I had never before found Mr. Jinnah so disconcerted as on that occasion, probably because he was realizing then quite vividly what was immediately in store for the Muslims. Finding the situation awkward, I asked my friends and colleagues to the end the discussion. I believe as a result of our farewell meeting, Mr. Jinnah took the earliest opportunity to bid goodbye to his two - nation theory in his speech on 11 August 1947 as the governor general - designate and President of the constituent assembly of Pakistan.
In his 11 August 1947 speech, Jinnah had spoken of composite Pakistani nationalism, effectively negating the faith - based nationalism that he had advocated in his speech of 22 March 1940. In his 11 August speech, he said that non-Muslims would be equal citizens of Pakistan and that there would be no discrimination against them. "You may belong to any religion or caste or creed that has nothing to do with the business of the state. ''
The theory has faced scepticism because Muslims did not entirely separate from Hindus and about one - third of all Muslims continued to live in post-partition India as Indian citizens alongside a much larger Hindu majority. The subsequent partition of Pakistan itself into the present - day nations of Pakistan and Bangladesh was cited as proof both that Muslims did not constitute one nation and that religion alone was not a defining factor for nationhood.
Some historians have claimed that the theory was a creation of a few Muslim intellectuals. Prominent Pakistani politician Altaf Hussain of Muttahida Qaumi Movement believes history has proved the two - nation theory wrong. He contended, "The idea of Pakistan was dead at its inception, when the majority of Muslims (in Muslim - minority areas of India) chose to stay back after partition, a truism reiterated in the creation of Bangladesh in 1971 ''. Canadian writer Tarek Fatah termed the two - nation theory as "absurd ''.
Several ethnic and provincial leaders in Pakistan also began to use the term "nation '' to describe their provinces and argued that their very existence was threatened by the concept of amalgamation into a Pakistani nation on the basis that Muslims were one nation. It has also been alleged that the idea that Islam is the basis of nationhood embroils Pakistan too deeply in the affairs of other predominantly Muslim states and regions, prevents the emergence of a unique sense of Pakistani nationhood that is independent of reference to India, and encourages the growth of a fundamentalist culture in the country.
Also, because partition divided Indian Muslims into three groups (of roughly 150 million people each in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh) instead of forming a single community inside a united India that would have numbered about 450 million people in 2010 and potentially exercised great influence over the entire subcontinent, the two - nation theory is sometimes alleged to have ultimately weakened the position of Muslims on the subcontinent and resulted in large - scale territorial shrinkage or skewing for cultural aspects that became associated with Muslims (e.g., the decline of Urdu language in India).
This criticism has received a mixed response in Pakistan. A poll conducted by Gallup Pakistan in 2011 shows that an overwhelming majority of Pakistanis held the view that separation from India was justified in 1947. Pakistani commentators have contended that two nations did not necessarily imply two states, and the fact that Bangladesh did not merge into India after separating from Pakistan supports the two nation theory.
Others have stated that the theory is still valid despite the still - extant Muslim minority in India, and asserted variously that Indian Muslims have been "Hinduized '' (i.e., lost much of their Muslim identity due to assimilation into Hindu culture), or that they are treated as an excluded or alien group by an allegedly Hindu - dominated India. Factors such as lower literacy and education levels among Indian Muslims as compared to Indian Hindus, longstanding cultural differences, and outbreaks of religious violence such as those occurring during the 2002 Gujarat riots in India are cited.
The emergence of a sense of identity that is pan-Islamic rather than Pakistani has been defended as consistent with the founding ideology of Pakistan and the concept that "Islam itself is a nationality, '' despite the commonly - held notion of "nationality, to Muslims, is like idol worship. '' While some have emphasised that promoting the primacy of a pan-Islamic identity (over all other identities) is essential to maintaining a distinctiveness from India and preventing national "collapse '', others have argued that the Two Nation Theory has served its purpose in "midwifing '' Pakistan into existence and should now be discarded to allow Pakistan to emerge as a normal nation - state.
Prominent political commentator Irfan Husain, in his column in Dawn, observed that it has now become an "impossible and exceedingly boring task of defending a defunct theory ''. However some Pakistanis, including a retired Pakistani brigadier, Shaukat Qadir, believe that the theory could only be disproved with the reunification of independent Bangladesh, and Republic of India.
According to Sharif al Mujahid, arguably the preeminent authority on Jinnah in Pakistan, the two - nation theory was relevant only in the pre-1947 subcontinental context. He is of the opinion that the creation of Pakistan rendered it obsolete because the two nations had transformed themselves into Indian and Pakistani nations. The columnist Muqtida Mansoor has quoted Farooq Sattar, a prominent leader of the MQM, as saying that his party did not accept the two - nation theory. "Even if there was such a theory, it has sunk in the Bay of Bengal. ''
In post-independence India, the two - nation theory has helped advance the cause of groups seeking to identify a "Hindu national culture '' as the core identification of an Indian. This allows the acknowledgement of the common ethnicity of Hindus and Muslims while requiring that all adopt a Hindu identity to be truly Indian. From the Hindu nationalist perspective, this concedes the ethnic reality that Indian Muslims are "flesh of our flesh and blood of our blood '' but still presses for an officially - recognized equation of national and religious identity, i.e., that "an Indian is a Hindu. ''
The theory and the very existence of Pakistan has provided evidence to the allegation that Indian Muslims "can not be loyal citizens of India '' or any other non-Muslim nation, and are "always capable and ready to perform traitorous acts ''. Constitutionally, India rejects the two - nation theory and regards Indian Muslims as equal citizens. From the official Indian perspective, the partition is regarded as a tactical necessity to rid the subcontinent of British rule rather than denoting acceptance of the theory.
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who was the longest running prime minister of canada | List of prime ministers of Canada by time in office - wikipedia
Prime ministers of Canada do not have a fixed term of office; instead, they may stay in office as long as their government is supported by parliament under a system of responsible government. Both the number of terms served and the length of individual terms have varied considerably since Confederation. Historically, elections have been held every three to five years, although since 2006 a government act set fixed election days every four years unless parliament is dissolved earlier by the Governor General. Prime ministers can be re-elected to serve any number of consecutive mandates, and some have served up to six terms, while several others have served for less than one full term. There are also four prime ministers who served multiple non-consecutive terms in the office.
Of the prime ministers who served less than one full term, two of them, Joe Clark and Paul Martin, had their time in office cut short by the collapse of a minority parliament and the subsequent election of the opposition party. In all other cases of short tenure, a new prime minister was put in place for the last few months of their predecessor 's mandate -- usually to try to gain support from the electorate before an election -- but were subsequently defeated by the opposition party. The preceding Prime Minister always stays in office during an election campaign, and that time is included in the total. The first day of a Prime Minister 's term is counted in the total, but the last day is not.
Liberal Party of Canada (10) Conservative Party of Canada (1) Historical conservative parties / Progressive Conservative Party of Canada (12)
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how long is the shoreline on lake of the ozarks | Lake of the Ozarks - wikipedia
The Lake of the Ozarks is a large reservoir created by impounding the Osage River in the northern part of the Ozarks in central Missouri. Extents of three smaller tributaries to the Osage are included in the impoundment: the Niangua River, Grandglaize Creek, and Gravois Creek. The lake has a surface area of 54,000 acres (220 km) and 1,150 miles (1,850 km) of shoreline, and the main channel of the Osage Arm stretches 92 miles (148 km) from end to end. The total drainage area is over 14,000 square miles (36,000 km). The lake 's serpentine shape has earned it the nickname "The Magic Dragon '', which has in turn inspired the names of local institutions such as The Magic Dragon Street Meet.
A hydro - electric power plant on the Osage River was first pursued by Kansas City developer Ralph Street in 1912. He put together the initial funding and began building roads, railroads, and infrastructure necessary to begin construction of the dam, with a plan to impound a much smaller lake. In the mid-1920s, Street 's funding dried up and he abandoned the effort.
The lake was created by the construction of the 2,543 - foot (775 m) long Bagnell Dam by the Union Electric Company of St. Louis, Missouri. The principal engineering firm was Stone and Webster. Construction began August 8, 1929, was completed in April 1931, and reached spillway elevation on May 20, 1931. During construction, the lake was referred to as Osage Reservoir or Lake Osage. The Missouri General Assembly officially named it Lake Benton after Senator Thomas Hart Benton. None of the names stuck, as it was popularly referred to by its location in the Ozarks. The electric generating station, however, is still referred to by the utility company as the "Osage Hydroelectric Plant ''.
At the time of construction, the Lake of the Ozarks was the largest man - made lake in the United States and one of the largest in the world. It was created to provide hydroelectric power for customers of Union Electric, but it quickly became a significant tourist destination for the Midwest. Most of its shoreline is privately owned, unlike many flood - control lakes in the region that were constructed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The relatively stable surface elevation has created ideal conditions for private development within a few feet of the shoreline. There are over 70,000 homes along the lake, many of which are vacation homes. Spectacular scenery characteristic of the Ozarks has also helped to transform the lake into a major resort area, and more than 5 million people visit annually.
In 2011, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) renewed the lease for the power plant operated by Ameren Missouri. In the process, FERC determined that numerous homes and structures were encroaching on utility land in violation of federal regulations. According to the Boston Globe, this issue "has triggered panic in the area 's lakefront communities and led to a growing battle among regulators, a utility company, land attorneys, and the state 's congressional delegation. ''
The Lake of the Ozarks is located at 38 ° 12 ′ 09 '' N 92 ° 37 ′ 35 '' W / 38.20250 ° N 92.62639 ° W / 38.20250; - 92.62639 (38.2025326, - 92.6262966) at an elevation of 568 feet (173 m). It lies in central Missouri on the Salem Plateau of the Ozarks. The lake extends across four Missouri counties, from Benton County in the west through Camden County and Morgan County to Miller County in the east.
The reservoir is impounded at its northeastern end by Bagnell Dam, and the Osage River is both its primary inflow and outflow. Long and winding in shape, the lake consists of the main, 93 - mile - long (150 km) Osage River channel as well as several arms, each fed by a different tributary. The southwestern arm is fed by the Niangua and Little Niangua Rivers, the southeastern arm by Grandglaize Creek, and the northern arm by several streams including Gravois Creek, Indian Creek, and Little Gravois Creek. Many smaller tributaries also drain into the lake, creating numerous small coves and indentations in its shore. As a result, the lake has approximately 1,150 miles (1,850 km) of shoreline.
U.S. Route 54 runs east - west across the reservoir 's southwestern arm and then generally northeast - southwest along its eastern shoreline, crossing the southeastern arm at Osage Beach. Missouri Route 5 runs generally north - south along the lake 's western shoreline, crossing the main channel at Hurricane Deck. Missouri Route 7 runs generally northwest - southeast to the lake 's southwest, crossing the southwestern arm. Missouri Route 134 runs southeast from U.S. 54 north of Osage Beach to its southern terminus in Lake of the Ozarks State Park. In addition, a network of lettered, supplemental state routes provides access to various points along the lake shore.
Numerous settlements are located near or on the Lake of the Ozarks. The largest is Osage Beach which sits where the lake 's southeastern arm joins the main channel. The second largest is the city of Camdenton, located on U.S. 54 a few miles east of the southwestern arm. Lake Ozark lies immediately north of Osage Beach and just south of Bagnell Dam. Other, smaller communities along or near the lake include (from east to west): Kaiser, Lakeside, Linn Creek, Village of Four Seasons, Rocky Mount, Sunrise Beach, Hurricane Deck, Gravois Mills, Laurie, and Lakeview Heights.
The Lake of the Ozarks has a storage capacity of approximately 1,927,000 acre feet (2.377 × 10 m). When filled to that volume, it has a surface elevation of 660 feet (200 m) and occupies a surface area of approximately 54,000 acres (220 km). The lake rarely varies in surface elevation by more than 5 feet (1.5 m). As it was constructed for power generation, not flood control, the lake has only limited flood control capacity.
Due to its large volume and surface area, various sources identify the Lake of the Ozarks as either the largest reservoir in Missouri or the second - largest after Truman Reservoir.
Here is a list of historic bridges that were on the lake.
Bagnell Dam is operated and maintained by Ameren Missouri, the successor of Union Electric, under the authority of a permit issued by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. Ameren Missouri is also responsible for managing both the shoreline and water levels of the lake. All land surrounding the lake that is within the project boundary defined by the FERC is under the company 's jurisdiction. Any improvements to the shoreline including docks, seawalls, and other structures require permission from Ameren Missouri prior to construction.
During the process of land acquisition for the lake during the 1920s, 17,500 acres (71 km) of land were set aside for a national park along the Grand Glaize Arm of the lake. In 1946, this land was acquired by the State of Missouri for Lake of the Ozarks State Park, the largest State Park in Missouri. Lake of the Ozarks State Park is home to Party Cove, a rowdy gathering spot that a New York Times writer called the "oldest established permanent floating bacchanal in the country. '' The Missouri State Water Patrol has estimated that the cove attracts up to 3,000 boats during the Fourth of July weekend.
Another state park on the shores of the lake is Ha Ha Tonka State Park on the Niangua Arm of the lake.
The Lodge of Four Seasons (Championship Course). Classic Robert Trent Jones design occupies raised fingers of land that jut into the lake. Signature par - three 13th calls for a long carry over a cove to reach the green. One of the Midwest 's prettiest, most challenging courses.
Osage National Golf Club. This Arnold Palmer layout is a big - time test (7,150 yards from tips) nestled between the Lake of the Ozarks and the imposing bluffs of the Osage River. Creeks, lakes, and large, undulating bentgrass greens defend par.
Shawnee Bend Golf Course. Classic Ozark golf on the far Westside of the Lake in Warsaw. Opened in 1985, it is now considered one of the best 9 hole courses in the Midwest. Signature par - three 5th hole is one of the most scenic holes in the state of Missouri.
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why do cone cells have lots of mitochondria | Cone cell - Wikipedia
Cone cells, or cones, are of three types of photoreceptor cells in the retina of mammalian eyes (e.g. the human eye). They are responsible for color vision and function best in relatively bright light, as opposed to rod cells, which work better in dim light. Cone cells are densely packed in the fovea centralis, a 0.3 mm diameter rod - free area with very thin, densely packed cones which quickly reduce in number towards the periphery of the retina. There are about six to seven million cones in a human eye and are most concentrated towards the macula. The commonly cited figure of six million cone cells in the human eye was found by Osterberg in 1935. Oyster 's textbook (1999) cites work by Curcio et al. (1990) indicating an average close to 4.5 million cone cells and 90 million rod cells in the human retina.
Cones are less sensitive to light than the rod cells in the retina (which support vision at low light levels), but allow the perception of color. They are also able to perceive finer detail and more rapid changes in images, because their response times to stimuli are faster than those of rods. Cones are normally one of the three types, each with different pigment, namely: S - cones, M - cones and L - cones. Each cone is therefore sensitive to visible wavelengths of light that correspond to short - wavelength, medium - wavelength and long - wavelength light. Because humans usually have three kinds of cones with different photopsins, which have different response curves and thus respond to variation in color in different ways, we have trichromatic vision. Being color blind can change this, and there have been some verified reports of people with four or more types of cones, giving them tetrachromatic vision. The three pigments responsible for detecting light have been shown to vary in their exact chemical composition due to genetic mutation; different individuals will have cones with different color sensitivity. Destruction of the cone cells from disease would result in color blindness.
Humans normally have three types of cones. The first responds the most to light of long wavelengths, peaking at about 560 nm; this type is sometimes designated L for long. The second type responds the most to light of medium - wavelength, peaking at 530 nm, and is abbreviated M for medium. The third type responds the most to short - wavelength light, peaking at 420 nm, and is designated S for short. The three types have peak wavelengths near 564 -- 580 nm, 534 -- 545 nm, and 420 -- 440 nm, respectively, depending on the individual.
While it has been discovered that there exists a mixed type of bipolar cells that bind to both rod and cone cells, bipolar cells still predominantly receive their input from cone cells.
Cone cells are somewhat shorter than rods, but wider and tapered, and are much less numerous than rods in most parts of the retina, but greatly outnumber rods in the fovea. Structurally, cone cells have a cone - like shape at one end where a pigment filters incoming light, giving them their different response curves. They are typically 40 -- 50 μm long, and their diameter varies from 0.5 to 4.0 μm, being smallest and most tightly packed at the center of the eye at the fovea. The S cone spacing is slightly larger than the others.
Photobleaching can be used to determine cone arrangement. This is done by exposing dark - adapted retina to a certain wavelength of light that paralyzes the particular type of cone sensitive to that wavelength for up to thirty minutes from being able to dark - adapt making it appear white in contrast to the grey dark - adapted cones when a picture of the retina is taken. The results illustrate that S cones are randomly placed and appear much less frequently than the M and L cones. The ratio of M and L cones varies greatly among different people with regular vision (e.g. values of 75.8 % L with 20.0 % M versus 50.6 % L with 44.2 % M in two male subjects).
Like rods, each cone cell has a synaptic terminal, an inner segment, and an outer segment as well as an interior nucleus and various mitochondria. The synaptic terminal forms a synapse with a neuron such as a bipolar cell. The inner and outer segments are connected by a cilium. The inner segment contains organelles and the cell 's nucleus, while the outer segment, which is pointed toward the back of the eye, contains the light - absorbing materials.
Like rods, the outer segments of cones have invaginations of their cell membranes that create stacks of membranous disks. Photopigments exist as transmembrane proteins within these disks, which provide more surface area for light to affect the pigments. In cones, these disks are attached to the outer membrane, whereas they are pinched off and exist separately in rods. Neither rods nor cones divide, but their membranous disks wear out and are worn off at the end of the outer segment, to be consumed and recycled by phagocytic cells.
The difference in the signals received from the three cone types allows the brain to perceive a continuous range of colors, through the opponent process of color vision. (Rod cells have a peak sensitivity at 498 nm, roughly halfway between the peak sensitivities of the S and M cones.)
All of the receptors contain the protein photopsin, with variations in its conformation causing differences in the optimum wavelengths absorbed.
The color yellow, for example, is perceived when the L cones are stimulated slightly more than the M cones, and the color red is perceived when the L cones are stimulated significantly more than the M cones. Similarly, blue and violet hues are perceived when the S receptor is stimulated more. Cones are most sensitive to light at wavelengths around 420 nm. However, the lens and cornea of the human eye are increasingly absorptive to shorter wavelengths, and this sets the short wavelength limit of human - visible light to approximately 380 nm, which is therefore called ' ultraviolet ' light. People with aphakia, a condition where the eye lacks a lens, sometimes report the ability to see into the ultraviolet range. At moderate to bright light levels where the cones function, the eye is more sensitive to yellowish - green light than other colors because this stimulates the two most common (M and L) of the three kinds of cones almost equally. At lower light levels, where only the rod cells function, the sensitivity is greatest at a blueish - green wavelength.
Cones also tend to possess a significantly elevated visual acuity because each cone cell has a lone connection to the optic nerve, therefore, the cones have an easier time telling that two stimuli are isolated. Separate connectivity is established in the inner plexiform layer so that each connection is parallel.
The response of cone cells to light is also directionally nonuniform, peaking at a direction that receives light from the center of the pupil; this effect is known as the Stiles -- Crawford effect.
Sensitivity to a prolonged stimulation tends to decline over time, leading to neural adaptation. An interesting effect occurs when staring at a particular color for a minute or so. Such action leads to an exhaustion of the cone cells that respond to that color -- resulting in the afterimage. This vivid color aftereffect can last for a minute or more.
One of the diseases related to cone cells present in retina is retinoblastoma. Retinoblastoma is a rare cancer of the retina, caused by the mutation of both copies of retinoblastoma genes (RB1). Most cases of retinoblastoma occur during early childhood. One or both eyes may be affected. The protein encoded by RB1 regulates a signal transduction pathway while controlling the cell cycle progression as normally. Retinoblastoma seems to originate in cone precursor cells present in the retina that consist of natural signalling networks which restrict cell death and promote cell survival after losing the RB1, or having both the RB1 copies mutated. It has been found that TRβ2 which is a transcription factor specifically affiliated with cones is essential for rapid reproduction and existence of the retinoblastoma cell. A drug that can be useful in the treatment of this disease is MDM2 (murine double minute 2) gene. Knockdown studies have shown that the MDM2 gene silences ARF - induced apoptosis in retinoblastoma cells and that MDM2 is necessary for the survival of cone cells. It is unclear at this point why the retinoblastoma in humans is sensitive to RB1 inactivation.
The pupil may appear white or have white spots. A white glow in the eye is often seen in photographs taken with a flash, instead of the typical "red eye '' from the flash, and the pupil may appear white or distorted. Other symptoms can include crossed eyes, double vision, eyes that do not align, eye pain and redness, poor vision or differing iris colors in each eye. If the cancer has spread, bone pain and other symptoms may occur.
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when does the next episode of backstage come out | Backstage (2016 TV series) - wikipedia
Backstage is a Canadian drama and performing arts series created by Jennifer Pertsch and Lara Azzopardi that premiered in Canada on Family Channel on March 18, 2016, and in the United States on Disney Channel on March 25, 2016. The series stars Devyn Nekoda, Alyssa Trask, Josh Bogert, Aviva Mongillo, Matthew Isen, Julia Tomasone, Adrianna Di Liello, Colin Petierre, Mckenzie Small, Romy Weltman, Isiah Hall, Kyal Legend, Chris Hoffman, Jane Moffat, and Thomas L. Colford.
The trials and tribulations of the students at Keaton School of the Arts, which includes dancers, singers, musicians, and artists. The characters frequently break the fourth wall, talking to the viewers in so - called "confessionals ''.
Actors in the series are all real dancers and musicians embodying the true spirit of the performing arts. Directors for the series include top music video directors such as RT!, Director X, Wendy Morgan, and Warren Sonoda as well as Mario Azzopardi and Lara Azzopardi. The first season production order consisted of 30 episodes.
On May 10, 2016, it was announced that Backstage was renewed for a 30 - episode second season for a 2017 broadcast on Family Channel in Canada. On September 30, 2017, the show 's cast revealed on social media that the entire 2nd season had been picked up by Netflix.
The series premiered on Family Channel in Canada on March 18, 2016, and on Disney Channel in the United States on March 25, 2016. Disney Channel secured the license for the series in several countries in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. It premiered on Disney Channel in the United Kingdom and Ireland on May 9, 2016, and on Disney Channel in Australia and New Zealand on October 28, 2016.
The second season premiered in the UK and Ireland on July 28, 2017, prior to the Canadian premiere.
The Whole second season was released on the ABC ME app and on ABC iview as part of best fest for the school holidays from 15th of September to 15th of October.
Backstage seasons 1 and 2 are available on Netflix.
Backstage has received positive, albeit lukewarm reviews from critics. Common Sense Media gave the series three out of five stars, saying that while it "does n't really break new ground '', it "does touch on many issues that are worthwhile for kids ''.
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list of flag officer in command philippine navy | Philippine Navy - wikipedia
The Philippine Navy (PN; Filipino: Hukbong Dagat ng Pilipinas, Spanish: Armada de Filipinas) is the naval warfare service branch of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. It has an estimated strength of 24,000 active service personnel, including the 7,500 - strong Philippine Marine Corps. It shares the responsibility of patrolling the maritime borders with the Philippine Coast Guard, its former attached unit until the latter became a separate maritime law enforcement agency on 1998.
"To organize, train, equip, maintain, develop and deploy forces for prompt and sustained naval and maritime. operations in support of the Unified Commands in the accomplishment of the AFP mission ''.
Its powers and functions are as follows:
Before the Spanish arrived in the Philippines the ancient peoples there were engaging in naval warfare, trade, piracy, travel and communication using balangay. A flotilla of balangay was discovered in the late 1970s in Butuan City, Agusan del Norte.
Philippine ships, such as the karakao or korkoa were of excellent quality and some of them were used by the Spaniards in expeditions against rebellious tribes and Dutch and British forces. Some of the larger rowed vessels held up to a hundred rowers on each side besides a contingent of armed troops. Generally, the larger vessels held at least one lantaka at the front of the vessel or another one placed at the stern. Philippine sailing ships called praos had double sails that seemed to rise well over a hundred feet from the surface of the water. Despite their large size, these ships had double outriggers. Some of the larger sailing ships, however, did not have outriggers.
Antecedent to this raids, somethime between A.D. 1174 and 1190, a traveling Chinese government bureaucrat Chau Ju - Kua reported that a certain group of "ferocious raiders of China 's Fukien coast '' which he called the "Pi - sho - ye, '' believed to have lived on the southern part of Formosa. In A.D. 1273, another work written by Ma Tuan Lin, which came to the knowledge of non-Chinese readers through a translation made by the Marquis D'Hervey de Saint - Denys, gave reference to the Pi - sho - ye raiders, thought to have originated from the southern portion of Formosa. However, the author observed that these reaiders spoke a different language and had an entirely different appearance (presumably when compared to the inhabitants of Formosa).
In the Battle of Manila in 1365 is an unspecified and disputed battle occurring somewhere in the vicinity of Manila between the forces of the Kingdoms in Luzon and the Empire of Majapahit.
Even though the exact dates and details of this battle remain in dispute, there are claims of the conquest of the area around Saludong (Majapahit term for Luzon and Manila) according to the text Nagarakretagama
Nevertheless, there may have been a battle for Manila that occurred during that time but it was likely a victory for Luzon 's kingdoms considering that the Kingdom of Tondo had maintained its independence and was not enslaved under another ruler. Alternatively, Luzon may have been successfully invaded but was able to regain its independence later.
The Republic 's need for a naval force was first provided for by Filipino revolutionaries when they included a provision in the Biák - na - Bató Constitution. This authorised the government to permit privateers to engage foreign enemy vessels.
(w) hen the necessary army is organized... for the protection of the coasts of the Philippine archipelago and its seas; then a secretary of the navy shall be appointed and the duties of his office added to this Constitution.
On May 1, 1898, the first ship handed by Admiral George Dewey to the Revolutionary Navy is a small pinnace from the Reina Cristina of Admiral Patricio Montojo, which was named Magdalo.
The Philippine Navy was established during the second phase of the Philippine Revolution when General Emilio Aguinaldo formed the Revolutionary Navy which was initially composed of a small fleet of eight Spanish steam launches captured from the Spaniards. The ships were refitted with 9 centimeter guns. The rich, namely Leon Apacible, Manuel Lopez and Gliceria Marella de Villavicencio, later donated five other vessels of greater tonnage, the Taaleño, the Balayan, the Bulusan, the Taal and the Purísima Concepción. The 900 - ton inter-island tobacco steamer further reinforced the fleet, Compania de Filipinas (renamed as the navy flagship Filipinas), steam launches purchased from China and other watercraft donated by wealthy patriots.
Naval stations were later established to serve as ships ' home bases in the following:
On September 26, 1898, Aguinaldo appointed Captain Pascual Ledesma (a merchant ship captain) as Director of the Bureau of the Navy, assisted by Captain Angel Pabie (another merchant ship captain). After passing of the Malolos Constitution the Navy was transferred from the Ministry of Foreign Relations to the Department of War (thereafter known as the Department of War and the Navy) headed by Gen. Mariano Trías.
As the tensions between Filipinos and Americans erupted in 1899 and a continued blockade on naval forces by the Americans, the Philippine naval forces started to be decimated.
The American colonial government in the Philippines created the Bureau of the Coast Guard and Transportation, which aimed to maintain peace and order, transport Philippine Constabulary troops throughout the archipelago, and guard against smuggling and piracy. The Americans employed many Filipino sailors in this bureau and in the Bureaus of Customs and Immigration, Island and Inter-Island Transportation, Coast and Geodetic Survey, and Lighthouses. They also reopened the former Spanish colonial Escuela Nautica de Manila, which was renamed the Philippine Nautical School, adopting the methods of the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis. The U.S. Naval Academy accepted its first Filipino midshipman in 1919, and Filipinos were able to enlist in the U.S. Navy, just as they were formerly able to do in the Spanish Navy.
In 1935, the Commonwealth Government passed the National Defense Act, which aimed to ensure the security of the country. This was criticized because it placed the burden of the defense of the Philippines on ground forces, which in turn, was formed from reservists. It discounted the need for a Commonwealth air force and navy, and naval protection was provided by the United States Asiatic Fleet.
"A relatively small fleet of such vessels,... will have distinct effect in compelling any hostile force to approach cautiously and by small detachments. ''
When World War II began, the Philippines had no significant naval forces after the United States withdrew the Asiatic Fleet following the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Imperial Japanese Navy. The Philippines had to rely on its OSP with headquarters located at Muelle Del Codo, Port Area, Manila, composed of five high - speed Thorneycroft Coast Motor Boat (CMB) 55 - foot (17 m) and 65 - foot (20 m) PT boats, also known as Q - boats, to repel Japanese attacks from the sea.
During the course of the war, the OSP were undaunted by the enemy 's superiority which they fought with zeal, courage and heroism. For its intrepid and successful missions and raids on enemy ships, the unit was dubbed the "Mosquito Fleet '' mainly because of its minuscule size, speed and surprise, it shown its capability to attack with a deadly sting. The unit was cited for gallantry in action when its Q - boats Squadron shot three of nine Japanese dive bombers as they were flying towards shore installations in Bataan. The OSP participated in the evacuation of high Philippine and U.S. government officials from Manila to Corregidor when Manila was declared an open city. Surviving personnel of the Offshore Patrol that did n't surrender after April 9, 1942 to the Japanese, conducted the recognized guerrilla and local military troops of the Philippine Commonwealth Army were hit - and - run attacks against the occupying Japanese forces until the return of U.S. Forces. By the end of the war, 66 percent of its men were awarded the Silver Star Medal and other decorations for gallantry in action.
In 1945, after the liberation of the Philippines, the OSP was reactivated and led by Major Jose Andrada, to reorganize and rebuild from a core of surviving OSP veterans, plus additional recruits. The OSP was strengthened in 1947 after President of the Philippines Manuel Roxas issued Executive Order No. 94. This order elevated the Patrol to a major command that was equal with the Philippine Army, Constabulary, and Air Force. The OSP was renamed the Philippine Naval Patrol, later on changed its name again to the Philippine Navy on January 5, 1951. The first commanding officer of the Navy, Jose Andrada, became its first Commodore and Chief. This was also the year when the naval aviation arm of the Navy was formed, now the Naval Air Group.
In 1950, Secretary of Defense Ramon Magsaysay created a marine battalion with which to carry out amphibious attacks against the Communist Hukbalahap movement. The next year, President Elpidio Quirino issued Executive Order No. 389, re-designating the Philippine Naval Patrol as the Philippine Navy. It was to be composed of all naval and marine forces, combat vessels, auxiliary craft, naval aircraft, shore installations, and supporting units that were necessary to carry out all functions of the service.
In the succeeding decades, the Philippine Navy organized the following units (aside from the Marines):
On Sunday June 25 1950, the existence of the Republic of Korea as a democratic nation was shattered when armored and infantry elements of the North Korean People 's Army crossed the border into Seoul. The surprise attack caught off guard the Republic of Korea Armed Forces who lacked the equipment to withstand a massive communist invasion.
On that same day, the United Nations Security Council Resolution Number 82 was enacted which calls for the immediate withdrawal of the belligerent forces from South Korea, after it went unheeded prompting the world body to pass UNSC Resolution number 83 calling on member countries to support militarily the ROK in deterring communist aggression.
Although having its own counter insurgency problem, the Philippines became the first South East Asian country to deploy troops in support of the UN cause and the Third member of the UN Body to do so... On September 7 1950 President Elpidio Rivera Quirino announced the historic decision of the deployment of Filipino Soldiers to the embattled republic. It fulfills the country 's obligation as a member and signatory of the United Nations and combating the spread of communism in the Asia - Pacific region.
Unknown too many, the Philippine Navy (PN) would actively participate in the Korean conflict. The Five Landing Ship Tanks (LST 's) of the Service Squadron of the Philippine Navy namely RPS Cotabato (T - 36) RPS Pampanga (T - 37), RPS Bulacan (T - 38), RPS Albay (T - 39) and RPS Misamis Oriental (T - 40) would serve as the workhorse in transporting the Filipino soldiers to and from Korea for five years. Another great significance for the service was the assignment of two Filipino Naval Officers at the Philippine Liaison Group - United Nations Command in Tokyo, Japan.
Quite unknown on the early days of the ROK, and the formation of the Korean Naval Defense Corps to the Korean Coast Guard (later becoming the Republic of Korea Navy), Filipino Naval Officers played a pivotal role as its brought in the first ships of the KCG to Korea from Subic Bay Naval Base. It was in August 1947 that then LTSG Ramon A Alcaraz PN (PMA ' 40) was designated as head of mission to ferry former US and British Royal Navy Auxiliary Motor Minesweepers that would form the backbone of the Korean Fleet, wherein their ports of destination were 3 of the 7 ROK Naval bases namely Chinhae, Pusan and Seoul. Another notable skipper of one of the ships to be transferred is LT Dioscoro E Papa PN (the Second Commandant of the Philippine Coast Guard). Later on, at the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 now Commander Ramon A Alcaraz would be the Service Squadron Skipper in which our Five Landing Ship Tanks (LST 's) served as the mainstay of the fleet in ferrying troops of the Philippine Expeditionary Force to Korea (PEFTOK) Battalion Combat Teams.
A notable naval role was the presence of then LCDR Emilio S Liwanag PN (PMA ' 38) as the logistics and artillery officer of the 10TH BCT who commanded a battery of 105mm howitzers during the battle. LCDR Liwanag is a graduate of the Advanced Infantry Gunnery Course at Fort William Mckinley in 1950 days prior to his deployment to Korea. Early on, as logistics officer LCDR Liwanag was also responsible in securing from an American depot a squadron of US made M24 Chafee light tanks and heavy weapons for the tenth 's reconnaissance and heavy weapons company.
During the 1960s, the Philippine Navy was one of the best - equipped navies in Southeast Asia. Many of the countries in the region gained independence between World War II and the 1960s. In 1967, the maritime law enforcement functions of the Navy were transferred to the Philippine Coast Guard. The duties stayed with the coast guard and in the 1990s it became an independent service under the Department of Transportation and Communications.
After the 1960s, the government had to shift its attention towards the Communist insurgency and this led to the strengthening of the Philippine Army and the Philippine Air Force while naval operations were confined to troop transport, naval gunfire support, and blockade.
The Cold War Era has reached its endpoint as tensions between the two ideological rivals, the United States and the Soviet Union, have simmered down as a result of the dissolution of the latter and the massive change of political system among its allies.
The fate of the US military bases in the country was greatly affected by these circumstances, aside from the catastrophic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 which engulfed the installations with ash and lahar flows. The nearby Clark Air Base was eventually abandoned afterwards, while the Philippine Senate voted to reject a new treaty for Subic Naval Complex, its sister American installation in Zambales. This occurrence had effectively ended the century - old US military presence in the country, even as President Corazon Aquino tried to extend the lease agreement by calling a national referendum, leaving a security vacuum in the region and terminated the inflows of economic and military aid into the Philippines.
Concerns about the Chinese incursion to the sea features claimed by the Philippines and other Southeast Asian States were more pronounced at the last years of the 20th century. This was more evident after the Chinese construction of a military outpost at the Mischief Reef on 1995. As a response, the Philippine Navy dispatched the BRP Sierra Madre and deliberately ran it aground in the Second Thomas Shoal, 5 miles near the Chinese Facility and South of the rumored oil - rich Reed Bank, which it maintains as its own station today. However it remains unable to protect other Philippine Reefs that have been reclaimed by the Chinese.
The importance of territorial defense capability was highlighted in the public eye on 1995 when the AFP published photographs of Chinese structures on Mischief Reef in the Spratlys.
Initial attempts to improve the capabilities of the Armed Forces happened when a law was passed in the same year for the sale of redundant military installations and devote 35 percent of the proceeds for the AFP upgrades. Subsequently, the legislature passed the AFP Modernization Act. The law sought to modernize the AFP over a 15 - year period, with minimum appropriation of 10 - billion Pesos per year for the first five years, subject to increase in subsequent years of the program. The modernization fund was to be separate and distinct from the rest of the AFP budget.
However, the Asian Financial Crisis struck the region on 1997. This has greatly affected the AFP Modernization Program due to the government 's austerity measures meant to turn the economy around after suffering from losses incurred during the financial crisis.
Several major ship classes acquired by the Philippine Navy thru the original AFP Modernization Program of 1995 were the Jacinto class corvette, the Tarlac class LPDs, and the Gregorio del Pilar - class frigate.
In 1998, following the bases ' closure, the Philippines - US Visiting Forces Agreement (VFA) was signed which contained guidelines for the conduct and protection of American troops visiting the Philippines and stipulated the terms and conditions for the American military to enter Philippine territory. The VFA is a reciprocal agreement that also outlines the requirements for Philippine troops visiting the United States. The Visiting Forces Agreement led to the establishment of the Balikatan exercises, an annual US - Philippine military exercise, as well as a variety of other cooperative measures including the Philippine Bilateral Exercises (PHIBLEX) between the naval forces of the two countries.
The next decade ushered a cordial relationship between China and its maritime neighbours including the Philippines until 2011, when tensions have risen again after consecutive incidents occurred in the disputed territories. In 2012, a Philippine surveillance aircraft identify Chinese fishing vessels at the - then Philippine - controlled Scarborough Shoal, causing the Philippine Navy to deploy BRP Gregorio Del Pilar to the area. In response, China sends surveillance ships to warn the Navy to leave the area, claimed by both countries, prompting a standoff. The two nations eventually agreed to withdrew their deployed vessels as the arrival of the typhoon season draws near.
Following a 3 - month standoff between Philippine and Chinese vessels around Scarborough Shoal, China informs the Philippines that Chinese coast guard vessels will remain permanently on the shoal as an integral part of their ' Sansha City ' in the Woody island of the Paracels, a separate archipelago disputed by China and Vietnam. Under the control of Hainan Province. the Chinese government plans the island - city to have administrative control over a region that encompasses not only the Paracels, but Macclesfield Bank, a largely sunken atoll to the east, and the Spratly Islands to the south.
The incidents with Chinese presence in the South China Sea prompted the Philippines to proceed with formal measures while challenging the Chinese activities in some of the sea features in the disputed island chain. Hence, the South China Sea Arbitration Case was filed by the Philippines in 2013 at the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS).
Reminiscent to what occurred on 1995, the Congress passed the Revised AFP Modernization Act of 2012, this was meant to replace the older AFP Modernization Act of 1995 signed during former Pres. Fidel V. Ramos ' term, when its 15 - year program effectivity expired in 2010.
Major naval assets programed for acquisition in this new modernization program iteration are 2 new Frigates and its shipborne AW159 anti-submarine choppers, among other equipment.
On April 2014, the Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement was signed by the representatives of the Philippine and US Governments, aimed at bolstering the military allianceof both countries. The agreement allows the United States to rotate troops into the Philippines for extended stays and allows the U.S. to build and operate temporary facilities on Philippine military bases for both American and Philippine forces ' use.
Both parties agreed to determine the military installations across the Philippines as covered by the pact, including the former US Subic Bay Naval Base and Clark Air Base, as well as several locations on Cebu, Luzon, and Palawan.
The Philippine Navy is administered through the Department of National Defense (DND). Under the AFP structure, the Chief of Staff, AFP (CSAFP), a four - star general / admiral (if the officer is a member of the Philippine Navy), is the most senior military officer. The senior naval officer is the Flag Officer - in - Command (FOIC), usually with a rank of vice admiral. He, along with his or her air force and army counterparts, is junior only to the CSAFP. The FOIC is solely responsible for the administration and operational status of the Navy. The FOIC 's counterpart in the U.S. Navy is the Chief of Naval Operations.
Currently the navy establishment is actually composed of two type commands, the Philippine Fleet and Philippine Marine Corps (PMC). It is further organized into seven naval operational commands, five naval support commands, and seven naval support units. Considering the vastness of the territorial waters that the Navy has to protect and defend, optimal deployment of naval resources is achieved through identification of suitable locations where the presence of these units are capable of delivering responsive services.
The Philippine Fleet, or simply the "Fleet '', is under the direct command of the Commander Philippine Fleet while the marine corps is answerable to the commandant, PMC (CPMC). The Flag Officer - In - Command (FOIC) has administrative and operational control over both commands.
The two Type Commands of the Philippine Navy are the:
The Philippine Navy has only one fleet, the Philippine Fleet. As a type command, the fleet has nine major units:
The Philippine Marine Corps evolved from a company of volunteers to three Marines Brigades, eleven Marine Battalion Landing Teams, a Combat and Service Support Brigade, one Reconnaissance Battalion, Training Center, Headquarters Battalion, Marine Security Escort Group and Marine Reserve Brigades, and various support and independent units.
The seven Naval Operation Commands are as follows:
NAVFORWEM and NAVFOREM were formed in August 2006 when Southern Command was split to allow more effective operations against Islamist and Communist rebels within the region.
The five Naval Support Commands are as follows:
The Naval Sea Systems Command (NSSC), formerly known as Naval Support Command (NASCOM), is the biggest industrial complex of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. It operates the country 's military shipyards, develops new technologies for the Navy, and conducts maintenance on all the Navy 's ships. NSSC 's principal facilities are at the offshore operating base at Muelle de Codo and at Fort San Felipe in Cavite City.
The Naval Education & Training Command (NETC) is the Philippine Navy 's institution of learning. Its mission is to provide education and training to naval personnel so that they may be able to pursue progressive naval careers. NETC is located in Naval Station San Miguel, San Antonio, Zambales.
The Naval Reserve Command (NAVRESCOM) organizes, trains, and keeps tabs on all naval reservists (which includes the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps Units midshipmen and midshipwomen). It is responsible for recalling reservists to meet sudden spikes in military manpower demand, as for war, rebellion or natural disaster. The NAVRESCOM is presently based at Fort Santiago, Manila. It was formerly known as the Home Defense Command.
The Naval Combat Engineering Brigade (NCEBde), more popularly known as the Seabees, is tasked with combat engineering and amphibious construction in support of Fleet - Marine operations. It executes under combat conditions the construction of roads, bridges and other vital infrastructures; the rehabilitation of piers, harbors and beach facilities; and harbor clearing and salvage works. Along with the Philippine Marine Corps, the NCEBde is also charged with the manning and security of naval garrisons in shoals and islands located in the West Philippine Sea. The motto of the Seabees is "We build, We fight! ''
The Naval Installation Command (NIC), formerly Naval Base Cavite, provides support services to the Philippine Navy and other AFP tenant units in the base complex, such as refueling, re-watering, shore power connections, berthing, ferry services, tugboat assistance, sludge disposal services and housing.
The eight Naval Support Units are as follows:
The names of commissioned ships of the Philippine Navy are prefixed with the letters "BRP '', designating "Barko ng Republika ng Pilipinas '' (Ship of the Republic of the Philippines). The names of ships are often selected to honor important people and places. The Philippine Navy is currently operating 3 frigates, 10 corvettes, 35 patrol boats, 9 assault crafts, 16 amphibious landing ships, and 10 auxiliary ships.
The Naval Air Group comprises naval air assets. It prepares and provides these forces for naval operations with assets mainly for maritime reconnaissance and support missions. The group 's headquarters is at Danilo Atienza Air Base, Cavite City.
In line with HPN General Order No. 229 dated 7 July 2009, the Philippine Navy has adopted new names for its bases and stations to pay homage to distinguished naval leaders. The new names, followed by the old names, are as follows:
The Philippine Navy, together with the entire armed forces as a whole, is embarking on its modernization program in line with the Philippine Navy Strategic Sail Plan 2020.
The following equipment listed below are either scheduled for delivery or in the planning stages for the next ' horizons ' of the AFP Modernization Program.
The Philippine Navy received the first batch of three Taiwanese - built Multi-purpose Attack Craft (MPAC), which are similar to the Swedish Combat Boat 90. These were presented during the 111th anniversary of the Philippine Navy in May 2009.
These MPACs are around 15 meters long and are equipped with a water jet system. They have a maximum speed of 40 knots (74 km / h) and could reach around 300 nautical miles (560 km) while traveling on a transit speed of 30 knots (56 km / h). They are made of welded aluminum and can carry 16 fully equipped soldiers and four crew members or a payload of two tons. The ships are armed with one 50 - caliber machine gun and two 7.62 mm machine guns.
Another MPAC, with modifications as compared to the first three units, was built by local company Propmech Corporation. It was received during the 114th anniversary celebrations of the Philippine Navy on 22 May 2012, with two more delivered on 6 August 2012. Up to 42 units are expected to enter service in the near future.
In 2013, the PN announced that another batch of three MPACs will be procured between 2013 and 2017 An invitation to bid was released in 2014, and it was also announced by the PN that the MPACs will be modernized, including the installation of better sensors and longer - ranged weapons like missiles.
In February 2016, the DND awarded the contract to build 3 new MPACs, which are larger than the current ones in service, to a joint venture of Philippine company Propmech Corporation and Taiwanese shipyard Lung Teh Shipbuilding Co. Ltd. A separate lot to acquire weapons systems was awarded to Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd. of Israel, to supply Mini Typhoon 12.7 mm RCWS with Spike - ER surface - to - surface missiles, plus ammunition and ILS.
Media reports of the Philippine Navy 's plan to purchase three offshore patrol vessels were made, although there were initially no details available regarding their specifications. However, only two units were listed as part of the priority items in the list for purchase between 2012 and 2016 presented by the armed forces to the House of Representatives ' committee on national defense and security last 26 January 2011.
On 6 May 2011, a solicitation notice was posted on the United States Federal Business Opportunities (FBO) website on behalf of the Republic of the Philippines for "a general purpose Offshore Patrol Vessel (OPV) ''.
Navantia submitted to Philippines the sophisticated patrol Avante 1800 to qualify for a bidding contest in 2013.
During ADAS 2016, there was a newly revised wish list presented by the Philippine Navy wherein a sudden requirement for an Ocean Patrol Vessel was included. Based on the October 2016 AFP memorandum, the PN plans to have 6 to 9 ships of this type to replace the exact number of WW2 - era ships presently in commission.
Reports as of May 2011 indicated that the Philippine Navy was eyeing the purchase of its first submarine not later than 2020, although no further details were provided. The "Philippine Fleet Desired Force Mix '' strategy concept publicly released in May 2012 indicates the requirement of at least three submarines for deterrence and undersea warfare to be available by 2020. Navy officials are said to be looking to acquire diesel electric powered submarines in 2018 -- 2023, or 2023 -- 2028.
A separate requirement for two anti-submarine helicopters worth Php 5.0 billion was also announced and would be funded by the AFP Modernization Program under the Medium Term Capability Development Program (MTCDP 2013 -- 2017).
On March 31, 2014, it was reported that the bidding for two anti-submarine helicopters worth Php5. 4 billion would start on April 24, 2014. AgustaWestland, which was considered the sole responsive bidder after a joint venture between Airbus Helicopters and PT Dirgantara Indonesia failed to meet the requirements during the 1st stage bidding. AgustaWestland went on to pass the 2nd stage bidding and post qualification stage, and was awarded the project by the DND by 1st quarter of 2016. AgustaWestland offered their AW - 159 Wildcat naval helicopter.
The "Philippine Fleet Desired Force Mix '' strategy concept publicly released in May 2012 indicated the requirement of at least 18 naval helicopters embarked on frigates and corvettes for anti-submarine warfare (ASW), over-the - horizon targeting (OTHT) for anti-ship missiles, and search & rescue (SAR).
In March 2016, the Philippines was reported to have signed a contract to acquire 2 AgustaWestland AW159 Wildcat anti-submarine helicopters.
This requirement came out during the recent visit to Italy of a Philippine delegation led by Defense Secretary Voltaire Gazmin. The Philippine DND delegation signed an agreement with their Italian counterparts for possible purchase of Italian weapons systems. This visit included inspections of combat ready ships of the Maestrale and Soldati classes of the Italian Navy, which are scheduled for retirement, with the earliest possibly by 2013. No indication of sales were made yet.
During the 2012 State of the Nation Address on 23 July 2012, the president announced that the Philippine Navy was canvassing for a frigate which would be delivered within 2013.
At a DND press conference held on 2 August 2012, it was announced that negotiations were currently ongoing for the acquisition of 2 Maestrale - class frigates. As of December 2012, the Italian defense minister Giampaolo di Paola confirmed that discussions were in the advanced stages. The negotiations for the Maestrale - class ships did not materialize any sale, with the Philippine government opting to buy new frigates instead.
On March 3, 2013, it was reported by the Philippine News Agency that a South Korean defense manufacturer had talked with the Department of National Defense regarding its requirements for two brand new frigates. The company offered the Philippine Navy varieties of the Incheon - class frigates. Other countries reported to have offered new frigates were the United States, Israel, Croatia and Australia.
In early October, DND announced the invitation to bid for the 2 brand - new frigates with an approved budget of Php18B. The package included a complete weapons system and must be delivered within 1,460 calendar days from the opening of the letter of credit. Pre-bidding was scheduled on October 11 and the first stage of bidding would be on October 25.
On Dec. 7, 2013, it was reported that four firms had qualified for the next stage of the bidding: Navantia Sepi (RTR Ventures) of Spain and South Korean firms STX Offshore & Shipbuilding, Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering and Hyundai Heavy Industries, Inc. It was also reported that Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers of India and STX France, SA of Europe qualified for the next stage of the bidding after the DND accepted the motions for reconsideration of the firms. The project was later on divided into two lots after consultation with the bidders. Lot 1 with an approved budget of Php 16 billion was for the acquisition of the ships (platforms), guns and missile launchers. Lot 2 with an approved budget of Php 2 billion was for the acquisition of munitions, missiles, and torpedoes.
After several years of processing the acquisition, a Notice of Award was issued to Hyundai Heavy Industries on August 2016, with a contract expected to be signed very soon after. HHI previously mentioned that it was offering a derivative of their HDF - 3000 frigate design. Contract negotiations for the acquisition of the two vessels have been centered on the Philippine Navy requirement to secure not only the frigate 's "design and technology transfers, but also training and skill sets to be applied to support a growth in Philippine shipbuilding capacity ''. This is intended to tie into the Philippine Navy Strategic Sail Plan 2020.
A contract was signed between the Department of National Defense and Hyundai Heavy Industries on October 24, 2016, based on the Notice of Award provided earlier. Delivery of the frigates are expected to be completed by 2020.
In addition to the new ships on bid, the navy is seeking to acquire two more frigates, probably used ones from the United States.
The Philippine Navy has also shown its interest in acquiring modified Oliver Hazard Perry - class frigates from Australia, namely the Adelaide - class frigates. There are 3 remaining ships of the class on active service in the Royal Australian Navy and are due to be replaced by the newly built Hobart - class destroyers.
It was reported that the Philippine Navy is in the market for four anti-submarine warfare (ASW) corvettes, each weighing at around 2,000 tonnes. IHS Jane 's reported on 8 August 2012 that the Philippine and Italian governments were in discussion for the possible purchase at least two Minerva - class corvettes.
The Department of Foreign Affairs and Department of National Defense separately provided statements on an impending transfer of a Pohang - class corvette to the Philippine Navy before the end of 2014. No specifics on the ship for transfer was released, although it was said to still be in active service as of June 2014.
After conducting the Joint Visual Inspection in Jinhae Naval Base in South Korea on April 2017, the Philippine Navy decided to finally accept the offer made by the South Korean government to transfer 1 corvette from the Pohang - class which was identified as the ROKS Chungju (PCC - 762). The ship is expected to be in service with the Philippine Navy by 4th quarter of 2017.
The Philippine Navy is also looking to acquire used warships from friendly countries, among those being considered are the decommissioned João Coutinho - class corvettes from Portugal as part of its plans to improve and renew its fleet of aging ships at the fastest possible time. The Philippine Navy is eyeing at least two ships as an initial requirement, with a follow - on third or fourth unit being considered should funding become available.
Based on the "Philippine Fleet Desired Force Mix '' strategy concept publicly released in May 2012, the Philippine Navy requires at least 12 corvettes for anti-submarine warfare (ASW) and with an embarked naval helicopter to be available by 2020.
On the 28 of April 2017, The Philippine Government officially announced that the Philippine Navy will negotiate for a Flight III Pohang - class corvette from South Korea to boost its capabilities.
In September 2013, the DND invited bidders for the Amphibious Assault Vehicles Acquisition Project of eight brand - new units of amphibious assault vehicles (AAV) for the Marines with Integrated Logistics Support (ILS) for the Philippine Navy, amounting to Php2. 5B. Delivery is required for 850 days from the opening of the letter of credit. This acquisition is part of the PN 's MRV / SSV or "Mother Ship '' Project, which will serve as a platform for insertion of troops in beaches in an event of military siege. By May 24, 2014, the DND announced that the South Korean firm of Samsung Techwin is the sole bidder for the DND - AFP 's eight brand new amphibious assault vehicles.
To equip the various vessels and aircraft newly acquired by the navy, these weapons were obtained / ordered:
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when does ice skating in the olympics start | Figure Skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics - wikipedia
Figure skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics was held at the Gangneung Ice Arena in Gangneung, South Korea. The five events took place between 9 and 23 February 2018.
A total of 148 quota spots were available to athletes to compete at the games. Each NOC could enter a maximum of 18 athletes, with a maximum of nine men or nine women. An additional six quota spots were made available for the team event. A further ten team trophy quotas (two in each discipline) were distributed to countries who qualified for the team event but not the discipline itself. This meant up to a maximum of 158 athletes could participate.
The following was the competition schedule for all five events. Sessions that included the event finals are shown in bold.
All times are (UTC + 9).
Skaters who only competed in the short program / dance. Skaters who only competed in the free program / dance.
Countries began announcing their entries in 2017. The International Skating Union published the complete list on 30 January 2018.
The following new ISU best scores were set during this competition.
The following National Olympic Committees earned spots to compete. 153 athletes from 32 nations were expected to participate, with number of athletes in parentheses. Malaysia made their Olympic debuts in the sport.
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who was the first round pick of the 2018 nfl draft | 2018 NFL draft - wikipedia
The 2018 NFL Draft was the 83rd annual meeting of National Football League (NFL) franchises to select newly eligible players for the 2018 NFL season. The draft was held on April 26 -- 28 at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas, and was the first draft to take place in an NFL stadium and the first to be held in Texas, which won out in a fourteen city bid. In order to be eligible to enter the draft, players must be at least three years removed from high school. The deadline for underclassmen to declare for the draft was January 15, 2018.
Five quarterbacks were selected in the first round for only the third time in the history of the draft; the first since the 1999 NFL Draft. Also, a pair of siblings -- safety Terrell Edmunds and linebacker Tremaine Edmunds -- were both drafted in the first round, marking the first time brothers have been selected in the opening round of the same draft.
In order to be eligible to enter the draft, players must be at least three years removed from high school. The deadline for underclassmen to declare for the draft was January 15, 2018.
The following is the breakdown of the 256 players selected by position:
In the explanations below, (PD) indicates trades completed prior to the start of the draft (i.e. Pre-Draft), while (D) denotes trades that took place during the 2018 draft.
Coverage of the draft was broadcast NFL Network and ESPN, with Fox also simulcasting NFL Network 's coverage of the first two rounds (serving as a prelude for Fox 's acquisition of Thursday Night Football for the 2018 season). ESPN aired coverage of the last four rounds on ABC, and aired secondary broadcasts of the first round on ESPN2 (featuring the panel of ESPN 's College GameDay, which also broadcast a special edition from outside AT&T Stadium as a pre-show for ESPN 's coverage) and in Spanish on ESPN Deportes.
Telecasts of the first round across all three broadcasters (which included the expansion of coverage to broadcast television) drew a combined Nielsen overnight household rating of 8.4, and total viewership of 11.214 million, making it the most - watched opening round since 2014. ESPN drew the largest single audience, with 5.336 million viewers, while Fox and NFL Network had a combined viewership of 5.74 million across both channels (3.776 and 2.005 million individually).
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what are the two types of circular motion | Circular motion - wikipedia
In physics, circular motion is a movement of an object along the circumference of a circle or rotation along a circular path. It can be uniform, with constant angular rate of rotation and constant speed, or non-uniform with a changing rate of rotation. The rotation around a fixed axis of a three - dimensional body involves circular motion of its parts. The equations of motion describe the movement of the center of mass of a body.
Examples of circular motion include: an artificial satellite orbiting the Earth at a constant height, a fan 's blades rotating around a hub, a stone which is tied to a rope and is being swung in circles, a car turning through a curve in a race track, an electron moving perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field, and a gear turning inside a mechanism.
Since the object 's velocity vector is constantly changing direction, the moving object is undergoing acceleration by a centripetal force in the direction of the center of rotation. Without this acceleration, the object would move in a straight line, according to Newton 's laws of motion.
In physics, uniform circular motion describes the motion of a body traversing a circular path at constant speed. Since the body describes circular motion, its distance from the axis of rotation remains constant at all times. Though the body 's speed is constant, its velocity is not constant: velocity, a vector quantity, depends on both the body 's speed and its direction of travel. This changing velocity indicates the presence of an acceleration; this centripetal acceleration is of constant magnitude and directed at all times towards the axis of rotation. This acceleration is, in turn, produced by a centripetal force which is also constant in magnitude and directed towards the axis of rotation.
In the case of rotation around a fixed axis of a rigid body that is not negligibly small compared to the radius of the path, each particle of the body describes a uniform circular motion with the same angular velocity, but with velocity and acceleration varying with the position with respect to the axis.
For motion in a circle of radius r, the circumference of the circle is C = 2π r. If the period for one rotation is T, the angular rate of rotation, also known as angular velocity, ω is:
The speed of the object travelling the circle is:
The angle θ swept out in a time t is:
The angular acceleration, α, of the particle is:
In the case of uniform circular motion, α will be zero.
The acceleration due to change in the direction is:
The centripetal and centrifugal force can also be found out using acceleration:
The vector relationships are shown in Figure 1. The axis of rotation is shown as a vector ω perpendicular to the plane of the orbit and with a magnitude ω = dθ / dt. The direction of ω is chosen using the right - hand rule. With this convention for depicting rotation, the velocity is given by a vector cross product as
which is a vector perpendicular to both ω and r (t), tangential to the orbit, and of magnitude ω r. Likewise, the acceleration is given by
which is a vector perpendicular to both ω and v (t) of magnitude ω v = ω r and directed exactly opposite to r (t).
In the simplest case the speed, mass and radius are constant.
Consider a body of one kilogram, moving in a circle of radius one metre, with an angular velocity of one radian per second.
During circular motion the body moves on a curve that can be described in polar coordinate system as a fixed distance R from the center of the orbit taken as origin, oriented at an angle θ (t) from some reference direction. See Figure 4. The displacement vector r → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (r))) is the radial vector from the origin to the particle location:
where u ^ R (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (R) (t)) is the unit vector parallel to the radius vector at time t and pointing away from the origin. It is convenient to introduce the unit vector orthogonal to u ^ R (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (R) (t)) as well, namely u ^ θ (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (\ theta) (t)). It is customary to orient u ^ θ (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (\ theta) (t)) to point in the direction of travel along the orbit.
The velocity is the time derivative of the displacement:
Because the radius of the circle is constant, the radial component of the velocity is zero. The unit vector u ^ R (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (R) (t)) has a time - invariant magnitude of unity, so as time varies its tip always lies on a circle of unit radius, with an angle θ the same as the angle of r → (t) (\ displaystyle (\ vec (r)) (t)). If the particle displacement rotates through an angle dθ in time dt, so does u ^ R (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (R) (t)), describing an arc on the unit circle of magnitude dθ. See the unit circle at the left of Figure 4. Hence:
where the direction of the change must be perpendicular to u ^ R (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (R) (t)) (or, in other words, along u ^ θ (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (\ theta) (t))) because any change d u ^ R (t) (\ displaystyle d (\ hat (u)) _ (R) (t)) in the direction of u ^ R (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (R) (t)) would change the size of u ^ R (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (R) (t)). The sign is positive, because an increase in dθ implies the object and u ^ R (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (R) (t)) have moved in the direction of u ^ θ (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (\ theta) (t)). Hence the velocity becomes:
The acceleration of the body can also be broken into radial and tangential components. The acceleration is the time derivative of the velocity:
The time derivative of u ^ θ (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (\ theta) (t)) is found the same way as for u ^ R (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (R) (t)). Again, u ^ θ (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (\ theta) (t)) is a unit vector and its tip traces a unit circle with an angle that is π / 2 + θ. Hence, an increase in angle dθ by r → (t) (\ displaystyle (\ vec (r)) (t)) implies u ^ θ (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (\ theta) (t)) traces an arc of magnitude dθ, and as u ^ θ (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (\ theta) (t)) is orthogonal to u ^ R (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (R) (t)), we have:
where a negative sign is necessary to keep u ^ θ (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (\ theta) (t)) orthogonal to u ^ R (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (R) (t)). (Otherwise, the angle between u ^ θ (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (\ theta) (t)) and u ^ R (t) (\ displaystyle (\ hat (u)) _ (R) (t)) would decrease with increase in dθ.) See the unit circle at the left of Figure 4. Consequently, the acceleration is:
The centripetal acceleration is the radial component, which is directed radially inward:
while the tangential component changes the magnitude of the velocity:
Circular motion can be described using complex numbers. Let the x axis be the real axis and the y (\ displaystyle y) axis be the imaginary axis. The position of the body can then be given as z (\ displaystyle z), a complex "vector '':
where i is the imaginary unit, and θ (t) (\ displaystyle \ theta (t)) is the argument of the complex number as a function of time, t.
Since the radius is constant:
where a dot indicates differentiation in respect of time.
With this notation the velocity becomes:
and the acceleration becomes:
The first term is opposite in direction to the displacement vector and the second is perpendicular to it, just like the earlier results shown before.
Figure 1 illustrates velocity and acceleration vectors for uniform motion at four different points in the orbit. Because the velocity v is tangent to the circular path, no two velocities point in the same direction. Although the object has a constant speed, its direction is always changing. This change in velocity is caused by an acceleration a, whose magnitude is (like that of the velocity) held constant, but whose direction also is always changing. The acceleration points radially inwards (centripetally) and is perpendicular to the velocity. This acceleration is known as centripetal acceleration.
For a path of radius r, when an angle θ is swept out, the distance travelled on the periphery of the orbit is s = rθ. Therefore, the speed of travel around the orbit is
where the angular rate of rotation is ω. (By rearrangement, ω = v / r.) Thus, v is a constant, and the velocity vector v also rotates with constant magnitude v, at the same angular rate ω.
In this case the three - acceleration vector is perpendicular to the three - velocity vector,
and the square of proper acceleration, expressed as a scalar invariant, the same in all reference frames,
becomes the expression for circular motion,
or, taking the positive square root and using the three - acceleration, we arrive at the proper acceleration for circular motion:
The left - hand circle in Figure 2 is the orbit showing the velocity vectors at two adjacent times. On the right, these two velocities are moved so their tails coincide. Because speed is constant, the velocity vectors on the right sweep out a circle as time advances. For a swept angle dθ = ω dt the change in v is a vector at right angles to v and of magnitude v dθ, which in turn means that the magnitude of the acceleration is given by
In non-uniform circular motion an object is moving in a circular path with a varying speed. Since the speed is changing, there is tangential acceleration in addition to normal acceleration.
In non-uniform circular motion the net acceleration (a) is along direction of Δv which is directed inside circle but does not pass through its center (see figure). The net acceleration may be resolved into two components: tangential acceleration and normal acceleration also known as the centripetal or radial acceleration. Unlike tangential acceleration, centripetal acceleration is present in both uniform and non-uniform circular motion.
In non-uniform circular motion, normal force does not always point in the opposite direction of weight. Here is an example with an object traveling in a straight path then loops a loop back into a straight path again.
This diagram shows the normal force pointing in other directions rather than opposite to the weight force. The normal force is actually the sum of the radial and tangential forces. The component of weight force is responsible for the tangential force here (We have neglected frictional force). The radial force (centripetal force) is due the change in direction of velocity as discussed earlier.
In non-uniform circular motion, normal force and weight may point in the same direction. Both forces can point down, yet the object will remain in a circular path without falling straight down. First let 's see why normal force can point down in the first place. In the first diagram, let 's say the object is a person sitting inside a plane, the two forces point down only when it reaches the top of the circle. The reason for this is that the normal force is the sum of the tangential force and centripetal force. The tangential force is zero at the top (as no work is performed when the motion is perpendicular to the direction of force applied. Here weight force is perpendicular to the direction of motion of the object at the top of the circle) and centripetal force points down, thus normal force will point down as well. From a logical standpoint, a person who is travelling in the plane will be upside down at the top of the circle. At that moment, the person 's seat is actually pushing down on the person, which is the normal force.
The reason why the object does not fall down when subjected to only downward forces is a simple one. Think about what keeps an object up after it is thrown. Once an object is thrown into the air, there is only the downward force of earth 's gravity that acts on the object. That does not mean that once an object is thrown in the air, it will fall instantly. What keeps that object up in the air is its velocity. The first of Newton 's laws of motion states that an object 's inertia keeps it in motion, and since the object in the air has a velocity, it will tend to keep moving in that direction.
A varying angular speed for an object moving in a circular path can also be achieved if the rotating body does not have an homogeneous mass distribution. For inhomogeneous objects, it is necessary to approach the problem as in.
Solving applications dealing with non-uniform circular motion involves force analysis. With uniform circular motion, the only force acting upon an object traveling in a circle is the centripetal force. In non-uniform circular motion, there are additional forces acting on the object due to a non-zero tangential acceleration. Although there are additional forces acting upon the object, the sum of all the forces acting on the object will have to equal to the centripetal force.
Radial acceleration is used when calculating the total force. Tangential acceleration is not used in calculating total force because it is not responsible for keeping the object in a circular path. The only acceleration responsible for keeping an object moving in a circle is the radial acceleration. Since the sum of all forces is the centripetal force, drawing centripetal force into a free body diagram is not necessary and usually not recommended.
Using F n e t = F c (\ displaystyle F_ (net) = F_ (c) \,), we can draw free body diagrams to list all the forces acting on an object then set it equal to F c (\ displaystyle F_ (c) \,). Afterwards, we can solve for what ever is unknown (this can be mass, velocity, radius of curvature, coefficient of friction, normal force, etc.). For example, the visual above showing an object at the top of a semicircle would be expressed as F c = n + m g (\ displaystyle F_ (c) = n + mg \,).
In uniform circular motion, total acceleration of an object in a circular path is equal to the radial acceleration. Due to the presence of tangential acceleration in non uniform circular motion, that does not hold true any more. To find the total acceleration of an object in non uniform circular, find the vector sum of the tangential acceleration and the radial acceleration.
Radial acceleration is still equal to v 2 / r (\ displaystyle v ^ (2) / r). Tangential acceleration is simply the derivative of the velocity at any given point: a t = d v / d t (\ displaystyle a_ (t) = dv / dt \,). This root sum of squares of separate radial and tangential accelerations is only correct for circular motion; for general motion within a plane with polar coordinates (r, θ) (\ displaystyle (r, \ theta)), the Coriolis term a c = 2 (d r / d t) (d θ / d t) (\ displaystyle a_ (c) = 2 (dr / dt) (d \ theta / dt)) should be added to a t (\ displaystyle a_ (t)), whereas radial acceleration then becomes a r = − v 2 / r + d 2 r / d t 2 (\ displaystyle a_ (r) = - v ^ (2) / r + d ^ (2) r / dt ^ (2)).
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give a brief account of the factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends | Electrical resistance and conductance - wikipedia
The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is a measure of the difficulty to pass an electric current through that conductor. The inverse quantity is electrical conductance, and is the ease with which an electric current passes. Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the notion of mechanical friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω), while electrical conductance is measured in siemens (S).
An object of uniform cross section has a resistance proportional to its resistivity and length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. All materials show some resistance, except for superconductors, which have a resistance of zero.
The resistance (R) of an object is defined as the ratio of voltage across it (V) to current through it (I), while the conductance (G) is the inverse:
For a wide variety of materials and conditions, V and I are directly proportional to each other, and therefore R and G are constant (although they can depend on other factors like temperature or strain). This proportionality is called Ohm 's law, and materials that satisfy it are called ohmic materials.
In other cases, such as a transformer, diode or battery, V and I are not directly proportional. The ratio V / I is sometimes still useful, and is referred to as a "chordal resistance '' or "static resistance '', since it corresponds to the inverse slope of a chord between the origin and an I -- V curve. In other situations, the derivative d V d I (\ displaystyle (\ frac (dV) (dI)) \, \!) may be most useful; this is called the "differential resistance ''.
In the hydraulic analogy, current flowing through a wire (or resistor) is like water flowing through a pipe, and the voltage drop across the wire is like the pressure drop that pushes water through the pipe. Conductance is proportional to how much flow occurs for a given pressure, and resistance is proportional to how much pressure is required to achieve a given flow. (Conductance and resistance are reciprocals.)
The voltage drop (i.e., difference between voltages on one side of the resistor and the other), not the voltage itself, provides the driving force pushing current through a resistor. In hydraulics, it is similar: The pressure difference between two sides of a pipe, not the pressure itself, determines the flow through it. For example, there may be a large water pressure above the pipe, which tries to push water down through the pipe. But there may be an equally large water pressure below the pipe, which tries to push water back up through the pipe. If these pressures are equal, no water flows. (In the image at right, the water pressure below the pipe is zero.)
The resistance and conductance of a wire, resistor, or other element is mostly determined by two properties:
Geometry is important because it is more difficult to push water through a long, narrow pipe than a wide, short pipe. In the same way, a long, thin copper wire has higher resistance (lower conductance) than a short, thick copper wire.
Materials are important as well. A pipe filled with hair restricts the flow of water more than a clean pipe of the same shape and size. Similarly, electrons can flow freely and easily through a copper wire, but can not flow as easily through a steel wire of the same shape and size, and they essentially can not flow at all through an insulator like rubber, regardless of its shape. The difference between copper, steel, and rubber is related to their microscopic structure and electron configuration, and is quantified by a property called resistivity.
In addition to geometry and material, there are various other factors that influence resistance and conductance, such as temperature; see below.
Substances in which electricity can flow are called conductors. A piece of conducting material of a particular resistance meant for use in a circuit is called a resistor. Conductors are made of high - conductivity materials such as metals, in particular copper and aluminium. Resistors, on the other hand, are made of a wide variety of materials depending on factors such as the desired resistance, amount of energy that it needs to dissipate, precision, and costs.
For many materials, the current I through the material is proportional to the voltage V applied across it:
over a wide range of voltages and currents. Therefore, the resistance and conductance of objects or electronic components made of these materials is constant. This relationship is called Ohm 's law, and materials which obey it are called ohmic materials. Examples of ohmic components are wires and resistors. The current - voltage (IV) graph of an ohmic device consists of a straight line through the origin with positive slope.
Other components and materials used in electronics do not obey Ohm 's law; the current is not proportional to the voltage, so the resistance varies with the voltage and current through them. These are called nonlinear or nonohmic. Examples include diodes and fluorescent lamps. The IV curve of a nonohmic device is a curved line.
The resistance of a given object depends primarily on two factors: What material it is made of, and its shape. For a given material, the resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area; for example, a thick copper wire has lower resistance than an otherwise - identical thin copper wire. Also, for a given material, the resistance is proportional to the length; for example, a long copper wire has higher resistance than an otherwise - identical short copper wire. The resistance R and conductance G of a conductor of uniform cross section, therefore, can be computed as
where l (\ displaystyle \ ell) is the length of the conductor, measured in metres (m), A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor measured in square metres (m2), σ (sigma) is the electrical conductivity measured in siemens per meter (S m), and ρ (rho) is the electrical resistivity (also called specific electrical resistance) of the material, measured in ohm - metres (Ω m). The resistivity and conductivity are proportionality constants, and therefore depend only on the material the wire is made of, not the geometry of the wire. Resistivity and conductivity are reciprocals: ρ = 1 / σ (\ displaystyle \ rho = 1 / \ sigma). Resistivity is a measure of the material 's ability to oppose electric current.
This formula is not exact, as it assumes the current density is totally uniform in the conductor, which is not always true in practical situations. However, this formula still provides a good approximation for long thin conductors such as wires.
Another situation for which this formula is not exact is with alternating current (AC), because the skin effect inhibits current flow near the center of the conductor. For this reason, the geometrical cross-section is different from the effective cross-section in which current actually flows, so resistance is higher than expected. Similarly, if two conductors near each other carry AC current, their resistances increase due to the proximity effect. At commercial power frequency, these effects are significant for large conductors carrying large currents, such as busbars in an electrical substation, or large power cables carrying more than a few hundred amperes.
The resistivity of different materials varies by an enormous amount: For example, the conductivity of teflon is about 10 times lower than the conductivity of copper. Why is there such a difference? Loosely speaking, a metal has large numbers of "delocalized '' electrons that are not stuck in any one place, but free to move across large distances, whereas in an insulator (like teflon), each electron is tightly bound to a single molecule, and a great force is required to pull it away. Semiconductors lie between these two extremes. More details can be found in the article: Electrical resistivity and conductivity. For the case of electrolyte solutions, see the article: Conductivity (electrolytic).
Resistivity varies with temperature. In semiconductors, resistivity also changes when exposed to light. See below.
An instrument for measuring resistance is called an ohmmeter. Simple ohmmeters can not measure low resistances accurately because the resistance of their measuring leads causes a voltage drop that interferes with the measurement, so more accurate devices use four - terminal sensing.
Many electrical elements, such as diodes and batteries do not satisfy Ohm 's law. These are called non-ohmic or non-linear, and their I -- V curves are not straight lines through the origin.
Resistance and conductance can still be defined for non-ohmic elements. However, unlike ohmic resistance, non-linear resistance is not constant but varies with the voltage or current through the device; i.e., its operating point. There are two types of resistance:
When an alternating current flows through a circuit, the relation between current and voltage across a circuit element is characterized not only by the ratio of their magnitudes, but also the difference in their phases. For example, in an ideal resistor, the moment when the voltage reaches its maximum, the current also reaches its maximum (current and voltage are oscillating in phase). But for a capacitor or inductor, the maximum current flow occurs as the voltage passes through zero and vice versa (current and voltage are oscillating 90 ° out of phase, see image at right). Complex numbers are used to keep track of both the phase and magnitude of current and voltage:
where:
The impedance and admittance may be expressed as complex numbers that can be broken into real and imaginary parts:
where R and G are resistance and conductance respectively, X is reactance, and B is susceptance. For ideal resistors, Z and Y reduce to R and G respectively, but for AC networks containing capacitors and inductors, X and B are nonzero.
Z = 1 / Y (\ displaystyle Z = 1 / Y) for AC circuits, just as R = 1 / G (\ displaystyle R = 1 / G) for DC circuits.
Another complication of AC circuits is that the resistance and conductance can be frequency - dependent. One reason, mentioned above is the skin effect (and the related proximity effect). Another reason is that the resistivity itself may depend on frequency (see Drude model, deep - level traps, resonant frequency, Kramers -- Kronig relations, etc.)
Resistors (and other elements with resistance) oppose the flow of electric current; therefore, electrical energy is required to push current through the resistance. This electrical energy is dissipated, heating the resistor in the process. This is called Joule heating (after James Prescott Joule), also called ohmic heating or resistive heating.
The dissipation of electrical energy is often undesired, particularly in the case of transmission losses in power lines. High voltage transmission helps reduce the losses by reducing the current for a given power.
On the other hand, Joule heating is sometimes useful, for example in electric stoves and other electric heaters (also called resistive heaters). As another example, incandescent lamps rely on Joule heating: the filament is heated to such a high temperature that it glows "white hot '' with thermal radiation (also called incandescence).
The formula for Joule heating is:
where P is the power (energy per unit time) converted from electrical energy to thermal energy, R is the resistance, and I is the current through the resistor.
Near room temperature, the resistivity of metals typically increases as temperature is increased, while the resistivity of semiconductors typically decreases as temperature is increased. The resistivity of insulators and electrolytes may increase or decrease depending on the system. For the detailed behavior and explanation, see Electrical resistivity and conductivity.
As a consequence, the resistance of wires, resistors, and other components often change with temperature. This effect may be undesired, causing an electronic circuit to malfunction at extreme temperatures. In some cases, however, the effect is put to good use. When temperature - dependent resistance of a component is used purposefully, the component is called a resistance thermometer or thermistor. (A resistance thermometer is made of metal, usually platinum, while a thermistor is made of ceramic or polymer.)
Resistance thermometers and thermistors are generally used in two ways. First, they can be used as thermometers: By measuring the resistance, the temperature of the environment can be inferred. Second, they can be used in conjunction with Joule heating (also called self - heating): If a large current is running through the resistor, the resistor 's temperature rises and therefore its resistance changes. Therefore, these components can be used in a circuit - protection role similar to fuses, or for feedback in circuits, or for many other purposes. In general, self - heating can turn a resistor into a nonlinear and hysteretic circuit element. For more details see Thermistor # Self - heating effects.
If the temperature T does not vary too much, a linear approximation is typically used:
where α (\ displaystyle \ alpha) is called the temperature coefficient of resistance, T 0 (\ displaystyle T_ (0)) is a fixed reference temperature (usually room temperature), and R 0 (\ displaystyle R_ (0)) is the resistance at temperature T 0 (\ displaystyle T_ (0)). The parameter α (\ displaystyle \ alpha) is an empirical parameter fitted from measurement data. Because the linear approximation is only an approximation, α (\ displaystyle \ alpha) is different for different reference temperatures. For this reason it is usual to specify the temperature that α (\ displaystyle \ alpha) was measured at with a suffix, such as α 15 (\ displaystyle \ alpha _ (15)), and the relationship only holds in a range of temperatures around the reference.
The temperature coefficient α (\ displaystyle \ alpha) is typically + 3 × 10 K to + 6 × 10 K for metals near room temperature. It is usually negative for semiconductors and insulators, with highly variable magnitude.
Just as the resistance of a conductor depends upon temperature, the resistance of a conductor depends upon strain. By placing a conductor under tension (a form of stress that leads to strain in the form of stretching of the conductor), the length of the section of conductor under tension increases and its cross-sectional area decreases. Both these effects contribute to increasing the resistance of the strained section of conductor. Under compression (strain in the opposite direction), the resistance of the strained section of conductor decreases. See the discussion on strain gauges for details about devices constructed to take advantage of this effect.
Some resistors, particularly those made from semiconductors, exhibit photoconductivity, meaning that their resistance changes when light is shining on them. Therefore, they are called photoresistors (or light dependent resistors). These are a common type of light detector.
Superconductors are materials that have exactly zero resistance and infinite conductance, because they can have V = 0 and I ≠ 0. This also means there is no joule heating, or in other words no dissipation of electrical energy. Therefore, if superconductive wire is made into a closed loop, current flows around the loop forever. Superconductors require cooling to temperatures near 4 K with liquid helium for most metallic superconductors like niobium -- tin alloys, or cooling to temperatures near 77K with liquid nitrogen for the expensive, brittle and delicate ceramic high temperature superconductors. Nevertheless, there are many technological applications of superconductivity, including superconducting magnets.
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who has the rights for world cup 2018 | 2018 FIFA World Cup broadcasting rights - wikipedia
FIFA, through several companies, sold the broadcasting rights for the 2018 FIFA World Cup to the following broadcasters.
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number of wastewater treatment plants in the us | Publicly owned treatment works - wikipedia
A publicly owned treatment works (POTW) is a term used in the United States for a sewage treatment plant that is owned, and usually operated, by a government agency. In the U.S., POTWs are typically owned by local government agencies, and are usually designed to treat domestic sewage and not industrial wastewater.
The term is used extensively in U.S. water pollution law (i.e. the Clean Water Act), regulations and programs. Many POTWs were established or expanded with grants or low - interest loans from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
There are over 16,000 POTWs in the U.S., serving 75 percent of the total population. The remainder of the population is served by decentralized or private septic systems. The POTWs treat 32 billion US gallons (120 gigalitres) of wastewater every day. Most POTWs are required to meet national secondary treatment standards.
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who has won the most english league titles | List of English Football champions - wikipedia
The English football champions are the winners of the highest league in English men 's football, which since 1992 - 1993 is the Premier League.
Following the legalisation of professional football by the Football Association in 1885, the English Football League was established in 1888, after a series of meetings initiated by Aston Villa director William McGregor. At the end of the 1888 -- 89 season, Preston North End were the first club to be crowned champions after completing their fixtures unbeaten.
Representing the first fully professional football competition in the world the league saw its early years dominated by teams from the North and Midlands, where professionalism was embraced more readily than in the South. Its status as the country 's pre-eminent league was strengthened in 1892, when the rival Football Alliance was absorbed into the Football League. Former Alliance clubs comprised the bulk of a new Second Division, from which promotion to the top level could be gained. It was not until 1931 that a Southern club were crowned champions, when Herbert Chapman 's Arsenal secured the title. Arsenal scored 127 goals in the process, a record for a title - winning side (though runners - up Aston Villa scored one goal more, a record for the top division).
Rules stipulating a maximum wage for players were abolished in 1961. This resulted in a shift of power towards bigger clubs. Financial considerations became an even bigger influence from 1992, when the teams then in the First Division defected to form the FA Premier League. This supplanted the Football League First Division as the highest level of football in England, and due to a series of progressively larger television contracts, put wealth into the hands of top flight clubs in a hitherto unprecedented manner. The first five champions in the Premier League era - Arsenal, Blackburn Rovers, Chelsea, Manchester City and Manchester United - had all won the title at least once prior to 1992. Leicester City were crowned champions for the first time in 2016, becoming the first (and to date only) team to win the Premier League without having previously won the First Division.
All the clubs which have ever been crowned champions are still in existence today and all take part in the top four tiers of the English football league system - the football pyramid. Sheffield Wednesday are the only club who have ever changed their name after winning a league title having been known as The Wednesday for the first three of their four titles.
Manchester United have won 20 titles, the most of any club. United 's rivals Liverpool are second with 18. Liverpool dominated during the 1970s and 1980s, while United dominated in the 1990s and 2000s under Sir Alex Ferguson. Arsenal are third; their 13 titles all came after 1930. Everton (nine) have enjoyed success throughout their history, and both Aston Villa (seven) and Sunderland (six) secured the majority of their titles before World War I. Huddersfield Town in 1924 -- 26, Arsenal in 1933 -- 35, Liverpool in 1982 -- 84 and Manchester United in 1999 -- 2001 and 2007 -- 09 are the only sides to have won the League title in three consecutive seasons.
Teams in bold are those who won the double of League Championship and FA Cup, or the European Double of League Championship and European Cup in that season.
Bold indicates Double winners -- i.e. League and FA Cup winners OR League and European Cup winners
Bold Italic indicates Treble winners -- i.e. League, FA Cup and European Cup winners
Teams in bold compete in the Premier League as of the 2017 -- 18 season.
See The Double and The Treble.
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which of the following describe the palms model of communication | Models of communication - wikipedia
Models of communication are conceptual models used to explain the human communication process. The first major model for communication was developed in 1948 by Claude Elwood Shannon and published with an introduction by Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories. Following the basic concept, communication is the process of sending and receiving messages or transferring information from one part (sender) to another (receiver).
The Shannon -- Weaver model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technology. Their initial model consisted of four primary parts: sender, message, channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person speaks into, the channel was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone through which one can hear the person on the other end of the line. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that there may often be static or background sounds that interfere with the process of the other partner in a telephone conversation; they referred to this as noise. Certain types of background sounds can also indicate the absence of a signal.
In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view of communication, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form (as spoken language) from an emissor / sender / encoder to a destination / receiver / decoder. According to this common communication - related conception, communication is viewed as a means of sending and receiving information. The strengths of this model are its simplicity, generality, and quantifiability. The mathematicians Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model on the basis of the following elements:
Shannon and Weaver argued that this concept entails three levels of problems for communication:
Daniel Chandler criticizes the transmission model in the following terms:
In 1960, David Berlo expanded Shannon and Weaver 's 1949 linear model of communication and created the Sender - Message - Channel - Receiver (SMCR) Model of Communication. The SMCR Model of Communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are communicated), source / emissor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver. Wilbur Schramm (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message. Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).
Communication can be seen as processes of information transmission governed by three levels of semiotic rules:
Therefore, communication is social interaction where at least two interacting agents share a common set of signs and a common set of semiotic rules. This commonly held rule in some sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communication via diaries or self - talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative competences within social interactions.
In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (1970) proposed a transactional model of communication. The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.
In a slightly more complex form, a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuses on how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will be interpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself. A particular instance of communication is called a speech act. The sender 's personal filters and the receiver 's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of "noise '' on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem with this encode - transmit - receive - decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a (code - book), and that these two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many conceptual difficulties.
Theories of co-regulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process, rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholar Harold Innis had the theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society. His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called ' Space Binding '. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and ' Time Binding ', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society.
There is an additional working definition of communication to consider that authors like Richard A. Lanham (2003) and as far back as Erving Goffman (1959) have highlighted. This is a progression from Lasswell 's attempt to define human communication through to this century and revolutionized into the constructionist model. Constructionists believe that the process of communication is in itself the only messages that exist. The packaging can not be separated from the social and historical context from which it arose, therefore the substance to look at in communication theory is style for Richard Lanham and the performance of self for Erving Goffman.
Lanham chose to view communication as the rival to the over encompassing use of CBS model (which pursued to further the transmission model). CBS model argues that clarity, brevity, and sincerity are the only purpose to prose discourse, therefore communication. Lanham wrote: "If words matter too, if the whole range of human motive is seen as animating prose discourse, then rhetoric analysis leads us to the essential questions about prose style '' (Lanham 10). This is saying that rhetoric and style are fundamentally important; they are not errors to what we actually intend to transmit. The process which we construct and deconstruct meaning deserves analysis.
Erving Goffman sees the performance of self as the most important frame to understand communication. Goffman wrote: "What does seem to be required of the individual is that he learn enough pieces of expression to be able to ' fill in ' and manage, more or less, any part that he is likely to be given '' (Goffman 73), highlighting the significance of expression.
The truth in both cases is the articulation of the message and the package as one. The construction of the message from social and historical context is the seed as is the pre-existing message is for the transmission model. Therefore, any look into communication theory should include the possibilities drafted by such great scholars as Richard A. Lanham and Goffman that style and performance is the whole process.
Communication stands so deeply rooted in human behaviors and the structures of society that scholars have difficulty thinking of it while excluding social or behavioral events. Because communication theory remains a relatively young field of inquiry and integrates itself with other disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, and sociology, one probably can not yet expect a consensus conceptualization of communication across disciplines.
Communication Model Terms as provided by Rothwell (11 - 15):
Humans act toward people or things on the basis of the meanings they assign to those people or things. - "Language is the source of meaning ''. - Meaning arises out of the social interaction people have with each other.
- Meaning is not inherent in objects but it is negotiated through the use of language, hence the term symbolic interactionism. As human beings, we have the ability to name things. Symbols, including names, are arbitrary signs. By talking with others, we ascribe meaning to words and develop a universe of discourse A symbol is a stimulus that has a learned / shared meaning and a value for people Significant symbols can be nonverbal as well as linguistic.
- Negative responses can consequently reduce a person to nothing. - Our expectations evoke responses that confirm what we originally anticipated, resulting in a self - fulfilling prophecy.
It is a one to and way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. In this model there is no feedback which may allow for a continuous exchange of information. This form of communication is a one - way form of communication that does not involve any feedback or response, and noise. (F.N.S. Palma, 1993)
It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message to the original sender. This model has added feedback, indicating that communication is not a one way but a two way process. It also has "field of experience '' which includes our cultural background, ethnicity geographic location, extent of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over the course of your lifetime. Draw backs -- there is feedback but it is not simultaneous.
Communication theory can be seen from one of the following viewpoints:
Inspection of a particular theory on this level will provide a framework on the nature of communication as seen within the confines of that theory.
Theories can also be studied and organized according to the ontological, epistemological, and axiological framework imposed by the theorist.
Ontology essentially poses the question of what, exactly, the theorist is examining. One must consider the very nature of reality. The answer usually falls in one of three realms depending on whether the theorist sees the phenomena through the lens of a realist, nominalist, or social constructionist. Realist perspective views the world objectively, believing that there is a world outside of our own experience and cognitions. Nominalists see the world subjectively, claiming that everything outside of one 's cognitions is simply names and labels. Social constructionists straddle the fence between objective and subjective reality, claiming that reality is what we create together.
Epistemology is an examination of the approaches and beliefs which inform particular modes of study of phenomena and domains of expertise. In positivist approaches to epistemology, objective knowledge is seen as the result of the empirical observation and perceptual experience. In the history of science, empirical evidence collected by way of pragmatic - calculation and the scientific method is believed to be the most likely to reflect truth in the findings. Such approaches are meant to predict a phenomenon. Subjective theory holds that understanding is based on situated knowledge, typically found using interpretative methodology such as ethnography and also interviews. Subjective theories are typically developed to explain or understand phenomena in the social world.
Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory development. Most communication theory is guided by one of three axiological approaches. The first approach recognizes that values will influence theorists ' interests but suggests that those values must be set aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings is particularly important in this approach to prevent individual researchers ' values from contaminating their findings and interpretations. The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from any stage of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not try to divorce their values from inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of their values so that they understand how those values contextualize, influence or skew their findings. The third approach not only rejects the idea that values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects the idea that they should be separated. This approach is often adopted by critical theorists who believe that the role of communication theory is to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those values in their research and theory development.
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who plays leslie mann's daughter in the jergens commercial | Leslie Mann - wikipedia
Leslie Mann (born March 26, 1972) is an American actress and comedian known for her roles in comedic films such as The Cable Guy (1996), George of the Jungle (1997), Big Daddy (1999), Timecode (2000), Perfume (2001), Stealing Harvard (2002), The 40 - Year - Old Virgin (2005), Knocked Up (2007), 17 Again (2009), Funny People (2009), Rio (2011), The Change - Up (2011), This Is 40 (2012), The Bling Ring (2013), The Other Woman (2014), Vacation (2015), and How to Be Single (2016).
Mann was born in San Francisco, California, and grew up in Newport Beach. She was raised "WASPy '' by her mother, a real estate agent who had married three times. Mann has stated of her father, "My dad is... I do n't really have one. I mean, he does exist, but I have zero relationship with him ''. She has two siblings and three older step - brothers. Her maternal grandmother, Sadie Viola Heljä Räsänen, was the daughter of Finnish immigrants.
Mann has said that she was "very shy, kind of pent - up '' during her youth. She graduated from Corona del Mar High School, and studied acting at the Joanne Baron / D.W. Brown Studio and alongside comedy improv troupe The Groundlings. She attended college and studied communications, but dropped out before graduating.
Mann began her career at 18 appearing in a number of television commercials. In 1995, Mann appeared in The Cable Guy (1996), followed with performances in Freaks & Geeks, Sam Weisman 's George of The Jungle alongside Brendan Fraser, Big Daddy with Adam Sandler, Orange County opposite Jack Black, and The 40 - Year - Old Virgin with Steve Carell.
In 2007, Mann starred alongside Seth Rogen and Paul Rudd in Judd Apatow 's comedy Knocked Up, which grossed more than $218 million worldwide. Mann 's performance in the film garnered her rave reviews as well as a "Best Supporting Actress '' nomination from the Chicago Film Critics Association. The film won the People 's Choice Award for "Favorite Movie Comedy '', was named one of AFI 's "Top Ten Films of the Year '', and received a nomination from the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for "Best Comedy ''.
In 2009, Mann reunited with her Big Daddy co-star Adam Sandler and Knocked Up co-star Seth Rogen for Apatow 's Funny People. This film was named to many of the year 's top ten lists including The New Yorker and The New York Times. Elle writer Mickey Rapkin said that "(Mann) owns the second half of 2009 's Funny People, where her character does the most unlikely thing a woman can do in a major studio picture: has an affair with an ex-boyfriend on a whim. '' That same year, Mann also starred in Burr Steers ' successful comedy 17 Again opposite Zac Efron and Matthew Perry, which grossed over $125 million worldwide.
She was also seen in the indie hit I Love You Phillip Morris alongside Jim Carrey and Ewan McGregor. The film premiered at the 2009 Sundance Film Festival and upon release was met with critical acclaim including a nomination for a 2011 Broadcast Film Critics Association Award in the category of "Best Comedy ''. Mann also starred alongside Elizabeth Banks in the film What Was I Thinking? based upon the book by Barbara Davilman and Liz Dubelman which was filmed in 2009 but never released.
In 2011, Mann starred opposite Ryan Reynolds and Jason Bateman in David Dobkin 's comedy The Change - Up. In addition, she lent her voice to "Linda '', the main human character in Carlos Saldanha 's animated film Rio, which garnered over $484 million worldwide and also featured vocal performances by Jamie Foxx and Anne Hathaway, as well as to Jonah Hill 's animated FOX television series Allen Gregory, as the title character 's second - grade teacher.
Mann continued her voice performance work in 2012 with her role in ParaNorman, an animated 3D, stop - motion film from writer / director Chris Butler.
In December 2012, Mann appeared opposite Paul Rudd in Judd Apatow 's This Is 40, the sequel to Knocked Up. The movie reunited the trio from the film, with Mann and Rudd reprising their characters. The film was written and directed by Judd Apatow, and included their two daughters in the cast. In contrast to Knocked Up, This Is 40 centered squarely on Mann 's character and her family. An early response on Mann 's performance from Elle Magazine states that "(she) does n't just walk off with scenes -- she steals the show ''. Mann was nominated for Best Actress in a Comedy by the Broadcast Film Critics Association for This Is 40.
In 2013, Mann appeared in Sofia Coppola 's The Bling Ring, with Emma Watson. Inspired by actual events, the film follows a group of fame - obsessed L.A. teenagers who burgled celebrity homes by tracking their whereabouts on the internet.
In 2014, Mann narrated "Women in Comedy '', an episode of season 2 of Makers: Women Who Make America.
On June 9, 1997, Mann married director and producer Judd Apatow, whom she met while auditioning for The Cable Guy (1996); Apatow, one of the film 's producers, read the lines to auditioning actresses as a stand - in for Jim Carrey. Mann and Apatow have two daughters, Iris and Maude, who both appeared in the films Knocked Up, Funny People, and This Is 40 as the children of Mann 's characters. In 2017, Mann and eldest daughter Maude appeared together in commercials for Jergens Skin Care products.
Mann and Apatow are both longtime supporters of the non-profit organization 826LA, which focuses on encouraging and developing the writing skills of disadvantaged youth. They are also involved with the UCLA Rape Treatment Center 's Stuart House, which serves the needs of sexually abused children and their families. Mann and Apatow 's philanthropic contributions were honored in 2012 by the Bogart Pediatric Cancer Research Program which awarded the couple the 2012 "Children 's Choice Award '' for their work with children and families, who are dealing with pediatric cancer. In 2009, the couple was also recognized by The Fulfillment Fund who honored them at their annual benefit gala.
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when does devils line episode 3 come out | List of the Game episodes - wikipedia
The list of episodes for The CW / BET sitcom The Game. A total of 147 episodes aired over nine seasons.
Joan Clayton (Tracee Ellis Ross) tries to persuade her cousin, Melanie Barnett (Tia Mowry), an aspiring med student, to pursue her career in medical school instead of putting her life on hold for her boyfriend (Pooch Hall) and waiting for his career to kick off.
When Melanie sends gifts to the football team on behalf of Derwin in honor of the first game, Derwin gets teased and his teammates Jason and Malik feel pressured to reciprocate. A gift giving competition ensues. Melanie sees the loyalty that Tasha and Kelly have to offer after her friend abandons her for Malik.
When Kelly 's daughter, Brittany (guest star Erica Gluck) tells her she wants an extravagant birthday party like the rest of her friends, Kelly approaches Jason for money and he refuses. Meanwhile, when Derwin beats Malik in a Xbox John Madden game, Malik takes the loss badly and repeatedly comes to Derwin for a re-match to redeem himself. Features Malik 's first reference to Derwin 's girlfriend as "Girl Melanie. ''
Guest stars: Barry Floyd as Terrence "Tee Tee '' Carter
After Tasha embarrasses Malik when he throws a house party, Malik feels disrespected & throws Tasha out. Meanwhile, Tasha & Kenny argue over their relationship 's secrecy, leaving Tasha to feel that she uses Malik to interfere with her personal life. Too Short guest stars
With Christmas approaching, the Sabers lose their final game and Melanie looks forward to going home to see her family and spending some quality time with Derwin. However, the Sabers soon discover they still have a chance at the playoffs, and Derwin asks Melanie to stay in town. When Melanie finds out the Sabers family is not interested in the holiday spirit, she decides to go home and spend the holidays with her family. Guest Star: Tahj Mowry
Although the Sabers lose their game and are eliminated from the playoffs, Derwin 's performance earns him the attention of a high - profile manager. Melanie is shocked when Derwin considers a proposal that he be traded to a team in Chicago. Meanwhile, Malik, taking the game loss really hard, decides to write a rap to vent his feelings, and Kelly and Jason try to hide their feelings about losing the game.
When Jason does n't get selected for the Pro Bowl game, he begins to question his future and starts planning for retirement. Meanwhile, Malik is selected for the Pro Bowl once again, but decides not to take Tasha with him to Hawaii, fearing she will embarrass him by trying to scout new clients.
When Malik finds out that the love of his life, model / actress Eva Marcelle (guest starring as herself) is getting married, he decides to use up - and - coming singer Drew Sidora (guest starring as herself) to make Eva jealous. Learning that she has been used, Drew turns to Derwin as a shoulder to cry on. Later, Drew asks Derwin to be in her new music video and their on - screen kiss leads to more than he anticipated.
Kelly is happy when she finds out Jason wants to have another baby. But when Tasha offers her a job at her management firm, Kelly has a quick change of heart. Meanwhile, when R&B singer Drew Sidora starts calling Derwin on a consistent basis, he realizes their recent flirtation has gone a step too far.
When Camille (guest star Jolie Jenkins), the wife of the newest star Saber, joins the Sunbeams, she decides to run against Kelly for president. Kelly expects Tasha to vote for her, however Tasha would rather have Kelly devote her full time to being her assistant. Meanwhile, Malik, Jason and Derwin have trouble getting along with the new Saber defensive star Ty.
Season 2 opens with Derwin trying to repair his relationship with Melanie after his infidelity with Drew Sidora was revealed. The two have a huge fight outside the hotel. But when Melanie shows up with Trey Wiggs (guest star Chaz Lamar Shepherd and Kadiatou Fofana) to collect her stuff and move out for good, Derwin gets upset. Meanwhile, Malik 's on - air kiss with Renee starts a frenzy of plus - sized women throwing themselves at him.
When Renee is unable to engage in romantic rendezvous with Malik after he invites her over and she learns that he lives with his mother; it prompts Malik to ask Melanie for advice, and eventually explain to Tasha that they need alternate their living arrangements. Meanwhile, Jason makes a far - out attempt to make peace with his new coach by hosting bible study for the team at his house.
After Melanie agrees to go out to dinner with Derwin, things take a turn for the worse when Melanie sees Drew kiss Derwin at the Music Video Awards. Melanie is distraught, but Malik encourages her to go on the date. Derwin decides to plan a surprise proposal with the help of R&B singer Musiq Soulchild, but Melanie believes he is still with Drew after Drew texts him. Assuming that she has been fooled again by Derwin, an intoxicated Melanie decides to get payback and tries to sleep with Malik.
Melanie makes Derwin think she slept with Malik, causing problems between those two; Tasha at first informs Melanie she has one month to find a new place to live, but forces her out after the incident. Elsewhere, Jason 's steroid use causes trouble in the bedroom, and in his relationship.
Malik confronts a cartoonist for ridiculing him in a comic strip. Elsewhere, Kelly threatens to leave Jason for someone who will appreciate her; and Tasha meditates with a top football player in an effort to sign him to her agency.
Malik fires Tasha as his manager after her failed attempt to resolve the embarrassing situation he was involved in. Elsewhere, Jason worries his career may be over when he is selected for a random drug test for steroids; and a rival sports manager offers to buy Tasha 's agency.
Melanie stays in San Diego to spend the holidays with Dionne after learning that she 's all alone, but when Dionne resurrects an ad deal with Derwin, she abandons Melanie to go to St. Barts with him and some ad execs, all before Derwin abandons Dionne.
Kelly takes Brittany and leaves Jason when he refuses to stop taking steroids. After a talk with Tasha, Jason realizes the sacrifices he needs to make & asks Kelly back, but not before she tells him they need to go to therapy; Derwin tries to impress a pretty woman but she sees through his facade.
Malik is set up on a date with a mean tennis pro (Serena Williams). While Malik tries to control her, Tasha attempts to sign her as a client; Kelly sets Melanie up on a date with Chad Johnson; Derwin starts dating a woman he met at Malik 's party. (Guest star Gabrielle Dennis).
Guest stars: Barry Floyd as Terrence "Tee Tee '' Carter. Gabrielle Dennis as Janay
Malik begins dating Robin Givens (guest starring as herself) and soon realizes that his methods to dating may have been working against him. Meanwhile, Jason suffers from depression after the championship.
After Melanie accepts a gift from Derwin, Jerome (Mehcad Brooks) begins to question her commitment to their relationship. Melanie tries to throw his questioning by planning a romantic get away trip in Los Angeles but her plans go awry once she realizes that the Sabers are celebrating in the same hotel that they are staying in. Derwin and Malik commiserate over losing Melanie and Robin Givens respectively. Tasha gets upset when she learns that Rick Fox (guest starring as himself) is being promoted to manager and she ends up sharing an intimate moment with him. Meanwhile, after firing his manager, Kelly tries to convince Jason to sign with Irv.
The new general manager of the Sabers seems more interested in getting to know Kelly than making a new deal with Jason. Kelly realizes that her marriage to Jason can not be saved. After tracking down Melanie to confess his love for her, Derwin ends up in a fight with Jerome. Malik also confesses his love for Robin Givens, who reveals she does n't like him back. Melanie confesses to Jerome that she 's still in love with Derwin. Derwin finds out that his ex-girlfriend Janay is supposedly pregnant with his child, and Melanie is seen standing outside his door.
Season 3 begins, after Melanie confesses to Derwin that she is still in love with him, Derwin shocks her with the news that Janay might be pregnant with his child. Kelly enlists help from her obnoxious parents, Bren and Nick (guest stars Lee Garlington and Don McManus), to keep Jason out of her life. Meanwhile, Malik is freaked out about his mom finding out that he married Robin Givens. Rudy Gay guest stars.
Although Rick Fox is crazy about Tasha and more than ready to go public with their new romance, Tasha borderlines on obsessive in her attempt to keep their relationship a secret from their co-workers. Malik begins to realize that his marriage may never have a happy - ever - after when Robin Givens seems more intent on getting publicity for their celebrity marriage than on spending time together as newlyweds. Melanie and Derwin try to resume their sex life, but Derwin 's stress about becoming a father may prove to be too big of a hurdle for the couple to overcome.
Hoping to get more publicity for their celebrity marriage, Robin Givens and Malik plan a belated wedding reception, but Tasha decides to boycott the party since she believes their marriage is a sham and wo n't support it. At the reception, Derwin and Melanie must face the reality of their complicated relationship after many people mistakenly congratulate Melanie on her pregnancy. Meanwhile, Rick Fox reluctantly introduces Tasha to his overly protective mother (guest star Penny Marshall), causing fireworks to ensue between the two headstrong women.
Attempting to move forward with her life after splitting with Jason, Kelly decides to plan a fun evening out on the town with her high school girlfriends, but leaving her "Mrs. Jason Pitts '' past behind her proves tougher than she ever imagined. Jason is also attempting to forget about his troubles with Kelly by going to one of Malik 's infamous wild parties, but the next morning he has a whole lot more to regret than having one too many drinks.
Melanie reluctantly turns to her parents for financial help when she learns that her grant money to cover for her tuition has been revoked and she has been placed on academic probation, Meanwhile, Derwin learns bad news from Irv about his contract negotiations. Tasha and Malik are shocked to learn that her boyfriend Rick and Malik 's wife Robin, were once in a relationship; and Kelly goes on her first date since separating from Jason. Melanie and Derwin have a heated argument over Derwin 's favoritism for his "son '' over her, resulting in Melanie leaving.
Robin Givens implies that Malik is gay on national TV and that it 's the reason for their breakup. Malik is then teased by his teammates and discovers one player is actually gay after an incident at Malik 's house, but is afraid to come out. Meanwhile, Derwin finds out Melanie was sleeping with a doctor at the hospital where she works.
Malik meets his father Chauncey (guest star Michael Boatman) for the first time. Meanwhile, Derwin and Janay rethink their relationship just as they are about to become parents, which is n't good news to Melanie.
Malik meets his half - sister, Pucci (guest star Lisa Tucker), and sees an unmistakably familiar tattoo on her lower back, causing him to wonder whether they may have slept together before they knew they were related. Tasha meets Chauncey 's wife, Sheila (guest star Tasha Smith), and realizes that Chauncey married someone who could be Tasha 's twin.
After breaking up with Janay once more, Derwin proposes to Melanie and she accepts after trying to rationalize; Tasha and Kelly throw an engagement party for Melanie and Derwin, but unfortunately, the festivities does n't run as smoothly as Melanie would have hoped. Jason brings Camille to the engagement party, forcing Kelly to come to terms with her ex 's new relationship. She turns around and invites Roman in an attempt to make Jason jealous. Tasha feels awful knowing that she was the person who set Jason up with Camille and that she is keeping that secret from Kelly.
After Janay has a false alarm, Melanie decides she wants to marry Derwin before the baby arrives, even if it meant sacrificing her dream wedding. Malik introduces his sister Pucci to a music producer named Ronnie and she goes to a party and gets drunk. Kelly rushes to Jason 's side after he is arrested for assault and put in jail. After rushing back to the studio to get Pucci home, Malik and Ronnie have a very tense moment before Tasha and their childhood friend and hitman Pookie (guest star Rockmond Dunbar) intervene and get things settled.
Guest stars: Barry Floyd as Terrence "Tee Tee '' Carter
On the day of Melanie and Derwin 's wedding, Kelly announces she and Jason may get back together, so Tasha comes clean about her introducing Jason and Camille. Kelly does n't take the news well and she attacks Tasha. During the ceremony, Derwin gets a call from Janay that the baby is coming and Melanie tells him to go to the hospital. After Jason 's court hearing, Jason leaves with Camille and Kelly is seen crying after realizing she and Jason will not be getting back together. During the last scene, we see Rick come back to Tasha, Melanie and Derwin looking at the baby through the window and Melanie and Derwin finally get married in private.
In the fourth season, Derwin is the face of Nike. Tasha is representing Derwin. Jason seems to be heading for a career as an on - air sports personality. Melanie is still having issues with Derwin having a baby with Janay (it 's been 2 years Mel. Come on...). Derwin is the San Diego Sabres franchise player. Malik is sleeping with the team owner 's wife (played by Megan Good). Melanie did not do her residency, but instead opted to just be a wife (Part of me asks, "You went through all of that and you 're not practicing?! '' but then the lawyer in me says, "I understand. ''). Kelly is filming a reality TV show called Ex-Ballers Wives (as opposed to Ballers Ex-Wives... POW!). Melanie 's insecurity leads her to sneak and swab Derwin 's son 's cheek for a DNA test.
Tasha sits down with Kelly and apologizes to her, all while the cameras are rolling for Kelly 's reality show. (This seems like a punk move on Tasha 's part, but I 'm glad the duo is back. At least we wo n't have to see Tasha running from Kelly anymore). Melanie tells Tasha and Kelly that DJ really is Derwin 's son. Jason gets cut from the Sabers. (It wo n't be the same without Jason in the locker room... speaking of, I do n't think we 've seen it yet, have we? Some of the best scenes in past seasons were in the locker room). Jason landed a hosting spot on Benched alongside Chris Webber. (Does this mean Chris is going to become a regular on the show? * thumbs up *). Jason goes in on Derwin and Malik on the show. Janay knocks on Derwin and Melanie 's door with papers in her hand. Melanie panics and tells Derwin that the lab made a mistake and that DJ really is his son. (Insert Derwin 's fist into wall... again). Janay tells Derwin that she will see him in court to sort out custody and child support. She tells him the $10,000 a month he is currently giving her is n't cutting it anymore. Derwin tells Melanie that she ca n't fix this and that she is the problem. (Melanie and her insecurities have always been a problem). Derwin goes to see Jason on set and Jason gives him the name of his divorce attorney. Malik talks Derwin out of seeking a divorce. (Is this the same Malik who is sleeping with the team owner 's wife? Oh ok...). Jason and Chris are at a party and Jason gets on stage and raps and does the "Dip & Pitts. '' (Please do n't try this in the club). Derwin gives Melanie some conditions if they are to stay together: she can not ever mention Janay or DJ to him again (whoa! This is going to be interesting) and she must start attending church with him every Sunday.
Malik 's trouble continues and he gets himself arrested while driving drunk in the middle of the night and it jeopardizes his career. Melanie becomes overwhelmed while hosting a charity event, and Jazz, a former groupie, gives Melanie a little dose of reality.
Backed into a corner, Malik turns to the Sabers ' new owner for help; Derwin worries about his own reputation and Malik 's social and legal troubles. Malik decides to go to rehab after much advisement.
After Malik is pushed to the limit in rehab when he confesses that he 's only there to make himself look better to the public and that he does n't really need help, he gets into an altercation with Derwin in a club; Derwin and Jason then convince a clearly shaken up Malik to go back to rehab. Meanwhile, Kelly tries to stay involved with the Sunbeams, which forces Melanie to confront her; Rick asks Tasha out, causing Dante to break up with Tasha.
Kelly tries to stay relevant as her reality show struggles; Malik searches for the root of his troubles. Special guest star: Fabolous
Melanie tries to spice things up with Derwin; Malik wants to put his life back in order but faces problems that are difficult to resolve.
Special guest star: Mo'Nique Guest star: Annie Ilonzeh
Tasha keeps an eye on Brittany at Jason 's request; Melanie 's relationship with her parents changes as a result of her marriage.
Special guest star: Magic Johnson
Malik plans to end his affair with Parker; however, Parker later reveals the affair to her husband, who vows to make Malik 's life miserable. Tasha 's lie about her relationship with Dante is exposed.
Tasha copes with her new boyfriends illness by making a bucket list for the two of them; Malik learns his job is in jeopardy; and Melanie and Derwin discuss having kids.
In the Season 4 finale, Melanie and Derwin see a fertility specialist; Jenna chooses not to reconcile with Malik; and Tasha has an upsetting run - in with Bo; an unexpected deal strains Melanie and Tasha 's friendship.
On April 12, 2011, it was announced that The Game was renewed for a fifth season, consisting 22 episodes. It was announced on the 2011 BET Awards Pre-show that it will begin in January 2012. This is Tia Mowry - Hardrict 's last season to appear and returns in the series finale.
In the fifth season premiere, Season 5 opens with Melanie, The episode opened with Melanie stating that she had an abortion, Tasha and Malik standing for Jenna 's body and realizing she 's dead, and Jason realizing he 's married. The clock rewinds to 12 hours earlier and Mel and trying to convince Derwin that she did n't do it. Mel then runs into McHottie outside of the hospital. Jason wakes up in bed next to a woman played by Selita Ebanks. Malik carries Jenna into the house and Tasha tries to convince him to call 911. Malik says he can fix it because her modeling career ca n't take a hit and that calling 911 is like calling TMZ. Mel and Derwin are having a party for DJ and Derwin apologizes for making Mel feel bad earlier and for letting her go through it alone. He assumes the baby was his and that it happened when they were in college. He pointed to the fact that she gained weight in college and then came back from summer break and was skinny again. By the look on Mel 's face, it 's obvious that Derwin is wrong. Tee - Tee finds Tasha crying in the hall and asks what 's wrong. She says she messed up by dropping Derwin as a client and taking Malik steps into the hall to get the food Tee - Tee brought and then goes back in the bathroom and finds Jenna gone. Jason meets a bartender in the club played by Brandy and they do n't hit it off. Melanie and Derwin run into Trey Wiggs with his wife and daughter. They invite them to DJ 's party the next day. A woman shows up at Malik 's house with a gun to collect $55,000 from Jenna. Jason runs into his daughter kissing a guy outside of the theater whose white. Jason asks how many black guys has she dated and Britt is grossed out by the idea of dating a black guy and says, "You know how we do. '' Jason tries to defend himself and say he dated a black woman, Camille. As they look for Jenna, Malik explains that Jenna was there for him at his worst in rehab and that he would n't have made it through without her so he has to be there for her at her worst. Tasha tells him that all of her eggs are in his basket. Tee - Tee tells Tasha that she needs to go back to Derwin and to stop letting Malik dictate her life. Mel and Derwin talk about McHottie while Derwin is sitting on the toilet and wants to know how he found out about McHottie. He says, "What 's done in the dark will come to the light. '' Mel decides to confess that the baby was Trey 's. Derwin asks her why she did n't just let him believe the baby was his and that she had an out. Mel brings up him sleeping with Drew Sidora and Derwin asks if she 's trying to say it 's his fault. Derwin tells her that her lies affect him. She said she never wanted him to know and that she planned to take that to her grave, but now she wants to move on. Derwin says that he ca n't do that tonight and leaves. Mel and Derwin talk about McHottie while Derwin is sitting on the toilet and wants to know how he found out about McHottie. He says, "What 's done in the dark will come to the light. '' Mel decides to confess that the baby was Trey 's. Derwin asks her why she did n't just let him believe the baby was his and that she had an out. Mel brings up him sleeping with Drew Sidora and Derwin asks if she 's trying to say it 's his fault. Derwin tells her that her lies affect him. She said she never wanted him to know and that she planned to take that to her grave, but now she wants to move on. Derwin says that he ca n't do that tonight and leaves. Malik is performing CPR on Jenna and the lady with the gun comes up and stabs her with a needle and she starts breathing again.
Tasha tries to persuade Malik to make an appearance at J.J. Abrams kid 's party and he agrees. He says he does n't want to block all the hard work she 's been doing. Derwin comes home and tells Mel he got the Verizon endorsement. Mel said she thought that deal went away with Tasha. Derwin says that Irv hooked it up and that he re-signed with Irv. Melanie says to stop letting her in on all his decisions. Mel asks what happened to her being the CEO of the family. Derwin says she is CEO of the family, but Irv is CEO of the business. He says if Irv starts losing they will dump him just like Tasha. He says he 's responsible to Mel, DJ, and kind of Janay, which Mel does n't like. He then scratches Janay. Mel threatens to stop doing what he likes if she 's no longer the CEO. Derwin makes her the boss of Irv. Malik calls his accountant (played by Steve from Sex and the City) in and asks why he did n't pay the gardener. He says it 's because he has no money and what he has in his new contract is only half of what he owes. Accountant puts him on a budget of $25,000 a month and Malik says that 's not enough. The accountant then hints that he needs to sell one of his babies (his cars). Melanie meets with Irv to discuss Derwin 's endorsement with Verizon. Irv starts coughing and then asks for water with lemon and keeps asking for more stuff. Mel says Derwin should do Jimmy Fallon. Irv tells his assistant to book him on Letterman since he already has the Fallon audience. Tasha calls Irv about the Verizon deal and says that she initiated the deal and wants to sue him and Derwin. Mel asks him when was he going to tell her this. They take Malik 's car away. Tee - Tee shows up and tells Malik how well his wing truck 's doing. Malik asks his accountant if he has a part of that and he reminds him that he took a Rolex. Irv meets with Tasha and a mediator and Melanie shows up unexpectedly. Melanie says that she and Tasha have their differences, but they can be civil. Melanie says that Tasha was not responsible for the endorsement and that she may have initiated it, but Irv sealed the deal. She offers her an amount on paper and Tasha smokes the paper it 's written on. Tasha pulls out her evidence of her work on the Verizon deal: the calls she made, the calls they made to her, etc. The last piece of evidence was a text from Melanie telling Tasha great job on the Verizon deal. The mediator tells them that Tasha is to receive her 10 % on his earnings from the deal in perpetuity. Tasha takes a jab at Melanie and tells her to go home and cook some chicken and have a baby, but then says she forgot that she ca n't do either and not to come for her. Malik and Tee - Tee go out and Malik offers to pay knowing his money is tight. Estelle shows up at the club and Malik says that the rule is that if a celebrity shows up at the club after you, you have to send over a bottle. Shawn Marion then shows up and Malik says since this is San Diego he 's going to be expected to pay his bill too. Derwin tells Mel she was never the boss of Irv and that Irv was running everything by him. He tells her she is not the CEO, President, Vice President or Manager and just wants her to be his wife. She says that he just wants her to shut up and spread her legs when he wants. Mel said she did n't give up her career to sit on the sidelines. He said he did n't ask her to give up her career. Mel said this is why she gave up her career and Derwin would n't be who he is without her. Derwin says he 's the one catching those balls on Sundays. Mel says, "well, thanks for letting me know where I stand. '' Malik foots the bill at the club for everyone. Derwin gets in bed with Melanie to apologize. He tries to cuddle with her and she pushes him away. He says he does n't know if he would be here without her, but he does n't want to be here without her and he loves her. He demands that she let him cuddle her and she lets him. Tasha shows up at the club to pay Malik 's tab and asks if he has to be every stereotype.
Jazz and Tasha talk about Tasha 's house and Tasha says that she had to move out of the big house because she was maintaining too many people there like the gardener. Jazz asks if she 's sure it was n't because of the ghosts of Dante and Rick Fox. Tasha asks Jazz if she 's gotten her kids back from the state yet. Tasha and Mel have words regarding Tasha coming out on top in the Verizon deal. The Sunbeams are planning a fashion show and Tasha has recruited Nene from Real Housewives of Atlanta as a fashion designer for "Volumptious '' and Mel asks if she means Voluptuous and Nene says no. The Sabres are in the locker room and complaining about the coach. Javon tells him to chill before he ends up on the bench like Malik. Malik blames Derwin for him being benched for the new quarterback, Kwan. Derwin makes an attempt to bond with Kwan, but Kwan is not interested. Mel is getting ready for a movie premiere that she and Derwin have to attend. Derwin complains about Kwan and Mel complains about Tasha making the Sunbeams ghetto. Mel tells Derwin that Kwan should show him respect since he is the team captain and Derwin tells Mel that Tasha needs to show her respect as President of the Sunbeams. Jason and Chardonnay have a date, but Jason tries to back out. Chardonnay tells him that she promised her friends that they would meet him. One of her friends calls Jason "brother '' to his surprise. They have a discussion about driving while black and Jason says everything is n't about race. He says that he gets pulled over all the time and the police just want his autograph. Chardonnay informs him that they pull him over for being black and driving a nice car and only ask for his autograph when they realize who he is. The Sunbeams discuss the fashion show and one of the Sunbeams says that the show needs new direction. One says that Mel could not be there because she is home trying in vitro fertilization. Tasha points out that the fashion show has been successful under her direction for years. The Sunbeams says imagine how much more successful it could be with a real fashion show. They vote and Tasha wins. Jason goes shopping at DTLR and gets stopped at the door when the sensor goes off. He tells the lady that not all black people are thieves. She says his cashier forgot to remove the sensors. Jason almost gets hit walking out of the store and the guy screams, "Shut up, blackie. I could have hit you. '' In the locker room Derwin tells everyone that he is taking them out to tear up the town. He asks Kwan if she 's going to roll with them and Kwan says, "no, I 'm good. '' Derwin asks him what does that mean; is n't he part of the team. Kwan says that he is not there to be his buddy and that he is not his Malik, his Jason, or his Javon. He says he 's there to win championships. He says it 's getting kind of suspect asking them out. Some of the guys laugh and Derwin tells them to be cool with that. The other guys back out of hanging out with him. Malik laughs and tells Derwin, "Just when you think somebody 's your boy. Crazy, huh? '' Jason is at the bar where Chardonnay works and a guy asks him if that 's his coat. Jason says yes, it 's his coat and asks if he ca n't wear a coat because he 's from Africa. Jason kisses Chardonnay at the bar. The Sunbeams meet again about the fashion show. Tasha says she 's got half of Jodeci and needs money. A Sunbeam calls Mel on speakerphone who wants to take charge. Tasha tells Mel that she 's just a wannabe and that she wants to be more than what she is which is a baller 's wife who does n't do anything.
Absent: Barry Floyd as Terrence "Tee Tee '' Carter
Jason and Chardonnay are on a date at the movies. Jason admits that he likes hanging out with Chardonnay and says after the annulment they should keep seeing each other. She says she does n't think so and that they agreed that after the annulment they would go their separate ways. Malik arrives at the set of The Pitts Show and finds Derwin there as well. They figure out that Jason set them up to try to squash their beef. Jason admits he staged it. Jason tells them he got married to a black woman. They ask, "Black black? '' He tells them he met her, they got drunk, and ended up in Tijuana. Malik says he almost married Chardonnay. Jason says that 's a different Chardonnay. He says that she 's spunky and she 's showing him things. Derwin tells him to pull out of the annulment because that 's probably why Chardonnay is tripping about continuing to see each other. Malik suggests that he let her go and if she comes back to him, it 's meant to be. Derwin suggests that Jason open up and show her more of himself. Derwin and Melanie just made love and Mel says she 's trying to stay on top of her ovulation schedule. They are getting ready for church and Derwin does n't want to be late. Mel tells Derwin that she changed churches and that the pastor is holding service until they get there. They run into the Mayor at church and he calls them the real first couple of San Diego. They sit next to DeRay Davis and Mel says he was in Jumping the Broom (which Pooch was in too). Derwin says, "This church has a VIP section. '' Mel says, "It 's just like heaven. Not everyone can get in. '' Mel says that Derwin has n't said a word since church. Derwin says that he is n't used to some of the things at the church, like a massage from the usher. Mel says that they are paying big bucks to the church. Derwin says that they can go back to the old church or stay at the new one and sit in the back like the regular people. Mel says that she does n't want to sit in coach. She says VIP at church stands for Very Important Protection. Jason is at the bar where Chardonnay works and they are watching his broadcast. On the broadcast he gives her a shout out without actually saying her name and asks if they can start again. She says that they are at different places in their lives. She says she 's 32 and not 22. She says that she wants it all and deserves it all and she does n't think he can give her that. He says she 's not the only woman in San Diego and there are other catfish in the sea. He goes on a movie date with another woman. Jason tries doing the same things that he did on the date with Chardonnay like sneaking food in, talking to the screen, but the new date is embarrassed and leaves him. Jason arrives at Tasha 's hotel room and says he needs her help in understanding the black woman. He says he went out with 3 of them and he did n't click with any of them. He says he 's trying to figure out why this woman would pass up an opportunity to be with him, Jason Pitts. Tasha says that 's the problem. He is n't used to women not wanting to be with him, especially since he 's now a washed up ex-athlete. Tasha says that the black woman is so desperate to be in a relationship with a good, black man that she will wait around for one and then let him act a fool when she gets one. He asks how does he get his black woman to want to be with him. She says to accept her on her terms and be honest. She also suggests that he read Act Like a Lady, Think Like a Man and says that Steve Harvey is a prophet. Derwin and Melanie go back to the church and sit in the back. A man sitting behind them asks for an autograph. A lady takes a picture of him with her cell phone. Mel says that she ca n't hear from back there. The man next to Derwin asks if he can hold a little something. Derwin says that he does n't have it. A woman gets up to give a praise report and says that her daughter was sick and she 's lost her car and her job and just asks the church to pray for her. Jason goes to the bar and tells Chardonnay that he really cares about her. he asks if that 's why he went out with 3 of her friends. He says that she knows he does n't know any other black women. He tells her that he 's not going to be driven by his ego anymore. He says that he 's not going to pretend that he does n't have an ego. He says that he is n't at the same place as her, but he wants to try to get there. Chardonnay says that her "bull - radar '' is off the charts right now. Jason tells her what Tasha told him about the black woman 's plight. He tells her that he wants her and that he needs to show her. He asks her to take a leap of faith with him and give them a shot. She says ok. She says she will give him the 4 weeks until the annulment.
Star Jones interviews Malik about living in a hotel and his old home. Malik says that building his old home and losing it have been a blessing. Melanie and Derwin watch at home and Melanie boos them. Star asks Malik about his shoulder injury and if he is concerned about the number of wins Kwan has and if the Sabers will want him back. Tasha guarantees that he will be back on the field playing for the Sabers. Melanie asks Derwin if he 's coming to bed. Derwin gets a call from Malik and Derwin asks why he 's calling because Mel will be mad if she finds out he 's talking to him. Mel enters the room and asks who he is talking to and Derwin says his Gram. Derwin, Malik, and Tee - Tee are hanging out in the stadium. Malik says he can throw the ball and hit a post. He makes it and it 's caught on video. The video becomes a You Tube hit and goes viral. Derwin asks Malik if it gets him hype that the fans are behind him. Derwin says that they lost the last game because of Kwan. They start joking on Quan and say he 's like an R&B singer and begin singing and dancing. Mel comes in and catches them hanging out and is upset about it. Mel asks Derwin how could he hang out with him, because they are supposed to hate each other. Derwin says he needs Malik and Kwan is out of control. Derwin says Malik is right and she needs to make up with Tasha. Mel says it 's because of him wanting her to do all of his dirty work that she ca n't talk to Tasha. Derwin says women have n't mastered interpersonal relationships. Mel says that she thinks Derwin is using Malik and Derwin says yes, but this is how they can become friends again. Malik tells Tasha he is back. Tasha says she saw the video and asks if that 's Derwin in the video and asks how could he. Tasha says him being hugged up with Derwin is not helping her. Malik asks Tasha if she read what they are saying about him. Tasha likes the comments she reads. Tasha calls Kristin and says she needs the video to go mega-viral and the campaign should be WMD -- What Malik Doin '. Tee - Tee goes to the bar and meets Melanie. She apologizes for being standoffish lately and says she has a lot going on. Tee - Tee hushes her. She says she needs him and he says he needs her too. Mel corrects him and says that 's not what she wants. She wants him to help smooth things over between her and Tasha. Tee - Tee gets upset because he thought she wanted him. He says fine, he 'll help. Derwin and Kwan have words before the game. Irv shows up to give Derwin press prep because he 's been fielding calls about the video. Irv says he does n't want to risk Derwin 's imagine so he just needs to say no comment to the press. Derwin ends up telling the press Malik is still an MVP quarterback. Tee - Tee and Tasha are at the game and Mel arrives. Tee - Tee has Mel sit with him and tells them it 's time to let bygones be bygones. Mel says they found each other in this world and they 've been there for each other. Mel says they were a team. Tasha says they were never a team. Mel says she is trying. Mel says they are family. Tasha tells Mel she does n't have family and leaves. Tee - Tee gets up and leaves too because he said Tasha has made it clear that she 's rolling with family and Mel has already made it clear she 's not smashing. Derwin tells Malik they lost because of Kwan. Tasha shows up and says to listen. The crowd is chanting for Malik. The team owner wants to see them. Derwin says this is it and Malik is back. They meet with the owner and he says the board is n't happy that the last two games did n't end well. Tasha says no one is saying Kwan is n't good, just that he is n't ready. She says Malik brought two championships to the team and he 's ready. The owner calls Malik a bastard and Irv then tries to get him and Derwin out of this. The owner says no Derwin wanted to be in it, so he 's in it. Kwan comes in and misquotes what Derwin said about Malik needing to be quarterback again. The owner says Kwan is the starting quarterback, Malik is benched, and Derwin is on notice. Afterwards, Mel asks how it went and Derwin says he does n't want to talk about it. He gets in his car and leaves. Mel is standing in the parking lot when Tasha and Tee - Tee come out. Tee - Tee tells Mel to get in her car and go. Mel gets in her car and cries.
Tasha and Tee - Tee are at the game. Tasha tells him to ignore Melanie -- Team Mack all the way. DJ and Janay show up at the game. Melanie tells Janay that since they are cool and rooting for the same team, they should sit together. Janay says, "Please. We just got civil '' and asks if it 's because she does n't have any friends. Melanie says she 's in between friends right now. Melanie tells Janay her seat is getting cold and Janay says she is waiting on a friend. Mel says she did n't know her friend was a guy. Janay introduces Noah to Melanie. Janay offers to make his plate and he says, "I 've got it, babe. '' Mel asks how long they 've been dating and Janay says they are n't putting labels on it. Mel invites them over to her house. Tasha, Tee - Tee, and Malik ordered room service and Tasha tips on top of the gratuity because she has to overcompensate for ignorant folks like Malik. Tee - Tee suggests that Tasha needs to have sex and that she could pay for it. Tee - Tee says black women are always late to the party when it comes to sex. Tee - Tee gives Tasha a number to call for a hooker. Melanie is cleaning the house and Derwin tells her that she did n't ask him about having Janay over. Derwin asks why she is doing all of this for Janay. Mel says she and Janay has a moment at the game when Janay told her she had spinach between her teeth. Tasha is in the hotel room alone and everything in the room reminds her of sex. She gets the number of the guy Tee - Tee gave her out of the trash to hire a hooker. Mel, Derwin, Janay, and Noah are having dinner. Melanie tells Derwin that Noah writes a blog called "Hell Noah. '' Derwin and Noah start talking. Irv shows up. Irv notes that Derwin is married to Mel, has a baby by Janay, and Janay is dating Noah. He says he loves stereotypes. Irv asks if they 've Goggled Noah since he is n't family. Derwin and Noah are hitting it off and making plans to hang out. Janay asks Mel if she can show her to the bathroom. Tasha is at the bar. A guy named Ronaldo (Carl Payne) shows up and offers to buy her a drink. He says the bar is notorious for "If you 've got the cash you can smash. '' Tasha asks who would come up in there looking for a prostitute. Ronaldo asks if Tasha is charging and says she is fine enough to do it. He buys her another drink and she says she does n't need a man to buy her drinks or to satisfy her. They end up in bed together. Janay tells Mel that she and Noah have been seeing each other for a while and that they just did n't want to freak Derwin out. Janay shows Mel the ring and says they are engaged. Mel is ecstatic. Janay says Noah is n't saying too much at dinner because he 's afraid he 'll say too much. Janay tells Mel not to tell Derwin because she wants to tell him herself. After they leave Derwin calls Noah a douchebag. Tasha calls and says she just had sex and that she did n't have to pay for it. Ronaldo is getting dressed and asks if she is ready to square up. Tasha is ready for another round. He says he has to warn her that it 's going to cost her. He says he normally charges $500 an hour for sex. Tasha says she ought to chop him up in pieces and flush him down the toilet. Tasha asks what 's going to happen if she does n't pay. He says he 's going to make a phone call and she 's going to end up chopped up in the toilet. Mel and Derwin are in bed and she wakes him up and asks if they can have a truth moment. She says that they agreed to never go to bed holding on to their truths. Mel asks if he really hates Noah or if he hates the idea of Janay being with someone other than him. Derwin brushes it off. Mel says her truth is that Janay and Noah are getting married.
Janay, DJ, and Derwin are at the park. Derwin asks Janay when was she going to tell him about being engaged. Derwin says that he is n't going to let her go through with it. Janay asks since when does he dictate what she can do and he says since they had a baby. Janay says she hid it from him because she knew he would act like this. Derwin says he is worried about his son, because he does n't know this dude. Janay says that he should be lucky she even allows Derwin around DJ after all the stunts Melanie has pulled. Janay says he can hire his lawyers and pout, but she is going through with the wedding. Melanie has a decorator at the house. Janay comes over and tells Melanie she was an idiot for trusting her. Janay says it was n't her fault and that she had a moment of vulnerability for trusting her. Janay says Tasha 's tweets were right. Melanie asks Janay to let her make it right. Melanie says if she makes it right, they are cool and if not, then she can keep hating her. Tasha is at the bar and Ronaldo shows up. Tasha says she deserves her $3,000 back for tricking her. Malik shows up and assumes that Ronaldo is Tasha 's date. Ronaldo says she did n't tell him Malik Wright is her son. Malik is being very protective and wants to know what kind of friend he is. Tee - Tee shows up and asks who Ronaldo is. Tee - Tee pulls her aside and asks about Ronaldo. Malik asks Ronaldo questions about himself. He says he is a relationship therapist. Ronaldo suggests they order something -- his treat. Ronaldo goes back to Tasha 's room with her so she can give him something. He says they do n't have to play games and that she should just say if she wants him. Ronaldo says that he likes her and wants to spend more time with her and asks if that 's a crime. She jokingly says yes, it 's called solicitation. They end up in her bedroom with him massaging her feet. Ronaldo says that they do n't have to go any further and that they can just talk if she wants. They start kissing and then Tasha wakes up to him getting dressed. He kisses her and tells her that last night was on the house. Mel and Derwin are at a club and Melanie goes to the restroom and winks at Noah off to the side. He then walks up to talk to Derwin and says he understands Derwin 's nervousness. He says he does n't have any baby 's mamas and does n't do drugs. Derwin says that a week ago he did n't exist and now he 's breaking bread with his family. Noah says that he thought this was about DJ. Noah says that he is n't asking permission to marry Janay and that this is about DJ. They both stand up and it gets heated. A guy is filming them and Noah "accidentally '' knocks the camera out of his hand. Melanie calls Janay and asks if she heard about last night and asks if she remembers what she said if she made it right. Janay says that she 's got to go so she can go shopping. Melanie wants to go dress shopping with her. Janay tells her to meet her at the bridal shop at 4. Malik and Tasha are at the bar. Malik points out Ronaldo talking to another woman. Tasha says that they should go, but Malik insists that Tasha step to Ronaldo. The woman says that this was supposed to be her time with Ronaldo. The woman leaves. Ronaldo says that Tasha needs to check herself and Malik says that he needs to check himself. Malik hands Tasha a drink to throw on Ronaldo and she does. They walk away. Melanie is on the phone calling Janay when she sees Janay walking down the street with her friends and carrying shopping bags. Janay says that she meant to call her to cancel and that she decided to go shopping with her friends instead. Melanie says that she was trying to fix things. Janay says that Mel is only concerned because she does n't want Janay to be a threat to her man, because as long as she has Derwin 's baby she will always have one up on her. Mel says she has his heart and Janay says that 's all she has. Melanie walks away. Ronaldo shows up at Tasha 's room. Tasha says she ca n't have him running around and turning tricks in her town and asks if she can retain him exclusively for the entire San Diego area. He asks if she wants him to be her full - time lover. She says escort. Tasha says his services start right now. Derwin is heading out to meet "Noah 's Ark. '' Melanie says after one dinner they are now besties and sighs. Derwin asks if something happened on the shopping trip with her and Janay. Melanie says that she does n't have any friends and asks if she is such a horrible person that no one wants to be her friend. Derwin says she 's just going through a rough patch. Derwin calls and cancels on Noah. Derwin tells Melanie to get her toothbrush because he is taking her to Vegas tonight.
Melanie is backstage before the Sunbeams ' fashion show that Jason is MCing and she is looking for the models, who are in bed with Malik. Mel is talking with Brynn and saying she has to pull the show off because Tasha is waiting for her to fail. Tasha tells Tee - Tee she 's waiting for it all to blow up in Melanie 's face. They find their seats all the way in the back. Ronaldo shows up with a date. Tasha told him he lost his mind bringing another woman to her event. She tells him that he is in breach of their contract for sole exclusivity. He says the woman he brought is paying tens of thousands of dollars. The models are with Malik who says he 's ready for action, but they say that he does n't feel like he 's ready and he finally admits that he 's not ready. They tell Malik that this happens to men all the time. He has them kiss on him and on each other to try to get him ready. He says he 's under a lot of stress. He says he knows what the problem is. Tee - Tee tries to hit on one of the models. Tasha tells Tee - Tee she 's ready to go. Tee - Tee says Malik took the Rover. Mel says another man dumped Tasha Mack. Melanie tells Tasha she 's not allowed backstage and calls security to take her back to her strategically placed crappy seats. Tasha says this is exactly why she does n't have any friends. Security escorts Tasha out. Ronaldo tells Tasha he messed up. He says they can fix this. He says they can hook up tomorrow and smash for free. Melanie gives a pep talk backstage and says there are a lot of haters who want this show to fail. Tasha says to Ronaldo that she is through paying him for sex and says it right into the microphone so everyone hears it. She leaves. Melanie goes to the restroom to see if Tasha is ok. She says she did n't come to give pity, but tells her it takes a strong woman to pay for sex. She says she lives life according to her own rules and does n't care what others think. Tasha says she does n't care what anyone thinks, especially Melanie. Melanie tries to leave but is locked in the restroom. They try to get out, but Derwin says it 's for their own good. Tee - Tee and Jason are outside the door with him and they leave them locked in the restroom as the show is about to start. Malik is outside rehab and calling Jenna 's name. She walks up and hugs him. He comments on her new short haircut. She asks why he 's there and he says he wants to know what 's up with them. She wants to know what "her '' name is as she notices his fly is down. He tells her he could n't pull the trigger with the three women tonight and says she does n't want to mess things up with her. He says he 's in it for the ride with her and wants to know what 's up with them. She says it is unrealistic to think he 'll go the next 8 or so months without sex while she 's in rehab, so she gives him permission to spread his wings (or legs). He says he still loves her and she says she knows and kisses him and walks back in. Mel and Tasha are still locked in the restroom and can hear the show going on. Tasha tells Mel she is always thinking she 's better than everyone else. Mel says that 's not true and calls her mean girl. Tasha says she always has some excuse to justify her horrible behavior. Tasha calls Melanie a bitch. Mel says she 's tired of Tasha talking down to her and this is why she felt justified in firing her and calls her a bitch. Tasha slaps her and Melanie slaps her back. Melanie runs and locks herself in a stall. Tasha says that she 's always scared to face her problems and never apologized to her. Melanie says she did apologize and Tasha says no she did n't. Mel says she thought she apologized and never wanted it to turn out like this because Tasha is one of her only friends and she misses her so much and apologizes. Tasha hugs her and says they are n't friends, but that they are family and she does n't have to say she 's sorry, she just has to mean it. Mel is on the runway after the show showing Tasha how the models were to come out on the runway. Mel asks if they can stop degrading each other with the b - word. Tasha says they should come up with a new terms of endearment.
Derwin and Melanie are at the doctor 's office and receive the results from her blood work -- the in vitro did n't take. The doctor says the spotting that she had earlier in the week was an indication of a bigger problem. They think she has endometriosis, which means she has less than a 10 % chance of ever carrying a baby to term. Jason and Chardonnay are making out on the couch. She says that she is n't giving it up until she knows where "this fake mirage is going. '' Jason says that he is a sex addict and this is the longest he 's gone without sex. Jason says he has to leave to get ready for the Pitt Stop Party. Chardonnay asks what time should she be there. He says that it 's a work function and she is not invited. Derwin tries to wait on Melanie hand and foot, but she says she 's infertile, not invalid. He suggests hormone shots and Melanie says that she 's done with it, because of the stress on the body. She says at least they know what 's wrong and they can finally move on. Derwin compares it to when he once had a football injury. He suggests that they try adoption. Jason and his new co-host are being interviewed and they banter back and forth. Derwin and Melanie show up at the party and congratulate Jason on the show. Brittany is there and Melanie calls her Britt Bratt. She says no one has called her that since she was 5. Jason offers to give her away to Derwin and Melanie. Jason and his co-host take pictures together. She tells him that he has a really nice smile and that she should smile more. Malik says he 's glad Jason is back to the old him, the one who likes white women. Malik says he thought Jason was going through a mid-life crisis dating a black woman. Malik says that Jason wants Summer, the new co-host. Jason says that he does not want Summer. Chardonnay goes up to visit Tasha in her hotel room. She asks Tasha for advice about Jason. She wants to know if Jason saying he does n't mix business and pleasure and not inviting her to the party is just because she has n't given it up yet. Tasha says that he 's a newly retired athlete and a honey badger. She says whether he pounces on her or not, he 's going to find something to pounce on. She also tells her to stop being insecure. She learned that athletes ca n't stand insecure women. She says that the women holding on to their men are n't the prettiest or smartest, but are the most persistent and calculating. Chardonnay says she 's not that girl. Tasha says then maybe she does n't need to be with an athlete. Melanie and Derwin question their waitress about being pregnant and if she 's considered giving it up for adoption. She calls them crazy and walks away. They show the new show promo at the party. Jason and Summer say that they might have a hit on their hands. She asks if he 's sure he wants to share an Emmy with someone he does n't like. He says he likes her, but just does n't like working with her. She says that she did n't think she would meet someone with an ego as large as hers. Jason kisses her. Jason arrives at Chardonnay 's place and she 's wearing lingerie and has candles lit. She says she 's ready and Jason says that it does n't matter, because he 's not. He says that he 's had time to think about it and he does n't think that it 's going to work out. She says she 's had a lot of time to think. She says that it was n't fair for her to expect him to be all in when she was n't. She says tonight is her attempt to show him how all in she is and removes her robe. She says that being difficult is her way of protecting herself and that she does n't want to get hurt. She says she 's likes him a lot and that from this point forward there will be no more attitude or neck rolling. He says that she does n't have to do this and that he 's in. They start to make out. Derwin and Mel arrive home and he goes up to run her bath water, while she is downstairs. Both are crying alone and thinking about her fertility issues, although they both pretended to be ok and joked about it all night.
Jason, Derwin, Tee - Tee, and Malik are having poker night at Derwin and Melanie 's house. Derwin turns up a bottle of beer and everyone wants to know what happened. He tells them that Melanie ca n't have any babies. Malik asks if she caught that infertility. Tee - Tee explains that it 's not a disease. Derwin says it 's not a big deal and that they are working on some options. Tee - Tee and Malik invited women over who bring food. Melanie and Tasha have a slumber party at Tasha 's. They flirt with the room service waiter and Melanie asks her if she would really sleep with a room service waiter. Melanie asks Tasha if she has any idea how many men she 's slept with. Tasha says, "Rick Fox. '' Melanie asks how many since Rick and then how many before Rick. The poker game turns into a full party. Derwin says this party beats a poker game. Jason tells Derwin they might be upset about infertility but kids are trouble. Derwin reminds Jason that he has a child who is Jason 's godson. Melanie keeps track of all the men Tasha says she 's slept with coming up with 83 men. Tasha is surprised and calls herself a ho. Melanie says she 's barely slept with a hand full. Melanie confesses to Tasha that because she had an abortion with one of them she and Derwin might never be able to have a baby and asks if that makes Tasha feel better. Melanie says she got pregnant when she was still in love with Derwin and that would have ended it if she had kept the baby. Tasha tells Melanie that she did what she thought was right. Tasha tells Mel that kids are nothing but trouble. Jason and Derwin ate some of the "special '' brownies and are high. Malik is the only sober one and tells them that there was something herbal in the brownies. Jason starts talking about how he is a horrible person and father who cheats on his taxes and did steroids. Then he backtracks on the steroids use and says no one said he did steroids. Melanie asks Tasha if she thinks God is punishing her for having an abortion. She says God has bigger things to do. Mel says she knows Derwin is still thinking about it. Tasha said she moved into the hotel because she was tired of going home to a big empty house. Melanie tells Tasha that she can still find love. Tasha says she 's going to die an old lady in a hotel. Mel says that they are going to try in vitro fertilization and that women do it all the time without having multiple births. Melanie gets social alerts about the party at her house. She sees pictures that Tee - Tee has posted of the party at her house. Mel says Derwin said he was just having a small poker get together and asks why he would do something like this now. Tasha says he has to grieve his own way. Melanie and Tasha discuss them using a surrogate. Tasha says she spits out stars. Melanie then asks Tasha if she would be their surrogate since she is giving up sex anyway. Tasha thinks about it and says she could do something meaningful instead of something she would regret the next morning. Malik calls Jenna and asks her how rehab is going. He says being out there with those drunk fools makes him miss rehab.
Derwin 's cousin Jamil shows up at their house and peeks through the kitchen window scaring Melanie. He tells her who he is and she calls Derwin to verify before letting him in. Derwin comes home and Melanie wants to chat with Derwin. She wants to know who Jamil is and why he 's never mentioned him. Derwin says that they grew up together. Melanie asks him how long he plans to be in San Diego. Jamil says that he 's got a couple of job prospects and chickenheads to check on. Melanie asks him where he 's staying and he asks if he can stay there. Derwin says yes. Tasha asks Malik why he let the mail pile up. She says that he could have read it at the games while sitting on the bench. Tasha opens a letter inviting them to the grand opening of a library named about him. She asks why he did n't mention it and he says it slipped his mind. Tasha says this is exactly what they need to rehabilitate his image. Malik says that he does n't want to go home right now for the opening. Malik says that he 's supposed to go home a hero, not as a bench warmer or a loser. Tasha says that he will be a loser if he does n't go back and disappoints the kids. Malik agrees to go, but only if they get to see Grandma. Tasha says whatever it takes to get him there. Tasha, Malik, and Tee - Tee arrive in Richmond at Grandma 's house. Malik warns Tasha not to be talking about his financial situation to anyone. She is excited to see them and has a house full of people there to surprise them. Grandma tells Tee - Tee that she was telling him mom that he needs his own show on the Food Network. She asks Tasha where Rick Fox is and says he was on Dancing With the Stars longer than he was with her. Derwin finds his cousin in the kitchen half rinsing a knife. Derwin tells him that Melanie has an issue with that. Derwin says that she 's tripping and tells him not to get married. He says that if it was up to him he could do whatever and stay there forever. Melanie overhears them talking and confronts them. Derwin gets trapped into going out with Jamil. Tasha and Grandma get into it. She says to show respect in her house. Grandma reminds her that she 's got what she 's got because of Malik. Grandma reminds her that she got pregnant as a teen. Tasha says she wishes Grandma respected her they way Tasha respects Grandma. Derwin and Jamil go to the party and they end up in a closet arguing because of gun shots at the party. Jamil asks him if he 's become that guy. Derwin reminds him that he 's a grown man with a wife and kid. Derwin tells him he 's his friend and his cousin, but next time he 's staying in a hotel. Tasha goes for a walk with one relative and he says that when Tasha is n't around she 's all Grandma talks about. She thanks him for always being there for Malik and teaching him how to be a real man. He says that Tasha taught him how to hold his head up to face adversity. Derwin tells Mel about the party when he gets home, but tells it completely different from what happened. Melanie shows him pictures from the party that show he was caught in a crossfire. Malik tells his family that he almost did n't come back because he was afraid they would laugh at him with his recent mishaps. He says that he learned a lesson that they have always been and will always be there for him. He says that they 've never slept on him and he loves and appreciates them.
Derwin and Malik are in the locker room halftime. Derwin asks Kwan why he is n't passing him the ball every time he 's open. He said they are getting beat. Derwin pushes Kwan and they scuffle. Derwin tells him he does n't know who he 's messing with and that he 's the wrong dude. Melanie and Tasha are in the box at the game and Mel is talking about her horoscope. Tasha says the Sabers are n't coming back to win and tells Mel to stop reading her horoscope. Tasha tells Mel that she 's going about the surrogacy thing the wrong way. Mel says Tasha is a part of this surrogacy thing and makes sure she has n't changed her mind about it. Tasha tells her to hurry and tell Derwin because her clock is ticking. Kwan gets hit during the game and has to be taken off the field. Tasha gets excited, but tries to cover it when everyone starts to look at her. She tells Mel that means Malik will have to go in. Melanie gets excited when Malik goes in and everyone looks at her and she starts booing Malik to cover her excitement. Mel tells Tasha not to start crying. At the post-game presser, Malik is asked how he felt when Kwan went down. He says it 's never good when a player is injured but that he has to stay ready. Derwin is asked about missing the block when Kwan got hurt. The reporter keeps pressing the issue and another reporter points out that Derwin and Kwan do n't have a good relationship and asked if that had to do with it. He asks him if he missed the block on purpose. Derwin thinks about it and then says "no more questions. '' Malik says he 's just happy he was able to help his team win. Derwin is watching Jason 's show. Melanie comes in and tries to cheer Derwin up and suggests they turn the TV off. He says that he 's watching it. Melanie says that he should just let the media make a big deal about the missed block and that it 's only because they do n't have anything else on him. She says there is always another story right around the corner. Melanie says that they should make a bet on how long Malik will be "the man '' and jokes about how long it will be before he gets caught with a tranny. Derwin turns the TV up when he notices Jason and his co-host reenacting the play where Derwin missed the block. Jason says it was an epic failure by Derwin. Melanie calls Tasha while she and Derwin are at the service station and Derwin is pumping gas. She tells Tasha that she keeps trying to tell Derwin about the surrogacy, but something keeps getting in the way. A kid yells at Derwin, "Way to miss the block, loser! '' The kid 's Dad calls him a disgrace. Derwin shows up at Malik 's and asks who all the people are. Malik points out his lawyer and publicist. Derwin tells him that he did n't know where else to go. He said he feels like everyone hates him. He says he did n't sign up for this. Malik tells him they never do. He says that you ca n't believe your own hype whether it 's good or bad. Malik tells him to let the haters do what they do best. Malik says that he can easily go back to being most hated tomorrow. Malik tells him that maybe it 's a good thing this happened to him so he can stop worrying about his squeaky clean image. Derwin goes back home and Mel asks him if he 's ok. Melanie tells him this might not be the right time but she needs to have a truth moment with him. Melanie says that she wants Tasha to be their surrogate and at the same time Derwin says that he missed the block on purpose. Derwin is shocked and asked if Tasha can still have babies. Melanie calls him an ass. Derwin says that he did n't know that the missed block would go like this, but that 's what happens when you threaten the legacy. Derwin says "by any means necessary. '' Melanie asks him if he kills or misses blocks for anything that gets in his way like her career and her friendship with Tasha. Derwin asks her if she wants a baby so bad that she would let someone she had n't spoken to for months carry their baby. Derwin says that Tasha is not part of their family and he 's done talking about it. Melanie says fine and that he wins again.
Kwan calls into Jason 's show and says Derwin is a hater and that he will never lead the Sabers like him. Derwin calls in and says that Kwan is a lying, pretty boy bastard. Derwin says that people think they can say whatever about him. He says that his wife knows that he can put it down. Melanie overhears him and walks out of the room. Jason is clipping coupons and Chardonnay asks him if Melanie is nice. She suggests that they should go out with them sometime and then suggests having all of his friends over sometime. He says that they will have to buy food and food costs and she could end up homeless spending money to have friends over. She asks if he 's ashamed and he says no. They agree to have his friends over. Derwin tells Melanie to guess who the most hated athlete on the planet is. She guesses him and he says no, Tiger Woods, but thanks for the vote of confidence. Mel tells him that she does n't know who he 's becoming. The Derwin she married would never hurt someone on purpose. She says who cares about his legacy if it comes at the expense of losing his soul. She tells him to stop being such a douche. He says life is such a crazy trip. Mel tells Derwin that she loves him. The one he used to be and that he can get back there. She suggests that he apologize to all his fans. Tasha tells Malik that SNL sent over info for a cameo. Chardonnay asks if they want a drink and Malik asks if she is Jason 's wife. She invites them to their party and she tells them that it has been like pulling teeth getting Jason 's friends ' info. Malik says he knows Jason 's friends, so he 'll invite everyone. Tasha and Malik 's friend, Pookie from back home, shows up and Tasha invites him to stay on her couch. He comes out of the bathroom with no shirt on and Tasha gets weak. She calls Mel and says that she thinks Pookie is in love with her. Mel asks, "The killer? '' Tasha says that she ca n't mess with him because of their long friendship. Tasha goes out and tells him that she knows he 's checking for her and he ca n't deny it. He says she 's right. She tells him that they ca n't be together though because she 's working on herself and making better choices and she does n't want to mess that up. He says ok and that he is proud of her for taking steps to make her life better. He says that he was mostly celibate in prison and Tasha asks, "Mostly?? '' He says, "The female guards. '' She tells him thanks for understanding. Jason shows up at Chardonnay 's and notices she 's got new things in the home. He asks what occasion and she says that she invited his friends over tonight. He says that she 's going to have to call everyone and uninvite them, just as Derwin and Mel knock on the door. Melanie meets Chardonnay and says that she knew Jason 's first wife and her loyalty will always be to her. Malik and Tasha show up. Jason thanks Malik for helping set up "this ambush, er umm, party. '' Malik says this is for all of the negative comments about him on the show. Malik says he invited Jason 's co-host Summer too, just as she shows up. Chardonnay introduces herself to Summer and asks Summer where her man is. Summer looks over at Jason and says he is n't really her man and asks who Chardonnay is. Chardonnay is about to introduce herself as Jason 's wife, when Jason knocks a plate over to cause a distraction. Summer tells Malik that it 's like Jason is avoiding her and Malik says maybe because he 's married. Jason tells Chardonnay that he 's going to get some salsa and runs into Summer. Summer tells him that she did n't know he was married. Jason apologizes and says that he is married, but that it 's complicated. At the end of the party Chardonnay thanks Malik for everything. Jason tells Chardonnay that it was inappropriate inviting everyone over. She says that she knew it was a huge risk and that it would make or break them. Jason admits that he was dragging his feet a little. She says that they have to learn to meet in the middle. Tasha goes home and puts a blanket over Pookie while he 's sleeping and whispers that she does n't like him. He says he does n't like her either. Derwin goes on Jason 's show to apologize to his fans. He says that he 's rooting for Kwan and hopes that he makes a quick recovery. Jason says it sounds like it came from the heart. A caller says that Derwin missed the block on purpose. Another caller threatens Derwin. Derwin chooses not to respond to the callers ' negativity, but then tells the caller to come down to the station and anyone else who wants to challenge him.
Tasha gets ready to take Pookie to the airport, but closes the door and says she wants to see where this goes. They are about to kiss when Malik walks in and notices their "sex foods. '' He asks if they are having sex and Tasha tells him it 's none of his business. Pookie tells him that he and Tasha have talked and they think they might want to be more than just friends. Malik says he forbids it. Malik says that Pookie is like a father to him and Tasha drives men away and he is n't about to let her drive him away. Melanie and Derwin are looking at tents online for DJ. Janay arrives to pick him up, but says she wants to talk to them about something first. Derwin jokingly asks if she 's pregnant again. Janay says that Noah got a great job offer in New York. Derwin asks if she 's trying to tell him that she 's going to take his son a thousands miles away. Janay says DJ can stay with them in the off season or they can come to NY. Derwin says that DJ is going to stay with them in San Diego. Janay says that she does n't want to make Noah give up on an opportunity because of her and asks Derwin to just think about it. Derwin says he thought about it and it 's denied. Malik and Tee - Tee are playing video games. Tee - Tee tells Malik he is being selfish about Tasha and Pookie wanting to try a relationship. He tells him to be the bigger person. Derwin and Melanie are preparing the tent for indoor camping with DJ. Derwin talks about how it brings him back to his childhood. Melanie tells Derwin she ca n't help but think about how it will affect DJ to grow up with an unhappy Mommy if Janay ca n't move to NY. She says that they can compromise and still play a part in DJ 's life. Derwin says he knows what she is trying to do and the conversation is over. Derwin says she would do anything in her power to keep Janay and DJ away so she can have all of his attention. Melanie says it has nothing to do with that. She says she absolutely loves DJ and is finally at a good place with Janay. She says she 's trying to help him have a good relationship with his son. Tasha and Pookie are having dinner and he says that he 's really been enjoying himself with her. He says that maybe he can push his flight back and stay a little longer. Malik comes in and tells Pookie not to hurt his Mama. Tasha and Pookie try to have their first kiss, but it 's awkward. Malik comes home and finds Tasha lying on the couch and he asks what did she do to Pookie. She says that they kissed and it was awful. She says that Malik was right and she should have let well enough be. He says Tasha strikes again and walks out. Derwin is at the bar alone when Janay walks up. She says she could n't resist him buying her a meal. He jokingly says that he buys her every meal and clothes and everything with the child support. Derwin tells Janay that she is a good mom and she always puts DJ first. He says that he 's giving his blessing for her to talk DJ to NY. She asked what changed his mind and he said he could n't stand the thought of being that thing that gets in the way of her happiness. He says that they are two parents working it out in the end. She says that they are family. Tasha rides with Pookie to the airport. He thanks her for letting him stay and she says that 's what friends are for, but then says they are family. They share a long, passionate kiss. He says that he thinks that he 's going to stay in San Diego a little longer. Derwin gets him as Melanie is braiding her hair and he jokingly calls her Da Brat. He tells her that he saw Janay and he thought about what Melanie said. He said that Melanie was right. She asks if he 's ok with her moving and he says that it is what it is. Melanie says that she can work it out with Janay for DJ to visit as much as possible. He says that he wo n't be able to experience DJ 's childhood 24 / 7 like he wanted to. He said that when he told Janay that she had the biggest smile on her face and it made him realize that he has n't been able to make Melanie happy like that in a long time. He says that they can start their family and he gives his blessing for Tasha to be their surrogate. Melanie is excited.
Absent: Coby Bell as Jason Pitts, Brandy Norwood as Chardonnay Pitts
Tasha finds Malik knocked out and snoring on the floor. Tasha tells Tee - Tee that she chose herself, but that she 's a field slave to her son, her only oppressor. The women are complaining about everything at the Sunbeams meeting and Melanie goes off on them. She says that she will no longer be Queen Bee of them, a bunch of desperate housewives. She quits and puts all of them out of her house. Malik tells Tee - Tee that the last thing he remembers is eating his Hawaiian Tropic wings and then he woke up to Tee - Tee slapping him. Tee - Tee says that the wings might be the gateway to his drinking. Tee - Tee reminds Malik that in The Hangover the first thing they did was check their pockets for clues. Malik checks his pockets and finds a $2000 receipt from the bar. Malik goes to the bar and talks to Chardonnay. Chardonnay says not to worry about touching her booty last night. Malik does n't remember it, but tells her not to tell Jason. Chardonnay says that he was having a good time with the owner of the Sabers. She says that he did n't start drinking until after the owner left. Jason arrives at the bar to see Chardonnay flirting with one of her patrons. Derwin asks Melanie how she could quit the Sunbeams without discussing it with him. He says that they are supposed to be a team. He says she ca n't air their dirty laundry to the public. She says that she wants to go back to Johns Hopkins and finish her residency and be a practicing doctor. He says that his job and son are in San Diego. She says not for long. Chardonnay gets home and tries to hug Jason, but he resists. He brings up her flirting with the guys at the bar. She says that part of her job is making them feel like they are the most important person in the world. She tells him if he ca n't understand that that he can leave. He leaves. Melanie shows up at Tasha 's and tells her that Derwin called her selfish. Tasha agrees with him. She says that she 's married to a rich, successful, handsome football player, but she finds a way to be unsatisfied. Melanie asks her why she ca n't put herself first like Tasha. Tasha tells her that she will have to give something up if she wants to choose herself. Melanie reinstates herself as President of the Sunbeams. One of the women says that she showed her unhappiness, so the other ladies start opening up about what they are unhappy about. Jazz says that she is unhappy about the man she is with and the one who got away was Derwin. Tasha admits she 's unhappy about her son drinking. Malik and Tee - Tee are still trying to find out what happened to Malik last night. They turn on the news and see that Kwan will have surgery on his knee and be out the rest of the season. They say that Malik will be the starting QB the rest of the season. Malik pours a drink and Tee - Tee tells him that he must have heard the news from the owner last night and he started drinking to numb the pressure. Tee - Tee asks if he 's willing to throw it all away. Malik decides not to drink it. Jason goes to the bar and announces to the men that Chardonnay is married to him. The guys leave and Chardonnay says that 's $1000 out the door. Jason says he 's going to pay his tab plus give her a tip. He says that he 's also going to get bottle service tonight. He says that he 's just a man who does n't want other men getting his wife 's attention. She tells him that he 's just a man in love. She says that she heard him tell her that he love her. He asks if there is anything that she wants to say in return. She says she will say things in her own time. Derwin comes home and asks Melanie what she 's doing. He says that she 's bringing everyone else down and half the guys on the team did n't show up for practice after what happened at the Sunbeams meeting. Melanie says that her heart wants her to go to Johns Hopkins and as much as she would like him to go and support her, she 's willing to go alone. Derwin brings her a suitcase and says, "I guess you 've got to follow your heart '' and walks off.
Tasha is at a meeting for nymphos. She tells them that she has had a struggle with sex since high school. She tells them about her sex life starting from high school through her current situation. She tells them that she needs help and that she has hit rock bottom. Tasha says that she 's been holding out on her man for the past two weeks. Derwin listens to a message from Melanie that she made it to DC safely and that she really loves him and misses him and ca n't wait to see him. He erases the message. Derwin is at the club with Malik and Tee - Tee. He says that it is like old times. Melanie calls him and he lets her call go to voicemail. Pookie is at Tasha 's when she gets home. He says that he had to come back to see her. He tries to get close and she avoids him. Pookie tries to set the mood in the room, but Tasha keeps complaining about everything. He finally asks her why she 's acting distant and if she is trying to avoid him. She says no. She then tells him that she ca n't do this and it 's a bad idea. She says that her stomach is n't feeling the best and she just wants to lay down alone. Derwin is at the field practicing when Malik arrives and he asks him why he 's there so early. He says he 's been there since they left the bar. He says he 's got his eye on the prize. Malik says if he 's trying to prove himself to the team, it 's ok because no one is sweating that Kwan stuff. Tasha has the nympho group meet at her house to talk about her man being in town and her struggle to continue abstaining. Pookie comes back and Tasha asks why he 's already back. He says he brought her soup for her stomach and asks her who the women are. They say that they are a celibacy support group. Pookie takes Tasha aside and asks if this is why she 's been tripping on him lately. He says that the concept seems intriguing and asks if he can sit in. They say it 's for women and he says that 's discriminatory. They let him stay. Derwin and Malik are at the bar. Melanie calls again and he sends her to voicemail. He tells Malik that they are in a rough spot right now. Malik tells him that God put women here to make their lives more difficult. He says that he 's never getting married and Derwin reminds him that he married Robin Givens. He says that 's why he 's never getting married again. Pookie tells the women that all the talk about not giving up the goods is n't helping them at all. He encourages one woman to stop waiting for her boyfriend to propose and propose to him since she 's so empowered. He tells them all the women are misplacing their anger on someone else when it 's all on them. He tells them that Tasha is scared of opening herself up to get hurt, despite going from relationship to relationship with men she knows she 'll never have a future with. Derwin arrives home and pulls food out of the fridge. He decides to call Melanie and apologizes for not calling back sooner. He asks her about DC and they tell each other they miss the other. He says its not the same without her there. He asks her what she has in mind about the whole move to DC.
Guest star: Nicole Sullivan
Pookie 's phone is ringing while he is in the shower and Tasha looks at his phone. Melanie arrives back home from DC with a surprise for Derwin -- Free from 106 & Park because she remembered how much Derwin loved her in college. Derwin says Melanie is just trying to butter him up to move to DC. She tells him about Johns Hopkins and how she printed out stats about the Washington football team. Tasha is mad at Pookie because of the text message from another woman. She asks who the woman is and he laughs and says she 's been going through his phone. He says that she is a lady that he used to entertain before the two of them became an item. Tasha says that obviously she 's not a non-factor if she 's texting him that she loves him. He says it 's nothing, but Tasha is still upset. Irv shows up at Derwin and Melanie 's house, so they can talk to him. Derwin says that they are done and Irv thinks they mean they are done as a couple. Derwin says they are done with the Sabers and want to consider other options (DC) with his contract being up soon. Tasha and Pookie are doing yoga, but she 's still mad about the text from the other woman. She calls his phone again and Tasha answers and asks her why she 's calling her man. Rasheda says that he lives with her. Tasha tells her that he 's in her bedroom right now. hey got back and forth. Irv tells Derwin that the Sabers are offering him a $50 million contract. Derwin says that they are really interested in DC. Irv says that he told DC to screw themselves when they only offered $35 million. Malik arrives at Tasha 's and tells Pookie to have a seat because Tasha wants to talk to him. Tasha tells Pookie that she talked to his concubine. He says that he was going to handle it when he got back to Richmond. Malik brings Rasheda out. Rasheda tells Pookie that she knows that he let her move in with him as a favor as a friend, but once they started having sex and he started seeing Tasha, she decided that she was n't going to give up without a fight. Pookie says that he would have never wanted it to happen this way. He tells Rasheda, "unfortunately, I 'm in love with Tasha. '' Tasha gets mad at the "unfortunately '' part, but then realizes that he said that he was in love with her. Rasheda gets up to go to the restroom. Tasha goes in to see about Rasheda. She tells her that she did n't want things to go down this way, although she did want Pookie to choose her. She tells her that she has been there. Tasha tells her that all the heartbreaks add up, but that she will find her Prince Charming and when she does she wo n't have to beg him to choose her. Melanie walks in to Derwin cooking. He says that he recorded all of her favorite reality shows so she can keep him company while he finishes cooking dinner. She asks why he 's being so nice. The doorbell rings and he says that 's his surprise dinner guest. It 's Screech from Saved by the Bell. Melanie pulls Derwin aside and asks him what he 's doing there. He says she always loved Screech in college and she says no, it was Principal Belding. He makes Screech tell Melanie the offer from the Sabers. Melanie says that this might spark more interest from DC. Melanie says who cares about making $20 million less if he takes the DC offer, because they are rich. He says he wants her to get on board with staying in San Diego and she says that she 's already made her decision to move and go to Johns Hopkins. Tasha tells Pookie he was wrong to shack up with Rasheda and sleep with her. He says the problem is you give a woman an inch and she takes a mile. Tasha asks if she 's taking a mile with what they 've got or if it 's real.
Guest stars: Free, Mekia Cox, Dustin Diamond
Absent: Coby Bell as Jason Pitts, Barry Floyd as Terrence "Tee Tee '' Carter, Brandy Norwood as Chardonnay Pitts
It 's media day for the San Diego Sabers. Tasha and Pookie are there and Tasha is complaining about her stomach. Melanie arrives late as Media Day is ending and Derwin is upset about it. Melanie and Derwin are home and Melanie is checking on a flight back to DC on Sunday after the Championship game. She tells him that she will have to leave right after the game though. She tells him that he should n't be mad about Media Day, because technically she was n't late since there were still 3 hours left of Media Day. He says that the last Championship game he could n't play because he was injured. He asks her how he 's supposed to concentrate with her doing a lot of back and forth. He tells her that if she ca n't be there for him completely then just be done. Jason takes a call from Kelly and tells her that he has to talk to her about something important. Jason arrives at Chardonnay 's place and she 's dressed in a leather outfit with a whip. He tells her that they need to talk. She asks him if he 's going to tell her that he 's white. He says no, he 's not white, but that they need to break up. She thinks it 's a joke, but he says that he ca n't do it anymore. She asks if it 's because she did n't tell him that she loves him. He says that he is n't ready to be in a relationship like this and it 's too much. He hands her the annulment papers and leaves. Tasha and Pookie are home because Tasha is in bed sick. They see on TV that Malik has n't shown up to the game yet. Malik is picking Jenna up as she 's being released from rehab. He tells her that he needs her in the skybox cheering for him. His phone buzzes and she questions him about the chick. He says that he would n't have driven all the way there to pick her up and risk being late for the game if he did n't care about her. He tells her that he slept with a few women after she gave him permission. She takes his keys and throws them in the field. Melanie arrives at Tasha 's and tells her that she looks awful. Melanie starts to tell her about her problems with Derwin and Tasha tells her that she does n't want to here about it because she has her own problems. Tasha tells Melanie to stop bringing trouble into her relationship and that her number 1 job is to be there for Derwin. Melanie says that she wants a husband, baby, and a career. Chardonnay is at work and one of the customers complains about her and she gets fired. She knocks over glasses on her way out.
It 's the Championship Game. The police pull up to the stadium and let Malik and Jenna out of the car. Pookie gets a text that Malik made it to the game and let 's Tasha know. Melanie and Rick Fox are watching at the airport. Melanie is cheering for Derwin in the airport. Rick asks Melanie if she has a family emergency. She tells him that she 's on her way to Johns Hopkins. She says that Derwin does n't understand why she needs this. She tells him he 's taking Derwin 's side. He said no, but that he understands because he was an athlete and knows what it 's like to look up in the stands and see your woman. He says that he and Tasha broke up because he said that he was going to do Dancing With the Stars and all Tasha heard was that he was leaving her for something better. He says she 's has abandonment issues. He says that sometimes the decisions we make negatively affect others and she has to decide if she is ok with that. Chardonnay is on the bus and the driver misses her stop. The San Diego Sabers win the championship and the team is celebrating. Derwin sees Melanie and they hug and kiss. Chardonnay goes off on the driver. He says that he 's just following orders. She sees Jason standing outside when the bus stops and she asks him if he had anything to do with this. He says yes. She goes off on him and he tells her to look at the shop behind him (it says Spadonnay). He says that it all made sense in his head. he asks if it 's really Spadonnay and he says yes. She says she does n't know how she 's going to repay him. He says with 50 % ownership, because that 's the law in California. She says that 's only if they stay married and if he 's asking her to stay married. He says no and that he 's proposing to her. She tells him that she loves him and he says that he loves her too. Pookie told Tasha they can celebrate with Malik tomorrow. Tasha says that she ca n't let him down since she already missed the game. Pookie says that they have to take care of her. Tasha says that she prayed to God to send her a man who would take care of her when she was sick and hold her hand. She says that Pookie is everything that she prayed for. Everyone is at the bar and Jenna is drinking and wanting to dance. Malik gets up and takes her out. Melanie says that it 's a disease. Jason and Chardonnay tell everyone that they are staying married. Melanie tells Derwin that she still plans to catch her flight. Derwin asks Melanie if he can talk to her for a second. He asks her if she 's kidding him. She said that she is sorry if she gave him the impression that she was staying. Derwin says that her being here was a lie. Melanie tells him that she supported him when he had away games when he could n't hear her cheering and she had nothing to gain from it. She says that she needs him to support her now. He tells her to have a safe flight. Malik takes Jenna back to rehab and tells her that she is sick. Malik tells her that he loves her enough to know that he ca n't save her and that she has to save herself. He tells her that he hopes that she stays long enough this time for it to work for her. He says that they both know this relationship is not going to work. He kisses her and tells her that he loves her. Jason and Chardonnay burn up the annulment papers. Melanie is sitting in the airport. Derwin calls and asks if she 's really leaving. She says she is and it does n't mean that she does n't love him, because she does. She says that she ca n't keep floating along with this nagging emptiness. Derwin shows up. He says that he wants to apologize to her and that it took him a while to get it. He is going with her since his schedule is now open and will be on the sidelines cheering for his wife. He kisses her and tells her that he loves her. Tasha and Pookie are lying in bed asleep and Tasha 's phone rings and it 's Rick Fox, but Tasha does n't wake up. Malik tells his assistant to get consent forms for sex, security cameras installed, a personal chef and a personal trainer. He says that after the parade it 's back to training. She asks if there is anything else and then straddles him.
Absent: Barry Floyd as Terrence "Tee Tee '' Carter
Note: This episode marks the final appearance of Tia Mowry as Melanie Barnett - Davis until the series finale.
In the sixth season premiere, Season 6 opens with Derwin. The premiere starts with a woman walking down a hallway and then cuts to Malik making out in the bedroom with a woman. His assistant tells the women it 's time for them to go, because it 's Draft Day. Malik tells her to pencil them in for sex later. Keira and Ciara are in a hotel room getting ready to go out. Jason reminisces about his Draft Day. He shows the check he was given as a draft pick. Malik tells his Draft Day story that involves sex and penicillin. Derwin gives a shout out to Melanie instead of telling his Draft Day story, but Jason reminds him that he was drafted in a late round. Malik says Baltimore should draft Bryce. Keira is having a chat with John Singletary about a role in a movie. He says that he does n't see her in that role. She gives him a mini-audition and he says that she is n't right for the role. He says that if she can get her agent to go to dinner with him, he will give her a role as an extra. Bryce Westbrook gets drafted Number 1. Tasha and Chardonnay are having drinks. Tasha gets a call from Rick Fox. Jason announces that the # 1 Draft pick Westbrook has been traded from Baltimore to the San Diego Sabers. The Sabers traded Derwin Davis to Baltimore in order to get Westbrook. Derwin, Jason, and Malik look shocked. Derwin gets teary - eyed. Jason walks him out and tells him to just breathe. The Sabers owner introduces Malik to Westbrook. Malik is upset and asks if this is about Malik smashing his wife. The owner says that this had nothing to do with him. He says Derwin was a cancer to the team and this is his team. He reminds Malik that he is an employee who punches the clock. Jason talks to Derwin in the hotel room. Derwin says this does n't make any sense. He says his house is in San Diego and his cell phone is a 619 number. Jason reminds him that his reporting career is a joke. He says he hears them talk behind his back about how he 's not a real journalist. Derwin says he gave them everything and they traded him to the worst team in the league and to the worst city. Derwin says he was MVP and now he is irrelevant. Jason says he 's right and that he should be talking to the rookie, because that 's his story. Westbrook is a little cocky about being number 1. Keira and Ciara are getting ready to go out. Keira is moping about not getting the role with John Singletary. Keira bumps into Westbrook and he recognizes her. He asks her if she wants his autograph. She asks why and he says because of who he is. He tells her he is the # 1 draft pick and he can call her Blue, short for Blueprint. She tells him that he is the reason she did n't get the role, because John was so into the draft and not paying attention to her. She kisses him and says "now you 're famous '' as the paparazzi takes photos. Malik and Ciara are talking at a party. Tee - Tee tells Malik he (Malik) is mad about Derwin. Tee - Tee asks Malik if he 's fallen off the wagon again after Malik takes a drink. Malik asks Chardonnay what she has on and she says it 's from Sex & and the City. Malik says "ai n't no black people in Sex & the City. '' Chardonnay reminds Jason it 's their honeymoon and no more work. Jason tries to get an interview from Westbrook. He tells him that he has an exclusive with Good Morning, America tomorrow. Westbrook says this party is n't really his mix. Jason realizes that he has his eye on Keira. Westbrook tweets about being at the party with Keira Whitaker. Keira tweets back about him flirting on Twitter, but being too scared to step. Jason tells him he better get to stepping. Derwin joins them at the party and Malik says they should toast to him and they take a shot. Melanie calls Derwin. He does n't answer. Malik says Blue is no Derwin. Derwin tells Blue it must feel good to be the # 1 pick. Blue corrects Derwin on the time that he runs. Derwin says he is up in his spot with his people after stealing his position and has the nerve to be disrespectful. Blue says he did n't steal anything from him. He says he could n't keep his position. Derwin throws a punch and they fight.
Guest appearances by: Ciara, Raymond Edwards, Jr., John Singleton, William Allen Young & Jigga
Note: Melanie is heavily mentioned throughout this episode.
Malik calls Tasha and says they have a real problem. Derwin 's mouth is bleeding and people are holding him back. Malik and Jason tell him to calm down and ask what 's wrong with him. He tries to go back in at Blue. Malik asks what 's wrong with him and Derwin says he does n't want to leave and that they are his family. Derwin cries. Malik grabs him by the collar and says they have no control over this game. Jason reminds him that it does n't matter where they play or what jersey they wear. He says that they are football players. Keira goes with Blue back to his room while he changes. He takes his shirt off to reveal a cut body and Keira notices. She tells him she is worried about his eye. Keira says he 's supposed to be The Blueprint and not fighting people in the club. She says he is in the pros now. She says being famous sucks sometimes, but it has its perks. Keira says her fame is stuck in time and she 's 14 forever in people 's minds. He says she beautiful and accomplished who is definitely not 14. She tells him that 's corny. He kisses her. She says the kiss was corny too, but she kind of likes corny. They continue to makeout. The doorbell rings to his suite and he thinks it 's his Dad. It 's Tasha at the door. Tasha says according to Bossip she is having his baby. Tasha says she needs to talk to Blue and help him out. She goes in the bedroom and catches him laying on the bed naked. She gives him her card and tells him the story that he and Derwin will tell the press about the story being blown out of proportion by drunk people. Keira asks what is he doing and says she is not that girl to sleep with him when they just met. He says he will get dressed. Malik and Tee - Tee are in a limo and Malik is drinking. He says he does n't need to be in a AA meeting and that he 's good. Tee - Tee tells him he is going to the meeting. Tee - Tee tells him that he is a drunk and needs AA. Malik says he has to drink because he is n't in control of his destiny. Tee - Tee says he 's been in his position, because he used to just be Malik 's employee until he changed things. Malik understands what he 's saying and tells the driver to take him to the meeting. Tasha shows up at Derwin 's room and tells him that she handled the Blue situation. She also tells him to call his wife, because she is worried. He says that he should have stayed with her because Irv is probably somewhere hiding. He says this is what he and Mel prayed for -- to be together. He says he always thought if he left it would be on his terms. He says he thought he was invincible and nothing could touch him. He says he got touched. Tasha says she always liked him because they are alike -- they might get down, but not out. Derwin cries. He says he 's going to miss her. Ciara is in bed with Blue and she says draft night is complete and he says maybe they can reenact it. Ciara tells him that he 's got to go. He gets dressed and heads out and runs into Keira. Ciara says she hopes they did n't wake her. Keira looks hurt. He apologizes and she says "no, no, You 're fine. '' Ciara says she caught him moping at the bar. She asks how Keira 's draft night was and she says uneventful. Tasha is FaceTiming with Pookie. He says he loves her and she tells him she loves him too. When they hang up, she calls Rick Fox back and leaves him a message. She says she has n't been answering or returning his calls because she does n't want to talk to him. She says she still cares about him and that 's what had her afraid. She says she 's happy with her new man and new life. Her doorbell rings and Rick is at the door. Keira is sitting in the lobby. She sees Derwin checking out. The hotel wokers says "they come and they go. That 's life. ''
Guest appearances by: Ciara, Rick Fox & Rockmond Dunbar
Note: Melanie are heavily mentioned throughout this episode.
Tasha is FaceTiming with Pookie. Pookie asks her what she 's doing in NY since the draft ended. She says her business never ends. He asks if she 's ok. She says she 's good and about to go shopping. He says he guesses he will see her in San Diego in a few days. He tells her that he loves her. Rick Fox is in bed with her. He says she 's about that double life. Tasha tells Rick it 's all his fault and that he made her cheat on her man. He says he 's not sorry he came to her room. She says she 's in a relationship with a killer. He says he 's glad he has his baby back, but Tasha says she 's not back. He says he 's had a lot of one night stands and random sex and this was n't that. He says that he loves her and never stopped loving her. He says that they have a lot of issues, but they can work them out. She says no. She says she 's with Pookie and that 's where she belongs. She tells him to go. He says he 'll go, but asks if she 's so in love with Pookie, why is she there with him right now. Malik is in the club with Keira. Blue and Jason walk in. She tells Malik how he hooked up with Ciara. Malik reminisces how he hooked up with Destiny 's Child his draft night. Blue is telling Jason how he hooked up with Ciara. Jason tells him he 's young and to enjoy it. Jason interviews Blue. Management sends over champagne. Blue declines and says he 's not a bottle - popping kind of guy and orders a drink. They toast to R&B vagina. Malik 's crowd leaves his area and goes to Jason and Blue 's area. Malik heads over and leaves Keira alone. Tasha gets home to find Pookie there a day early. He says she sounded weird when they last talked so he flew in early. He kisses her and she cuts him off and asks if he wants to go and get lunch. He says he 's hungry, but not for lunch. Tasha says it 's strange to find a grown man sitting in her living room when she gets home. She tells him she needs consistency. She says two people can not be in a relationship and not know what 's going on with the other clear across the country. He says he is in this relationship and asks what does he have to do to prove to her that he is n't going anywhere. Tasha and Pookie go and get tattoos. Tasha tells Pookie he 's a part of her now -- forever. She asks what 's wrong with him. He says it does n't feel right. He says he 's got a lot of tats that represent women he felt like he was serious about at the time. He says he does n't want to jinx it. Pookie says the ink wo n't make the relationship strong and that only consistency will do that. He says he is going to move his security business to San Diego to be with her full - time if she will have him. She says hell yes. She tells him she loves him and he says he loves her too. She only gets "Pook '' tattooed on her butt. Blue and Keira run into each other in the grocery store. She says he does n't owe her an apology. She points out that they made a bunch of magazines. He reminds her that she kissed him. She says of course he should sleep with her friend and that she was asking for it. She says that in the future they should skip pleasantries and just keep it moving. She goes back to her building and finds that he 's moving in. Tasha and Pookie are back at her place and there are flowers on her table. She thinks they are from Pookie. He says they are n't from him. She claims she forgot she joined the flowers of the month club. They are from Rick. She calls him and tells him to meet her in an hour. Tasha tells Rick she is in love with Pookie and shows him the tattoo. They start making out in her car. Keira is at her car calling AAA. Blue comes out to his car and says he 's just keeping it moving. AAA says it will be 2 hours. She says she has to make it to an audition. Blue goes over to her car to change her tire for her. He gives her his jacket to put on. He says that he did n't know Ciara was her homegirl. He says he gets why she would be pissed. He says that all girls are n't as interesting as her. He says it was just one night with Ciara. She asks if Ciara knows that. He gets ready to leave. She asks if he wants to make a deal. She says if he can fix her tire so she can make her audition they can be cool -- exchange pleasantries but still keep it moving. He asks what does he have to do to get a "how do you like your eggs in the morning? '' She says she does not cook. Tasha tells Rick this ca n't happen again and that she loves Pookie. He says that he knows that his name is tattooed on her heart. Rick tells her it 's her move and gets out of her car. Chardonnay is standing outside of her car and has witnessed what just happened. Tasha sees her.
Malik is having a masquerade housewarming party and tells everyone to get their freak on. Jason, Chardonnay, and Brittany are having breakfast together. Chardonnay says she wants them to get to know each other better. Brittany calls her Charlene and asks why she 's lying about her name. Jason corrects her. Brittany tells them she 's failing all of her classes. Chardonnay tells her the worst thing she can do is rack up $80,000 in college loans and not even use your degree. Jason is surprised at how much debt she has. Brittany says that must take forever to pay it back. Chardonnay says her secret is taking one class a quarter to defer her debt. Jason asks if she is content doing this until someone pays it back that someone being him. Jason interviews Blue in the gym. Jason seems uninterested in Blue 's response to his question. He then asks about the photos of him kissing Keira and wants to know what 's up with them. He says she kissed him as a prank and it 's nothing. Jason says he married his wife the first day he met her. Blue says he 's a planner. Jason admits to not getting a post-nup. Jason and Chardonnay are in bed. Jason wakes Chardonnay up and asks why she did n't tell him about her loans. She says it 's not his responsibility. He asks what else is she hiding from him. He finds out that she has a brother and goes to church on Sundays. She says they do n't need to talk about their religious beliefs until they have kids. He says that Jason Archibald Pitts (Chardonnay hears his middle name for the first time) is never having children, because he had a vasectomy. Tasha is planning to give Chardonnay some handbags and other stuff to get her to forget about seeing her kissing Rick Fox. Tasha tells her kissing Rick did n't mean anything and then admits that 's a lie. Chardonnay says she just wants to talk to her about Jason. She tells Tasha Jason is fixed and ca n't have more kids. She says she 's always dreamed of having kids. Tasha tells her she dodged a bullet. Tasha says she ca n't see Jason getting a vasectomy. She says she remember him and Kelly trying to have more kids. Chardonnay says her secret parking lot sex is safe with her, but will be even safer if she can take some of Tasha 's stuff. Daymond John from Shark Tank arrives at Malik 's. Malik says he sees him as a role model. He says he 's only there because his agent recommended it. Malik tries to sell him on a bikini he invented that does away with unintentional woody display also known as the wedgie. The bikini malfunctions and Malik says that they are still working the kinks out. Daymond asks the model if she is comfortable in it. She admits that she is not. Daymond says Malik wasted his time. Jason and Chardonnay are in bed and Chardonnay checks his scrotum and says there is no vasectomy scar. He says it was non-invasive. She questions him about it. He tells her the exact date he got it done, but she catches him in a lie about the date. He admits that he did n't get a vasectomy. She says that she told him she wanted to have kids when he stopped her from getting the marriage annulled. He says he was onboard until he found out about the debt. She tells him he better get onboard or she 's walking. Jason and Chardonnay are in bed and Chardonnay checks his scrotum and says there is no vasectomy scar. He says it was non-invasive. She questions him about it. He tells her the exact date he got it done, but she catches him in a lie about the date. He admits that he did n't get a vasectomy. She says that she told him she wanted to have kids when he stopped her from getting the marriage annulled. He says he was onboard until he found out about the debt. She tells him he better get onboard or she 's walking. Chardonnay asks Jason what is it going to be. Jason says his entire life has been planned out. He says then out of nowhere he meets her who is $80,000 in debt. She says her life was planned out too and the things she thought would happen did n't happen. She says having kids is one goal she is not willing to bend on. He says she should n't have to and as scary as the idea is, if the alternative is losing her, then he will reluctantly bless her with his seed. She says that is the sweetest thing he has ever said to her. She says she wants Brittany out of the house before they have kids because she does n't want her anywhere near her kids. Jason says that 's a good call.
Guest appearances by: Daymond John
Everyone is at the Sunbeam Charity Auction benefitting dyslexia and Jason is the MC. Blue is one of the players in the auction. Angela Simmons is there and talking with her friend about how she 's going to bid on Blue. Her friend says Keira is probably going to bid on him, but Angela says this is high stakes and says Keira was just a child actress. Pookie is there as security. Blue opens up the bidding at $10,000. A guy bids $35,000. Angela bids $40,000. Keira bids $45,000. Angela bids $50,000. Keira bids $75,000 and wins. Keira tells Angela she guesses some people 's money is a little longer than others. Chardonnay tells Tasha she needs to think twice about her love triangle after seeing him put someone in the hospital. Tasha says it was a one time thing and she does n't need to be telling her about her man. She says he 's the only one for her. The scene then goes to her making love to Rick and telling him he 's the only one for her. Chardonnay tells Tasha she needs to think twice about her love triangle after seeing him put someone in the hospital. Tasha says it was a one time thing and she does n't need to be telling her about her man. She says he 's the only one for her. The scene then goes to her making love to Rick and telling him he 's the only one for her. Blue tells Keira she knows he lives in her building and she did n't have to drop $75,000 for him. She says she did it for charity. He says $75,000 will not get him naked in bed. She says that he will give that away for free. He teases her about how much she ordered. He says if she keeps eating like that they will have to work out in the building gym together. He then tells her her price tag keeps popping out of her dress and goes to pull it out and she jumps back spilling wine all over it. Tasha shows up at Chardonnay 's and says that she thinks she was right about being ok to be in love with two men. Tasha then calls Rick to the door and asks Chardonnay which room can they do it in. Chardonnay asks her what is she doing. Chardonnay asks why does she have to do it there. Tasha says people will start figuring it out if they go to hotels since he was an ex-Laker. Chardonnay says she does n't want to be involved. Tasha tells her she is involved. Tasha takes a picture of Rick on her couch as evidence that Chardonnay is an accessory. Rick asks Chardonnay if she has any condoms. Keira and Blue are back at their building with their food to go. He says if the stain does n't come out, he will pay for the dress. She gives him the $75,000 and tells him to tell Jazz not to cash it for a few days so she can liquidate some stuff to cover it. He says she would have to be a crazy person to bid on him and not have the money. He asks if she is loving him that hard. he says Angela was saying she ca n't afford it. He says she ca n't. She says he does n't know what it 's like to have people judging her and saying she 's washed up. She says trying to keep up her appearance might be to prove them wrong. He says he gets what she 's saying. He says he was the # 1 draft pick and is on the cover of magazines with a question mark over his face and questioning if he 'll live up to the hype. She asks how does he deal with it and he says he does n't know because he just got here. He says maybe she can teach him. He offers to cover her and says he can write it off on his taxes. She agrees, but says it 's just a loan and she will pay him back with her next big role. He kisses her on the forehead and walks away. She calls him back and says she probably wo n't eat all of the food by herself.
Guest star: Angela Simmons
The Sabers move into the dorm for training camp. Malik has custom painting and a flat screen in his room. Blue does n't do much to his room and Javon asks if he has a Sunbeam. He explains what a Sunbeam is -- someone who takes care of his off - the - field needs. Blue gets rolled in toilet paper by the veterans. Blue misses a bunch of passes in practice. Other players ask, "Is this who they traded Derwin for? '' Jason is there and asks Blue what 's up. He breaks down the basics and tells him his job is to catch the ball. Jason tells him this is the pros and he ca n't wait for the ball to come to him; that he needs to take it. Jason goes on the field with Malik to show Blue how it 's done. Jason catches Malik 's pass and everyone cheers and says he 's still got it. Malik video conferences with Tasha and Tee - Tee. Tasha says word has already gotten out that Blue is a bust. Malik tells Tasha it 's bad and that Blue does n't have it. Malik says they gambled on a number 1 draft pick and lost. Tasha says he needs a Sunbeam. Malik says they need a Plan B. Keira is in the middle of working out when Tasha and Jazz knocks at the door. They tell her they needs her help with Blue. Jazz says they are n't asking, but telling. Tasha explains what the Sunbeams organization is and says they need her to be his support. Keira says they do n't have that kind of relationship and that she is n't his girlfriend. Keira says she is n't sure Blue wants her up in his business like that. Tasha says they are proud men and wo n't come out and ask for what they need. Keira says she 's sorry, but she ca n't help them. Jason and Chardonnay are at home when Malik knocks on the door. Mailk complains about Blue and tells Chardonnay about Jason at practice. Malik says it was like Jason turned the clock back 10 years on him. Malik tells Jason the Sabers want him back. Malik says he took the practice tape to the front office today and said they need him back and they agreed. Malik says they want to offer Jason a contract for $1 million. Jason says that is the lowest they can legally pay him and he 's a future hall of famer. Malik says it 's not about the money, but about the love of the game. Jason tells him to get out and Malik tells him to sleep on it. Keira is working out again when Blue calls. He asks her to bring him a pillow. She asks if he 's telling her or asking her. Chardonnay is watching the tape from the Sabers Championship celebration. Chardonnay says he always tells her how much he enjoyed playing and she 's never gotten a chance to see it. She says the guy on the tape could n't care less about the money, because he loves the game. She says she wants to be a part of that. He asks when did she become a football fan and she says she 's a Jason Pitts fan. Keira brings Blue the pillow and says maybe now he can get a good night 's sleep. She asks if things are going ok and he lies and says yes. She says that he might need someone to have his back during the craziness and maybe she can be his sunshine. He asks if she 's sure she is n't trying to be his girlfriend. He asks if she would do that for him and she says it 's only right to return the favor. He asks her to bring toilet paper. She asks him to tell her about training camp and he says it 's rough. Jason shows up at training camp and says, "Guess who 's back?? ''
Jazz hosts the Sunbeam meeting at Tasha 's house to welcome the new "Sunrays. '' Chardonnay introduces herself as Jason 's wife and someone says, "Wife # 2. '' Chardonnay says she looks forward to being part of the Sunbeams. Keira says since she is n't really with Blue, but kind of a celebrity she has charity organization hook - ups. Jazz tells them to shut up and turns on music as strippers begin to put on a show. Tasha tells them to put their clothes back on. Tasha says that she finds it highly disrespectful to do this in her home. She puts the strippers out and tells Jazz to get back to the meeting. Jazz says they must step up the sky box meaning no jerseys, sweats, or hats. Chardonnay steps out to call Jason and tells him they are cray. She says she can be a football wife without being a Sunbeam. He tells her she needs to make it work and that Kelly was President of the Sunbeams. In the team meeting, Coach says they need to figure out why Blue is stinking up his field. Team personnel comes in to get one of the players and tells him to get his playbook. Jazz gets a call and tells Sampson 's wife that her husband has just been cut from the Sabers and she will not become a member of the Sunbeams. Keira says as an actress she goes through the same instability. One Sunbeam says Keira has nothing to worry about with her man since he 's taking up all the team resources. Tasha says when Kelly was President none of this was going on. Chardonnay says she 's no Kelly Pitts, but she wants to strengthen the organization by offering a girls ' night at her house. Blue goes back to his room to find that all of his stuff is now Blue. Jason says it 's a play on his name Blue. Blue gets mad and Jason asks him if he 's going to fight the whole team. He explains that this is what happens in training camp. Jason tells him about what they did to him when he was a rookie. He says do n't get mad, get even. Jason goes to his room and finds everything in yellow for High Yellow. The Sunbeams are at Chardonnay 's for the sleepover party. Tasha mentions her man and Chardonnay asks which one. She shushes her for airing out her business. Tasha asks Keira how she and her man are doing. Keira says he is not her man. Tasha says he 's not going to be on the market for long. Keira says they are just friends. Tasha says she reminds her of Melanie -- "I 'm a doctor. I 'm a doctor. '' Someone tells Keira she ca n't get her pedicure before veteran Sunbeams. Chardonnay says she may not be Kelly Pitts but she made sure there were enough estheticians for everyone. Blue gets even by inviting homeless men to enjoy the comforts of the veteran players ' rooms. He shows it to them via a video. The vets go to his room and bang on the door. Blue tells them to come back later, because he 's feeling a little "blue '' tonight. They burst the door down. Keira goes to Tasha and asks how she got into sports management. Tasha tells her to stop trying to avoid the veteran Sunbeams. Keira and Jazz are about to get into a fight when Chardonnay grabs Keira and takes her out to the balcony. Chardonnay tells her not to let those women distract her from why she 's there. Chardonnay says they do n't scare her. Chardonnay says do n't let them drag her to ugliness. They go back in and hear Jazz say she was sexing Jason first and says she would have had the place looking better. Jazz calls Jason cheap and Chardonnay jumps on Jazz. Keira goes to grab her off Jazz and reminds her to keep her composure. Tasha tells them that 's enough. She tells them they are all just mad and scared about their men getting cut. Tasha tells Jazz to apologize to Chardonnay. Jazz apologizes for sleeping with her husband and Chardonnay says she 's sorry Jazz is a skank. Tasha tells the new Sunbeams they need to act like the old Sunbeams who were pillars in the community. She says she misses Kelly and Melanie and then appoints herself the new President. Blue is tied up in his bed with the homeless men 's clothes. Blue wants to get revenge again. Jason tells him if he was playing well he would be buddy - buddy with everyone up in there. Jason tells him he has to play along and be a team player. Blue says he 's not a team player, but a leader. Jason says this is the pros and everyone here is a leader. He tells Blue that if he comes in like he 's better than everyone else, he lessens his chance to survive. He says he has to act like a part of the team before he 's not a part of the team. The rookie 's are putting on a talent show dressed as cheerleaders. Jason comes in and says they have a late entry. Blue performs a song and dance act dressed in all Blue and painted in blue mocking himself and says he 's learned his lesson. Jason says he 's going to be alright.
Absent: Barry Floyd as Terrence "Tee Tee '' Carter
Tasha listens to a message from Rick that he ca n't wait to see her at Malik 's event tonight. Pookie comes in carrying his last things into Tasha 's home. He says if he did n't have to unpack he would escort her to the event. Malik welcomes everyone to his event. He asks who likes breasts. He says breasts are out and asses are the new tig ol ' bitties. He shows a video of him eating a cheeseburger when a woman with a big booty walks by. He asks himself why does he have to choose between his burger and the booty, when he says he does n't have to choose and that he can have both at the same time. He presents the fatty burger, two burgers side by side to look like a butt. He introduces Phatty 's restaurant. He says he wants to open one in every major city. Tee - Tee asks Jason if he wants in on Phatty 's. Jason says the burgers are phenomenal, but there is no way he is getting involved with a man who had to sell his house on Craigslist. Keira is at Blue 's in a dress and he tells her she 's overdressed for the Cheesecake Factory. She tells him they are going to Malik 's party. Blue says no and that he 's not cool with Malik. Keira says it will be ok once Malik sees Blue is cool with Keira. Tasha arrives at the event and Malik says he 's already got 25 % of his investments. Malik asks her if she 's ok and that she said it was ok for him to invite Rick. She says it 's cool and that Rick missed that train and she 's moved on with Pookie. Tasha tells Chardonnay to run interference and tells her to get the skanks away from Rick. Chardonnay goes over to them and asks if they heard that Kobe is in the hallway with some white chicks. The ladies leave. She tells Rick Tasha sent her over to get rid of them. He says to tell Tasha she does n't see any ring on this finger. Tasha goes over and sends Chardonnay away. He says he was waiting for a real woman to come along. He asks how much time do they have and she asks how much time do they need. Pookie appears at the party. She tries to hide. Rick says, "Wait a minute. That 's Pookie? That 's your dude? '' He then asks why are they (Rick and Tasha) together. Pookie asks if that 's Rick and asks if that 's why she 's been acting ghetto and inappropriate, because she thought he would trip that he ex is there. He says he 'll go over and say hi. Keira and Blue show up. Keira tells Tee - Tee to tell Malik to come and find her. He calls Keira and Blue a couple and Keira says just because they are both cute, people should n't assume they are a couple. He says they should take a shot every time someone asks if they are a couple. Chardonnay and Tasha watch Pookie and Rick talking. Malik meets a potential investor and asks what she thought of the presentation. She says it was cute and delightful, but it is n't her cup of tea. He says it has already garnered investments from big time investors. She says it 's impressive, but she was led to believe that he wanted to take his brand to the next level and this seems like a lateral move. She says that all of his ventures seem a little common, but to call her if he 's interested in taking things to the next level. Pookie tells Tasha Rick said he 's still in love with her, but then says he 's just joking. He says he 's cool and Rick asked him to be his bodyguard while he 's in LA. He says they will be hanging out a lot together. Blue and Keira (both clearly a bit tipsy / drunk) see Malik and figure out what she should say to him. They continue to take shots. Chardonnay tells Rick that she does n't know what kind of game he 's running but he needs to shut it down. Rick asks if Tasha is in there and realizes Chardonnay is relaying messages from Tasha on the phone. He says he 's tired of being her jumpoff and it 's either him or Pookie. Jason walks up and asks how she knows Rick. She says everybody knows Rick Fox because he 's a Laker. Malik tells the investor how about he invest something in her and she asks if those rapey lines work. She says this attempt is low - rent to get in her pants and asks for her business card back and tears it up. He says he already put her number is his phone and texted her a penis pic. Tee - Tee tells him that they have enough investors to make Phatty 's a reality. He tells Tee - Tee to shut it down and that he 's trying to rebrand himself. He tells his assistant to set up an appointment with Reese, the potential investor. Keira and Blue arrive back home. She tells him once Malik gets to know him he 'll fall in love with him too. They shake hands at the door and then kiss. Keira pulls away and then Blue apologizes. hey blame it on being drunk and then kiss again and then tell each other goodnight. Keira goes inside and throws up.
Blue and Keira are jogging and they take a makeout break. Blue tells her do n't start something she ca n't finish. She said she thought they were just friends who kiss. He says that he likes her and likes doing things with her and wants to continue doing nasty things with her. She tells him to come on so they can finish the run. Tasha and Pookie are at home and Pookie is working on his new business plan. He tells her that Rick bought a gun and wo n't be needing his services now. Pookie tells her business is slow down here and he 'll have to keep some of his clients up north to make ends meet. Chardonnay arrives and they leave to go to a movie. Rick is in the back seat of the car. Rick says he 's not doing this back and forth anymore and it 's either him or Pookie. She says she loves him and she ca n't live without him. She says she 's going to have to let Pookie go. Chardonnay says "poor, poor Pookie. '' Tasha says she 's got to break the news to Pookie and give her a day or two. Malik meets with the investor and she says she knows he 's called her office, but they are just in different businesses. She says she is not interested in working with him unless he is ready to go to the next level. He says he 's brought along $50,000 to show how serious he is. He says he 's done his research and loves the way she does business. He says his shelf life as an athlete is almost up and he needs to create a future for himself. She says if he 's serious meet her tomorrow. Tasha calls the Sunbeam meeting to order as the new President. She says preseason is coming and she has a list of activities and needs volunteers. Chardonnay signs up for the bake sale and Keira does n't sign up for anything. She says she 's not sure she 's going to be a Sunbeam much longer. Tasha dismisses the meeting so she can talk to Keira and find out if it 's about some sex business. She tells Chardonnay she has clean - up duty. Keira says things are getting out of hand with Blue. Tasha asks if he 's too big or too small. Keira says she does n't know because she has n't been it and does n't know if she wants him to be her first. Tasha says she ca n't mean she 's never had sex before. Keira says she just has n't met the guy she wants to go there with. Chardonnay says if she had believed everything she 'd heard about football players, she never would have gotten with Jason. Tasha asks her what is she going to do. Keira says she 's good and when she meets the guy who lives up to her list, she 'll think about it. She says she wants someone who has her back for a change and wants someone to care about her career. She says she wants someone who can make her laugh even when things are bad. Pookie says he 's heading to Mexico. Tasha says he 's smothering her and she needs some space. She says she 's tired of looking at his mess. She pulls a diamond out of his box of things and asks if it 's a diamond pinkie ring. He gets down on one knee and proposes to her. She says yes. Malik goes to meet the investor and the elevators in the building are down. Malik runs up the stairs. Tasha calls Chardonnay and tells her she 's engaged to Pookie. She says he gave her a Janet Jackson ring. She says when Pookie put the ring on her finger their whole life together flashed before her eyes. Chardonnay asks what happened to Rick. Jason asks Chardonnay who she 's talking to. She says Rick wants to come to Spadonnay. Malik is tired and sweaty by the time he makes it up to her office. She says there is no meeting and this was just a test. She says she had the elevators shut down to see how serious he was. He 's about to leave when she says she has some men she would like him to meet. They are looking for a spokesperson. They say anyone who can run up all those stairs in 7 minutes is the person for the job. Tasha gets a call from Rick. He asks if she did it. She says she did it alright. Blue knocks on Keira 's door and says he thought she might be avoiding him about their run. She says she 's running lines. He says he 'll cook her up something. He offers to help her with her lines. They run lines and when he 's supposed to kiss her she pulls away. She says it 's weird. He makes her food and she says it 's actually pretty good. They run the lines again and she lets him kiss her. He starts to undress her and takes off his shirt.
In the sixth season mid-finale, Blue and Keira wake up in bed together. Keira asks him why he tastes minty and Blue says he got up and gargled, because he could n't wake up and kiss someone with the stank mouth. Keira runs to the bathromm to gargle. Blue says he does n't want this to be a quit it and hit it. Keira says it was good and they should do it again. Keira brings Blue breakfast in bed (a peanut butter and jelly sandwich). She then surprises him with a cheerleader uniform that she 's wearing. He asks if they are making a sex tape. She says she 's thinking about wearing it to the game tomorrow. He says tomorrow might be the first and last time she sees him. She asks is n't it just a preseason game and he says every game counts. Tasha and Chardonnay are in the suite at the game. Chardonnay asks how is she showing off her engagement to Pookie with Rick still in the picture. She says eventually one of them will leave her and until then she will just ride it until the wheel falls off. She says they are both out of town for a few days and she has time to figure it out. Keira arrives and asks if she missed kickoff. She asks Chardonnay if she looks different. Chardonnay asks if she got extensions. Then Keira asks if she looks like a woman and Chardonnay guesses that she had sex. Tasha comes up and tells Keira she looks different and that there is a spread in her hips. She asks if she had sex. Keira says it 's the extensions and then asks if she got engaged. Blue catches a pass for a touchdown. Rick shows up at the game and surprises Tasha. Tasha asks Rick what he 's doing there. He says he got on the first plane he could after she told him all the messiness with Pookie was over. Chardonnay offers her seat to him. Jazz asks Rick if this is a congratulations visit. Tasha says congratulations for becoming President of the Sunbeams. Tasha suggests they leave to catch up. Rick says he wants to check out Blue. They end up on the kiss cam. Tasha ducks and Rick ends up kissing Chardonnay on the cheek instead. In the locker room, the guys congratulate Blue on 2 touchdowns. Javon says he was extra light on his feet and asks if he had a Greek orgy. Blue says a gentleman never tells. Javon keeps pressuring him. He asks Jason to help him out and Jason says he does n't care. They tease Jason about Chardonnay being on the kiss cam with Rick Fox. They ask Blue to tell them about Keira. Malik asks if he smashed Keira. Blue says Keira is off limits. Malik says that he does n't know what kind of high school games Blue is playing by trying to make people think he slept with Keira, because he knows Keira is a virgin. Blue says, "I beg your pardon? '' Chardonnay hugs and kisses Jason. Jason says he saw them on the kiss cam. She says it was just a kiss on the cheek. She asks if he 's getting jealous. He brings up the phone calls she 's had with Rick. He says he checked her phone and she asks if he trusts her. He asks what 's going on with her and Rick and she says nothing. He says he 'll find out from Rick when he 's kicking his ass. Blue arrives at Keira 's place. She 's dressed as a store clerk and he says he takes it that she got the part. He says that Malik said the craziest thing today that she 's a virgin. he says not anymore. He asks her how could she not tell him. She asks if he 's mad and he said yes. She said she thought guys liked virgins. She says it does n't change the fact that they had a great time. He asks how does she know he had a great time. He says being her first is a lot of pressure for a dude and that he 's under enough pressure and does n't need anything extra on his plate. He says he does n't know where this thing is going. She says it 's going nowhere now and that he has turned something precious to her into something all about him. He leaves and slams the door. Tasha is on the phone with Rick and tells him she is n't ready for him to be at her place. Someone is knocking on her door and she hangs up with Rick. It 's Jason and Chardonnay. Jason says he heard she 's having a trashy affair with Rick Fox. He says it 's his business when she dragged his wife into it and he wo n't let her ruin this marriage the way she did with his marriage to Kelly. She says she ca n't believe he 's blaming that on her. He says she could n't wrap her simple head about a good marriage. He says she 's still a petty girl with ghetto aspirations. Tasha asks if Chardonnay is sure she has a home with him because all she hears is Kelly. Tasha tells Chardonnay to let her know when she wants to know Kelly 's escape plan. Jason says if she was n't a woman he would beat her. He makes a move towards her and Pookie comes in and grabs him and asks what is going on. Jason says either she tell him or he will.
Tasha 's affair with Rick is revealed, endangering her relationship with Pookie. Jason and Chardonnay argue a lot. Blue finds an unexpected ally in Malik.
Chardonnay keeps her friendship with Tasha a secret. Meanwhile, Keira tries to talk to Blue.
Absent: Barry Floyd as Terrence "Tee Tee '' Carter
Blue tries to sabotage Keira 's new relationship. Meanwhile, Malik 's past comes back to haunt him, and Chardonnay struggles to deal with Jason 's gridiron injury.
Guest stars: Navid Negahban, Victor M. Jackson II
Malik enlists his friends to appear in a promotional campaign, but an accusation derails his plans. Elsewhere, events run smoothly for Rick, to Tasha 's chagrin. Blue sets out to beat Keira in the dating game and an injury impacts Jason 's life.
Guest stars: Derek Blanks, Ciara
Malik invites Blue to a lusty party to help him get over Keira. Meanwhile, Jason works to heal his serious ailments before an important game; and Chardonnay worries more about Jason 's health after visiting a retired player.
Guest star: Travis Porter
Blue begins to worry about his relationship with Keira after the team considers her bad luck. Tasha breaks up with Rick after realizing that she is n't happy. Rick 's comedy career flounders.
Guest stars: Ryan Stewart, Douglas Stewart
Malik must decide between Reece and Tori. Blue and Keira discuss the truth aspect of their relationship. Tasha and Chardonnay drink.
Guest star: William Allen Young
Tasha spends a day in therapy to deal with her relationship issues. Malik gets help with his problems.
Guest star: Curtis Armstrong
Blue scrutinizes Keira 's fling with Luke while at a movie premiere. Meanwhile, Tasha is inspired by a therapy session and begins apologizing to everybody. Jason and Chardonnay clash over his gridiron career and Malik reconnects with Tee Tee. Malik finds himself in a confrontation against a group of men that could have fatal results
In the sixth season finale, Malik is in the hospital after being beaten badly by a group of men. Meanwhile, Blue and Keira 's relationship is tested after the Baggers premiere after party, he finds out she lied about being intimate with Luke. Jason and Chardonnay 's relationship is in trouble when she finds a note in Jason 's coat pocket that he wrote to Kelly and he tells Chardonnay that he has another note for her, telling that he loves her and wants to be with her. Malik then finds out that he wo n't have full use of his arm again meaning that he ca n't play football for a long time.
In the Season 7 opener, Jason and Chardonnay are discussing the Sabers retiring his jersey and Jason says they will name a street after him. Tasha is in the doctor 's office getting Botox. Blue tells Keira she looks nice and then he gets in a SUV and she gets in her car. Malik, whose arm is in a sling, has his girl Nina who says that they have n't been out in 6 weeks and asks if they are going to the banquet. He says to hell with the Sabers. Malik is in bed and asks Nina what did he tell her about cleaning up and tells her to sit down. Chardonnay and Jason knock on the door and Chardonnay is surprised to see Nina there. Nina says this is happening. Jason tells Malik that he 's supposed to be there tonight and say a speech. He gives him the speech. Malik says Jason does n't get it because the Sabers threw him out like a doll while Jason 's getting his jersey retired. Malik says this is his life now and he 's not going. He says that he does n't care about Jason or his jersey. He tells them to get out. Chardonnay tells Jason Nina 's hair looks a mess and she wants to talk to her about it. After Jason walks out Chardonnay tells Malik that this is a huge night for her husband and he 's Jason 's best friend and he wants him there to share it with him. She says that she expects him to get up and get down there. She leaves and Nina asks him if he 's going and he says no. Jason 's mother asks the press who has a prouder mother and Jason asks, "Aaron Hernandez? '' Jason 's father says his jersey was retired 2 months after retirement and Jason 's is 3 months. Jason jokes about it taking him several times to get in the Hall of Fame. Brittany is also there. Chardonnay talks to Keira and says her dress is screaming "take me, Blue. '' Keira says forget him and Chardonnay asks why she 's trying to hook them back up then. She says she misses him. Keira says the night of the premiere she told him it was over because she thought she would be better off without him and she 's not. They see Tasha and Tasha says that they are going to have to call Keira a ride home before they end up on a Who Wore It Best poll. Keira asks Tasha what 's wrong with her face and if she had a stroke. Jason sees an old teammate and does n't recognize him and then when he realizes who it is he says it 's been a few years. Jason also thinks Tasha is having a stroke. Keira goes to Blue 's table and he says that he did n't know she would be there. Keira says Chardonnay strong - armed her into coming, Keira being her best friend and all. Blue asks, "Best friend? What 's her last name? '' She says she does n't need one. Blue 's date comes up and wants to sit down and Keira moves over one seat to let her sit next to Blue. Blue and his date are kissing and Keira asks where they met, Twitter? She says a bar. She asks Blue how he knows her and he says she lives in his building. lue introduces Jason to his date and Jason says aww when he sees Keira sitting there. Jason asks Blue to introduce him and he reads the speech and says that 's not really his voice. Tasha sits down at the table with Jason 's family. Jason 's father flirts with Tasha and she asks if they have an open marriage and he says yes and his wife says by open he means closed. Brittany says something smart and Tasha says something smart back and Brittany gets up and says she 's leaving. Chardonanny takes Tasha to the restroom and asks her what 's going on with her. She says nothing. Tasha finally says it happened and Chardonnay asks if she means a stroke. Tasha says no, she 's going through menopause and she wants to make sure she still has it. Chardonnay says she 's heard it can be scary, but imagine how free she is now -- free of cramps and mood swings. Tasha says God is punishing her for cheating on Pookie with Rick. Jason 's parents come back into the banquet with their clothes messed up and undone. Blue thanks Jason for letting him do the introduction. Jason takes the speech cards from Blue. Tasha says she 's glad he came. Jason gives Malik the speech and Malik apologizes for earlier. A reporter grabs Jason to talk to him before the program begins. He says he 's interested in how high his stats were that season and the prior season his stats were considerably lower and there 's a huge disparity. He says Jason may have had a little help. He says he 's talking about steroids. Jason says oh.
Jason asks him if he 's accusing him of doing steroids and tells him to slow down on the drinking. The reporter says that he has sources willing to name him and says to call him if he wants to talk. Jason thinks to himself and wonders what enemies he has who would name names. Keira thinks to herself and says he picked his new girl up at a bar and that 's why her breasts are saggy. Blue wonders if his date 's breasts are saggy. Malik thinks they turned their back on him. Tasha thinks how the mighty have fallen talking about herself. Chardonnay is singing about hot sauce in her head. Blue 's girl asks him if he used to date Keira and Keira says yes. Blue says he was a rookie and did n't know any better. Malik gets up to give the introduction and realizes that Jason is n't in the room. Jason is in the restroom throwing up. Malik says since they have a minute he noticed people whispering when he arrived. The coach gets up and Malik tells him to sit down. Malik says he knows they are thinking poor Malik that he got beat down and ca n't play football anymore. Malik asks Tasha what 's wrong with her eye. Malik puts his bank on the speakerphone telling the millions currently in his account. Malik says he owns a burger restaurant and tells them to kiss his phatty. He drops the mic and then picks it back up when he sees Jason walk up and says, "Jason Pitts, y'all. '' Jason starts to give his speech and is stumbling over his words. Jason puts his speech down and begins to speak from his heart. He says what he did on the field was not for the faint of heart. He says the fans keep coming out to see you every Sunday. He says some cheer, some boo, and some write about it. He says they will never understand what it 's like to get out there and risk it all. He says it 's for the game they all love so much. He says he 's worn the # 88 with pride and would do it all again. Jason ends with "Last name Ever. First name Greatest. '' Everyone cheers and applauds. Malik gets his driver from the bar and sees Franco 's rap video on the TV with someone looking like him wearing his jersey and looking beat up. Malik says they need to make a stop on the way to the house. Tasha is talking to Jason and his family when she starts to feel sick and Jason says he thinks she 's having another stroke. They run to the restroom. Tasha throws up and Tasha says she 's been sick a lot lately because she 's going through the change. Chardonnay asks if that 's normal. Tasha says she 's been throwing up, missed her period, and is gaining weight. Chardonnay says it sounds like she 's pregnant. Jason talks to his old teammate Ty and says what they did back in the day is out. He says that someone is going to name names. He asks how can that be. He says that freaking reporter McGee. Jason asks him how did he know it was McGee. He says McGee sniffed him out months ago and he finally came clean. Jason hits him and asks what happened to loyalty and says that they are supposed to be teammates. Ty asks where was his teammate when he called 3 years ago and 2 years ago. He says if it was n't for him he would have been broke a long time ago. Ty tells Jason that he 's not going to sit back and watch Jason make history and get all the glory and that he plans to make a little history of his own. Keira goes into the restroom and overhears someone having sex in the stall next to her. She peers over the stall and throws tissue at them. Blue says she 's in the men 's restroom. Keira says he 's having sex with a random woman. His date says that they met at a bar last night. Keira is drunk and says that she was up for the role of Olivia Pope in Scandal and then laughs and says she 's lying. Blue tells her she 's pathetic always acting like she 's bumping into him. His date leaves him. Malik is sitting outside of Franco 's studio. Bibs asks if Malik is sure he wants to do this. Malik says Franco is the reason he is n't playing anymore and he 's not afraid of Franco. Tasha knocks on the window and they scream. Malik asks how she knew they were there. She asks him did n't they decide they were n't going to retaliate against Franco. He says his life is over and Franco is going to pay. Tasha says hurting him is only going to make him feel good for a moment and then it 's over. Tasha tells him she 's pregnant. He does n't believe her at first. She says she 's having Rick 's baby. He asks if they are back together. She says she does n't know. She tells him she does n't want his baby brother or sister talking to him through 6 inches of glass or 6 feet of dirt. She asks if she 's going to see him back at the hotel. He says yes. Tasha gets out of the car and thanks Bibs for the phone call. Keira asks valet to give her her car keys. They offer to call her a cab. Blue asks valet for her keys and says he will take her home. Keira calls him a stalker. A police officer walks up and Keira says he took her car keys. The officer tells Blue to give Keira her keys back and Blue says man no. He gets into a fight with the officer and gets cuffed.
Jason is on the phone with Malik talking about the steroid story. Brittany and Chardonnay are arguing. The doorbell is ringing and Jason answers it. It 's Kelly. She asks, "Did you miss me? '' Kelly asks if he 's going to let her in or if she should come back in 3 more years. Brittany asks what she 's doing there. She says she called and asked her to come. Kelly asks Brittany did she not tell him that she was coming. He introduces Kelly and Chardonnay. Kelly hugs Chardonnay and says, "Welcome to the family! '' Kelly said that Brittany said that she might have her hands full with the pre-prom party. Brittany says Chardonnay did n't get the right color balloons and Kelly offers to go and look for balloons. Tasha comes through the door screaming and hugs Kelly. Blue is picking up trash as part of his community service. Keira shows up to help him because she feels bad. The guy over the program gives Blue a hard time and threatens to talk to the judge about getting more time added to his sentence. Blue says he 's really starting to hate her and helping her was not an invitation back into his life. She says if there was an invitation she would have clicked decline. Chardonnay arrives home to find Jason counting $500,000. He tells her that he plans to give it to Ty to keep him quiet about the steroids. Chardonnay says if he pays Ty he 'll have to keep paying Ty. Jason says he ca n't get everything taken away because of one stupid mistake. Chardonnay says life is n't fair and to be honest about his mistake so they can move on. Jason says he 'll move on after they erect a statue of his likeness outside of City Hall and give him a parade and name a street and a day after him. Brittany and Kelly come home with party supplies and Kelly asks Jason why they did n't have a beach house when they were married. She says it was because he was cheap. They drink to simpler times. Kelly says she 's been reading about the Ty scandal and asks how he 's holding up. He says Chardonnay might be right about coming clean. Kelly says he 's worked so hard and made one mistake. She says it does n't seem fair. Chardonnay comes home with bags and sees them outside on the balcony. She says do n't mind her. She 's just being redundant and walks out. Chardonnay asks Tasha how Rick and Pookie took the pregnancy news. Someone says, "Mrs. Pitts? '' and Chardonnay and Kelly answer. The photographer says he wants to get a mother - daughter photo of Brittany and Kelly. Tasha gives Brittany a gift and Brittany asks if it 's weed. Tasha tells her it 's the morning - after pill. Kelly asks Tasha why she is n't drinking. Tasha says she 's on antibiotics and Kelly asks if she has a STD. Kelly says it 's her fault for not being there more. Malik tells them to turn the TV on because they are about to talk about Ty. They say Ty recanted the whole story and it 's become a non-story. Malik congratulates Jason on dodging another bullet. Chardonnay accuses him of paying off Ty. Jason says no and Kelly confesses to paying him with her own money. She jokes that she also slept with him, but says she 's just kidding. Chardonnay asks who told her to butt in their business. Kelly says Jason 's business will always be her business, because he is the father of her child and she has to protect her family 's legacy. Chardonnay tells Jason to say something and he asks Kelly to go. Kelly leaves and Chardonnay tells Jason not to defend Kelly. She says she takes care of this family every day and Kelly ca n't just sashay up in there. Chardonnay cries and says it 's hurtful to her and Jason says she 's right and hugs her. Kelly is at the hotel packing her bag. Jason knocks on her door. She opens and he kisses her. Kelly asks him what are they doing. Jason says he does n't know. He says he came there to thank her and got caught up. She says she does look amazing and he agrees. He asks if her boobs are new and says they are. She says Chardonnay has nice ones and asks if he paid for them. He says no. She says she did n't mean to upset her. He says he knows and that Chardonnay is still trying to adjust to the football life. She says in her defense they 've been at it for almost 20 years and to give Chardonnay time. SHe says Chardonnay seems like a good person. Kelly says they are not good people and he says they are the worst. Blue arrives at Keira 's apartment and asks why she confessed. He says he put himself out there and he thought she was out there with him, but the minute things got hard she was n't there. He refers back to when Malik was in the hospital. he says he did n't fight for her the night at the hospital and that 's why they are n't in a relationship. She says she made a mistake and she wants him and wants "us. '' She says she does n't know how to make it happen and she 's never been in a real relationship before. She says he was her first love and asks him how to make it work. He says he needs a minute to think about the whole thing. She tells him to take all the time he needs and he leaves. Kelly and Jason are still in her room talking and sitting in the bed. She 's telling him that she saw the world and the world is amazing. She tells him of her time in India. Her phone alarm goes off and they see that it 's 4: 00 a.m. Kelly says, "My plane! '' Jason says, "My wife! '' Kelly asks what he 's going to tell her. On the way home Jason decides to crash his car into a garage dumpster.
Absent: Barry Floyd as Terrence "Tee Tee '' Carter
Tasha arrives at Malik 's and everyone is there, including her father. They tell her this is an intervention. She asks why she needs an intervention and Chardonnay says to talk about the pregnancy that she 's been hiding. Tasha asks Chardonnay if she told everyone she was pregnant. They tell her that they were told that this was about something else. Blue and Keira argue about sitting next to each other and Tasha says she knows she was n't brought here to listen to Melanie and Derwin Part 2. Tasha says she ca n't believe that she brought her here to talk about her pregnancy. Chardonnay says her secret is coming between her and her God. Malik says he had a hand in this too. He says he grew up without a father and he does n't want his little brother or sister growing up the same way. Blue says they are all there because they are concerned about her and her unborn child. She tells him she does n't even know his real name. She unzips her jacket and shows them her pregnant belly. She gets ready to leave and her father tells her to sit down and take her medicine. He tells Chardonnay that the floor is hers. Tasha sits next to Jason and asks if she hurt his arm. Tasha 's father asks what happened and Chardonnay says he was in an accident. Tasha asks, "Oh really? '' Jason turns the focus back to Tasha. Chardonnay says they all understand why she would n't want to call Rick or Pookie and that they all have their shortcomings. Tasha says she does n't want her in her business. Someone knocks on the door and it 's Malik 's personal trainer. She asks if he forgot about their session. She asks to use the restroom and Tasha invites her to join them. Tasha says she will call Rick and Pookie if that will get them out of her business. She gets her phone and pretends to call Rick until her phone begins to ring. She says there is a reason she ca n't call them and she 's raising the child on her own without anyone 's help. Keira is in the pantry and Blue walks in and starts kissing her. Keira says that she does n't want to keep this a secret forever and he tells her that they do n't want to be that couple who breaks up and gets back together. Malik goes to his bathroom and knocks on the door to see if the trainer is ok. She says she and her girlfriend Sasha broke up. Tasha breaks out all of her medicine and her father says she can remember to carry all of that, but not prophylactics. Chardonnay starts the intervention back up. Tee - Tee says Malik is in the bathroom banging his trainer. Chardonnay says Tasha did n't do that good of a job raising Malik by himself. Her father says her raising a baby by herself is a repeat. She says she 's rich now and can use her money to help raise the baby. Blue says a father is necessary and tells what he learned from his father. Tasha says she now knows why his season was bad. He was raised by a father and he 's soft, while Malik was n't and is a two - time champion and three - time MVP. Someone knocks on the door and asks for Tee - Tee. She serves him. He says he 's being sued and that they are saying that the salmonella outbreak is his fault. He runs and jumps into the indoor pool. Keira and Blue decide that keeping their relationship a secret is stupid and they should tell everyone. No one seems to care. Tasha is trying to sneak out and Chardonnay stops her. Jason says to let her go, because she ca n't keep her legs closed and it 's a surprise she only has 2 kids. Tasha tells Chardonnay that the night he had his accident he was really in Kelly 's hotel room doing God knows what. Chardonnay asks what that 's about and Jason does n't say anything. Tasha leaves and then Chardonnay leaves. Malik 's trainer is crying on his shoulder. She says her girlfriend wants her to be a little puppet and control everything. She starts taking off the clothes that Sasha bought her and Malik stops her. She says he has no idea what she 's going through and he says he 's had plenty of relationships. He says he 's been through some stuff. She says she had him pegged for a smash and dash kind of dude. He says he is that, but he 's not opposed to falling in love. He says he tried to control his high school girlfriend, but deep down he knew he was n't ready for that type of love and the same is probably true about Sasha. Malik walks out to the living room and asks Jason where everyone went. He says Tasha got him and Chardonnay into a fight and left. Tasha 's father knocks on her door and tells her to open it. He tells her to call those men and tell them what she needs to tell them or he will. She says she does n't want to call them. She says her relationship with them ended badly and she was responsible for it so she 's responsible for the baby. He says they are responsible too. He says he 's partially responsible for her lack of self - esteem. She says it 's funny how being called dummy all your life can affect your self - esteem. He says she wo n't know what the men want until she calls them. She says she ca n't. He says there are times in our lives when we 're tested and this is her test. He says how they react is their test. He says she will be alright, because she 's daddy 's little girl.
Absent: Brittany Daniel as Kelly Pitts
Chardonnay and Brittany are throwing Jason 's stuff out on the lawn. Brittany tells him that his soon - to - be-second - ex-wife does n't want to talk to him because he spent the night with her mother. Brittany tells him that Kelly often has men over, so he might want to get tested. They close and lock the door. Jason tries to unlock it, but they have changed the locks. Malik is at the restaurant and asks if Tee - Tee is going to help bus tables. Tee - Tee says he 's consumed with the Cluck Truck issues. Tasha shows up and says the guys were a no show. Malik says that she has to call them and tell them. Malik yells at one of his waitresses about not doing her butt exercises. Tasha says she called them and they said to let them know something when the baby is born. Malik reminds her that it 's about the baby and Tasha says she 's tired of this baby and her fear is that it will turn out to be like him. She experiences pain and sits down and Malik calls the doctor. Keira is singing in the mirror with a flat iron. She sets it on a towel and it catches on fire. The alarm goes off and she knocks on Blue 's door. Blue tells her the fire alarm is going off and she says it 's coming from her apartment and asks if he minds her staying with him for a while. Jason 's stuff is out on the lawn and he says he 's not going anywhere until she talks to him. He starts serenading her. She opens the door and throws an orange at him. He says he will eat it for dinner later. Tasha is lying on the couch and Malik brings her water and tells her to stop stressing. The doctor says stress can affect the baby. The doctor says that it looks like "she '' is doing just fine. Tasha asks if he means her and he says no, that she 's having a girl. Malik says this is karma for him. Tasha is excited about having a girl. She tells Malik to come and look at his sister on the monitor. Blue is watching TV on his tablet. Keira is watching him and says she likes that this gives them an excuse to play house and that it feels so adult. He says he knows something that will make them feel even more like adults. He starts to unbutton her shirt. They make out. Then Blue tosses popcorn to her for her to catch in her mouth, they play cards, and dance. In bed, Blue snores and Keira pushes him out of the bed. Jason is still sitting out on the patio and singing and playing the guitar. Chardonnay is inside watching him. She grabs her keys and goes to Tasha 's house. She says she came to see her for answers. She says if she was n't 5 months pregnant she would beat her ass and as soon as she has the baby, she 's going to beat her ass. Tasha says she 's basking in motherhood and tells Chardonnay that she 's having a girl. Chardonnay says she still has a bone to pick with her for failing to tell her about Jason and Kelly. Tasha tells her that Jason did not have sex with Kelly. She said she spoke with Kelly and Kelly told her nothing happened and that Jason did nothing but talk all night about how happy his life is. She said the car crash was his lame attempt at sparing her heartache. Chardonnay asks why she did n't tell her sooner. She said maybe because she was wallowing in negativity at the intervention. She says she realizes that Chardonnay 's heart was in the right place. She says that now that she 's having a baby girl, she wants to be a better girlfriend. Tasha asks if she wants to apologize to her and Chardonnay says no. Malik has a meeting at the restaurant with the staff and says that he 's having a baby sister. He says that he does n't want her to experience the disrespect that these women receive. He says that he 's a different man. He 's going to uplift and give them the respect that they deserve. They ask if this means longer uniforms. He says maybe a burger and a fry. He says that they will get extra pay plus he 's hired Phatt Boys. Tee - Tee asks Malik to buy him out of his share of Phatt Burger. He says his legal fees are mounting and he does n't want to be the anchor holding him down. Tee - Tee says Malik has a gold mine and he needs someone to help him take it to the next level and right now that 's not him. Malik says ok and let him know if he can do anything. Tee - Tee says they are out of soy milk and toilet paper and that he moved in. Keira says her condo is officially ready and he can have his place back. He tells her that he might have started to like her in his hair and maybe she should n't go. Keira asks him if he 's proposing to her and he says he was just suggesting that she move in and live there rent - free. Keira says yes. Chardonnay goes outside to talk to Jason. She says she spoke to Tasha and she told her that nothing happened with Kelly. He says he 's been trying to tell her that and she says something did happen. She says he crashed his car and faked an injury. He says he would have done anything in that moment to keep her. She accepts his apology. he tells him from this point forward they do n't lie to each other, because that 's not them. He agrees. She says let 's go and get coffee. He stops her and tells her that that night at the hotel he kissed Kelly.
Jason walks Chardonnay out to the patio and surprises her with flowers and breakfast. He tells her that he prepared an egg white omelet and coffee. Jason says he 's trying and Chardonnay says he kissed his ex-wife and lied about it. He asks how he can make it better because he ca n't go back in time. Chardonnay says she wants him to feel like she feels. He asks if she wants to go and kiss somebody. She says no and then yes. He tells her to go and kiss somebody. Keira says she loves waking up to Blue as he comes up from under the covers. He says that it 's now her turn and she says she has to go down to her place. He asks is n't his place supposed to be her place and did n't he ask her to move in together. He says that he thought it meant that they were going to be sharing the same place. He says that he did n't think that it would just be a 24 - hour sex - a-thon where she does n't reciprocate. She says ok, let 's do it. She says he should pack up his stuff and move to her condo. Malik is working out with Yana. She tells him that she can see his junk all the time when they work out and that he might want to think about losing the foreskin. Malik says that someone did a drive - by on Tee - Tee 's house with raw chickens so it 's good that he moved in. Yana says that since she broke up with Sasha she wants to lay low too like Tee - Tee. Malik says the best thing to do after a break up is to hop back on a vagina. She says there 's a party tonight and he says that he will go with her and be her wingman. Tasha picks out dresses for Chardonnay to go out in and asks Chardonnay 's opinion. Tasha says Chardonnay 's going to kiss someone tonight. She tells Chardonnay that they are girls and Chardonnay asks if she 's girls with Kelly too. She says yes, but her loyalty is split like butt cheeks. She says as their friend she does n't want to see either one of them with Jason. Tasha says if Chardonnay makes good on her promise to kiss another man, he will see that she 's not all bark with no bite. Blue is showing Keira all of the features of his place and she says she 's very familiar. He says she acts like his place is n't better than hers and she says it 's not. Jason knocks on the door and tells them his wife is on the way to kiss another man. He says he wants to know how Blue got past Keira kissing a co-star. Keira says their situation was different, because she and Blue were n't together and he 's very married to Chardonnay. Blue says it was n't easy to get past it. He says he thought about when he first met Keira at the draft and how he felt that night. He says sometimes you have to take a deep breath, reset, and remember why you fell in love in the first place. She says that 's so sweet and that she 's going to get her stuff to move in. She leaves and Jason says he 's not a big fan of hers. Malik and Yana are at the club. A woman comes up and offers to buy her a shot and she says no. She then asks if she wants to get out of there with her and Yana says no. Malik asks Yana what 's wrong with that woman because she was fine. Yana says that she was thirsty. Malik points out another woman. Yana says that she looks like she might have Hep B. Malik says good point. A woman walks up and says hello to Malik and he says "Hi, Tori. '' She asks why he does n't talk to her anymore. They get ready to leave and Tori says to go ahead and run and he probably wishes he had run that night when he got beat up. Tori and Yana get into it and Yana punches Tori in the face. Malik wraps Yana 's hand. She says her ex-boyfriend used to box. Malik asks, "Boyfriend? '' Malik says he gets it. He says lesbians call their ex-girlfriends their ex-boyfriends. Yana says no and that she meant her ex-boyfriend. Malik says this is crazy and changes everything. He says now they have to have sex because she 's into guys. She says she 's always been into guys, but that does n't mean that they are going to have sex. He says it 's inevitable and their professional relationship will turn sexual. He says that he has a lot riding on rehab and it 's best to keep it very professional. He says they should n't hang out as friends. Yana says fine and reminds him of their session tomorrow before leaving. Blue goes to Keira 's place and asks if she 's ready. Keira tells individual things in her place goodbye. Blue tells her to stop moping and that it 's supposed to be a happy occasion. She says this is the only thing that she owns. He says he gets it, but that it 's just an apartment and they 'll make new memories at his place. She says she just feels more emotionally, spiritually, and sexually comfortable at her place. He asks, "Sexually? '' and says that she should have led with that and starts unpacking her boxes and says they are staying. Chardonnay and Tasha are out at the club scoping out men. They pick out a guy for Chardonnay to kiss and call him over. He sees her ring and says she 's married. Tasha says that she and her husband have an arrangement, a kissing arrangement. Chardonnay gets ready to kiss him and Jason comes in and says do n't do it. He says he GPS 'd her phone. Chardonnay says in order for her to get over him kissing Kelly he needs to let her kiss this guy. He says that they just need to hit the reset button and he gets down on one knee. He re-proposes with a ring and says he needs to give her the wedding she 's always wanted. Tasha says that she hopes she 's not falling for it. Chardonnay grabs the guy and kisses him and then says now she 's falling for it. Jason gets up, wipes Chardonnay 's mouth off, and then they kiss.
Blue is dancing to old music and Chardonnay knocks on the door and says it 's nice to hear some black music, because Jason does n't allow it in the house. She says she needs to talk about the mockery Jason made of their marriage. She says he 's making it up to her by renewing their vows with a wedding. She asks Keira to be her Maid of Honor and Keira asks why. She says Tasha is busy with her baby stuff, but other than those two she does n't have many friends in LA. Keira says she 's busy and Blue says earlier she was complaining about having nothing to do. Keira agrees to be the Maid of Honor. Tasha is at home with a Lamaze coach and says she 's so excited about having a baby. Kelly and Brittany walk in. Kelly says Brittany got caught making out with a nerd at school. The Lamaze coach teaches her breathing exercises. They overhear Brittany talking on the phone to her friend about Tasha being old and having a baby and not knowing the father. Keira arrives late to Chardonnay 's meeting with her wedding planner. Keira says she was at the sanctuary picking out her doves. Jason walks in and Chardonnay asks if he wants to join them and he says not really and that he 's okay with what she picks. Chardonnay says she knows this is n't his first wedding, but this is their wedding and she would like him to be involved. They show Jason some electronic invitations narrated by Morgan Freeman and say they are only $1,000 per invitation. Malik is jogging with Yana and says it 's crazy that his Mom is pregnant. Malik says he misses Yana and her friendship and their relationship. She asks what about what he said about not being able to be friends without it being sexual. He says he can try. Yana says if he has to have sex with every woman in his life then they should just do it, so they can move on to just being platonic. He says if she thinks she can handle it then let 's go and they have sex. Chardonnay, Keira, Jason, and the wedding planner are listening to B.O.B. perform in their home. They say that they love it, but Chardonnay says they are seeing more people so they will be in touch. The wedding planner says John Mayer did his thing too. Keira asks the wedding planner to give them a second. Keira asks Chardonnay if she knows that Jason is having a hard time with all the money he 's spending for the wedding. Keira asks if this is about her having the wedding of her dreams or about punishing Jason. Chardonnay says the vision of his tongue down his ex-wife's throat is on replay in her mind, so this is about punishing him. Keira says in that case, why not just divorce him and Chardonnay says because she loves him. Keira says that she has to let it go or she 's going to lose him. Tasha and the coach are working with a doll. Kelly and Brittany arrive again and Kelly says Brittany is now into the 5 - finger discount. The coach asks Tasha to show them the proper sleeping position for a newborn. Tasha lays the doll on its stomach with a blanket. Brittany chimes in that this technique will work best in her baby 's casket. The coach says a lot has changed since she had Malik and that position increases the risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. Kelly says she 's there to help Tasha and Brittany asks Kelly who 's going to help her. Brittany says she ca n't remember the last time she and Kelly communicated and she 's hardly ever there anymore. Kelly says she 's here and Brittany says, "yeah, for her '' and storms out. Malik and Yana finish having sex and he asks her how she feels and she says she 's ok. He tries helping her get Cornflakes out of her hair. Tee - Tee walks in the room and asks if they have just been hanging out and having sex all day while he was in court with this trial. He then asks about a threesome. Kelly finds Brittany in the club. She says she knows things have n't been ideal between them the last couple of years, but that she 's always there for her. Brittany asks if she was there when Lisa broke up with her. She says all she does when she is in town is throw her credit card at her and tell her to go shopping. Kelly says she has a lot of regrets for the way she raised her. She says she 's been a horrible role model and now Brittany is smart, beautiful and sometimes a scary black woman. She says she looks at her and knows she 's failed her and sometimes it 's just easier to hand her a credit card. She says she 's sorry that she might not be the best mom, but that she wo n't stop trying. Chardonnay arrives home to Jason sitting in the dark and asks if he turned the electricity off again. He says he 's just trying to save money where he can. She says she wants to show him something about the wedding. Jason says he ca n't be part of the planning anymore, but that she can have whatever she wants. She says she just wants to not picture him kissing Kelly every time she closes her eyes. He says he knows and that 's why he 's allowing her to do all of this. She says she knows and that 's why she 's made some adjustments to the wedding. She pulls out her Grammy 's wedding dress and says they had a simple wedding and that 's what she wants. She says no B.O.B. Jason says he still wants the Michael Jackson tribute. He then tells her stories of knowing Michael Jackson.
In the seventh season finale, Yana and Malik are standing naked face - to - face and stating what flaws they see on each other. Malik gets a call from Tasha and he tells her that he 's pointing out Yana 's flaws, but that she 's pretty flawless. Tasha tells him that her water broke. Chardonnay is telling Keira that she 's going to throw her bouquet to the right and for her to be in the pocket. She says no thanks. Keira starts to talk about her problems with Blue and Chardonnay says this is her day and it 's going to go the way she planned it. Jason knocks on the door to tell them that Tasha is in labor and Malik and Kelly will be late. He says that her parents are still at the airport and wo n't be there to walk her down the aisle. Chardonnay is telling Keira that she 's going to throw her bouquet to the right and for her to be in the pocket. She says no thanks. Keira starts to talk about her problems with Blue and Chardonnay says this is her day and it 's going to go the way she planned it. Jason knocks on the door to tell them that Tasha is in labor and Malik and Kelly will be late. He says that her parents are still at the airport and wo n't be there to walk her down the aisle. Blue and Keira run into each other at the vending machine. She ca n't get a dollar into the machine and asks him to borrow a dollar. He says he used his last crispy dollar. She asks him if he would consult with her if he got traded. Jason asks them for a dollar. Blue brings up that this is different and how she will have plenty of people to keep her company when she 's shooting the movie in Miami. She asks him if he 's going to go there. Jason tells them about Melanie and Derwin and tells them to get out before they become them. He says being in a relationship at their age is pointless. Malik is at the hospital and asks what is taking them so long. Kelly says she 's always on CP time. Malik and Yana look at her and she says she 's got a half - black daughter so she gets a pass. A fan tells Malik that he ca n't wait to see him back on the field. Malik says he 's working out with some teams next week. Yana asks what does he mean by that and Malik says he was throwing the ball around with some guys and his arm is looking good. Tasha arrives cursing and screaming to get the baby out of her belly. Tasha is holding her baby. Kelly asks what 's she going to name her and Tasha says she does n't know. She says that she knows who the godfather will be, Tee - Tee, for being responsible for getting her there. Tee - Tee holds her and tells her a story about one time he was going to take a really long trip, but she came and he decided to stay. He calls her Kai and Tasha agrees that her name should be Kai. Pookie is standing in the doorway and says hi to Kai. Everyone leaves the room and Pookie thanks Malik for calling him. Tasha tells Pookie that she did n't expect to see him there and he says that he did n't expect to be there. She says she does n't need any favors and he says he did n't come for Tasha, but for Kai. He says she 's beautiful. Tasha asks him if he wants to hold her and he says no. He says he got all of her calls about him possibly being the father. He says he 's killed people and did n't flinch and that his heart felt nothing until him and Tasha. He says Malik called a few hours ago and everything got real -- her having a baby and him possibly having a baby. He says he does n't have to break Kai 's heart just because Tasha broke his. She asks now what and he says they take a test. Malik and Yana walk out and Yana tells him that she does n't think that he 's ready to tryout next week. She says throwing the ball around with his friends is n't the same as being back on the field. He says he thought she had his back and she says she always has his back. She says she 's not one of his yes men and he can do permanent damage if he goes back too soon. She says as his trainer she has to sign off on him going back and she is n't going to do it. He says maybe she is n't ready to be in his crew and she asks "your crew? '' He says "then bounce '' and she says gladly and leaves. At the wedding Blue tells Keira maybe Jason was right and Keira says no. She says she loves him and Blue says he loves her too and then gets down on one knee in front of everyone and asks her to marry him. Kelly knocks on Chardonnay 's door. Chardonnay says her parents missed their flight and she just started her period. Kelly says the wedding planner ca n't find Blue or Keira anywhere. Kelly says on her wedding day her trailer park cousins stole their wedding gifts and someone threw up on her. Chardonnay says she 's not in the mood for who had a worse day. Kelly says sometimes the things that go wrong are the things you remember best and you look back and laugh. Jason is listening at the door. Kelly says it does n't matter about the perfect wedding, but that they just have to be perfect for each other. Chardonnay thanks her. Chardonnay walks down the aisle smiling and meets Jason at the altar. The minister begins the ceremony. Keira and Blue leave together in his car. Malik is standing by Jason at the wedding and scrolls through his phone and deletes Yana from his contacts. The doctor tells Pookie that he is the father. Chardonnay begins her own vows. She says they 've been married for a minute and it never felt real to her, but doing this ceremony in front of family and friends makes it real. Jason says when she came into his life he was a wreck and had made so many mistakes and had lost so much. He says he was willing to change to be a better person, but did n't know how. He says her love showed him how and pushed him. He stops and says that he ca n't do this and that he is still in love with Kelly. Chardonnay slaps him and walks away.
After her jilting circulates around the media, Chardonnay goes on the Perez Hilton show to clear her name with Tasha 's help. Later on, she confronts Jason and demands the truth from him. Meanwhile, Jason and Blue lock horns at training, but eventually learn to focus on the game. Tasha avoids her mommy duties.
Malik manipulates Jason; Tasha commits to motherhood; Keira has a humiliating experience.
Malik finally rejoins the team, but is upset when Blue is made captain of the Sabers; Chardonnay quits the Sunbeams after her divorce from Jason which puts her friendship with Tasha in jeopardy; Keira has trouble balancing acting and being on the Sunbeams.
Keira and Malik share an unexpected, heated moment at her acting class; A divorce party is thrown for Chardonnay by her sorority sister; and Kelly decides to return to San Diego.
Jason 's date with Kelly turns weird; Keira and Malik share an awkward movie night which turns sexual; and Tasha tries to convince Blue to become her new client; and Chardonnay makes a life - changing decision.
Jason gets christened as interim head coach for the Sabers; Blue and Keira argue over Blue 's jealousy towards her and Malik; Malik and Keira admit their feelings; Chardonnay swears revenge on Jason and vows to return to San Diego.
In the Season 9 opener, Malik and Keira are making out when Keira stops and says she 's engaged and asks how he could let this happen. Blue drives up to the hotel and the valet says that he can park his car next to Keira 's. Blue turns around and sees her car. Malik and Keira walk to the elevator and get on and find Blue inside. Blue punches Malik and they fight (as shown on the elevator tape). Eventually, people break them up. Jason and Kelly just finished having sex on the football field. Kelly says that she ca n't believe that this is really real and that he is the Interim Head Coach. Jason 's phone rings and it 's Chardonnay. He wants to send it to voicemail, but Kelly tells him to answer it. Chardonnay says that she caught the big announcement and congratulates him. He thanks her. She says that they are good and he says that it means a lot to him. She brings up memories from their relationship and keeps bringing up the steroid scandal. Kelly tells him to stop talking about it because she 's recording it. Chardonnay says she sure is recording it. Malik, Blue, and Keira are at Tasha 's and she asks them what happened. No one talks. She says she knows what it 's about and two poles and one hooha equals an elevator brawl. She says that they ca n't afford to make a spectacle and that all of their money and reputation is on the line. Tasha says the story will be that they were in a fender bender. Blue gets up and leaves. Malik then leaves. Keira tries to leave and Tasha tells her that she 's staying at her place tonight. Tasha is showing pictures of the baby to Kelly. Kelly tells Tasha that Chardonnay is back. She says that she recorded the steroid conversation with Jason. Kelly asks Tasha to talk to Chardonnay. Kelly says that this affects Jason 's money and the Sabers which affects her client, Blue 's, money. Tasha says that Chardonnay is also her bestie. Kelly tries to tell her that Jason might help Malik get off 3rd string and if not, then he can also possibly cut him from the team. Tasha asks if it 's a threat. Kelly says to think of it as a strong request. Keira arrives home to find Blue packing. He says he 's good. Keira tells him that he 's overreacting and that nothing happened. A woman comes out of the bedroom and Keira says she deserves a chance to explain herself. Blue says she does n't deserve anything and that he 's done. Blue also asks for the ring back. Keira gives it to him and he leaves. Tasha arrives at Chardonnay 's and says that she has to hear on the streets that she 's back in town. Tasha asks her what she 's planning to do with that recording. Chardonnay says she 's blowing the lid off that steroid scandal. Tasha says she does n't need to do that. Tasha says she wants Chardonnay to have a bigger platform to drop the story on the Pitts. Kelly calls Jason and tells him that Tasha sided with Chardonnay. Jason asks if she threatened her like they talked about. Kelly points to Tasha 's Instagram picture telling everyone to be sure to tune in tonight. Malik and Blue are at practice. Blue tells Malik that he 's looking real good and tells everyone to come over and watch him throw. He calls Malik the 3rd string MVP. Malik tells him that he did n't smash Keira and Blue tells him that maybe he should go back and get some. They start pushing and then it 's broken up. Tasha preps Chardonnay for the TV interview. Jason and Kelly show up to refute her interview. Chardonnay tells Deborah Norville that she played her. Deborah says maybe. She tells them that this is a classy show and there will be no Jerry Springer antics. Chardonnay says that it saddens her to have to share this info with everyone. Jason interrupts and says that he is a victim of the system. He admits to using steroids. Chardonnay tries to jump in and stress that he used steroids. Jason says that covering up his actions might have ruined his family and might ruin his career, but that he has to bring this ugly disease to light. He pretends to cry and Kelly brings out a Bible. Deborah says that social media is supporting Jason. Chardonnay walks off and says she hates Jason. Jason and Kelly walk off and Jason says that he just lost the Hall of Fame.
Jason and Kelly are getting married again. ason says he will love her forever. Kelly starts saying her vows, but then says she 's sorry and that she ca n't do this. She then says she 's kidding and just wanted to see what that would feel like. She says she loves him and their family and is so in. They are pronounced husband and wife. Just as they are about to kiss Jason 's phone rings. The owner wants to know when he 'll be back to run the team because it 's a disaster. Tasha arrives at Malik 's with her father. Malik tells Tasha to tell her client to calm down. Tasha says to tell her everything so she can handle it. Her father says they "smushed. '' Malik says they did n't smash, but just kissed. Tasha says she 's learned to live with her mistakes and he needs to learn to live with his and leaves. Tasha 's father says that Tasha was n't a good example for him, but that he was n't a good one for her either. He says maybe they should just continue that. Chardonnay gets a visit at her salon from the Sabers owner. He says that it was his father 's decision to hire Jason as interim head coach and he thought that he would try to get ahead of this story and see if there are any other stories that might come up. He tells Chardonnay that Jason got remarried. Jason is on the news and gets asked about the elevator fight. They show the video from the elevator. Jason tries to explain it as reenacting dance. The reporter says that Blue appears to be the aggressor. Jason 's credibility is questioned. The league says they are stripping him for his championship title and investigating all of his previous seasons. Tasha tells Keira that she and Blue moved too fast. Keira says that it seems like all they did was argue. Tasha says they did. Tasha says she 's learned that she does n't have to fight to feel like she 's in love anymore. Keira says Malik opened her eyes to that. She says things are very easy with him and he is n't trying to change her. Tasha asks where this is going and asks Keira if she 's fallen for him. She tells her that she did n't pass on the relationship gene to Malik and she needs to leave him alone, because what she wants from him, he ca n't give it to her. Blue is in his car listening to music. He motions for a homeless guy to come over and he gives him the engagement ring. Kelly gets a visit at home from Chardonnay. She tells Chardonnay that she should n't be here. Chardonnay says not 6 months ago she stood there and said that she was n't there to take her husband. Kelly admits that she wanted Jason back and never stopped loving him. She says she hardly recognized him when she saw him with Chardonnay because he was all the things that she wanted him to be. Chardonnay says he was still her husband. Kelly says she put in years with him and she made him into that man who was Chardonnay 's husband. Kelly says that he will always be hers. Chardonnay calls Kelly a dirty dog and says that they deserve each other. Chardonnay knocks everything off the desk in her room and pulls the sheets off the bed. She kneels down to pray. Malik talks with the owner and tells him that he knows the team needs Blue more than him. They say that they 'll say he started it and that they are giving him a two - game suspension. He then tells Jason that his whole time as interim coach has been a debacle. Jason says he takes his job seriously. The owner says that if they do n't make the playoffs he will drop him. Blue visits Malik and tells him that he took the fall because it was his fault. He says that he should have known that he would steal him girl because Malik is nothing but trash. Malik says if she was really his girl then he would n't have been able to steal him. Blue says that was his fiance. Malik says he should probably be thanking him for smoking her out. Keira comes up and says really?
Tasha tells her Dad that she 's going down to the spa. Tee - Tee is at the restaurant giving the waitresses the new rules. Malik leaves a message for Keira to call him back. He tells Tee - Tee that she overheard something that was n't meant for her ears, so he 's merely trying to apologize. Tee - Tee says that friendship is done. Malik says Keira has been down for him since Day 1 and he can keep it 100 with her all the time. Tee - Tee says he does n't want to just be friends with her. He says Malik needs to apologize to Blue and then let him and his fiance get back to their lives. Malik says he 's right. Kelly tries to get Jason to eat. Brittany comes in and says that she got into college and got a scholarship. Kelly asks which college and Brittany says FAMU. Kelly says she has n't heard of it and Brittany says it 's Chardonnay 's alma mater. She says Chardonnay encouraged her to apply. Brittany reassures Kelly that it was all before Kelly came back. Brittany runs off to text Chardonnay the news. Tasha arrives back home and Tee - Tee says he 's been asleep since he got there. They try to wake him up, but he does n't wake up. Malik tells Jason that he 's realized his part in this whole mess. Blue arrives at Jason 's house. Malik says he 's not making excuses and what he did was foul. He apologizes and tries to figure out if he and Keira have reconciled. Blue says it is what it is and he sees what Malik is trying to find out. Jason asks if that 's what he 's doing and Malik says yeah. Blue says it 's clear that Malik has it bad for Keira. He gives Malik the advice that how you get them is how you lose them. EMT comes and confirms that Tasha 's Dad is dead. They say that when it 's natural causes the funeral home has to take the body. Tasha blames Tee - Tee for not watching her father closer because he 's been dead for over an hour. Chardonnay tells them to stop fighting. Tasha wo n't let Chardonnay call Malik. Kelly arrives to offer her condolences. Tears run down Tasha 's face while she tries to say that she 's fine. Tasha goes and gets her baby when she hears her crying. Tasha says she does n't even have a picture of her Dad for her baby. Chardonnay comes up with the idea of taking a picture of his body. Kelly and Chardonnay start arguing the Tasha tells them to shut up and leaves the room. Kelly thanks Chardonnay for helping Brittany get into college. Chardonnay says she was happy for Brittany when she called and told her the news. Chardonnay says she 's still standing and that Kelly ca n't break her. She says that 's what she 's realized from all of this. Kelly says she 's right and that she 's been a monster. Kelly says Chardonnay did n't deserve any of this and apologizes. She asks Chardonnay to forgive her. Chardonnay says Kelly has to live with this and that this is her cross to bear. Malik arrives home and asks what she 's doing there. She tells him that his granddad died. She says that he went out just like he said he would, booty and bacon. Tasha says she just thinks about Kai and how she messed up with Pookie and how maybe if she had n't messed up Kai would have her daddy around. Tee - Tee arrives and tells Tasha the coroner is there and offers his condolences to Malik. Malik calls Keira and leaves her a message saying that he wants her.
Malik 's reading abilities are challenged during Walter 's memorial service; Malik and Kelly 's forge an alliance; and after a grieving Tasha puts her father to rest, she is able to help Blue and Chardonnay put their failed relationships behind them. Malik 's literacy challenges are exposed during his grandfather 's funeral; Tasha steps away from grieving to help Blue and Chardonnay get over their exes.
Keira listens to Malik 's message and asks her friend what she thinks it means. Her friend tells her to call him back. She says that people will have a million things to say if she gets together with Malik. She calls him back and says that she got his messages and that they need to meet in person. Chardonnay is talking with the Sabers owner about expanding Spadonnay. He says that he thought she would have information about Jason. She says that she has moved on with her life. He says that he really admires her. He says that people just assume that he got his position because of his father and he wants to build his own dynasty. Jason gives a pep talk to the team. He asks Blue if he wants to give any words to the team as captain. He tells him to stay focused and hang in there. Everyone 's phones start going off and they tell Jason to turn on the TV. They turn to TMZ and the Sabers owner tells the camera man asks about trading a player and the owner tells him to leave the slave trading to him. Everyone gets upset. Blue says they are n't slaves and they should n't be addressed as such. Malik says that they should all get out of there and be home by 5. A teammates asks if he has to get home to smash someone else 's woman. Jason says he got a text from the owner saying that he 's going to issue an apology. He talks to the owner and he refuses. His son agrees. Tasha gathers the Sunbeams to discuss the slavery issue. Tasha says that she just got word that the owner is going to make an official apology this afternoon. Keira walks in and one of the Sunbeams asks who she 's there for -- Blue or Malik. Keira says that things did n't work out between her and Blue and things happen. Tasha pulls Keira to the side and tells her that she is drama and is messy and that she 's causing problems. Keira says that she cares about Malik and based on his messages she 's sure that he feels the same. She says that she knows what she wants and that 's her son. The Sabers owner issues an apology and says that it was taken out of context. He says that it is n't a term that he created and that white team owners have used it for years. He 's asked by a reporter if he 's a racist. The owner says that he 's going to say something that everyone can understand in this day of social media and says "hashtag my bad. '' Everyone is shocked and upset. Blue asks if that was supported to be apology. Jason says technically it was. Malik says that they should go home and get a good night 's sleep and come back tomorrow. Blue says that they are n't going anywhere. Players leaves. Tasha accidentally locks the baby in the car and locks herself out. The reporter comes up and wants to ride with her and Tasha tries to play it off. She asks Tasha if she locked herself out because the baby has the keys in her lap. The reporter says they 'll just call AAA. Tasha says it 's hard trying to be a Super Mom. AAA says that someone can be there in 20 minutes. Tasha then breaks the window. Malik shows up at Keira 's. Keira has a face mask on. She says that she was about to make dinner and asks if he wants some. Keira says that they have been friends long enough to know that friends say things that they do n't mean and she accepts his apology. He says that he left her a message about a possible future for them and she says she heard that too. She says that maybe they can explore it and he says cool and they kiss. Jason says by the end of practice he 'll get them an apology. Blue says they 've already been down this road and the owner needs to be removed from the team. Blue says that he 's not going to play until that happens. Some players start to leave.
The Sabers owner says that he ca n't believe that they had to forfeit the game. Jason says that 's what happens when half the team walks. The owner says to get them back. Tasha tells Blue that this is it -- the morning news. She preps him for the interview questions. Tasha asks what he hopes is the result of this walk - out. He says he hopes the owner steps down. Blue says he is the captain of the team, but with something like this, he is n't the leader. Tasha tells him that in times like this someone has to lead to effect change. Malik and Keira finish making out and Malik turns on the TV. Keira says that they should go out because they never go out - out. Malik says there are n't many women with whom he can just chill. She says the same. Malik gets a message that there 's an emergency meeting and leaves. The team and Sunbeams have a meeting at Malik 's restaurant, Phatty 's. Jason says they got them all together to figure out the next step. One of the player 's wife says they are making league minimum and need to end this walk - out. Blue says that they have to hold the line. He says that man called them slaves. Blue says they have to be willing to forego some things like games, money, and championships to effect change. Blue asks Jason why he 's there because he 's not a player and Kelly is not a Sunbeam. Blue says he knows some of them got dragged into this because a few of them walked out, but they deserve respect. He says they stand together and they have to let them know that they are holding the line. Everyone agrees. Jason asks Kelly if Blue is right. Kelly asks if he was still a player and she was still a Sunbeam, what would they do? Malik and Keira eat at Phatty 's. Keira asks about which of the waitresses he 's smashed. Chardonnay meets with Roger, the owner 's son. He says he knows that they had a meeting today, but this is n't a good time for him. He shows her the statement that he 's supposed to say. He says that he wants to say that he knows why everyone is upset, but that he also wants to protect his father. He says that his father is n't a bad guy, but he 's just old school. Chardonnay helps him with his statement. Malik and Keira go to the club. Keira says that she feels like she 's dating a stripper. Blue is at the bar drinking. Keira says when he drinks like that it 's not good. Keira says that she should say something. Malik says he 's out if she goes and talks to him. She says give her a minute. Keira asks Blue if she wants to talk about it. He says not with her. She says she understands what he 's going through. He asks if she means she knows what it 's like to look in the eyes of men who have families to support. She says she had the weight of supporting her family as a child actor. She tells him that they are following him because he 's right and to hold the line. Keira arrives at Malik 's and says this is the first and last time she chases him and that he knows nothing is going on with her and Blue. She says that he is her best friend. Malik says seeing her with him just gave him a gut - check. Jason meets with the owner who is on his way to a being honored by the NRA. Jason says sometimes people can be really right or really wrong about something. Roger arrives and the owner asks if he has his statement memorized. He shows him the new statement and the owner does n't like it. He balls it up and says that he 'll read the original statement. Roger says that he does n't agree with it and he is n't reading it. The owner fires his son as General Manager and asks if he still loves him though. He stops the car and lets Roger out. The owner receives a call from other owners saying that he has to step down because their players are threatening to walk out too. He says he refuses to step down. Jason says that he does n't have a team. He 's wrong and no one is behind him. Jason says as a former player, current coach, and as one black man to another, stepping down is the only way to right his wrong. The next day he steps down. Tasha sits Blue down and says that there are consequences because of his actions and he is suspended for the next game.
The police show up at Jason 's house with Blue in handcuffs saying that they picked him up at a protest rally. Jason asks him what 's wrong with him. Blue says he realized how much inequality there is in the world and tells Jason to get on the bus. Jason tells him to get his head back in the game. Blue asks Jason if they are going to watch the game footage and Jason says no, because Blue 's not focused. He tells him how Malik beat up a guy in a wheelchair and other fights he got into. Blue says do n't compare him to Malik. Jason tells Blue do n't act like he and Malik were n't once friends. Jason says he was n't always a fighter and that he 's also a sensitive guy. He tells Blue that he 's more like Derwin than Malik without the churchy thing. They recall Derwin fighting Blue at the draft party and the other fights he got into. He says Blue and Derwin have cheating in common and that they are cheaters. Blue says he never cheated on Keira and Jason says that 's right, he was cheated on. Jason continues flashbacks. Jason calls Tasha. He tells her that Blue was dropped off there by two police officers and it would be nice if his manager took interest and found him a Sunbeam to keep him focused. Blue says he does n't need a Sunbeam and Tasha says everyone needs a Sunbeam. Blue tells them thanks for recounting all of these relationships that ended so well and asks Tasha if she 's sucking on Rick Fox 's toes. Eventually, Jason hangs up on Tasha. Blue says he 's going to head out considering tonight has been a total waste of time. Jason tells Blue that he has what it takes to be great, but he 'll never be greater than him. He says that he does n't want to miss out on what this life has to offer. Blue says he gets it. He tells Jason that despite the issues that he 's had since he 's been there, there 's no place that he 'd rather be. He says he 's ready to watch game tape and Jason says he 's sleepy now.
Absent: Hosea Chanchez as Malik Wright, Barry Floyd as Terrence Tee Tee Carter, Brittany Daniel as Kelly Pitts, Brandy Norwood as Chardonnay Pitts, Lauren London as Keira Whitaker.
Keira and Malik are in bed together and Tasha comes in. Chardonnay and Roger are at the club and Chardonnay says it 's her fault that his father fired him. He says he 's right where he needs to be. He asks her if she would like to go to Aspen with him and his friends. She says that she ca n't because November spa season is like accountants in April. Kelly is dressed as Little Red Riding Hood and Jason as the Big Bad Wolf. Jason 's head is n't into it and he says that job security is on his mind. Jason says that people do n't like him very much and unless the owners are buttholes like him, he 's up a creek. Kelly says what if they are the owners and buy the Sabers. Kelly says she made a lot of money connections while they were divorced. Tee - Tee asks Malik how much his Mom saw. Malik says that his problem is that after he and Keira got it in 5 times he never shed a tear. He says crying is how he knows it 's love. Malik says he 's in his head because of all the stuff he went through to get Keira and that they might not even be a match. Tasha calls him and invites him and Keira over for dinner. Malik and Keira arrive at Tasha 's and finds Yana there. Tasha says she 's there because Tasha is thinking of investing in a workout video. Malik says he and Keira will leave. Tasha talks them into staying. Keira tells Tasha she knows what she 's doing. Yana rubs Malik 's shoulder and he starts crying. Chardonnay sees Tee - Tee at a restaurant and he tells her she looks nice. She says she 's meeting a guy she met online and Tee - Tee is that guy. Chardonnay wants to leave. She tells him about how she 's met a guy who she 's into, but he 's in the football world and she ca n't allow herself to get pulled back into that. Tee - Tee asks if he 's everything she 's been looking for and she says he could be. He tells her that she deserves happiness. She thanks him and leaves and he checks Tinder. Tasha, Keira, Malik, and Yana have dinner. Yana says she 's now the personal trainer for the Padres. Tasha asks Keira what she 's doing and Keira says she 's booked a national commercial. She takes a dig at Tasha 's baby weight. Malik says she 's also booked a TV pilot. Keira says it 's really a web series and she passed on it. Yana says Tasha invited her over because she is n't feeling Keira and she 's going to leave. Tasha tells Malik he needs someone he can build a life with. Malik says he knows where his career is headed and who he lays with at night is none of her business. He says Keira is his woman and if she ca n't act right around them then she does n't need to be around them. Jason and Kelly meet with Roger. Jason brings in an investor to help warm Roger up to the idea of them working together. Jason asks Kelly and the investor exactly how they met. He then asks Kelly if her outfit is appropriate for this meeting. He then notices the investor 's arm around Kelly. Kelly admits that they dated 2 years ago and the investor says that it was a casual hook - up. Roger says that he 's out and that Jason has proven that he 's a very messy man. Jason and Kelly agree that buying the team is out. Keira is practicing lines in the mirror when Tasha calls. She ignores the call and Tasha tells her from outside the door that she can hear her in there. She lets Tasha in. Tasha says Malik must really be feeling her if he went to bat for her like that. Keira says they are best friends and she wo n't hurt Malik because he 'll never hurt her. Tasha shows Keira how to make mac and cheese. Roger meets Chardonnay at the bar. She says that she wants to talk to him about the ski trip. She says that she 's not accepting the invitation and not declining it either. She invites him to church and he agrees. She says that she likes his company, but also knows how messy the situation can get. He says that he likes messy. Jason and Kelly walk in and see them together. Malik and Keira are in bed together and when Keira gets up he tries to cry, but ca n't.
Malik tells Keira that he thinks that they should go their separate ways and that she might be able to work things out with Blue. She slaps him. Chardonnay and Roger are having brunch and she introduces him to Tee - Tee. Malik tells Tee - Tee that this whole thing with Keira was a big distraction. Malik says that he 's going to get in the game tomorrow. Kelly asks Jason his opinion on which shoes to wear. Jason is preparing for the game tomorrow. Jason and Kelly find out that Herbie Lesser bought the Sabers. Tasha gets a call from Pookie asking if his daughter is ready to go to Richmond. Tasha opens the door and Rick Fox is there. Rick says that the email said that the baby was Pookie 's, but he needed to see for himself. Tasha tells Rick to hide before Pookie sees him. Rick opens the door and Pookie asks what 's going on. Pookie asks why Tasha has her bag packed and she admits that she was going to run away with Kai. Rick says that as impressive as his career has been, he would trade it all for a wife and a family. Pookie tells Rick that he wanted to be a father his whole life, but this is not what he envisioned. Herbie talks about changing the name of the Sabers. Jason tells him that he could have told them about it considering that it was their idea. Herbie says that he wants to make Jason permanent head coach. He says that there are strings attached though and he wants to revisit his relationship with Kelly. Jason says that he ca n't have a night with his wife. Herbie says that he 'll settle for watching the two of them have sex. Jason says no. Jason says that he 's going to win the game tomorrow and then there 's no way the people will let him fire Jason. Keira confides in Chardonnay and Roger. Roger says maybe she gave it up too soon. Keira does n't want Roger there. Kelly gives a speech at the Read Wright program event that Malik throws. Malik solicits donations from everyone in attendance. Tee - Tee says that he ca n't believe that Malik has him food poisoning people. Malik tells him to take the food to the QBs. Chardonnay and Roger talk to Jason and Kelly. Chardonnay says that he 's being courted by major teams. He says Canadian teams. Roger admits that it 's bad. Chardonnay pulls Roger to the side and asks what that was all about and she says he made her look bad. Chardonnay says that maybe she is n't ready to date. They say that they thought that they had something. Jason gets a call from the team and one of them says that a bunch of them have food poisoning. Keira knocks on Blue 's door and he lets her in. Tasha, Pookie, and Rick are all drinking and singing. Rick and Pookie start talking about who had Tasha first and Pookie pulls out his gun so he and Rick can fight like men. Pookie tells Rick to take the gun and when Rick grabs it, it goes off and someone is shot.
In the series finale, Rick and Pookie realize that neither one of them was shot, but then Rick says he was shot. They debate about taking him to the hospital, because of Pookie 's record. Chardonnay arrives and see what happened and they all leave for the hospital. On the way to the hospital Rick tells Chardonnay to stop the car and tells Tasha and Pookie to get out. He say that he 's going to say that he accidentally shot himself. Tasha apologizes to Pookie for trying to run off with Kai and for being a horrible person. He says that he 's willing to try being a family for her, for Kai, and for himself if she 'll have him. She says she 'll always have him. Melanie and Derwin get out of the car and Melanie is pregnant with twins. Melanie expresses her concern about having a healthy pregnancy. Derwin says that since they are so close to San Diego, they should stop in and say hi to everyone. Melanie says that when she returns to San Diego she wants to be able to announce a healthy pregnancy. He says that it is a healthy pregnancy and cues a marching band. Keira thanks Blue for standing by her. Derwin and Melanie run into "Eggs '' at the doctor 's office. She 's now a professional surrogate. The doctor says that they have a 50 / 50 chance that the smaller baby will make it. Derwin tells Mel that she 's not in trouble with God. Derwin asks her why she stayed with him and he stayed with her all these years is because of love and faith and he tells her that he needs her to have faith for the two babies she 's carrying. He says there 's nothing they ca n't handle. She says they said she could n't be a doctor and he could n't be a professional ball player, but they made it. She says that maybe they should go and tell everyone that they are having twins. Melanie and Derwin arrive at the stadium and she asks what they mean that Tasha is n't there, because she never misses a game. Melanie says she came there to share her news and she needs to share her news to continue to believe. Derwin asks if Gary can drive them around in the back of the golf cart, because Melanie 's feet hurt. Melanie and Derwin are still riding around. Melanie says that their life is n't there anymore, but it 's right there in her stomach. She says their friends are busy getting on with their lives. They say, "Let 's go home. '' Tasha pulls up and hugs them. She asks what they are doing there. Melanie says guess what and Tasha asks if they are getting a divorce. Tasha says she thought their relationship was in trouble and she was just eating a lot. Melanie asks if she looks fat. Kelly walks up and hugs Melanie. She tells them they are having twins. Kelly says look at her trying to beat Janae with twins. They say Sunbeams for life and that they shine their light on her so that she may deliver the babies safely. Melanie says that she needed that. A player throws up and Kelly says there 's a case of food poisoning. They say to get Melanie out of there. Derwin mentions them being at - risk and Melanie tells them one baby has a 50 / 50 chance. As they leave Kelly says there goes their victory today. Tasha says because they sure are n't going to win this game. Blue says to Jason that they are n't going to win this game. Blue says there has to be another way. Blue says that they need Malik and without him they do n't stand a chance. The reporter asks Malik why he 's so glum -- the Sabers are going to the playoffs. He says that he 'll reveal everything in his press conference. Kelly says that it looks like Jason will be the new head coach. Herbie says look who 's here -- Coach Sparks. He says that there 's no guarantee that Sparks will be returning to head coach and that there are many factors to consider. Keira knocks on a door and Malik answers. She asks what he 's doing there, because she has an audition. He says that everything he said was n't true and that he just needed to get his head back in the game. He says that he loves her. She says love does n't play games. He says he knows and words mean nothing without action. He has guys pull back doors and reveals a stage and he says that he set up this whole audition for her. He says that he 's funding her next movie. He asks her to say something. She says that she slept with Blue last night. He says ok and accidental sex happens. He says that they will focus on the future and they can go to his press conference now to announce his retirement. He then gets on one knee and asks her to marry him. She says no and that she 's sorry. He tells everyone around that she 's still a little mad. Malik is at the press conference and he says give him 5 more minutes. Someone asks if this is about him retiring. Malik gets a call from Tee - Tee and he asks if she 's coming. Tee - Tee has Keira in the car with him and he says she has n't changed her mind. He starts the press conference and announces that he loves football and that will never change. He signs off with Malik Wright, the best to ever do it. Tee - Tee says that was the worst press conference ever. He tells Keira to take care of herself and good luck with her dreams. He tells her when she gets out of San Diego to never look back. She asks him why he never left. He says the guy is his best friend. She runs off. Jason and Kelly are in the bedroom with Herbie watching and instructing them. A month later Jason and the team are celebrating the championship. Malik raises the trophy. Four months later Melanie and Derwin are at the hospital with their twins and DJ. Six months later Keira is being interviewed about her breakout role in a new movie and that there are rumors that she and Michael B. Jordan are dating. She says that she has nothing but love and respect for him. Blue gets a flower delivery and Irv says that he is now officially signed to him and not to tell Tasha. Tasha and Pookie move into their new home. She sets out a doormat that says POW POW POW.
Special guest appearances by: Rick Fox, Rockmond Dunbar, Nicole Pulliam, Brian Mulligan, Gary ' G. Thang ' Johnson, Michael Albanse, Roy Coulter, Mike Pniewski, Jigga, P.J. Byrne
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who plays mia in fast and the furious | Jordana Brewster - wikipedia
Jordana Brewster (born April 26, 1980) is an American actress and model. She made her acting debut in an episode of All My Children in 1995 and next took on the recurring role as Nikki Munson in As the World Turns, garnering a nomination for Outstanding Teen Performer at the 1997 Soap Opera Digest Award. Her first role in a feature film was in Robert Rodriguez 's horror science fiction The Faculty (1998).
Her breakthrough came with her role of Mia Toretto in the action film The Fast and the Furious (2001). She reprised the role in its sequels, Fast & Furious (2009), Fast Five (2011), Fast & Furious 6 (2013), and Furious 7 (2015). Other film credits include the drama The Invisible Circus (2001), the action comedy D.E.B.S. (2004) and the horror film The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning (2006).
Brewster starred on the TNT series Dallas from 2012 to 2014. She also had a five - episode arc as Denise Brown in the first season of the FX true crime anthology series American Crime Story (2016). She currently stars as Dr. Maureen Cahill on the Fox buddy cop action dramedy Lethal Weapon (2016 -- 2018).
Brewster was born in Panama City, Panama. She is the oldest of two daughters. Her mother, Maria João (née Leal de Sousa), is a former swimsuit model from Brazil who appeared on the 1978 cover of Sports Illustrated, and her father, Alden Brewster, is an American investment banker. Her paternal grandfather, Kingman Brewster, Jr., was an educator, president of Yale University (1963 -- 77), and the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom (1977 -- 81). Brewster is a direct descendant of Mayflower passengers William Brewster and Edward Doty. She left Panama when she was two months old, relocating to London, where her younger sister was born. She would spend six years, before moving to her mother 's native city of Rio de Janeiro, where she learned to speak Portuguese fluently. She left Brazil at the age of 10, settling in Manhattan, New York City, where she studied at the Convent of the Sacred Heart and graduated from the Professional Children 's School. Brewster graduated from Yale University with a B.A. in English in 2003.
Brewster made her debut in daytime soap operas, with a one - time appearance on All My Children as Anita Santos. She next played the recurring role of rebellious daughter Nikki Munson on As the World Turns. From 1995 to 2001, she appeared in a total of 104 episodes of the soap opera. For her performance, she was nominated for Outstanding Teen Performer at the 1997 Soap Opera Digest Awards. Her first film role was in Robert Rodriguez 's horror science fiction film The Faculty (1998), written by Kevin Williamson and co-starring Elijah Wood, Josh Hartnett, and Clea DuVall. In the film about strange occurrences involving the teachers of an Ohio high school, Brewster played a popular vindictive cheerleading captain and an editor in chief of the student paper. The film received mixed reviews, but grossed US $40 million in North America. In 1999, she appeared opposite Julia Stiles and Jerry O'Connell in a NBC television miniseries entitled The ' 60s, playing a student activist.
Brewster starred with Cameron Diaz and Christopher Eccleston in the independent drama The Invisible Circus (2001), portraying a grieving teenage girl who travels to Europe in 1976 in search of answers to the suicide of her older sister. The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival and received a limited theatrical release, to a lukewarm response. The New York Times felt that Brewster "ca n't summon a credible range of emotion '' in her portrayal. Her breakthrough came afterwards in 2001, when she took on the role of Mia Toretto opposite Vin Diesel and Paul Walker in the street racing action film The Fast and the Furious. As she did not have driver 's license, she took driving lessons during production. Todd McCarthy of Variety, in his review for the film, noted that Brewster did a "better job here than she did as a searching teen in the recent The Invisible Circus. '' The film was a commercial success, grossing over US $207 million worldwide.
Following the release of The Fast and the Furious, Brewster took a break from acting to complete her B.A. in English at Yale from which she graduated in 2003. She returned to the screen when she played as a lesbian criminal mastermind in the action comedy D.E.B.S. (2004). A.V. Club dismissed the development of Brewster on - screen relationship with co-star Sarah Foster, writing that "D.E.B.S. oscillates between the glib camp smirkiness of its half - hearted action send - up and the thudding earnestness of its romance ''. Released in limited theaters, the film did not find an audience. She starred as the love interest of a high school student in the 1970s in the independent teen drama Nearing Grace (2005), which was screened at the Los Angeles Film Festival.
Brewster appeared in the drama Annapolis (2006), directed by Justin Lin and starring James Franco and Tyrese Gibson. In the film, she played a Midshipman 2nd Class named Ali, and the love interest of a man attending the United States Naval Academy. Annapolis was panned by critics and grossed US $7.7 million in its opening weekend, described as "uninspired '' by website Box Office Mojo. Brewster next starred in the slasher horror The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning (2006), opposite Diora Baird, Taylor Handley and Matt Bomer. The film saw the four actors portray friends driving across Texas who are taken captive by the Hewitt family. Despite largely negative reviews, the film made US $51 million worldwide. For her performance, Brewster was nominated for both Choice Movie Actress: Horror -- Thriller and Choice Movie: Scream at the 2007 Teen Choice Awards.
Brewster had a four - episode arc between 2008 and 2009 on the NBC television series Chuck, as Jill Roberts, the title character 's ex-girlfriend from Stanford. She returned to the role of Mia Toretto in Fast & Furious (2009), the fourth film of The Fast and the Furious franchise. On the growth of her character over the course of the series, Brewster explained in an interview with AskMen.com: "In the first one I 'm more of a wallflower and it 's much more of a girlfriend - type role, but in (the new movie) I 'm more of a woman. She 's far more tough. I deal with the repercussions of living in my brother 's world. '' The film earned negative reviews upon its premiere, but was a box office success, grossing US $363 million globally.
In 2010, Brewster made a three - episode appearance in Dark Blue, playing an art gallery dealer named Maria, and guest - starred in two episodes of Gigantic. She reprised the role of Mia in the fifth film in the series, Fast Five (2011), which making a departure from the street racing theme, revolves around Diesel, Walker and Brewster 's characters as they plan a heist to steal a fortune from a corrupt businessman in Brazil. Critical response towards Fast Five was positive while it earned US $86 million in its North American opening weekend and US $626.1 million worldwide. In 2012, Brewster starred as Elena Ramos, on Dallas, an updated version of CBS 's original series of the same name (1978 -- 1991) about the trials and tribulations of a wealthy Texas family. The series was met with an overall positive response and aired until 2014.
She played Mia Toretto for the fourth time in Fast & Furious 6 (2013), which follows the remaining wanted fugitives on the heist from Fast Five. The film earned a worldwide total of US $789 million. Her last portrayal of Mia came in the next installment, Furious 7 (2015), also the final film appearance of Walker, who died in a single - vehicle collision while filming only half - completed. After Walker 's death, filming was delayed for script rewrites to the story arcs for both Walker and Brewster 's characters, causing them to be retired. The highest - grossing film in the franchise, it grossed US $397.6 million worldwide during its opening weekend and US $1.5 billion worldwide. She next appeared in the independent action drama American Heist (2014), as the girlfriend of a man involved in a crime. It screened at the Toronto International Film Festival and premiered in a ten - theater run in North America. Brewster also played a young and flirtatious salesperson named Dusty in the dark comedy Home Sweet Hell (2015), released for VOD and selected theaters.
In 2016, she took on the recurring role of Denise Brown, the sister of Nicole Brown Simpson, in The People v. O.J. Simpson, the first season of the true crime anthology series American Crime Story, revolving around the infamous O.J. Simpson murder case. A "giant fan '' of executive producer Ryan Murphy, she remarked about obtaining the role: "I heard they were making it and I always felt like my aunt actually really looked a lot like Denise Brown, so my manager and I took a side - by - side photo edit of me and Denise and we fought really hard for it. We just fought to get that show ''. Also in 2016, she signed on to play the regular role of Dr. Maureen Cahill, a Los Angeles Police Department psychologist, on the FOX buddy cop action dramedy Lethal Weapon and starred in the second season of the ABC anthology crime drama Secrets and Lies as Kate Warner. After not appearing in 2017 's The Fate of the Furious, Brewster will return as Mia Toretto in the upcoming ninth installment of the franchise.
In 2002, Stuff magazine named her the 96th hottest woman in their "102 Sexiest Women in the World ''. In 2005 Maxim magazine named her the 54th sexiest woman in the world in their annual Hot 100. In 2006, Maxim ranked her at No. 59 on their Hot 100. In 2009, she ranked No. 9 on Maxim 's Hot 100 and, to coincide with the release of Fast and Furious, a photographic spread of Brewster in a range of black lingerie in the May 2009 edition of Maxim ("Life in the Fast Lane ''). In 2011, Maxim Magazine placed Brewster at spot 11 in their Hot 100.
In June 2016, the Human Rights Campaign released a video in tribute to the victims of the 2016 Orlando gay nightclub shooting; in the video, Brewster and others told the stories of the people killed there.
Brewster lives in Los Angeles with her husband, producer Andrew Form, whom she met on the set of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning, in which Brewster acted. They announced their engagement on November 4, 2006. They married in a private ceremony in the Bahamas on May 6, 2007. Together, the couple have two sons: Julian (born September 10, 2013) and Rowan (born June 9, 2016).
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actor who plays julian in one tree hill | Austin Nichols - wikipedia
Austin Nichols (born April 24, 1980) is an American actor and director, known for his role as Julian Baker in The CW drama series One Tree Hill. He is also known for his roles in the films The Day After Tomorrow and Wimbledon. He starred as John Monad in the HBO drama series John from Cincinnati, and portrayed Spencer Monroe in the AMC horror drama series The Walking Dead.
Nichols was born in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and moved to Austin, Texas before his first birthday. He was named after the Austin Nichols distilling company, producers of Wild Turkey bourbon. His father, David Nichols, is a radiologist, and his mother, Kay (née Vermeulen), was a professional trick water skier. Kay was a national champion ten times and an international champion once. He has one older sister, Ashley.
Nichols was raised near Lake Austin and attended Casis Elementary School. Nichols began competitive water skiing from the age of two. He represented the United States junior water ski team in the Pan-American Championships in 1997, and was also on the United States junior Olympic water skiing team. At age thirteen, he was ranked third in the world. Nichols had intended to become a professional water skier until he injured his shoulder in Florida, and was forced to give up the sport. While at McCallum High School in Austin, he played basketball but was "absolutely awful ''. Nichols ' interest in acting was sparked when he was fifteen and began to take acting lessons. He moved to Los Angeles after high school.
His acting career began when he gate - crashed a party at the Sundance Film Festival and was signed by a manager. Nichols initially wished to attend the University of Texas, but moved to Los Angeles after his signing and enrolled at the University of Southern California, graduating in 2002 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English. Although Nichols had guest appearances in Sliders, Odd Man Out, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, Family Law, Watching Ellie, and Wolf Lake before his graduation, his big break came in 2002 when he appeared as Brenda Chenowith 's lover in two episodes of Six Feet Under. He had previously appeared in two films, Durango Kids in 1999 and Holiday in the Sun in 2001.
In his first critically successful film role, Nichols starred as a stereotypical "frat boy '' in The Utopian Society, a 2003 independent film directed by John P. Aguirre, which won several awards and some critical acclaim. One critic wrote that Nichols "transforms himself from a cardboard jock and frat boy caricature to a likeable vulnerable human being with surprising sensibilities. '' Aguirre commended Nichols as a "stellar talent '' able to play his character "with total abandon to self ego ''.
In 2004, Nichols was cast as J.D., an intelligent rich kid and romantic rival to Jake Gyllenhaal 's main character in the environmental blockbuster, The Day After Tomorrow. The film received negative reviews but was a box office success. Also in 2004, he appeared in Wimbledon, opposite Kirsten Dunst and Paul Bettany. The film was well received by critics, though it was only a mild success at the U.S. box office. Nichols ' acting as Jake Hammond, an arrogant tennis pro, was described as "effectively unlikeable ''. For the role, Nichols had to learn tennis from scratch; he was trained to look professional by Pat Cash, who was taken aback by Nichols ' skill. Cash observed, "It 's absolutely as good as anybody 's on the circuit. I swear to God. He hits it like a bullet. He 's our star pupil. '' By the end of their training, Nichols and Bettany were able to have rallies and play points, although some of their more intricate exchanges were computer generated.
After this success, Nichols then had a minor role in an obscure and panned 2005 film, Thanks to Gravity. Nichols followed this with short guest spots on episodes of Pasadena and Surface, before being cast in a successful 2006 film, Glory Road. Glory Road, directed by James Gartner and starring Josh Lucas, is a film based on the true story of the 1966 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship, in which Coach Don Haskins led a team with an all - black starting lineup, a first in NCAA history. Nichols played one of the few white players on the team; he trained heavily for the role and had to master basketball as it was played in the 1960s, saying "I 'd never been so sore in my life. '' The film made $42.9 million at the box office and received mixed reviews.
Nichols ' next film was the 2006 thriller The House of Usher, directed by Hayley Cloake, and based on the story by Edgar Allan Poe. He played the disturbed Roderick Usher, who was described by Nichols as a "twisted, terminally ill, fucked - up guy ''. The House of Usher was released in September 2007. Nichols also portrayed Neal Cassady, with Will Estes as Jack Kerouac, in the short film Luz del mundo.
In April 2006, Nichols guest starred in Deadwood, an HBO Western series. Shortly afterward, Nichols signed a holding deal with HBO. In August of that year, Nichols was cast as the lead in a new series, John From Cincinnati, a surfing drama created by David Milch, who also produced Deadwood. The series began airing in June 2007, but was cancelled after one season due to poor ratings and mixed critical reviews. Nichols played John Monad, a stranger who suddenly appears in a quiet surfing town. Nichols took up surfing and practiced every day for three months for this role.
In 2007, Nichols appeared in a few episodes of the NBC drama series Friday Night Lights, before being cast as Julian Baker in The CW 's teen drama One Tree Hill. He was upgraded to series regular for the seventh season. He directed two episodes of the series including the seventh episode of the ninth and last season. In 2013, Austin landed the role of Tommy Wheeler in the Showtime series Ray Donovan. Nichols then had a recurring role as Spencer Monroe in AMC 's horror series The Walking Dead, before being promoted to a series regular. He will recur as Sam Loomis in the fifth and final season of A&E 's drama - thriller series Bates Motel.
Alongside his acting career, Nichols maintains a strong interest in cinema. He keeps a log of every film he sees, "I take it to the movies and write down who does the music, edits, directs, and how long the film is. '' Claire Oswalt, an ex-girlfriend, said in a 2003 interview that Nichols watches an average of 20 movies a week. Nichols himself has stated, "If I 'm not working, I spend almost half my day at theaters or watching DVDs at my house. '' He especially admires Hal Ashby, Sam Fuller, and John Ford.
He was previously in a relationship with One Tree Hill co-star Sophia Bush, and took the role of Julian Baker in the series to be closer to her. Nichols has been friends with actor Jake Gyllenhaal since the two met on the set of The Day After Tomorrow in 2004. Nichols said in one interview, "I 've learned a ton from Jake. He 's a really sharp guy. He told me everything about acting, the business, girls, life. '' His sister, Ashley, is married to director Rowdy Stovall.
In the early morning of August 24, 2007, Nichols was pulled over in Jackson, Michigan after driving the wrong way down a one - way street in his silver Mercury Mountaineer. His blood alcohol level was a reported. 10 and he was subsequently arrested for driving under the influence.
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who gained control over north korea after the surrender of japan | Occupation of Japan - wikipedia
The Allied occupation of Japan at the end of World War II was led by General Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, with support from the British Commonwealth. Unlike in the occupation of Germany, the Soviet Union was allowed little to no influence over Japan. This foreign presence marks the only time in Japan 's history that it has been occupied by a foreign power. The country became a parliamentary democracy that recalled "New Deal '' priorities of the 1930s by Roosevelt. The occupation, codenamed Operation Blacklist, was ended by the San Francisco Peace Treaty, signed on September 8, 1951, and effective from April 28, 1952, after which Japan 's sovereignty -- with the exception, until 1972, of the Ryukyu Islands -- was fully restored.
According to John Dower, in his book Cultures of War: Pearl Harbor / Hiroshima / 9 - 11 / Iraq, the factors behind the success of the occupation were:
Discipline, moral legitimacy, well - defined and well - articulated objectives, a clear chain of command, tolerance and flexibility in policy formulation and implementation, confidence in the ability of the state to act constructively, the ability to operate abroad free of partisan politics back home, and the existence of a stable, resilient, sophisticated civil society on the receiving end of occupation policies -- these political and civic virtues helped make it possible to move decisively during the brief window of a few years when defeated Japan itself was in flux and most receptive to radical change.
Japan surrendered to the Allies on August 14, 1945, when the Japanese government notified the Allies that it had accepted the Potsdam Declaration. On the following day, Emperor Hirohito announced Japan 's unconditional surrender on the radio (the Gyokuon - hōsō). The announcement was the emperor 's first ever planned radio broadcast and the first time most citizens of Japan ever heard their sovereign 's voice. This date is known as Victory over Japan, or V-J Day, and marked the end of World War II and the beginning of a long road to recovery for a shattered Japan. Japanese officials left for Manila, Philippines on August 19 to meet MacArthur and to be briefed on his plans for the occupation. On August 28, 1945, 150 US personnel flew to Atsugi, Kanagawa Prefecture. They were followed by USS Missouri, whose accompanying vessels landed the 4th Marine Division on the southern coast of Kanagawa. Other Allied personnel followed.
MacArthur arrived in Tokyo on August 30, and immediately decreed several laws. No Allied personnel were to assault Japanese people. No Allied personnel were to eat the scarce Japanese food. Flying the Hinomaru or "Rising Sun '' flag was initially severely restricted (although individuals and prefectural offices could apply for permission to fly it). This restriction was partially lifted in 1948 and completely lifted the following year.
On September 2, 1945, Japan formally surrendered with the signing of the Japanese Instrument of Surrender. On September 6, US President Truman approved a document titled "US Initial Post-Surrender Policy for Japan ''. The document set two main objectives for the occupation: (1) eliminating Japan 's war potential and (2) turning Japan into a democratic - style nation with pro-United Nations orientation. Allied (primarily American) forces were set up to supervise the country, and "for eighty months following its surrender in 1945, Japan was at the mercy of an army of occupation, its people subject to foreign military control. '' At the head of the Occupation administration was General MacArthur, who was technically supposed to defer to an advisory council set up by the Allied powers, but in practice did not and did everything himself. As a result, this period was one of significant American influence, described near the end of the occupation in 1951 that "for six years the United States has had a free hand to experiment with Japan than any other country in Asia, or indeed in the entire world. '' Looking back to his work among the Japanese, MacArthur said, "Measured by the standards of modern civilization, they would be like a boy of twelve '' compared to the maturity of the US and Germany, and had a good chance of putting away their troubled past.
On V-J Day, US President Harry Truman appointed General Douglas MacArthur as Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP), to supervise the occupation of Japan. During the war, the Allied Powers had planned to divide Japan amongst themselves for the purposes of occupation, as was done for the occupation of Germany. Under the final plan, however, SCAP was given direct control over the main islands of Japan (Honshu, Hokkaido, Shikoku, and Kyushu) and the immediately surrounding islands, while outlying possessions were divided between the Allied Powers as follows:
It is unclear why the occupation plan was changed. Common theories include the increased power of the United States following development of the atomic bomb, Truman 's greater distrust of the Soviet Union when compared with Roosevelt, and an increased desire to restrict Soviet influence in East Asia after the Yalta Conference.
The Soviet Union had some intentions of occupying Hokkaidō. Had this occurred, there might have eventually been a communist state in the Soviet zone of occupation. However, unlike the Soviet occupations of East Germany and North Korea, these plans were frustrated by Truman 's opposition.
MacArthur 's first priority was to set up a food distribution network; following the collapse of the ruling government and the wholesale destruction of most major cities, virtually everyone was starving. Even with these measures, millions of people were still on the brink of starvation for several years after the surrender. As expressed by Kawai Kazuo, "Democracy can not be taught to a starving people ''. The US government encouraged democratic reform in Japan, and while it sent billions of dollars in food aid, this was dwarfed by the occupation costs it imposed on the struggling Japanese administration.
Initially, the US government provided emergency food relief through Government and Relief in Occupied Areas (GARIOA) funds. In fiscal year 1946, this aid amounted to US $92 million in loans. From April 1946, in the guise of Licensed Agencies for Relief in Asia, private relief organizations were also permitted to provide relief. Once the food network was in place MacArthur set out to win the support of Hirohito. The two men met for the first time on September 27; the photograph of the two together is one of the most famous in Japanese history. Some were shocked that MacArthur wore his standard duty uniform with no tie instead of his dress uniform when meeting the emperor. With the sanction of Japan 's reigning monarch, MacArthur had the ammunition he needed to begin the real work of the occupation. While other Allied political and military leaders pushed for Hirohito to be tried as a war criminal, MacArthur resisted such calls, arguing that any such prosecution would be overwhelmingly unpopular with the Japanese people. He also rejected the claims of members of the imperial family such as Prince Mikasa and Prince Higashikuni and demands of intellectuals like Tatsuji Miyoshi, who sought the emperor 's abdication.
By the end of 1945, more than 350,000 US personnel were stationed throughout Japan. By the beginning of 1946, replacement troops began to arrive in the country in large numbers and were assigned to MacArthur 's Eighth Army, headquartered in Tokyo 's Dai - Ichi building. Of the main Japanese islands, Kyūshū was occupied by the 24th Infantry Division, with some responsibility for Shikoku. Honshu was occupied by the First Cavalry Division. Hokkaido was occupied by the 11th Airborne Division.
By June 1950, all these army units had suffered extensive troop reductions and their combat effectiveness was seriously weakened. When North Korea invaded South Korea in the Korean War, elements of the 24th Division were flown into South Korea to try to fight the invasion force there, but the inexperienced occupation troops, while acquitting themselves well when suddenly thrown into combat almost overnight, suffered heavy casualties and were forced into retreat until other Japan occupation troops could be sent to assist.
The official British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF), composed of Australian, British, Indian and New Zealand personnel, was deployed on February 21, 1946. While US forces were responsible for the overall occupation, BCOF was responsible for supervising demilitarization and the disposal of Japan 's war industries. BCOF was also responsible for occupation of several western prefectures and had its headquarters at Kure. At its peak, the force numbered about 40,000 personnel. During 1947, BCOF began to decrease its activities in Japan, and officially wound up in 1951.
The Far Eastern Commission and Allied Council for Japan were also established to supervise the occupation of Japan. The establishment of a multilateral Allied council for Japan was proposed by the Soviet government as early as September 1945, and was supported partially by the British, French and Chinese governments.
Japan 's postwar constitution, adopted under Allied supervision, included a "Peace Clause '', Article 9, which renounced war and banned Japan from maintaining any armed forces. This clause was not imposed by the Allies: rather, it was the work of the Japanese government itself, and according to most sources, was the work of Prime Minister Kijūrō Shidehara. The clause was intended to prevent the country from ever becoming an aggressive military power again. However, the United States was soon pressuring Japan to rebuild its army as a bulwark against communism in Asia after the Chinese Civil War and the Korean War. During the Korean War, US forces largely withdrew from Japan to redeploy to South Korea, leaving the country almost totally defenseless. As a result, a new National Police Reserve armed with military - grade weaponry was created. In 1954, the Japan Self - Defense Forces were founded as a full - scale military in all but name. To avoid breaking the constitutional prohibition on military force, they were officially founded as an extension to the police force. Traditionally, Japan 's military spending has been restricted to about 1 % of its gross national product, though this is by popular practice, not law, and has fluctuated up and down from this figure. Prime Ministers Junichiro Koizumi and Shinzo Abe, among others, have tried to repeal or amend the clause. The JSDF slowly grew to considerable strength, and Japan now has the eighth largest military budget in the world.
All the major sectors of the Japanese society, government, and economy were liberalized in the first few years and won strong support from liberals in Japan. Historians emphasize the similarity to the American New Deal programs of the 1930s. Moore and Robinson note that, "New Deal liberalism seemed natural, even to conservative Republicans such as MacArthur and Whitney. '' The issuing of the Removal of Restrictions on Political, Civil, and Religious Liberties directive by SCAP on October 4, 1945, led to the abolishment of the Peace Preservation Law and the release of all political prisoners.
From late 1947, US priorities shifted to internal political stability and economic growth. Economic deconcentration, for example, was left uncompleted as GHQ responded to new imperatives. American authorities encouraged business practices and industrial policies that have since become sources of contention between Japan and its major trade partners, notably the United States. During the occupation, GHQ / SCAP mostly abolished many of the financial coalitions known as the Zaibatsu, which had previously monopolized industry. Along with the later American change of heart, and due in part to the need for an economically stronger Japan in the face of a perceived Soviet threat, these economic reforms were also hampered by the wealthy and influential Japanese who stood to lose a great deal. As such, there were those who consequently resisted any attempts at reform, claiming that the zaibatsu were required for Japan to compete internationally, and looser industrial groupings known as keiretsu evolved. A major land reform was also conducted, led by Wolf Ladejinsky of General Douglas MacArthur 's SCAP staff. However, Ladejinsky has stated that the real architect of reform was Hiro Wada, former Japanese Minister of Agriculture. Between 1947 and 1949, approximately 5,800,000 acres (23,000 km) of land (approximately 38 % of Japan 's cultivated land) were purchased from the landlords under the government 's reform program and resold at extremely low prices (after inflation) to the farmers who worked them. By 1950, three million peasants had acquired land, dismantling a power structure that the landlords had long dominated.
In 1946, the Diet ratified a new Constitution of Japan that followed closely a ' model copy ' prepared by the GHQ / SCAP, and was promulgated as an amendment to the old Prussian - style Meiji Constitution. The new constitution drafted by Americans allowed access and control over the Japanese military through MacArthur and the Allied occupation on Japan. "The political project drew much of its inspiration from the U.S. Bill of Rights, New Deal social legislation, the liberal constitutions of several European states and even the Soviet Union... (It) transferred sovereignty from the Emperor to the people in an attempt to depoliticize the Throne and reduce it to the status of a state symbol. Included in the revised charter was the famous ' no war ', ' no arms ' Article Nine, which outlawed belligerency as an instrument of state policy and the maintenance of a standing army. The 1947 Constitution also enfranchised women, guaranteed fundamental human rights, strengthened the powers of Parliament and the Cabinet, and decentralized the police and local government. '' One example of MacArthur 's push towards democratization implemented the land reform and redistribution of ownership within the agricultural system. The land reform was established in order to improve not only the economy but the welfare of farmers as well. MacArthur 's land reform policy redistribution resulted in only 10 % of the land being worked by non-owners. On December 15, 1945, the Shinto Directive was issued abolishing Shinto as a state religion and prohibiting some of its teachings and rites that were deemed to be militaristic or ultra-nationalistic. On April 10, 1946, an election with 78.52 % voter turnout among men and 66.97 % among women gave Japan its first modern prime minister, Shigeru Yoshida.
In 1945 the Diet passed Japan 's first ever trade union law protecting the rights of workers to form or join a union, to organize, and take industrial action. There had been pre-war attempts to do so, but none that were successfully passed until the Allied occupation. A new Trade Union Law was passed on June 1, 1949, which remains in place to the present day. According to Article 1 of the Act, the purpose of the act is to "elevate the status of workers by promoting their being on equal standing with the employer ''.
The Labor Standards Act was enacted on April 7, 1947, to govern working conditions in Japan. According to Article 1 of the Act, its goal is to ensure that "Working conditions shall be those which should meet the needs of workers who live lives worthy of human beings. '' Support stemming from the Allied occupation has introduced better working conditions and pay for numerous employees in Japanese business. This allowed for more sanitary and hygienic working environments along with welfare and government assistance for health insurance, pensions plans and work involving other trained specialists. While it was created while Japan was under occupation, the origins of the Act have nothing to do with the occupation forces. It appears to have been the brainchild of Kosaku Teramoto, a former member of the Thought Police, who had become the head of the Labor Standards section of the Welfare Ministry.
Before and during the war, Japanese education was based on the German system, with "Gymnasien '' (selective grammar schools) and universities to train students after primary school. During the occupation, Japan 's secondary education system was changed to incorporate three - year junior high schools and senior high schools similar to those in the US: junior high school became compulsory but senior high school remained optional. The Imperial Rescript on Education was repealed, and the Imperial University system reorganized. The longstanding issue of Japanese script reform, which had been planned for decades but continuously opposed by more conservative elements, was also resolved during this time. The Japanese written system was drastically reorganized with the Tōyō kanji - list in 1946, predecessor of today 's Jōyō kanji, and orthography was greatly altered to reflect spoken usage.
Prior to World War II, women in Japan were denied the right to vote and other legal rights. With the defeat of the traditionalist government, the occupation authorities, on the order of general Douglas MacArthur, began drafting a new constitution for Japan in February 1946. A subcommittee including two women, Beate Sirota Gordon and economist Eleanor Hadley, was enlisted and assigned to writing the section of the constitution devoted to civil rights and women 's rights in Japan. They played an integral role, drafting the language regarding legal equality between men and women in Japan, including Articles 14 and 24 on Equal Rights and Women 's Civil Rights. Article 14 states, in part: "All of the people are equal under the law and there shall be no discrimination in political, economic or social relations because of race, creed, sex, social status or family origin ''. Article 24 includes:
Marriage shall be based only on the mutual consent of both sexes and it shall be maintained through mutual cooperation with the equal rights of husband and wife as a basis. 2) With regard to choice of spouse, property rights, inheritance, choice of domicile, divorce and other matters pertaining to marriage and the family, laws shall be enacted from the standpoint of individual dignity and the essential equality of the sexes.
These additions to the constitution were vital to women 's rights in Japan. "Japanese women were historically treated like chattel; they were property to be bought and sold on a whim, '' Gordon said in 1999.
On October 4, 1945, the GHQ issued the Removal of Restrictions on Political, Civil, and Religious Liberties directive. The directive ordered the release of political prisoners.
While these other reforms were taking place, various military tribunals, most notably the International Military Tribunal for the Far East in Ichigaya, were trying Japan 's war criminals and sentencing many to death and imprisonment. However, many suspects such as Masanobu Tsuji, Nobusuke Kishi, Yoshio Kodama and Ryōichi Sasakawa were never judged, while the Emperor Hirohito, all members of the imperial family implicated in the war such as Prince Chichibu, Prince Yasuhiko Asaka, Prince Fushimi Hiroyasu, Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni and Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda, and all members of Unit 731 -- including its director Dr. Shirō Ishii -- were granted immunity from criminal prosecution by General MacArthur.
Before the war crimes trials actually convened, the SCAP, the IPS and Shōwa officials worked behind the scenes not only to prevent the imperial family from being indicted, but also to slant the testimony of the defendants to ensure that no one implicated the Emperor. High officials in court circles and the Shōwa government collaborated with Allied GHQ in compiling lists of prospective war criminals, while the individuals arrested as Class A suspects and incarcerated in Sugamo prison solemnly vowed to protect their sovereign against any possible taint of war responsibility. Thus, months before the Tokyo tribunal commenced, MacArthur 's highest subordinates were working to attribute ultimate responsibility for Pearl Harbor to Hideki Tojo '' by allowing "the major criminal suspects to coordinate their stories so that the Emperor would be spared from indictment. '' and "with the full support of MacArthur 's headquarters, the prosecution functioned, in effect, as a defense team for the emperor.
For historian John W. Dower,
Even Japanese peace activists who endorse the ideals of the Nuremberg and Tokyo charters, and who have labored to document and publicize Japanese atrocities, can not defend the American decision to exonerate the emperor of war responsibility and then, in the chill of Cold war, release and soon afterwards openly embrace accused right - wing war criminals like the later prime minister Kishi Nobusuke.
In retrospect, apart from the military officer corps, the purge of alleged militarists and ultranationalists that was conducted under the Occupation had relatively small impact on the long - term composition of men of influence in the public and private sectors. The purge initially brought new blood into the political parties, but this was offset by the return of huge numbers of formally purged conservative politicians to national as well as local politics in the early 1950s. In the bureaucracy, the purge was negligible from the outset... In the economic sector, the purge similarly was only mildly disruptive, affecting less than sixteen hundred individuals spread among some four hundred companies. Everywhere one looks, the corridors of power in postwar Japan are crowded with men whose talents had already been recognized during the war years, and who found the same talents highly prized in the "new '' Japan.
According to various accounts, U.S. troops committed thousands of rapes among the population of the Ryukyu Islands during the Okinawa Campaign and the beginning of the American occupation in 1945.
Many Japanese civilians in the Japanese mainland feared that the Allied occupation troops were likely to rape Japanese women. The Japanese authorities set up a large system of prostitution facilities (Recreation and Amusement Association, or the RAA) in order to protect the population. According to John W. Dower, precisely as the Japanese government had hoped when it created the prostitution facilities, while the RAA was in place "the incidence of rape remained relatively low given the huge size of the occupation force ''. However, there was a resulting large rise in venereal disease among the soldiers, which led MacArthur to close down the prostitution in early 1946. The incidence of rape increased after the closure of the brothels, possibly eight-fold; Dower states that "According to one calculation the number of rapes and assaults on Japanese women amounted to around 40 daily while the RAA was in operation, and then rose to an average of 330 a day after it was terminated in early 1946. '' Michael S. Molasky states that while rape and other violent crime were widespread in naval ports like Yokosuka and Yokohama during the first few weeks of occupation, according to Japanese police reports and journalistic studies, the number of incidents declined shortly after and they were not common on mainland Japan throughout the rest of occupation. Two weeks into the occupation, the Occupation administration began censoring all media. This included any mention of rape or other sensitive social issues.
According to Dower, "more than a few incidents '' of assault and rape were never reported to the police. According to Toshiyuki Tanaka, 76 cases of rape or rape - murder were reported on Okinawa during the first five years of occupation, but according to Tanaka this is "but the tip of the iceberg '' as most of the rapes went unreported.
After the surrender of Japan in 1945, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers abolished all forms of censorship and controls on Freedom of Speech, which was also integrated into Article 21 of the 1947 Constitution of Japan. However, press censorship remained a reality in the post-war era, especially in matters of pornography, and in political matters deemed subversive by the American government during the occupation of Japan.
The Allied occupation forces suppressed news of criminal activities such as rape; on September 10, 1945, SCAP "issued press and pre-censorship codes outlawing the publication of all reports and statistics ' inimical to the objectives of the Occupation '. ''
According to David M. Rosenfeld:
Not only did Occupation censorship forbid criticism of the United States or other Allied nations, but the mention of censorship itself was forbidden. This means, as Donald Keene observes, that for some producers of texts "the Occupation censorship was even more exasperating than Japanese military censorship had been because it insisted that all traces of censorship be concealed. This meant that articles had to be rewritten in full, rather than merely submitting XXs for the offending phrases. ''
To further remove Japan as a potential future threat to the United States, the Far Eastern Commission decided that Japan was to be partly de-industrialized. The necessary dismantling of Japanese industry was foreseen to have been achieved if Japanese standards of living had been reduced to those existing in Japan the period 1930 -- 1934. In the end, the adopted program of de-industrialization in Japan was implemented to a lesser degree than the similar U.S. "industrial disarmament '' program in Germany. In view of the cost to American taxpayers for emergency food aid to Japan, in April 1948 the Johnston Committee Report recommended that the economy of Japan should instead be reconstructed. The report included suggestions for reductions in war reparations, and a relaxation of the "economic deconcentration '' policy. For the fiscal year of 1949 funds were moved from the GARIOA budget into an Economic Rehabilitation in Occupied Areas (EROA) programme, to be used for the import of materials needed for economic reconstruction.
With the acceptance of the Allied occupation authorities, the Japanese organized a brothel system for the benefit of the more than 300,000 occupation troops. "The strategy was, through the special work of experienced women, to create a breakwater to protect regular women and girls. ''
In December 1945, a senior officer with the Public Health and Welfare Division of the occupation 's General Headquarters wrote regarding the typical prostitute: "The girl is impressed into contracting by the desperate financial straits of her parents and their urging, occasionally supplemented by her willingness to make such a sacrifice to help her family '', he wrote. "It is the belief of our informants, however, that in urban districts the practice of enslaving girls, while much less prevalent than in the past, still exists. The worst victims... were the women who, with no previous experience, answered the ads calling for ' Women of the New Japan '. ''
MacArthur issued an order, SCAPIN 642 (SCAP Instruction), on January 21 ending licensed brothels for being "in contravention of the ideals of democracy ''. Although SCAPIN 642 ended the RAA 's operations, it did not affect "voluntary prostitution '' by individuals. Ultimately, SCAP responded by making all brothels and other facilities offering prostitution off - limits to Allied personnel on March 25, 1946. By November, the Japanese government had introduced the new akasen (赤 線, "red - line '') system in which prostitution was permissible only in certain designated areas.
The surrender of Imperial Japan meant reversal of its previous annexations -- Manchuria (Manchukuo as a puppet regime under Japan) was returned to China, while Korea regained its independence and was divided in two by the United States and Soviet Union.
The Soviet Union claimed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands, with 400,000 Japanese fleeing or expelled. Similar actions happened in Taiwan and Manchuria after their return to China, while Korea saw the flight of over 800,000 Japanese settlers. In all, Japanese repatriation centers handled over 7 million expatriates returning to the Japanese main islands.
In a bid to occupy as much Japanese territory as possible, Soviet troops continued offensive military operations after the Japanese surrender, causing large scale civilian casualties.
Unlike the case in Germany, Japan retained a native government throughout the occupation. Although MacArthur 's official staff history of the occupation referred to "the Eighth Army Military Government System '', it explained that while "In Germany, with the collapse of the Nazi regime, all government agencies disintegrated, or had to be purged '', the Japanese retained an "integrated, responsible government and it continued to function almost intact '':
In effect, there was no "military government '' in Japan in the literal sense of the word. It was simply a SCAP superstructure over already existing government machinery, designed to observe and assist the Japanese along the new democratic channels of administration.
General Horace Robertson of Australia, head of BCOF, wrote:
MacArthur at no time established in Japan what could be correctly described as Military government. He continued to use the Japanese government to control the country, but teams of military personnel, afterward replaced to quite a considerable extent by civilians, were placed throughout the Japanese prefectures as a check on the extent to which the prefectures were carrying out the directives issued by MacArthur 's headquarters or the orders from the central government.
The really important duty of the so called Military government teams was, however, the supervision of the issue throughout Japan of the large quantities of food stuffs and medical stores being poured into the country from American sources. The teams also contained so - called experts on health, education, sanitation, agriculture and the like, to help the Japanese in adopting more up to date methods sponsored by SCAP 's headquarters. The normal duties of a military government organisation, the most important of which are law and order and a legal system, were never needed in Japan since the Japanese government 's normal legal system still functioned with regard to all Japanese nationals... The so - called military government in Japan was therefore neither military nor government.
The Japanese government 's de facto authority was strictly limited at first, however, and senior figures in the government such as the Prime Minister effectively served at the pleasure of the occupation authorities before the first post-war elections were held. Political parties had begun to revive almost immediately after the occupation began. Left - wing organizations, such as the Japan Socialist Party and the Japan Communist Party, quickly reestablished themselves, as did various conservative parties. The old Seiyukai and Rikken Minseito came back as, respectively, the Liberal Party (Nihon Jiyuto) and the Japan Progressive Party (Nihon Shimpoto). The first postwar elections were held in 1946 (women were given the franchise for the first time), and the Liberal Party 's vice president, Yoshida Shigeru (1878 -- 1967), became prime minister. For the 1947 elections, anti-Yoshida forces left the Liberal Party and joined forces with the Progressive Party to establish the new Japan Democratic Party (Minshuto). This divisiveness in conservative ranks gave a plurality to the Japan Socialist Party, which was allowed to form a cabinet, which lasted less than a year. Thereafter, the socialist party steadily declined in its electoral successes. After a short period of Democratic Party administration, Yoshida returned in late 1948 and continued to serve as prime minister until 1954.
Japan accepted the terms of the Potsdam Declaration and surrendered on August 15, 1945. Over 5,000 Japanese Americans served in the occupation of Japan. Dozens of Japanese Americans served as translators, interpreters, and investigators in the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. Thomas Sakamoto served as press escort during the occupation of Japan. He escorted American correspondents to Hiroshima, and the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay. Sakamoto was one of three Japanese Americans to be on board the USS Missouri when the Japanese formally surrendered. Arthur S. Komori served as personal interpreter for Brig. Gen. Elliot R. Thorpe. Kay Kitagawa served as personal interpreter of Fleet Admiral William Halsey Jr... Kan Tagami served as personal interpreter - aide for General Douglas MacArthur. Journalist Don Caswell was accompanied by a Japanese American interpreter to Fuchū Prison, where the Japanese government imprisoned communists Tokuda Kyuichi, Yoshio Shiga, and Shiro Mitamura.
Japanese Americans in the OSS parachuted down into Japanese POW prison camps at Hankow, Mukden, Peiping and Hainan as interpreters on mercy missions to liberate American and other Allied prisoners. Arthur T. Morimitsu was the only Military Intelligence Service member in the detachment commanded by Major Richard Irby and 1st Lt. Jeffrey Smith to observe the surrender ceremony of 60,000 Japanese troops under Gen. Shimada. Kan Tagami witnessed Japanese forces surrender to the British in Malaya.
In 1949, MacArthur made a sweeping change in the SCAP power structure that greatly increased the power of Japan 's native rulers, and the occupation began to draw to a close. The Treaty of San Francisco, which was to end the occupation, was signed on September 8, 1951. It came into effect on April 28, 1952, formally ending all occupation powers of the Allied forces and restoring full sovereignty to Japan, except for the island chains of Iwo Jima and Okinawa, which the United States continued to hold. Iwo Jima was returned to Japan in 1968, and most of Okinawa was returned in 1972.
Following the American departure, Japan gained military protection from the United States. However, the United States was soon pressuring Japan to rebuild its military capabilities, and as a result, the Japan Self - Defense Forces were formed as a de facto military force with US assistance. However, following the Yoshida Doctrine, Japan continued to prioritize economic growth over defense spending, relying on American protection to ensure it could focus mainly on economic recovery. Through Guided Capitalism, Japan was able to optimally utilize its resources to economically recover from the war, and revive industry. Some 31,000 US military personnel remain in Japan today at the invitation of the Japanese government as the United States Forces Japan under the terms of the Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan (1960) and not as an occupying force. US bases in and around Tokyo, Hiroshima, Nagasaki, Aomori, Sapporo, and Ishikari are currently active.
On the day the occupation of Japan was over, the Asahi Shimbun published a very critical essay on the occupation, claiming it turned the Japanese population "irresponsible, obsequious and listless... unable to perceive issues in a forthright manner, which led to distorted perspectives ''. The purpose for delaying the return of the Japanese southern islands, the Bonin Islands including Chichi Jima, Okinawa, and the Volcano Islands including Iwo Jima to civil administration was the U.S. military 's requirement to covertly base U.S. atomic weapons or their components on the islands where the presence or expansion of U.S. bases remain a heated controversy to this day.
Hirohito 's surrender broadcast was a profound shock to Japanese citizens. After years of being told about Japan 's military might and the inevitability of victory, these beliefs were proven false in the space of a few minutes. But for many people, these were only secondary concerns since they were also facing starvation and homelessness.
Post-war Japan was chaotic. The air raids on Japan 's urban centers left millions displaced and food shortages, created by bad harvests and the demands of the war, worsened when the seizure of food from Korea, Taiwan, and China ceased. Repatriation of Japanese living in other parts of Asia and hundreds of thousands of demobilized prisoners of war only aggravated the problems in Japan as these people put more strain on already scarce resources. Over 5.1 million Japanese returned to Japan in the fifteen months following October 1, 1945, and another million returned in 1947. Alcohol and drug abuse became major problems. Deep exhaustion, declining morale and despair were so widespread that it was termed the "kyodatsu condition '' (虚脱 状態, kyodatsujoutai, lit. "state of lethargy ''). Inflation was rampant and many people turned to the black market for even the most basic goods. These black markets in turn were often places of turf wars between rival gangs, like the Shibuya incident in 1946. Prostitution also increased considerably.
In the 1950s, kasutori culture emerged. In response to the scarcity of the previous years, this sub-culture, named after the preferred drink of the artists and writers who imbibed it, emphasized escapism, entertainment and decadence.
The phrase "shikata ga nai '', or "nothing can be done about it, '' was commonly used in both Japanese and American press to encapsulate the Japanese public 's resignation to the harsh conditions endured while under occupation. However, not everyone reacted the same way to the hardships of the postwar period. While some succumbed to the difficulties, many more were resilient. As the country regained its footing, they were able to bounce back as well.
Leftists looked upon the occupation forces as a "liberation army ''.
It has been argued that the granting of rights to women played an important role in the radical shift Japan underwent from a war nation to a democratized and demilitarized country. In the first postwar general elections of 1946, over a third of the votes were cast by women. This unexpectedly high female voter turnout led to the election of 39 female candidates, and the increasing presence of women in politics was perceived by Americans as evidence of an improvement of Japanese women 's condition.
American feminists saw Japanese women as victims of feudalistic and chauvinistic traditions that had to be broken by the Occupation. American women assumed a central role in the reforms that affected the lives of Japanese women: they educated Japanese about Western ideals of democracy, and it was an American woman who wrote the Japanese Equal Rights Amendment for the new constitution. General Douglas MacArthur did not mean for Japanese women to give up their central role in the home as wives and mothers, but rather that they could now assume other roles simultaneously, such as that of worker.
In 1953, journalist Ichirō Narumigi commented that Japan had received "liberation of sex '' along with the "four presents '' that it had been granted by the occupation (respect for human rights, gender equality, freedom of speech, and women 's enfranchisement). Indeed, the occupation also had a great impact on relationships between man and woman in Japan. The "modern girl '' phenomenon of the 1920s and early 1930s had been characterized by greater sexual freedom, but despite this, sex was usually not perceived as a source of pleasure (for women) in Japan. Westerners, as a result, were thought to be promiscuous and sexually deviant. The sexual liberation of European and North American women during World War II was unthinkable in Japan, especially during wartime where rejection of Western ways of life was encouraged.
The Japanese public was thus astounded by the sight of some 45,000 so - called "pan pan girls '' (prostitutes) fraternizing with American soldiers during the occupation. In 1946, the 200 wives of US officers landing in Japan to visit their husbands also had a similar impact when many of these reunited couples were seen walking hand in hand and kissing in public. Both prostitution and marks of affection had been hidden from the public until then, and this "democratization of eroticism '' was a source of surprise, curiosity, and even envy. The occupation set new models for relationships between Japanese men and women: the western practice of "dating '' spread, and activities such as dancing, movies and coffee were not limited to "pan pan girls '' and American troops anymore, and became popular among young Japanese couples.
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what episode of grey's anatomy does derek become chief | Grey 's Anatomy (season 6) - wikipedia
The sixth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy, commenced airing on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States on September 24, 2009, and concluded on May 20, 2010. The season was produced by ABC Studios, in association with ShondaLand Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company; the showrunner being Shonda Rhimes. Actors Ellen Pompeo, Sandra Oh, Katherine Heigl, and Justin Chambers reprised their roles as surgical residents Meredith Grey, Cristina Yang, Izzie Stevens, and Alex Karev, respectively. Heigl was released from her contract in the middle of the season, while T.R. Knight did not appear as George O'Malley, because Knight was released from his contract at the conclusion of season five. Main cast members Patrick Dempsey, Chandra Wilson, James Pickens, Jr., Sara Ramirez, Eric Dane, Chyler Leigh, and Kevin McKidd also returned, while previous recurring star Jessica Capshaw was promoted to a series regular, and Kim Raver was given star billing after the commencement of the season.
The season follows the story of surgical interns, residents and their competent mentors, as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen. It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, located in Seattle, Washington. A major storyline of the season is the characters adapting to change, as their beloved co-worker Stevens departed following the breakdown of her marriage, O'Malley died in the season premiere -- following his being dragged by a bus, and new cardiothoracic surgeon Teddy Altman is given employment at the hospital. Further storylines include Shepherd being promoted to chief of surgery, Seattle Grace Hospital merging with the neighboring Mercy West -- introducing several new doctors, and several physicians lives being placed into danger -- when a grieving deceased patient 's husband embarks on a shooting spree at the hospital, seeking revenge for his wife 's death.
The series ended its sixth season with 13.26 million viewers, ranking # 17 in terms of ratings, the lowest the series had ever ranked up to then. The season received mixed critical feedback, with the season 's premiere and finale given heavier critical acclaim, in contrast to the middle. The season was one of the least acclaimed in terms of awards and nominations, being the show 's only season not to warrant a Primetime Emmy nomination. Despite the negative aspects of ratings and awards, the season managed to receive a spot on Movieline 's top ten list. Buena Vista released the season onto a DVD box - set, being made available to regions 1 and 2.
The sixth season had thirteen roles receiving star billing, with twelve of them returning from the previous season, one of whom previously in a recurring guest capacity. The regulars portray the surgeons from the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital as new rivalries and romantic relationships begin to develop after the hospital 's merger with Mercy West. Meredith Grey, a surgical resident and the protagonist of the series, is portrayed by Ellen Pompeo. Fellow residents Cristina Yang, Izzie Stevens and Alex Karev are portrayed by Sandra Oh, Katherine Heigl and Justin Chambers, respectively. Attending general surgeon Miranda Bailey was portrayed by Chandra Wilson whose main storylines throughout the season focus on her divorce and the development of new romantic relationships. Seattle Grace Hospital 's Chief of Surgery and general surgeon Richard Webber was portrayed by James Pickens, Jr., who returns to alcoholism after being sober for twenty years.
Sara Ramirez acted as bisexual orthopedic surgeon Callie Torres, Eric Dane played womanizer plastic surgeon Mark Sloan, Kevin McKidd continued his portrayal of trauma surgeon Owen Hunt, while Patrick Dempsey acted as chief of neurosurgery Derek Shepherd. Meredith 's half - sister and second - year surgical resident Lexie Grey was portrayed by Chyler Leigh. After having previously appeared in a multi-episode arc in a guest star capacity in the show 's fifth season, Jessica Capshaw began receiving star billing in the season 's premiere episode in the role of attending pediatric surgeon Arizona Robbins, love interest to Callie Torres. The ninth episode of the season marked the introduction of the new chief of cardiothoracic surgery Teddy Altman, portrayed by Kim Raver, whose mysterious romantic past with Owen Hunt develops into one of the season 's main stories. Starting with the nineteenth episode of the season, Raver began receiving star billing.
The sixth season introduces several new recurring characters who start to develop progressive and expansive storylines throughout the season. Mercy West surgical residents Reed Adamson, Charles Percy, April Kepner and Jackson Avery were portrayed by Nora Zehetner, Robert Baker, Sarah Drew and Jesse Williams, respectively. Jason George portrayed Miranda Bailey 's love interest, anesthesiologist Ben Warren. Thatcher Grey (Jeff Perry) and Sloan Riley (Leven Rambin) have been part of the season 's main story arcs, while numerous episodic characters have made guest appearances: Demi Lovato as Hayley, Sara Gilbert as Kim Allen, Marion Ross as Betty, Mandy Moore as Mary Portman, Ryan Devlin as Bill Portman, Nick Purcell as Doug, Michael O'Neill as Gary Clark, Danielle Panabaker as Kelsey, Adrienne Barbeau as Jodie Crawley, Héctor Elizondo as Mr. Torres, Amy Madigan as Dr. Wyatt, and Missi Pyle as Jasmine. Former series regular Kate Walsh returned to the series as a special guest star, portraying neonatal surgeon and obstetrician - gynecologist Addison Montgomery.
The season was produced by Touchstone Television ABC Studios, The Mark Gordon Company, Shondaland and was distributed by Buena Vista International, Inc... The executive producers were creator Shonda Rhimes, Betsy Beers, Mark Gordon, Krista Vernoff, Rob Corn, Mark Wilding, Joan Rater and James D. Parriott. The regular directors were Shonda Rhimes, Krista Vernoff, Stacy McKee, William Harper, Debora Cahn, Allan Heinberg and Peter Nowalk. At the conclusion of season five, T.R. Knight was released from his contract, following a disagreement with Rhimes. When asked to make a ' flashback ' appearance in season six, Knight declined. Heigl 's appearances in the season were sporadic, seeing Stevens depart and return twice. Although she was scheduled to appear in the final five episodes of the season, Heigl requested that she be released from her contract 18 months early, and made her final appearance on January 21, 2010. Heigl explained that she wanted to spend more time with her family, and did not think it would be respectful to Grey 's Anatomy viewers to have Izzie return and depart yet again. The season 's two - hour opener showed the doctors of Seattle Grace Hospital, grieving the loss of their deceased friend, O'Malley. The special 's writer, Vernoff, commented: "It 's heartbreaking. I fell in love with George, like many of you did, in season one. ''
The ninth episode of the season, "New History '', saw the arrival of Altman, which ended up forming a love triangle between her, Hunt, and Yang. Raver commented on this: "She was in Iraq with Owen. She 's a cardiac surgeon. She 's really good at what she does. There 'll be some interesting stuff between Teddy, Cristina, and Owen. '' The episode 's writer, Heinberg, offered his insight:
"Teddy 's arrival at Seattle Grace unleashes all manner of complications for Owen, Cristina, and herself. Cristina 's immediately suspicious that Owen and Teddy were more than friends during their time together in Iraq. Teddy confesses to Owen that she apparently misread their mutual history, and walks away from him, mortified. And Owen 's left haunted by Teddy 's confession, now forced to re-examine his own history -- and his feelings for both Teddy and Cristina.
"I Like You So Much Better When You 're Naked '' saw the departure of Stevens, following the breakdown of her marriage with Karev. Series ' writer Joan Rater commented on this: "Izzie getting the clean scan back gives Alex the freedom to leave. Because he never would have left her when she was sick, he 's a good guy. And I 'm not saying that Alex ever consciously thought, I ca n't leave her while she 's sick, but now that she 's not, now that she seems like she 's going to get better, it just comes to him. He deserves more. He 's a good guy and he deserves more. But loving Izzie showed him that he can be good, is good. So it was a little gift. And when he tells Izzie he 's done, he 's not bitter or angry, he 's just done. '' The writing of the two - part season six finale, caused struggle to Rhimes. She elaborated on this:
Grey 's Anatomy 's sixth season opened up to 17.04 million viewers with a 6.7 / 17 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic. Although the rating was a 1 % decrease from season five 's opener, it managed to rank first for its time - slot and the entire night, in terms of both ratings and viewership, and served as the season 's most viewed episode. "Sympathy for the Parents '' was the season 's least viewed episode, and up to that point, the series ' as well, garnering only 9.87 million viewers. The season 's finale garnered 16.13 million viewers, and received a 6.2 / 18 rating, ranking first for its time - slot and the entire night, in terms of both ratings and viewership. Although the finale was a success for the night, it was a 1 % decrease from season five 's finale, but served as the season 's second most viewed episode. Overall, the season ranked at # 17 for the year, and had an average of 13.26 million viewers, a 5 % decrease from the previous season 's ranking.
The season received mixed reviews among television critics. Speaking of the premiere, Glenn Diaz of BuddyTV noted that the special foreshadowed a "very dark '' season, adding: "The talk between George 's mom and one of the surgeons (Torres) proved to be one of the more heart - breaking scenes in an episode that in itself is heartbreaking enough. '' In contrast, Kelly West of TV Blend was critical of the premiere, writing: "I do n't think based on the first episode that we can say that Grey 's is headed in a new direction, nor do I think the writers are making much of an effort to bring the series back to the greatness that was its earlier seasons. That said, this is Grey 's Anatomy and with that comes the usual drama, sex, love and whacky medical mysteries thrown in the mix to keep things moving. If that 's what you 're looking for, I think you 'll enjoy the season premiere just fine. '' Capshaw 's performance this season was praised, with The TV Addict calling her "immensely likeable ''. Although "Sympathy for the Parents '' was the least viewed episode, TV Fanatic called the episode "touching '', praising Chambers ' performance. TV Fanatic 's reaction to the season was fairly mixed, with Steve Marsi saying that Grey 's Anatomy was facing an identity crisis after viewing "Give Peace a Chance ''. He said that: "Still popular but lacking its past magic, it 's trying to decide what to become. All we can say is that if it becomes what we saw 12 hours ago, we are all for it. Last week saw the doctors plunging into ER - style chaos with 12 different doctors giving 12 different accounts of one case. Last night, we saw something else equally unusual. '' He praised Patrick Dempsey 's performance, saying: "Again, it was a single case that took up the entire hour, but instead of 12 doctors ' version of events, the focus was largely on just one, and the best one: Dr. Derek Shepherd. Patrick Dempsey 's McDreamy character may be eye candy, but he 's got substance. Last night 's episode proved that in spades, and was one of the series ' best in some time. ''
The season 's finale Death And All His Friends was highly praised. Marsi gave the episode five stars, and expressed that it may have been the best episode of the series, adding: "The writing and acting were absolutely stellar, and may lead to many Emmy nominations, but even more impressively, despite a killing spree, it remained distinctly Grey 's. Some of the back - and - forths between the characters were truly memorable, and some of the developments so heartbreaking that we do n't even know where to begin now. Seriously, the Season 6 finale left us laying awake afterward thinking about everything, a feeling we have n't had from Grey 's in years and rarely achieved by any program. '' John Kubicek of BuddyTV also noted that the finale was the best episode, adding: "(It was) two of the best hours of television all year. It was certainly the best Grey 's Anatomy has ever been, which is saying a lot since I 'd written the show off for the past few years. No show does a big traumatic event like Grey 's Anatomy, and the shooter gave the show license for heightened drama with five major characters being shot over the two hours. It was emotional, expertly paced and had me in tears for most of the finale. '' Entertainment Weekly wrote, "At any rate, now you can at least see where it all began. And while you 're still pondering how Grey 's can still be so damn good sometimes, ''
The season was one of the least acclaimed of the series, in terms of awards and nominations. Despite not being nominated for a Primetime Emmy, the show received two Creative Arts Emmy Awards: Outstanding Prosthetic Makeup For A Series, Miniseries, Movie Or A Special for "How Insensitive '' and Outstanding Makeup For A Single - Camera Series (Non-Prosthetic) for "Suicide is Painless ''. The season also received a nomination for Outstanding Drama Series at the GLAAD Media Awards. Wilson was awarded the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Directing in a Dramatic Series for her directing in "Give Peace a Chance ''. The season also ranked at # 10 on Movieline 's top ten list.
The number in the "No. in series '' column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season '' column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions '' refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live. The sixth season 's episodes are altogether 1032 minutes in length.
Mark flies Addison to Seattle to help with a difficult procedure on his pregnant daughter, Sloan. Owen questions Teddy 's motives when she assigns Cristina the lead on a complicated surgery, and Derek 's suspicions are raised when the Chief recruits Meredith to assist with a high profile operation on. Lexie sleeps with Alex.
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who played the female lead role in the movie 'bobby' | Bobby (1973 film) - Wikipedia
Bobby is a 1973 Indian Hindi musical romance film, directed by Raj Kapoor and written by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas. It was the first leading role for Raj Kapoor 's son, Rishi Kapoor, and the film debut for Dimple Kapadia.
The film became a blockbuster, the top - grossing Indian hit of 1973, the second top - grossing hit of the 1970s at the Indian box office, and one of the top 20 highest - grossing Indian films of all time (when adjusted for inflation). It also became an overseas blockbuster in the Soviet Union, where it drew an audience of 62.6 million viewers, making it one of the top 20 biggest box office hits of all time in the Soviet Union.
The film became a trend - setter. It was wildly popular and widely imitated. It introduced to Bollywood the genre of teenage romance with a rich - vs - poor clash as a backdrop. Numerous films in the following years and decades were inspired by this plot. Indiatimes Movies ranks Bobby amongst the ' Top 25 Must See Bollywood Films '.
The story is about the love between two Mumbai teenagers of different classes -- Raj Nath (Rishi Kapoor), the son of a rich businessman Mr. Nath (played by Pran), and Bobby Braganza (Dimple Kapadia), the daughter of a poor Goan Christian fisherman Jack Braganza (played by Prem Nath).
The couple first sees each other during Raj 's birthday party and meet when Raj goes to see his old governess, Mrs. Braganza. There, he sees her granddaughter Bobby, and it is love at first sight for him. Raj and Bobby go to see a movie but find out it is closed. Then Raj gets an idea to go to a party. At the party, Bobby sees Raj talking to another girl and thinks he is using her. As the story progresses, Raj realises that his relationship with the daughter of a poor fisherman is not taken kindly by his eccentric father. Upon Raj 's insistence, Mr. Nath visits Jack to initiate talks of Raj and Bobby 's wedding. But instead, Mr. Nath accuses Jack of using his daughter 's beauty and charm to trap Raj for his money. He even offers Jack cash to have Bobby stop seeing Raj. Jack feels highly humiliated by this accusation and reciprocates by insulting Mr. Nath. Their talk enters a deadlock and spells doom for Raj and Bobby 's tender love.
Mr. Nath engages Raj to a mentally challenged girl, Alka (Farida Jalal), to establish business ties with her rich father. But Raj runs away from home in order to unite with Bobby. They run away together. Mr. Nath advertises a reward for anyone who can help find his son. Prem Chopra (Prem Chopra) decides that he wants the money, and he and his goons kidnap Raj and Bobby. When they try to escape, Prem starts beating Raj. Mr. Nath and the police come to help, and they find Jack already there attempting to help Raj. Raj and Bobby run away from their fathers and jump over a waterfall. Mr. Nath and Jack jump into the water after them. Mr. Nath rescues Bobby, while Jack rescues Raj.
They realize that they love their children very much and do n't want to stand in the way of their happiness. They accept each other 's kids as their own and give their blessings to the union.
In an interview in 2012, Rishi Kapoor stated, "There was a misconception that the film was made to launch me as an actor. The film was actually made to pay the debts of Mera Naam Joker. Dad wanted to make a teenage love story and he did not have money to cast Rajesh Khanna in the film ''.
Some scenes were shot in Gulmarg. One scene was shot in a hut in Gulmarg, which became famous as the ' Bobby Hut '. A few scenes towards the end of the movie were shot on Pune - Sholapur highway near Loni Kalbhor where Raj Kapoor owned a farm.
Lyrics by Raj Kavi Inderjeet Singh Tulsi
In India, Bobby was the highest - grossing film of 1973, earning ₹ 11 crore. It was also the second highest - grossing film at the Indian box office in the 1970s, second only to Sholay (1975). Adjusted for inflation, it grossed ₹ 398 crore in 2011 value, equivalent to ₹ 574 crore (US $90 million) in 2016 value. As of 2011, it is one of the top 20 highest - grossing films of all time in India.
Overseas, Bobby was very successful in the Soviet Union when it released there in 1975, due to Raj Kapoor 's popularity in the country. Bobby drew a Soviet box office audience of 62.6 million viewers, making it the second best - selling film on the Soviet box office charts in 1975, the most popular Indian film of the 1970s, the second biggest foreign hit of the decade, the sixth biggest box office hit of the decade, the second most - viewed Indian film of all time (after Raj Kapoor 's Awaara), the sixth biggest foreign hit of all time, and one of the top 20 biggest box office hits of all time. The film 's success launched Rishi Kapoor into an overnight movie star in the Soviet Union, much like Awaara had done for his father Raj Kapoor.
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heads of the executive departments in the philippines | Executive departments of the Philippines - wikipedia
The executive departments of the Philippines are the largest component of the national executive branch of the government of the Philippines. There are a total of twenty executive departments. The departments comprise the largest part of the country 's bureaucracy. The heads of these departments are referred to as the Cabinet of the Philippines.
During the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos, upon the mandate of the then 1973 Constitution, he changed the departments into ministries from 1978 to the end of his administration. For example, the Department of Education became Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports.
All departments are listed by their present - day name with their English names on top and Filipino names at the bottom. Department heads are listed at the Cabinet of the Philippines article.
The departments listed below are defunct agencies which have been abolished, integrated, reorganised or renamed into the existing executive departments of the Philippines.
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which countries take which part of the pacific rim | Pacific Rim - wikipedia
The Pacific Rim comprises the lands around the rim of the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific Basin includes the Pacific Rim and the islands in the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific Rim roughly overlaps with the geologic Pacific Ring of Fire.
This is a list of countries that are generally considered to be a part of the Pacific Rim, since they lie along the Pacific Ocean.
The Pacific is a hotbed of overseas shipping. The top 10 busiest container ports, with the exception of Dubai 's Port of Jebel Ali (9th), are in the Rim nations. They are home to 29 of the world 's 50 busiest container shipping ports:
Various intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations focus on the Pacific Rim, including APEC, the East - West Center, Sustainable Pacific Rim Cities and the Institute of Asian Research. In addition, the RIMPAC naval exercises are coordinated by United States Pacific Command.
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first five titles of the civil rights act of 1964 | Civil Rights Act of 1964 - wikipedia
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Pub. L. 88 -- 352, 78 Stat. 241, enacted July 2, 1964) is a landmark civil rights and US labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It prohibits unequal application of voter registration requirements, racial segregation in schools, employment, and public accommodations.
Powers given to enforce the act were initially weak, but were supplemented during later years. Congress asserted its authority to legislate under several different parts of the United States Constitution, principally its power to regulate interstate commerce under Article One (section 8), its duty to guarantee all citizens equal protection of the laws under the Fourteenth Amendment and its duty to protect voting rights under the Fifteenth Amendment.
The legislation had been proposed by President John F. Kennedy in June 1963, but opposed by filibuster in the Senate. Thereafter, President Lyndon B. Johnson pushed the bill forward, which in its final form was passed in the U.S. Congress by a Senate vote of 73 - 27 and House vote of 289 - 126 (70 % - 30 %). The Act was signed into law by President Johnson on July 2, 1964, at the White House.
The bill was called for by President John F. Kennedy in his Report to the American People on Civil Rights of June 11, 1963, in which he asked for legislation "giving all Americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to the public -- hotels, restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and similar establishments '', as well as "greater protection for the right to vote ''. Kennedy delivered this speech following the immediate aftermath of the Birmingham campaign and the growing number of demonstrations and protests throughout the southern United States. Kennedy was moved to action following the elevated racial tensions and wave of black riots in the spring 1963.
Emulating the Civil Rights Act of 1875, Kennedy 's civil rights bill included provisions to ban discrimination in public accommodations, and to enable the U.S. Attorney General to join in lawsuits against state governments which operated segregated school systems, among other provisions. However, it did not include a number of provisions deemed essential by civil rights leaders including protection against police brutality, ending discrimination in private employment, or granting the Justice Department power to initiate desegregation or job discrimination lawsuits.
On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy met with the Republican leaders to discuss the legislation before his television address to the nation that evening. Two days later, Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen and Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield both voiced support for the president 's bill, except for provisions guaranteeing equal access to places of public accommodations. This led to several Republican Congressmen drafting a compromise bill to be considered. On June 19, the president sent his bill to Congress as it was originally written, saying legislative action was "imperative ''. The president 's bill went first to the House of Representatives, where it was referred to the Judiciary Committee, chaired by Emanuel Celler, a Democrat from New York. After a series of hearings on the bill, Celler 's committee strengthened the act, adding provisions to ban racial discrimination in employment, providing greater protection to black voters, eliminating segregation in all publicly owned facilities (not just schools), and strengthening the anti-segregation clauses regarding public facilities such as lunch counters. They also added authorization for the Attorney General to file lawsuits to protect individuals against the deprivation of any rights secured by the Constitution or U.S. law. In essence, this was the controversial "Title III '' that had been removed from the 1957 and 1960 Acts. Civil rights organizations pressed hard for this provision because it could be used to protect peaceful protesters and black voters from police brutality and suppression of free speech rights.
Kennedy called the congressional leaders to the White House in late October, 1963 to line up the necessary votes in the House for passage. The bill was reported out of the Judiciary Committee in November 1963, and referred to the Rules Committee, whose chairman, Howard W. Smith, a Democrat and avid segregationist from Virginia, indicated his intention to keep the bill bottled up indefinitely.
The assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, changed the political situation. Kennedy 's successor as president, Lyndon Johnson, made use of his experience in legislative politics, along with the bully pulpit he wielded as president, in support of the bill. In his first address to a joint session of Congress on November 27, 1963, Johnson told the legislators, "No memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honor President Kennedy 's memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill for which he fought so long. ''
Judiciary Committee chairman Celler filed a petition to discharge the bill from the Rules Committee; it required the support of a majority of House members to move the bill to the floor. Initially Celler had a difficult time acquiring the signatures necessary, with many congressmen who supported the civil rights bill itself remaining cautious about violating normal House procedure with the rare use of a discharge petition. By the time of the 1963 winter recess, 50 signatures were still needed.
After the return of Congress from its winter recess, however, it was apparent that public opinion in the North favored the bill and that the petition would acquire the necessary signatures. To avert the humiliation of a successful discharge petition, Chairman Smith relented and allowed the bill to pass through the Rules Committee.
Lobbying support for the Civil Rights Act was coordinated by the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, a coalition of 70 liberal and labor organizations. The principal lobbyists for the Leadership Conference were civil rights lawyer Joseph L. Rauh Jr. and Clarence Mitchell, Sr. of the NAACP.
Johnson, who wanted the bill passed as soon as possible, ensured that the bill would be quickly considered by the Senate. Normally, the bill would have been referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee, chaired by Senator James O. Eastland, Democrat from Mississippi. Given Eastland 's firm opposition, it seemed impossible that the bill would reach the Senate floor. Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield took a novel approach to prevent the bill from being relegated to Judiciary Committee limbo. Having initially waived a second reading of the bill, which would have led to it being immediately referred to Judiciary, Mansfield gave the bill a second reading on February 26, 1964, and then proposed, in the absence of precedent for instances when a second reading did not immediately follow the first, that the bill bypass the Judiciary Committee and immediately be sent to the Senate floor for debate.
When the bill came before the full Senate for debate on March 30, 1964, the "Southern Bloc '' of 18 southern Democratic Senators and one Republican Senator led by Richard Russell (D - GA) launched a filibuster to prevent its passage. Said Russell: "We will resist to the bitter end any measure or any movement which would have a tendency to bring about social equality and intermingling and amalgamation of the races in our (Southern) states. ''
Strong opposition to the bill also came from Senator Strom Thurmond (D - SC): "This so - called Civil Rights Proposals, which the President has sent to Capitol Hill for enactment into law, are unconstitutional, unnecessary, unwise and extend beyond the realm of reason. This is the worst civil - rights package ever presented to the Congress and is reminiscent of the Reconstruction proposals and actions of the radical Republican Congress. ''
After 54 days of filibuster, Senators Hubert Humphrey (D - MN), Mike Mansfield (D - MT), Everett Dirksen (R - IL), and Thomas Kuchel (R - CA), introduced a substitute bill that they hoped would attract enough Republican swing votes in addition to the core liberal Democrats behind the legislation to end the filibuster. The compromise bill was weaker than the House version in regard to government power to regulate the conduct of private business, but it was not so weak as to cause the House to reconsider the legislation.
On the morning of June 10, 1964, Senator Robert Byrd (D-W.Va.) completed a filibustering address that he had begun 14 hours and 13 minutes earlier opposing the legislation. Until then, the measure had occupied the Senate for 60 working days, including six Saturdays. A day earlier, Democratic Whip Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota, the bill 's manager, concluded he had the 67 votes required at that time to end the debate and end the filibuster. With six wavering senators providing a four - vote victory margin, the final tally stood at 71 to 29. Never in history had the Senate been able to muster enough votes to cut off a filibuster on a civil rights bill. And only once in the 37 years since 1927 had it agreed to cloture for any measure.
On June 19, the substitute (compromise) bill passed the Senate by a vote of 73 -- 27, and quickly passed through the House -- Senate conference committee, which adopted the Senate version of the bill. The conference bill was passed by both houses of Congress, and was signed into law by President Johnson on July 2, 1964.
Totals are in "Yea -- Nay '' format:
The original House version:
Cloture in the Senate:
The Senate version:
The Senate version, voted on by the House:
Note: "Southern '', as used in this section, refers to members of Congress from the eleven states that made up the Confederate States of America in the American Civil War. "Northern '' refers to members from the other 39 states, regardless of the geographic location of those states.
The original House version:
The Senate version:
Just one year earlier, the same Congress had passed the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which prohibited wage differentials based on sex. The prohibition on sex discrimination was added to the Civil Rights Act by Howard W. Smith, a powerful Virginia Democrat who chaired the House Rules Committee and who strongly opposed the legislation. Smith 's amendment was passed by a teller vote of 168 to 133. Historians debate Smith 's motivation, whether it was a cynical attempt to defeat the bill by someone opposed to civil rights both for blacks and women, or an attempt to support their rights by broadening the bill to include women. Smith expected that Republicans, who had included equal rights for women in their party 's platform since 1944, would probably vote for the amendment. Historians speculate that Smith was trying to embarrass northern Democrats who opposed civil rights for women because the clause was opposed by labor unions. Representative Carl Elliott of Alabama later claimed, "Smith did n't give a damn about women 's rights... he was trying to knock off votes either then or down the line because there was always a hard core of men who did n't favor women 's rights, '' and the Congressional Record records that Smith was greeted by laughter when he introduced the amendment.
Smith asserted that he was not joking; he sincerely supported the amendment and, indeed, along with Rep. Martha Griffiths, he was the chief spokesperson for the amendment. For twenty years Smith had sponsored the Equal Rights Amendment (with no linkage to racial issues) in the House because he believed in it. He for decades had been close to the National Woman 's Party and its leader Alice Paul, who was also the leader in winning the right to vote for women in 1920, the author of the first Equal Rights Amendment, and a chief supporter of equal rights proposals since then. She and other feminists had worked with Smith since 1945 trying to find a way to include sex as a protected civil rights category. Now was the moment. Griffiths argued that the new law would protect black women but not white women, and that was unfair to white women. Furthermore, she argued that the laws "protecting '' women from unpleasant jobs were actually designed to enable men to monopolize those jobs, and that was unfair to women who were not allowed to try out for those jobs. The amendment passed with the votes of Republicans and Southern Democrats. The final law passed with the votes of Republicans and Northern Democrats. Thus, as Justice William Rehnquist explained in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, "The prohibition against discrimination based on sex was added to Title VII at the last minute on the floor of the House of Representatives... the bill quickly passed as amended, and we are left with little legislative history to guide us in interpreting the Act 's prohibition against discrimination based on ' sex. ' ''
One of the most damaging arguments by the bill 's opponents was that once passed, the bill would require forced busing to achieve certain racial quotas in schools. Proponents of the bill, such as Emanuel Celler and Jacob Javits, said that the bill would not authorize such measures. Leading sponsor Senator Hubert Humphrey (D - MN) wrote two amendments specifically designed to outlaw busing. Humphrey said "if the bill were to compel it, it would be a violation (of the Constitution), because it would be handling the matter on the basis of race and we would be transporting children because of race. '' While Javits said any government official who sought to use the bill for busing purposes "would be making a fool of himself, '' two years later the Department of Health, Education and Welfare said that Southern school districts would be required to meet mathematical ratios of students by busing.
The bill divided and engendered a long - term change in the demographic support of both parties. President Johnson realized that supporting this bill would risk losing the South 's overwhelming support of the Democratic Party. Both Attorney General Robert Kennedy and Vice President Johnson had pushed for the introduction of the civil rights legislation. Johnson told Kennedy aide Ted Sorensen that "I know the risks are great and we might lose the South, but those sorts of states may be lost anyway. '' Senator Richard Russell, Jr. later warned President Johnson that his strong support for the civil rights bill "will not only cost you the South, it will cost you the election ''. Johnson, however, went on to win the 1964 election by one of the biggest landslides in American history. The South, which had five states swing Republican in 1964, became a stronghold of the Republican Party by the 1990s.
Although majorities in both parties voted for the bill, there were notable exceptions. Though he opposed forced segregation, Republican Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona voted against the bill, remarking, "You ca n't legislate morality. '' Goldwater had supported previous attempts to pass civil rights legislation in 1957 and 1960 as well as the 24th Amendment outlawing the poll tax. He stated that the reason for his opposition to the 1964 bill was Title II, which in his opinion violated individual liberty and states ' rights. Democrats and Republicans from the Southern states opposed the bill and led an unsuccessful 83 - day filibuster, including Senators Albert Gore, Sr. (D - TN) and J. William Fulbright (D - AR), as well as Senator Robert Byrd (D - WV), who personally filibustered for 14 hours straight.
(The full text of the Act is available online.)
Barred unequal application of voter registration requirements.
Title I did not eliminate literacy tests, which were one of the main methods used to exclude Black voters, other racial minorities, and poor Whites in the South, nor did it address economic retaliation, police repression, or physical violence against nonwhite voters. While the Act did require that voting rules and procedures be applied equally to all races, it did not abolish the concept of voter "qualification '', that is to say, it accepted the idea that citizens do not have an automatic right to vote but rather might have to meet some standard beyond citizenship. It was the Voting Rights Act, enacted one year later in 1965, that directly addressed and eliminated most voting qualifications beyond citizenship.
Outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion or national origin in hotels, motels, restaurants, theaters, and all other public accommodations engaged in interstate commerce; exempted private clubs without defining the term "private ''.
Prohibited state and municipal governments from denying access to public facilities on grounds of race, color, religion or national origin.
Encouraged the desegregation of public schools and authorized the U.S. Attorney General to file suits to enforce said act.
Expanded the Civil Rights Commission established by the earlier Civil Rights Act of 1957 with additional powers, rules and procedures.
Prevents discrimination by government agencies that receive federal funds. If an agency is found in violation of Title VI, that agency may lose its federal funding.
General
This title declares it to be the policy of the United States that discrimination on the ground of race, color, or national origin shall not occur in connection with programs and activities receiving Federal financial assistance and authorizes and directs the appropriate Federal departments and agencies to take action to carry out this policy. This title is not intended to apply to foreign assistance programs. Section 601 -- This section states the general principle that no person in the United States shall be excluded from participation in or otherwise discriminated against on the ground of race, color, or national origin under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.
Section 602 directs each Federal agency administering a program of Federal financial assistance by way of grant, contract, or loan to take action pursuant to rule, regulation, or order of general applicability to effectuate the principle of section 601 in a manner consistent with the achievement of the objectives of the statute authorizing the assistance. In seeking the effect compliance with its requirements imposed under this section, an agency is authorized to terminate or to refuse to grant or to continue assistance under a program to any recipient as to whom there has been an express finding pursuant to a hearing of a failure to comply with the requirements under that program, and it may also employ any other means authorized by law. However, each agency is directed first to seek compliance with its requirements by voluntary means.
Section 603 provides that any agency action taken pursuant to section 602 shall be subject to such judicial review as would be available for similar actions by that agency on other grounds. Where the agency action consists of terminating or refusing to grant or to continue financial assistance because of a finding of a failure of the recipient to comply with the agency 's requirements imposed under section 602, and the agency action would not otherwise be subject to judicial review under existing law, judicial review shall nevertheless be available to any person aggrieved as provided in section 10 of the Administrative Procedure Act (5 U.S.C. § 1009). The section also states explicitly that in the latter situation such agency action shall not be deemed committed to unreviewable agency discretion within the meaning of section 10. The purpose of this provision is to obviate the possible argument that although section 603 provides for review in accordance with section 10, section 10 itself has an exception for action "committed to agency discretion, '' which might otherwise be carried over into section 603. It is not the purpose of this provision of section 603, however, otherwise to alter the scope of judicial review as presently provided in section 10 (e) of the Administrative Procedure Act.
Title VII of the Act, codified as Subchapter VI of Chapter 21 of title 42 of the United States Code, prohibits discrimination by covered employers on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin (see 42 U.S.C. § 2000e - 2). Title VII applies to and covers an employer "who has fifteen (15) or more employees for each working day in each of twenty or more calendar weeks in the current or preceding calendar year '' as written in the Definitions section under 42 U.S.C. § 2000e (b). Title VII also prohibits discrimination against an individual because of his or her association with another individual of a particular race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, such as by an interracial marriage. The EEO Title VII has also been supplemented with legislation prohibiting pregnancy, age, and disability discrimination (See Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, Age Discrimination in Employment Act, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990).
In very narrowly defined situations, an employer is permitted to discriminate on the basis of a protected trait where the trait is a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ) reasonably necessary to the normal operation of that particular business or enterprise. To prove the bona fide occupational qualifications defense, an employer must prove three elements: a direct relationship between the protected trait and the ability to perform the duties of the job, the BFOQ relates to the "essence '' or "central mission of the employer 's business '', and there is no less - restrictive or reasonable alternative (United Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls, Inc., 499 U.S. 187 (1991) 111 S. Ct. 1196). The Bona Fide Occupational Qualification exception is an extremely narrow exception to the general prohibition of discrimination based on protected traits (Dothard v. Rawlinson, 433 U.S. 321 (1977) 97 S. Ct. 2720). An employer or customer 's preference for an individual of a particular religion is not sufficient to establish a Bona Fide Occupational Qualification (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Kamehameha School -- Bishop Estate, 990 F. 2d 458 (9th Cir. 1993)).
Title VII allows for any employer, labor organization, joint labor - management committee, or employment agency to bypass the "unlawful employment practice '' for any person involved with the Communist Party of the United States or of any other organization required to register as a Communist - action or Communist - front organization by final order of the Subversive Activities Control Board pursuant to the Subversive Activities Control Act of 1950.
There are partial and whole exceptions to Title VII for four types of employers:
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) as well as certain state fair employment practices agencies (FEPAs) enforce Title VII (see 42 U.S.C. § 2000e - 4). The EEOC and state FEPAs investigate, mediate, and may file lawsuits on behalf of employees. Where a state law is contradicted by a federal law, it is overridden. Every state, except Arkansas and Mississippi, maintains a state FEPA (see EEOC and state FEPA directory). Title VII also provides that an individual can bring a private lawsuit. An individual must file a complaint of discrimination with the EEOC within 180 days of learning of the discrimination or the individual may lose the right to file a lawsuit. Title VII only applies to employers who employ 15 or more employees for 20 or more weeks in the current or preceding calendar year (42 U.S.C. § 2000e (b)).
In the early 1980s, the EEOC and some federal courts began holding that sexual harassment is also prohibited under the Act. In 1986, the Supreme Court held in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57 (1986), that sexual harassment is sex discrimination and is prohibited by Title VII. This case filed by plaintiff Mechelle Vinson was the first in the history of the court to recognize sexual harassment as actionable. Following 1986, court cases in which the plaintiff suffers no economic loss can potentially argue for a violation of Title VII if the discrimination resulted in a hostile work environment. Same - sex sexual harassment has also been held in a unanimous decision written by Justice Scalia to be prohibited by Title VII (Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc., 523 U.S. 75 (1998), 118 S. Ct. 998).
In 2012, the EEOC ruled that employment discrimination on the basis of gender identity or transgender status is prohibited under Title VII. The decision held that discrimination on the basis of gender identity qualified as discrimination on the basis of sex whether the discrimination was due to sex stereotyping, discomfort with the fact of an individual 's transition, or discrimination due to a perceived change in the individual 's sex. In 2014, the EEOC initiated two lawsuits against private companies for discrimination on the basis of gender identity, with additional litigation under consideration. As of November 2014, Commissioner Chai Feldblum is making an active effort to increase awareness of Title VII remedies for individuals discriminated on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity.
On December 15, 2014, under a memorandum issued by Attorney General Eric Holder, the United States Department of Justice (DoJ) took a position that aligned with the EEOC, namely the prohibition of sex discrimination under Title VII encompassed the prohibition of discrimination based on gender identity or transgender status. DoJ had already stopped opposing claims of discrimination brought by federal transgender employees.
In October 2017, Attorney General Jeff Sessions issued a directive that withdrew the Holder memorandum. According to a copy of the directive reviewed by BuzzFeed News, Sessions stated that Title VII should be narrowly interpreted to cover discrimination between "men and women ''. Attorney General Session stated as a matter of law, "Title VII does not prohibit discrimination based on gender identity per se. '' Devin O'Malley, speaking on behalf of the DoJ, stated "the last administration abandoned that fundamental principle (that the Department of Justice can not expand the law beyond what Congress has provided), which necessitated today 's action. '' Sharon McGowan, a lawyer with Lambda Legal who previously served in the Civil Rights division of DoJ, rejected that argument, saying "(T) his memo is not actually a reflection of the law as it is -- it 's a reflection of what the DOJ wishes the law were '' and "The Justice Department is actually getting back in the business of making anti-transgender law in court. ''
On December 11, 2017, the United States Supreme Court refused to hear an appeal in Evans v. Georgia Regional Hospital, in which a lower court ruled against the plaintiff, who had argued Title VII protections applied to sexual orientation. The 11th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals stated in its earlier ruling that only the Supreme Court could determine if Title VII applied.
Required compilation of voter - registration and voting data in geographic areas specified by the Commission on Civil Rights.
Title IX made it easier to move civil rights cases from state courts to federal court. This was of crucial importance to civil rights activists who contended that they could not get fair trials in state courts.
Title IX of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 should not be confused with Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972, which prohibits sex discrimination in federally funded education programs and activities.
Established the Community Relations Service, tasked with assisting in community disputes involving claims of discrimination.
Title XI gives a defendant accused of certain categories of criminal contempt in a matter arising under title II, III, IV, V, VI, or VII of the Act the right to a jury trial. If convicted, the defendant can be fined an amount not to exceed $1,000 or imprisoned for not more than six months.
There were white business owners who claimed that Congress did not have the constitutional authority to ban segregation in public accommodations. For example, Moreton Rolleston, the owner of a motel in Atlanta, Georgia, said he should not be forced to serve black travelers, saying, "the fundamental question... is whether or not Congress has the power to take away the liberty of an individual to run his business as he sees fit in the selection and choice of his customers ''. Rolleston claimed that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a breach of the Fourteenth Amendment and also violated the Fifth and Thirteenth Amendments by depriving him of "liberty and property without due process ''. In Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964), the Supreme Court held that Congress drew its authority from the Constitution 's Commerce Clause, rejecting Rolleston 's claims.
Resistance to the public accommodation clause continued for years on the ground, especially in the South. When local college students in Orangeburg, South Carolina attempted to desegregate a bowling alley in 1968, they were violently attacked, leading to rioting and what became known as the "Orangeburg massacre. '' Resistance by school boards continued into the next decade, with the most significant declines in black - white school segregation only occurring at the end of the 1960s and the start of the 1970s in the aftermath of the Green v. County School Board of New Kent County (1968) court decision.
Between 1965 and 1972, Title VII lacked any strong enforcement provisions. Instead, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was authorized only to investigate external claims of discrimination. The EEOC could then refer cases to the Justice Department for litigation if reasonable cause was found. The EEOC documented the nature and magnitude of discriminatory employment practices, the first study of this kind done.
In 1972, Congress passed the Equal Employment Opportunity Act. The Act amended Title VII and gave EEOC authority to initiate its own enforcement litigation. The EEOC now played a major role in guiding judicial interpretations of civil rights legislation. The commission was also permitted for the first time to define "discrimination, '' a term excluded from the 1964 Act.
The Constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was, at the time, in some dispute as it applied to the private sector. In the landmark Civil Rights Cases the United States Supreme Court had ruled, in 1883, that Congress did not have the power to prohibit discrimination in the private sector, thus stripping the Civil Rights Act of 1875 of much of its ability to protect civil rights.
In the late 19th and early 20th century, the legal justification for voiding the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was part of a larger trend by members of the United States Supreme Court to invalidate most government regulations of the private sector, except when dealing with laws designed to protect traditional public morality.
In the 1930s, during the New Deal, the majority of the Supreme Court justices gradually shifted their legal theory to allow for greater government regulation of the private sector under the commerce clause, thus paving the way for the Federal government to enact civil rights laws prohibiting both public and private sector discrimination on the basis of the commerce clause.
After the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed, the Supreme Court upheld the law 's application to the private sector, on the grounds that Congress has the power to regulate commerce between the States. The landmark case Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States established the constitutionality of the law, but it did not settle all of the legal questions surrounding the law.
In Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corp., a 1971 Supreme Court case regarding the gender provisions of the Act, the Court ruled that a company could not discriminate against a potential female employee because she had a preschool - age child unless they did the same with potential male employees. A federal court overruled an Ohio state law that barred women from obtaining jobs which required the ability to lift 25 pounds and required women to take lunch breaks when men were not required to. In Pittsburgh Press Co. v. Pittsburgh Commission on Human Relations, the United States Supreme Court decided that printing separate job listings for men and women was illegal, which ended that practice among the country 's newspapers. The United States Civil Service Commission ended the practice among federal jobs which designated them "women only '' or "men only ''.
In 1974, the Supreme Court also ruled that the San Francisco school district was violating non-English speaking students ' rights under the 1964 act by placing them in regular classes rather than providing some sort of accommodation for them.
In 1975, a federal civil rights agency warned a Phoenix, Arizona school that its end - of - year father - son and mother - daughter baseball games were illegal according to the 1964 Civil Rights Act. President Gerald Ford intervened, and the games were allowed to continue.
In 1977, the Supreme Court struck down state minimum height requirements for police officers as violating the Act; women usually could not meet these requirements.
On April 4, 2017, the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit in Chicago, sitting en banc, ruled that Title VII of the Act forbids discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation by a vote of 8 -- 3. Over the prior month, panels of both the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit in Atlanta and the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in New York City had reached the opposite conclusion, finding that Title VII sex discrimination does not include claims based on sexual orientation.
Despite its lack of influence during its time, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 had considerable impact on later civil rights legislation in the United States. It paved the way for future legislation that was not limited to African American civil rights. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 -- which has been called "the most important piece of federal legislation since the Civil Rights Act of 1964 '' -- was influenced both by the structure and substance of the previous Civil Rights Act of 1964. The act was arguably of equal importance, and "draws substantially from the structure of that landmark legislation (Civil Rights Act of 1964) ''. The Americans With Disabilities Act paralleled its landmark predecessor structurally, drawing upon many of the same titles and statutes. For example, "Title I of the ADA, which bans employment discrimination by private employers on the basis of disability, parallels Title VII of the Act ''. Similarly, Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act, "which proscribes discrimination on the basis of disability in public accommodations, tracks Title II of the 1964 Act while expanding upon the list of public accommodations covered. '' The Americans with Disabilities Act extended "the principle of nondiscrimination to people with disabilities '', an idea unsought in the United States before the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Act also influenced later civil rights legislation, such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968, aiding not only African Americans, but also women.
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what is the normal temp of a human | Human body temperature - wikipedia
Normal human body temperature, also known as normothermia or euthermia, is the typical temperature range found in humans. The normal human body temperature range is typically stated as 36.5 -- 37.5 ° C (97.7 -- 99.5 ° F).
Individual body temperature depends upon the age, exertion, infection, sex, and reproductive status of the subject, the time of day, the place in the body at which the measurement is made, and the subject 's state of consciousness (waking, sleeping or sedated), activity level, and emotional state. It is typically maintained within this range by thermoregulation.
Human body temperature is of interest in medical practice, human reproduction, and athletics.
Taking a person 's temperature is an initial part of a full clinical examination. There are various types of medical thermometers, as well as sites used for measurement, including:
Temperature control (thermoregulation) is part of a homeostatic mechanism that keeps the organism at optimum operating temperature, as the temperature affects the rate of chemical reactions. In humans, the average internal temperature is 37.0 ° C (98.6 ° F), though it varies among individuals. However, no person always has exactly the same temperature at every moment of the day. Temperatures cycle regularly up and down through the day, as controlled by the person 's circadian rhythm. The lowest temperature occurs about two hours before the person normally wakes up. Additionally, temperatures change according to activities and external factors.
In addition to varying throughout the day, normal body temperature may also differ as much as 0.5 ° C (0.9 ° F) from one day to the next, so that the highest or lowest temperatures on one day will not always exactly match the highest or lowest temperatures on the next day.
Normal human body temperature varies slightly from person to person and by the time of day. Consequently, each type of measurement has a range of normal temperatures. The range for normal human body temperatures, taken orally, is 7002309950000000000 ♠ 36.8 ± 0.5 ° C (7002309927777777777 ♠ 98.2 ± 0.9 ° F). This means that any oral temperature between 36.3 and 37.3 ° C (97.3 and 99.1 ° F) is likely to be normal.
The normal human body temperature is often stated as 36.5 -- 37.5 ° C (97.7 -- 99.5 ° F). In adults a review of the literature has found a wider range of 33.2 -- 38.2 ° C (91.8 -- 100.8 ° F) for normal temperatures, depending on the gender and location measured.
Reported values vary depending on how it is measured: oral (under the tongue): 7002309950000000000 ♠ 36.8 ± 0.4 ° C (7002309927777777777 ♠ 98.2 ± 0.72 ° F), internal (rectal, vaginal): 37.0 ° C (98.6 ° F). A rectal or vaginal measurement taken directly inside the body cavity is typically slightly higher than oral measurement, and oral measurement is somewhat higher than skin measurement. Other places, such as under the arm or in the ear, produce different typical temperatures. While some people think of these averages as representing normal or ideal measurements, a wide range of temperatures has been found in healthy people. The body temperature of a healthy person varies during the day by about 0.5 ° C (0.9 ° F) with lower temperatures in the morning and higher temperatures in the late afternoon and evening, as the body 's needs and activities change. Other circumstances also affect the body 's temperature. The core body temperature of an individual tends to have the lowest value in the second half of the sleep cycle; the lowest point, called the nadir, is one of the primary markers for circadian rhythms. The body temperature also changes when a person is hungry, sleepy, sick, or cold.
Body temperature normally fluctuates over the day following Circadian rhythms, with the lowest levels around 4 a.m. and the highest in the late afternoon, between 4: 00 and 6: 00 p.m. (assuming the person sleeps at night and stays awake during the day). Therefore, an oral temperature of 37.3 ° C (99.1 ° F) would, strictly speaking, be a normal, healthy temperature in the afternoon but not in the early morning. An individual 's body temperature typically changes by about 0.5 ° C (0.9 ° F) between its highest and lowest points each day.
Body temperature is sensitive to many hormones, so women have a temperature rhythm that varies with the menstrual cycle, called a circamensal rhythm. A woman 's basal body temperature rises sharply after ovulation, as estrogen production decreases and progesterone increases. Fertility awareness programs use this change to identify when a woman has ovulated in order to achieve or avoid pregnancy. During the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, both the lowest and the average temperatures are slightly higher than during other parts of the cycle. However, the amount that the temperature rises during each day is slightly lower than typical, so the highest temperature of the day is not very much higher than usual. Hormonal contraceptives both suppress the circamensal rhythm and raise the typical body temperature by about 0.6 ° C (1.1 ° F).
Temperature also varies with the change of seasons during each year. This pattern is called a circannual rhythm. Studies of seasonal variations have produced inconsistent results. People living in different climates may have different seasonal patterns.
Increased physical fitness increases the amount of daily variation in temperature.
With increased age, both average body temperature and the amount of daily variability in the body temperature tend to decrease. Elderly patients may have a decreased ability to generate body heat during a fever, so even a somewhat elevated temperature can indicate a serious underlying cause in geriatrics.
Different methods used for measuring temperature produce different results. The temperature reading depends on which part of the body is being measured. The typical daytime temperatures among healthy adults are as follows:
Generally, oral, rectal, gut, and core body temperatures, although slightly different, are well - correlated, with oral temperature being the lowest of the four. Oral temperatures are generally about 0.4 ° C (0.7 ° F) lower than rectal temperatures.
Oral temperatures are influenced by drinking, chewing, smoking, and breathing with the mouth open. Mouth breathing, cold drinks or food reduce oral temperatures; hot drinks, hot food, chewing, and smoking raise oral temperatures.
Each measurement method also has different normal ranges depending on sex.
Many outside factors affect the measured temperature as well. "Normal '' values are generally given for an otherwise healthy, non-fasting adult, dressed comfortably, indoors, in a room that is kept at a normal room temperature, 22.7 to 24.4 ° C (73 to 76 ° F), during the morning, but not shortly after arising from sleep. Furthermore, for oral temperatures, the subject must not have eaten, drunk, or smoked anything in at least the previous fifteen to twenty minutes, as the temperature of the food, drink, or smoke can dramatically affect the reading.
Temperature is increased after eating or drinking anything with calories. Caloric restriction, as for a weight - loss diet, decreases overall body temperature. Drinking alcohol decreases the amount of daily change, slightly lowering daytime temperatures and noticeably raising nighttime temperatures.
Exercise raises body temperatures. In adults, a noticeable increase usually requires strenuous exercise or exercise sustained over a significant time. Children develop higher temperatures with milder activities, like playing.
Psychological factors also influence body temperature: a very excited person often has an elevated temperature.
Wearing more clothing slows daily temperature changes and raises body temperature. Similarly, sleeping with an electric blanket raises the body temperature at night.
Sleep disturbances also affect temperatures. Normally, body temperature drops significantly at a person 's normal bedtime and throughout the night. Short - term sleep deprivation produces a higher temperature at night than normal, but long - term sleep deprivation appears to reduce temperatures. Insomnia and poor sleep quality are associated with smaller and later drops in body temperature. Similarly, waking up unusually early, sleeping in, jet lag and changes to shift work schedules may affect body temperature.
A temperature setpoint is the level at which the body attempts to maintain its temperature. When the setpoint is raised, the result is a fever. Most fevers are caused by infectious disease and can be lowered, if desired, with antipyretic medications.
An early morning temperature higher than 37.2 ° C (99.0 ° F) or a late afternoon temperature higher than 37.7 ° C (99.9 ° F) is normally considered a fever, assuming that the temperature is elevated due to a change in the hypothalamus 's setpoint. Lower thresholds are sometimes appropriate for elderly people. The normal daily temperature variation is typically 0.5 ° C (0.90 ° F), but can be greater among people recovering from a fever.
An organism at optimum temperature is considered afebrile or apyrexic, meaning "without fever ''. If temperature is raised, but the setpoint is not raised, then the result is hyperthermia.
Hyperthermia occurs when the body produces or absorbs more heat than it can dissipate. It is usually caused by prolonged exposure to high temperatures. The heat - regulating mechanisms of the body eventually become overwhelmed and unable to deal effectively with the heat, causing the body temperature to climb uncontrollably. Hyperthermia at or above about 40 ° C (104 ° F) is a life - threatening medical emergency that requires immediate treatment. Common symptoms include headache, confusion, and fatigue. If sweating has resulted in dehydration, then the affected person may have dry, red skin.
In a medical setting, mild hyperthermia is commonly called heat exhaustion or heat prostration; severe hyperthermia is called heat stroke. Heat stroke may come on suddenly, but it usually follows the untreated milder stages. Treatment involves cooling and rehydrating the body; fever - reducing drugs are useless for this condition. This may be done through moving out of direct sunlight to a cooler and shaded environment, drinking water, removing clothing that might keep heat close to the body, or sitting in front of a fan. Bathing in tepid or cool water, or even just washing the face and other exposed areas of the skin, can be helpful.
With fever, the body 's core temperature rises to a higher temperature through the action of the part of the brain that controls the body temperature; with hyperthermia, the body temperature is raised without the influence of the heat control centers.
In hypothermia, body temperature drops below that required for normal metabolism and bodily functions. In humans, this is usually due to excessive exposure to cold air or water, but it can be deliberately induced as a medical treatment. Symptoms usually appear when the body 's core temperature drops by 1 -- 2 ° C (1.8 -- 3.6 ° F) below normal temperature.
Basal body temperature is the lowest temperature attained by the body during rest (usually during sleep). It is generally measured immediately after awakening and before any physical activity has been undertaken, although the temperature measured at that time is somewhat higher than the true basal body temperature. In women, temperature differs at various points in the menstrual cycle, and this can be used in the long - term to track ovulation both for the purpose of aiding conception or avoiding pregnancy. This process is called fertility awareness.
Core temperature, also called core body temperature, is the operating temperature of an organism, specifically in deep structures of the body such as the liver, in comparison to temperatures of peripheral tissues. Core temperature is normally maintained within a narrow range so that essential enzymatic reactions can occur. Significant core temperature elevation (hyperthermia) or depression (hypothermia) that is prolonged for more than a brief period of time is incompatible with human life.
Temperature examination in the rectum is the traditional gold standard measurement used to estimate core temperature (oral temperature is affected by hot or cold drinks and mouth - breathing). Rectal temperature is expected to be approximately one Fahrenheit degree higher than an oral temperature taken on the same person at the same time. Ear thermometers measure eardrum temperature using infrared sensors. The blood supply to the tympanic membrane is shared with the brain. However, this method of measuring body temperature is not as accurate as rectal measurement and has a low sensitivity for fevers, missing three or four out of every ten fevers in children. Ear temperature measurement may be acceptable for observing trends in body temperature but is less useful in consistently identifying fevers.
Until recently, direct measurement of core body temperature required surgical insertion of a probe, so a variety of indirect methods have commonly been used. The rectal or vaginal temperature is generally considered to give the most accurate assessment of core body temperature, particularly in hypothermia. In the early 2000s, ingestible thermistors in capsule form were produced, allowing the temperature inside the digestive tract to be transmitted to an external receiver; one study found that these were comparable in accuracy to rectal temperature measurement.
In the 19th century, most books quoted "blood heat '' as 98 ° F, until a study published the mean (but not the variance) of a large sample as 36.88 ° C (98.38 ° F). Subsequently that mean was widely quoted as "37 ° C or 98.4 ° F '' until editors realised 37 ° C is closer to 98.6 ° F than 98.4 ° F. Dictionaries and other sources that quoted these averages did add the word "about '' to show that there is some variance, but generally did not state how wide the variance is.
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who opposed george washington for president in 1792 | United states presidential election, 1792 - wikipedia
George Washington Nonpartisan
George Washington Federalist
The United States presidential election of 1792 was the second quadrennial presidential election. It was held from Friday, November 2 to Wednesday, December 5, 1792. Incumbent President George Washington was elected to a second term by a unanimous vote in the electoral college, while John Adams was re-elected as vice president. Washington was essentially unopposed, but Adams faced a competitive re-election against Governor George Clinton of New York.
Washington was widely popular, and no one made a serious attempt to oppose his re-election. Electoral rules of the time required each presidential elector to cast two votes without distinguishing which was for president and which for vice president. The recipient of the most votes would then become president, and the runner - up vice president. The Democratic - Republican Party, which had organized in opposition to the policies of Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, supported Clinton for the position of vice president. Adams, meanwhile, was backed by the Federalist Party in his bid for another term. Neither party had fully organized, and partisan divisions had not yet solidified.
Washington received 132 electoral votes, one from each elector. Adams won 77 electoral votes, enough to win re-election. Clinton finished in third place with 50 electoral votes, taking his home state of New York as well as three Southern states. Two other candidates won the five remaining electoral votes. This election was the first in which each of the original 13 states appointed electors, as did the newly added states of Kentucky and Vermont. It was also the only presidential election that was not held exactly four years after the previous election, although part of the previous election was held four years prior.
In 1792, presidential elections were still conducted according to the original method established under the U.S. Constitution. Under this system, each elector cast two votes: the candidate who received the greatest number of votes (so long as they won a majority) became president, while the runner - up became vice president. The Twelfth Amendment would eventually replace this system, requiring electors to cast one vote for president and one vote for vice president, but this change did not take effect until 1804. Because of this, it is difficult to use modern - day terminology to describe the relationship among the candidates in this election.
Washington is generally held by historians to have run unopposed. Indeed, the incumbent president enjoyed bipartisan support and received one vote from every elector. The choice for vice president was more divisive. The Federalist Party threw its support behind the incumbent vice president, John Adams of Massachusetts, while the Democratic - Republican Party backed the candidacy of New York Governor George Clinton. Because few doubted that Washington would receive the greatest number of votes, Adams and Clinton were effectively competing for the vice presidency; under the letter of the law, however, they were technically candidates for president competing against Washington.
Born out of the Anti-Federalist faction that had opposed the Constitution in 1788, the Democratic - Republican Party was the main opposition to the agenda of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton. They had no chance of unseating Washington, but hoped to win the vice presidency by defeating the incumbent, Adams. Many Democratic - Republicans would have preferred to nominate Thomas Jefferson, their ideological leader and Washington 's Secretary of State. However, this would have cost them the state of Virginia, as electors were not permitted to vote for two candidates from their home state and Washington was also a Virginian. Clinton, the Governor of New York and a former anti-Federalist leader, became the party 's nominee after he won the backing of Jefferson and James Madison. Clinton was from an electorally - important swing state, and he convinced party leaders that he would be a stronger candidate than another New Yorker, Senator Aaron Burr. A group of Democratic - Republican leaders met in Philadelphia in October 1792 and selected Clinton as the party 's vice presidential candidate.
President George Washington
Vice President John Adams
Governor George Clinton of New York
By 1792, a party division had emerged between Federalists led by Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton, who desired a stronger federal government with a leading role in the economy, and the Democratic - Republicans led by Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and Representative James Madison of Virginia, who favored states ' rights and opposed Hamilton 's economic program. Madison was at first a Federalist until he opposed the establishment of Hamilton 's First Bank of the United States in 1791. He formed the Democratic - Republican Party along with Anti-Federalist Thomas Jefferson in 1792.
The elections of 1792 were the first ones in the United States to be contested on anything resembling a partisan basis. In most states, the congressional elections were recognized in some sense as a "struggle between the Treasury department and the republican interest, '' to use the words of Jefferson strategist John Beckley. In New York, the race for governor was fought along these lines. The candidates were Chief Justice John Jay, a Hamiltonian, and incumbent George Clinton, the party 's vice presidential nominee.
Although Washington had been considering retiring, both sides encouraged him to remain in office to bridge factional differences. Washington was supported by practically all sides throughout his presidency and gained more popularity with the passage of the Bill of Rights. However, the Democratic - Republicans and the Federalists contested the vice-presidency, with incumbent John Adams as the Federalist nominee and George Clinton as the Democratic - Republican nominee. Federalists attacked Clinton for his past association with the anti-Federalists. With some Democratic - Republican electors voting against their nominee George Clinton -- voting instead for Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr -- Adams easily secured re-election.
At the time, there were 15 states in the United States: the 13 original states and the two recently admitted states of Vermont (March 1791) and Kentucky (June 1792). The Electoral College consisted of 132 electors, with each elector having two votes.
The Electoral College chose Washington unanimously. John Adams was again elected vice-president as the runner - up, this time getting the vote of a majority of electors. George Clinton won the votes of only Georgia, North Carolina, Virginia, his native New York, and a single elector in Pennsylvania. Thomas Jefferson won the votes of Kentucky, newly separated from Jefferson 's home state of Virginia. A single South Carolina elector voted for Aaron Burr. All five of these candidates would eventually win election to the offices of president or vice president.
Source: U.S. President National Vote. Our Campaigns. (February 11, 2006). Source (Popular Vote): A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787 - 1825
Only 6 of the 15 states chose electors by any form of popular vote. Those states that did choose electors by popular vote had widely varying restrictions on suffrage via property requirements.
Source: "Electoral College Box Scores 1789 -- 1996 ''. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved July 30, 2005.
(1) only 6 of the 15 states chose electors by any form of popular vote, (2) pre-Twelfth Amendment electoral vote rules obscure the intentions of the voters, and (3) those states that did choose electors by popular vote restricted the vote via property requirements. Two electors from Maryland and one elector from Vermont did not cast votes.
Source: Dave Leip 's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections
The Constitution, in Article II, Section 1, provided that the state legislatures should decide the manner in which their Electors were chosen. Different state legislatures chose different methods:
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explain the importance of planning and control techniques in resource management | Resource management - wikipedia
In organizational studies, resource management is the efficient and effective development of an organization 's resources when they are needed. Such resources may include financial resources, inventory, human skills, production resources, or information technology (IT).
In the realm of project management, processes, techniques and philosophies as to the best approach for allocating resources have been developed. These include discussions on functional vs. cross-functional resource allocation as well as processes espoused by organizations like the Project Management Institute (PMI) through their Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) methodology of project management. Resource management is a key element to activity resource estimating and project human resource management. Both are essential components of a comprehensive project management plan to execute and monitor a project successfully. As is the case with the larger discipline of project management, there are resource management software tools available that automate and assist the process of resource allocation to projects and portfolio resource transparency including supply and demand of resources. The goal of these tools typically is to ensure that: (i) there are employees within our organization with required specific skill set and desired profile required for a project, (ii) decide the number and skill sets of new employees to hire, and (iii) allocate the workforce to various projects. Within professional services and consulting organizations, the effectiveness of these tools and processes is typically monitored by measuring billable utilization rate.
Large organizations usually have a defined corporate resource management process which mainly guarantees that resources are never over-allocated across multiple projects. Peter Drucker wrote of the need to focus resources, abandoning a less promising initiatives for every new project taken on, as fragmentation inhibits results.
One resource management technique is resource leveling. It aims at smoothing the stock of resources on hand, reducing both excess inventories and shortages.
The required data are: the demands for various resources, forecast by time period into the future as far as is reasonable, as well as the resources ' configurations required in those demands, and the supply of the resources, again forecast by time period into the future as far as is reasonable.
The goal is to achieve 100 % utilization but that is very unlikely, when weighted by important metrics and subject to constraints, for example: meeting a minimum service level, but otherwise minimizing cost. A Project Resource Allocation Matrix (PRAM) is maintained to visualize the resource allocations against various projects.
The principle is to invest in resources as stored capabilities, then unleash the capabilities as demanded.
A dimension of resource development is included in resource management by which investment in resources can be retained by a smaller additional investment to develop a new capability that is demanded, at a lower investment than disposing of the current resource and replacing it with another that has the demanded capability.
In conservation, resource management is a set of practices pertaining to maintaining natural systems integrity. Examples of this form of management are air resource management, soil conservation, forestry, wildlife management and water resource management. The broad term for this type of resource management is natural resource management (NRM).
In addition, we can use Ishikawa diagram to analyze Man, Money, Material and Machine needed.
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examine the influence of china on vietnamese culture and politics | Culture of Vietnam - wikipedia
The cultural of Vietnam (Vietnamese: Văn hóa Việt Nam The culture of Vietnam) is one of the oldest in Southeast Asia, with the ancient Bronze age Đông Sơn culture being widely considered one of its most important progenitors. Due to a millennium of Chinese rule, Vietnam was heavily and remarkably influenced by Chinese culture in terms of politics, government, Confucian social and moral ethics, and art. Vietnam is considered to be part of the East Asian cultural sphere.
Following independence from China in the 10th century, Vietnam began a southward expansion that saw the annexation of territories formerly belonging to the Champa civilization (now Central Vietnam) and parts of the Khmer empire (modern southern Vietnam), which resulted in minor regional variances in Vietnam 's culture due to exposure to these different groups.
During the French colonial period, Vietnamese culture absorbed various influences from the Europeans, including the spread of Catholicism and the adoption of the Latin alphabet. Prior to this, Vietnamese had used both Chinese characters and a script called Chữ nôm which was based on Chinese but included newly invented characters meant to represent native Vietnamese words.
In the socialist era, the Vietnamese cultural life has been deeply influenced by government - controlled media and the cultural influences of socialist programs. For many decades, foreign cultural influences were shunned and emphasis placed on appreciating and sharing the culture of communist nations such as the Soviet Union, China, Cuba and others. Since the 1990s, Vietnam has been recognised a greater re-exposure to Asian, European and American culture and media.
Some elements generally considered to be characteristic of Vietnamese culture include ancestor veneration, ancestor worshiprespect for community and family values, handicrafts and manual labour religious belief. Important symbols present in Vietnamese culture include dragons, turtles, lotuses and bamboo.
In terms of societal levels of organization, the two most important units are làng (village) and nước (country). The Vietnamese usually say that "làng goes hand in hand with nước. '' Intermediate organizational units are quận / huyện (district), "xã '' (commune) and tỉnh (province)
Kinship plays an important role in Vietnam. Unlike Western culture 's emphasis on individualism, Eastern culture values in the roles of family and clanship. Comparing with Eastern cultures, Chinese culture values family over clan while Vietnamese cultural values clan over family. Each clan has a patriarch, clan altar, and death commemorations attended by the whole clan.
Most inhabitants are related by blood. That fact is still seen in village names such as Đặng Xá (place for the Đặng clan), Châu Xá, Lê Xá, so on so forth. In the Western highlands the tradition of many families in a clan residing in a longhouse is still popular. In the majority of rural Vietnam today, one can still see three or four generations living under one roof.
((File: Don tiep trong le an hoi engagement ceremony (Vietnam). JPG thumb right 250px The family of a Vietnamese bride line up to welcome her groom at their betrothal ceremony.))
The traditional Vietnamese wedding is one of the most important tradition in Vietnamese occasions. Regardless of Westernization, many of the age - old customs practiced in a traditional Vietnamese wedding continue to be celebrated by both Vietnamese in Vietnam and overseas, often combining both Western and Eastern traditions.
In the past, both men and women were expected to be married at young ages some mountainous places exists "Tao Hon '' because one of the couples are too young to get married just 13 or 14 years old. Marriages contractual marriage were generally arranged by the parents and extended family, with the children having limited make decision on the matter. In modern Vietnam, this has changed as people freely choose their own marriage partners called romantic marriage.
Generally there are two main ceremonies:
When a person passes away in Vietnam, the surviving family holds a (Wake ceremony) or vigil that typically lasts about five to six days, but may last longer if the surviving family is waiting for other traveling relatives. The body is washed and dressed. A le ngam ham, or chopstick, is laid between the teeth and a pinch of rice and three coins are placed in the mouth. The body is put on a grass mat laid on the ground according to the saying, "being born from the earth, one must return back to the earth. '' The dead body is enveloped with white cloth, le kham niem, and placed in a coffin, le nhap quan. Finally, the funeral ceremony, le thanh phuc, is officially performed.
The surviving family wear coarse gauze turbans and tunics for the funeral. There are two types of funeral processions:
In Vietnam, the family of the deceased undergo a ritual after 100 days of them passing away, where the whole family sits in pairs in a long line up to a single member of the family. A monk (Thay Cung) will place a thin piece of cotton over the family member 's head and ring a bell and chant while rotating the bell around the deceased 's head, sending them in to a trance and open a way for the deceased to return to the living. A bamboo tree with only leaves on the top with small pieces of paper with the deceased 's name written on them will start to wave when the deceased is coming. They believe that after 100 days the deceased may return to this realm and "possess '' the body of the member of the family undergoing the ritual and once it is completed the other members of the family can communicate with the spirit of the deceased through the tranced family member.
Normally this ritual will take all day to prepare and then as long as 6 hours praying and chanting, changing the family member at the front of the line. Afterwards they will then burn a paper house and paper made possessions (that which the deceased would have loved during his / her life) so that they may take it through to their next life with them.
Religion in Vietnam has historically been largely defined by a mix of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, known in Vietnamese as the Tam Giáo ("triple religion ''). Catholicism is also practiced in modern Vietnam.
Ancestor worship is common in Vietnamese culture. Most Vietnamese, regardless of religious denomination, practice ancestor worship and have an ancestor altar at their home or business, a testament to the emphasis Vietnamese culture places on filial piety.
Vietnamese literature includes two major components: folk literature and written literature. The two forms developed simultaneously and are profoundly interrelated.
Vietnamese folk literature came into being very early and had a profound effect on the spiritual life of the Viet. The folk literature contributed to the formation of Vietnam 's national identity with praising beauty, humanism, and the love of goodness. Legends, fairy tales, humorous stories, folk songs, epic poems have a tremendous vitality and have lived on until today.
Written literature was born roughly in the 10th century. Up until the 21st century, there had been two components existing at the same time: works written in the Han characters (with poems and prose demonstrating the Vietnamese soul and realities; thus, they were still regarded as Vietnamese literature) and works written in the Nom character (mostly poems; many great works were handed down to the later generations).
Since the 1920s, written literature has been mainly composed in the National language with profound renovations in form and category such as novels, new - style poems, short stories and dramas, and with diversity in artistic tendency. Written literature attained speedy development after the August Revolution, when it was directed by the Vietnamese Communist Party 's guideline and focused on the people 's fighting and work life.
Modern Vietnamese literature has developed from romanticism to realism, from heroism in wartime to all aspects of life, and soared into ordinary life to discover the genuine values of the Vietnamese.
Classical literature generated such masterpieces as Truyen Kieu (Nguyễn Du), Cung Oán Ngâm Khúc (Nguyễn Gia Thiều), Chinh Phu Ngam (Dang Tran Con), and Quoc Am Thi Tap (Nguyễn Trãi). Some brilliant female poets are Hồ Xuân Hương, Doan Thi Diem, and Bà Huyện Thanh Quan.
Traditional Vietnamese art is a part of art practiced in Vietnam or by Vietnamese artists, from ancient times (including the elaborate Đông Sơn drums) to post-Chinese domination art which was strongly influenced by Chinese Buddhist art, as well as Taoism and Confucianism. The art of Champa and France also played a smaller role later on.
The Chinese The chinese arts influence on Vietnamese art extends into Vietnamese pottery and ceramics, calligraphy, and traditional architecture. Currently, Vietnamese lacquer paintings have proven to be quite popular.
Calligraphy has had a long history in Vietnam, previously using Chinese characters along with Chữ Nôm. However, most modern Vietnamese calligraphy instead uses the Roman - character based Quốc Ngữ, which has proven to be very popular.
In the past, with literacy in the old character - based writing systems of Vietnam being restricted to scholars and elites, calligraphy nevertheless still played an important part in Vietnamese life. On special occasions such as the Lunar New Year, people would go to the village teacher or scholar to make them a calligraphy hanging (often poetry, folk sayings or even single words). People who could not read or write also often commissioned at temple shrines.
Vietnamese silk painting is one of the most popular forms of art in Vietnam, favored for the mystical atmosphere that can be achieved with the medium. During the 19th and 20th centuries, French influence was absorbed into Vietnamese art and the liberal and modern use of color especially began to differentiate Vietnamese silk paintings from their Chinese, Japanese and Korean counterparts. Vietnamese silk paintings typically showcase the countryside, landscapes, pagodas, historical events or scenes of daily life.
A folk art with a long history in Vietnam, Vietnamese woodblock prints have reached a level of popularity outside of Vietnam. Organic materials are used to make the paint, which is applied to wood and pressed on paper. The process is repeated with different colors.
Vietnamese music varies slightly in the three regions: Bắc or North, Trung or Central, and Nam or South. Northern classical music is Vietnam 's oldest and is traditionally more formal. Vietnamese classical music can be traced to the Mongol invasions, when the Vietnamese captured a Chinese opera troupe. Central classical music shows the influences of Champa culture with its melancholic melodies. Southern music exudes a lively laissez - faire attitude.
Vietnam has some 50 national music instruments, in which the set of percussion instruments is the most popular, diverse and long - lasting such as đàn đáy, đàn tranh, đàn nhị, đàn bầu... The set of blowing instruments is represented by flutes and pan-pipes, while the set of string instruments is specified by dan bau and dan day.
The Vietnamese folksongs are rich in forms and melodies of regions across the country, ranging from ngâm thơ (reciting poems), hát ru (lullaby), hò (chanty) to hát quan họ, trong quan, xoan, dum, ví giặm, ca Huế, bài chòi, ly. Apart from this, there are also other forms like hát xẩm, chầu văn, and ca trù.
Two of the most widely known genres are:
In the 20th century, in contact with the Western culture, especially after the national independence, many new categories of arts like plays, photography, cinemas, and modern art had taken shape and developed strongly, obtaining huge achievements with the contents reflecting the social and revolutionary realities. Up to 1997, there have been 44 people operating in cultural and artistic fields honored with the Ho Chi Minh Award, 130 others conferred with People 's Artist Honor, and 1011 people awarded with the Excellent Artist Honor. At the start of 1997, there were 191 professional artistic organizations and 26 film studios (including central and local ones). There have been 28 movies, 49 scientific and documentary films receiving international motion picture awards in many countries.:)
Water puppetry Múa rốiis a distinct Vietnamese art form which had its origins in the 10th century and very popular in northern region. In Water puppetry a split - bamboo screen obscures puppets which stand in water, and are manipulated using long poles hidden beneath the water. Epic story lines are played out with many different puppets, often using traditional scenes of Vietnamese life. The puppets are made from quality wood, such as the South East Asian Jackfruit tree. Each puppet is carefully carved, and then painted with numerous successive layers of paint in order to protect the puppets.
Despite nearly dying out in the 20th century, water puppetry has been recognised by the Vietnamese government as an important part of Vietnam 's cultural heritage. Today, puppetry is commonly performed by professional puppeteers, who typically are taught by their elders in rural areas of Vietnam.
Vietnam has 54 different ethnicities, each with their own traditional dance. Among the ethnic Vietnamese majority, there are several traditional dances performed widely at festivals and other special occasions, such as the lion dance.
In the imperial court, there also developed throughout the centuries a series of complex court dances which require great skill. Some of the more widely known are the imperial lantern dance, fan dance, and platter dance, among others.
Communication in Vietnam, like other countries in the region, is indirect, based upon rapport and respect, and relies heavily on body language. Showing agreement by saying "yes '' shows respect even if the person does not agree with what 's being said. For example, one would say "yes '' to an invitation even if one does not intend on attending. The individual would simply not attend. Breaking this rapport or disagreeing is deemed disrespectful. Face facial expression is crucial to Vietnamese, so they are usually very indirect with what they say and usually avoid stating their opinion in case they are wrong. It is considered to be polite if women speak softly when they talk. If they talk with a high volume in their speech, it is considered to be negative. Children are unable to disagree with elders. Smiling is often used as an apology. Eye contact is usually avoided. Taboo things in western culture, such as asking about one 's age or salary during an initial meeting, is normal. Storytelling is often used as a form of communication.
Vietnamese cuisine is extremely diverse, often divided into three main categories, each pertaining to Vietnam 's three main regions (north, central and south). It uses very little oil and many vegetables, and is mainly based on rice, soy sauce, and fish sauce. Its characteristic flavors are sweet (sugar), spicy (serrano pepper), sour (lime), nuoc mam (fish sauce), and flavored by a variety of mint and basil.
Vietnam also has a large variety of noodles and noodle soups. Different regions invented typicallydifferent types of noodles, varying in shapes, tastes, colors, etc. One of the nation 's most famous type of noodles is phở (pronounced "fuh ''), a type of noodle soup originating in North Vietnam, which consists of rice noodles and beef soup (sometimes chicken soup) with several other ingredients such as bean sprouts and scallions (spring onions). It is often eaten for breakfast, but also makes a satisfying lunch or light dinner. The boiling stock, fragrant with spices and sauces, is poured over the noodles and vegetables, poaching the paper - thin slices of raw beef just before serving. Phở is meant to be savored, incorporating several different flavors: the sweet flavour of beef, sour lemons, salty fish sauce, and fresh vegetables.
Currently, Vietnamese cuisine has been gaining popularity and can be found widely in many other countries such as Singapore, the United States, Australia, Canada, South Korea, Laos, Japan, China, Malaysia, and France. Vietnamese cuisine is recognized for its strict, sometimes choosy selection of ingredients. A chef preparing authentic Vietnamese cuisine may incorporate the ingredients provided in these countries, but generally will prefer ingredients native to Vietnam.
In feudal Vietnam, clothing was one of the most important marks of social status and strict dress codes were enforced.
Prior to the Nguyễn dynasty, people not of noble birth could dress quite liberally with only few restrictions on styles. For example, wearing yellow color in the Lý dynasty was tolerable since the Imperial clan wore red and white color. However, things changed at the beginning of the Nguyễn dynasty. Commoners now had a limited choice of similarly plain and simple clothes for every day use, as well as being limited in the colors they were allowed to use. For instance, commoners were not allowed to wear clothes with dyes other than black, brown or white (with the exception of special occasions such as festivals), but in actuality these rules could change often based upon the whims of the current ruler.
The Áo giao lĩnh (襖 交 領) was a traditional cross-collared robe worn by Vietnamese before the 19th century. During the Nguyen dynasty, it was replaced by the áo dài and became obsolete.
The Áo Tứ Thân or "four - part dress '' is one such example of an ancient dress widely worn by commoner women, along with the Áo yếm bodice which accompanied it. Peasants across the country also gradually came to wear silk pajama - like costumes, known as "Áo cánh '' in the north and Áo bà ba in the south.
The headgear differed from time to time. People of the Lý dynasty and Nguyễn dynasty often put on a plain piece of cloth wrapped around the head (generally called Khăn đóng), while in Trần dynasty and Lê dynasty leaving the head bare was more common. Beside the popular Nón Lá (conical hat), a vast array of other hats and caps were available, constructed from numerous different types of materials, ranging from silk to bamboo and horse hair. Even the Nón Lá (conical hat) used to take several different shapes and sizes, now only two styles still persist. For footwear peasants would often go barefoot, whereas sandals and shoes were reserved for the aristocracy and royalty.
Nguyễn Monarchs had the exclusive right to wear the color gold, while nobles wore red or purple. In the past the situation was different, Đinh dynasty and Lý dynasty rulers wore red, and Trần dynasty emperors wore white. Each member of the royal court had an assortment of different formal gowns they would wear at a particular ceremony, or for a particular occasion. The rules governing the fashion of the royal court could change dynasty by dynasty, thus Costumes of the Vietnamese court were quite diverse. However, certain fundamental concepts applied.
The most popular and widely recognized Vietnamese national costume is the Áo Dài. Áo Dài was once worn by both genders but today it is worn mainly by women, except for certain important traditional culture - related occasions where some men do wear it. Áo Dài consists of a long gown with a slit on both sides, worn over cotton or silk trousers. Adoption and enforcement of Aó Dài took place in the mid 18th century by the rulers of Huế. They decided that their garments had to be distinctive to set themselves apart from the people of Tonkin where áo giao lĩnh and nhu quần were worn. White Áo dài is the required uniform for girls in many high schools across Vietnam. In some types of offices (e.g. receptionists, secretaries, tour guides), women are also required to wear Áo Dài.
In daily life, the traditional Vietnamese styles are now replaced by Western styles. Traditional clothing is worn instead on special occasions, with the exception of the white Áo Dài commonly seen with high school girls in Vietnam.
Vietnamese martial arts are highly developed from the country 's long history of warfare and attempts to defend itself from foreign occupation. Although most heavily influenced by Chinese martial arts, it has developed its own characteristics throughout the millennia in combination with other influences from its neighbours. Vietnamese martial arts is deeply spiritual due to the influence of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, and is strongly reliant on the "Viet Vo Dao '' (philosophy of Vietnamese martial arts). It is probably most famous for its scissor kicks.
The general Vietnamese term for martial arts is "Võ - Thuật. '' Some of the more popular include:
Vietnamese martial arts remains relatively unknown in the world today when compared to its counterparts from China, Japan, Korea or Thailand. However, this is seeing a definite change as schools teaching various styles of Vietnamese martial arts are starting to pop up all over the world, notably in countries such as Spain.
Vietnam celebrates many holidays, including traditional holidays which have been celebrated in Vietnam for thousands of years, along with modern holidays imported predominantly from western countries.
Among the traditional holidays, the two most important and widely celebrated are the Lunar new year (Tết), followed by the Mid-autumn lantern festival (Tết Trung Thu), although the latter has been losing ground in recent years.
Vietnam has a number of UNESCO - listed World Heritage Sites, as well as cultural relics deemed as intangible heritage. These are split into specific categories:
There are a number of other potential world heritage sites, as well as intangible cultural heritage which Vietnam has completed documents on for UNESCO 's recognition in the future.
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how many rick and morty episodes are out in season 3 | Rick and Morty (season 3) - wikipedia
The third season of the animated television series Rick and Morty originally aired in the United States on Cartoon Network 's late night programming block, Adult Swim. It premiered with "The Rickshank Rickdemption '', which aired unannounced on April 1, 2017 as part of Adult Swim 's annual April Fools ' prank. The remaining episodes began airing weekly four months later, on July 30, 2017. The season concluded on October 1, 2017 and consisted of ten episodes.
The season has received positive reviews, with critics highlighting its focus on character development. Beth and Jerry are given the opportunity to realize how much they need each other, Morty and Summer seek more control over their lives and Rick remains unable to change his self - destructive behavior.
The actors and actresses listed below lend their voices to the corresponding animated characters.
Other cast members of the season, who each have voiced one or more characters, include: Dan Harmon, Brandon Johnson, Tom Kenny, Maurice LaMarche, Nolan North, Cassie Steele, Kari Wahlgren, Laura Bailey, John DiMaggio, Ryan Ridley, Scott Chernoff, Dan Benson, Clancy Brown, Echo Kellum, Melique Berger, William Holmes, Tara Strong, Jeff B. Davis, Jonas Briedis, Phil Hendrie, Rob Paulsen, Alex Jayne Go, Jennifer Hale and Mariana Wise.
Rick is interrogated via a mind - computer link, inside a galactic federal prison. Summer and Morty attempt to rescue him, but they are captured by SEAL Team Ricks, who take them to the Citadel of Ricks and decide to assassinate Rick. Back at the prison, Rick tricks both the federal agents and his aspiring assassins by switching bodies with them. He then teleports the entire Citadel into the federal prison, prompting a massive battle. Amid the confusion, Rick rescues Morty and Summer and uses the Galactic Federation 's mainframe to make its currency worthless. The Federation falls into chaos and collapses as a result, with the aliens leaving Earth. Rick, Morty, and Summer return home, where Jerry gives Beth an ultimatum to choose between him and Rick. Beth chooses Rick and they decide to get a divorce. After the new status quo is established, Rick reveals to Morty that his ulterior motive was to become his de facto male influence. This escalates into a nonsensical angry rant, centered around Rick 's desire to find more of the discontinued McDonald 's Szechuan sauce, a promotional product for the 1998 film Mulan.
Rick takes Morty and Summer to a Mad Max-esque version of Earth, where they are chased by a group of scavengers, known as Death Stalkers. Rick notices that the group is carrying a valuable rock of Isotope 322, so he and the kids join them in hope of stealing it. Summer falls in love with the Death Stalkers ' leader, while Morty is given the strength of a giant arm, which takes him in search of its previous owner 's killer. Rick leaves and replaces the kids with androids to fool Beth. When he returns, he helps the Death Stalkers use the Isotope to power a more advanced civilization. Summer does n't like how the change softens the Death Stalkers, and she decides to follow Rick and Morty back home. Before leaving, Rick steals the Isotope. The experience helps the kids overcome their parents ' divorce. Summer reconciles with Jerry, and Morty realizes he must live his own life.
Rick turns himself into a pickle to get out of attending school - ordered family therapy, but Beth takes Rick 's serum which would revert the transformation. Left alone, Rick eventually rolls down into an open sewer drain, where he manages to manipulate the nervous systems of dead roaches and rats to build himself a mobile exoskeleton, with added weapons such as razors and drills. He unwittingly escapes into a foreign government agency. The guards try to kill Rick, under orders from the agency director, but Rick kills them all. In the process, Rick battles and ultimately befriends a prisoner named Jaguar. Rick changes his mind and decides to attend the therapy session, arriving towards the end. Dr. Wong gives her diagnosis, observing that Rick crafts relationships that punish emotions and vulnerability. On their way home, Rick apologizes to Beth for deceiving her and uses the serum to turn human again. Morty and Summer wish to continue seeing Dr. Wong, but Rick and Beth ignore them.
At Morty 's insistence, Rick agrees to join the Vindicators, a group of intergalactic superheroes, to fight their arch - nemesis, Worldender. Rick can not hide his disdain for the superheroes, while Morty is thrilled. The next morning, the Vindicators enter Worldender 's base, only to find that, the previous night, Rick had killed him and set up a variety of puzzles that the Vindicators must solve to survive while he was blackout drunk. They start arguing and kill one another, while Morty solves all the puzzles, as he knows what Rick had in mind when he put them up. After all puzzles are solved, the only ones left alive are Rick, Morty and Supernova, a member of the Vindicators. Supernova tries to kill Rick and Morty, but before she can do so, the three of them are transported to a party that Rick also set up while blackout drunk, where she gets away.
To bolster Jerry 's self - esteem, Rick takes him on an adventure at Morty 's request. They visit an otherworldly resort within an immortality field so Jerry wo n't be harmed while away. Jerry encounters Risotto Groupon, an alien who blames Rick for his kingdom being usurped. Risotto enlists Jerry in a plot to kill Rick, but Jerry backs out after Rick apologizes for ruining his marriage. Meanwhile, Summer deals with self - esteem issues as well. Her boyfriend, Ethan, leaves her for a larger - breasted girlfriend, and Summer attempts to enlarge her own breasts using one of Rick 's devices. Her aim is off, and she grows to freakish proportions. Morty wants to call Rick for assistance, but Beth refuses. Arrogantly trying to prove her own self - worth, Beth repeatedly fails to fix the problem and is tricked into releasing three tiny technical support workers that were trapped inside the machine. Once Morty figures out how the machine works, he restores Summer 's size and spitefully uses it to deform Ethan in an act of vengeance.
After a six - day outer space adventure that leaves them on the verge of psychological collapse, Rick and Morty decide to spend some time at an alien spa. There, they use a machine that extracts a person 's negative personality traits. However, without Rick and Morty knowing, those traits are transposed into toxic physical counterparts, characterized by Rick 's arrogance and Morty 's self - loathing. On the other hand, the true Rick becomes more considerate, and Morty 's confidence soars, which allows him to start dating girls. Toxic Rick uses a moonlight tower to remake the whole Earth in his own image, but the true Rick reverts the situation by merging back with him. Morty avoids merging back with his toxic counterpart and goes on to live a life as a stockbroker in New York City. Rick tracks him down with the help of Jessica, Morty 's classmate, and restores order by re-injecting the negative personality traits into him.
As Rick and Morty adventure to Atlantis, the episode shifts focus towards the Citadel, a secret society populated by numerous versions of Ricks and Mortys. There, a group of Mortys journey to a portal to have their wishes granted, a rookie cop Rick starts working with an experienced Morty cop to take down drug dealers and a worker Rick revolts at a wafer factory, where the key ingredient is extracted from a Rick hooked up to a machine to re-experience his best memories. Meanwhile, an election is held for the new president of the Citadel. Despite being the underdog, the Morty Party candidate manages to secure the presidency. When his campaign manager receives information that the new president is in fact Evil Morty from the first - season episode "Close Rick - counters of the Rick Kind '', he attempts to assassinate him but he fails. Evil Morty orders the execution of a shadow council of Ricks and anybody else he considers a potential threat to his rule.
After Morty requests to have a traumatic memory deleted, Rick reveals a room where he has been storing a number of memories he has removed from Morty 's mind. However, as it turns out, besides the memories that Morty did n't want to keep from their adventures, the room also contains memories in which Rick was made to look foolish, so he had them forcibly removed from Morty. This revelation prompts a fight, during which Rick and Morty have their memories accidentally erased. Morty scours the memories to replace the ones he lost, but he is displeased with the truth he finds, and convinces Rick to both kill themselves. Summer enters the room moments before they commit suicide. At this point, it is revealed that Rick has a contingency plan should this happen. Summer, following written instructions, tranquilizes Rick and Morty, restores their memories and drags them to the living room. Rick and Morty wake up on the couch, believing that they slept through an entire "Interdimensional Cable '' episode.
Rick and Beth enter Froopyland, a fantasy world created by Rick for young Beth. Their goal is to recover Tommy, Beth 's childhood friend who 's been trapped in Froopyland, and prevent the execution of his father, who is being falsely accused of eating him. Tommy, who has survived all these years by resorting to bestiality, incest and cannibalism, refuses to return to the real world. Rick and Beth manage to save his father 's life by creating a clone of Tommy. Back at home, Beth is presented with the option of having a replacement clone of her created, so that she will be free to travel the world. Meanwhile, Jerry dates an alien hunter named Kiara, to Morty and Summer 's dismay. When he decides to get out of the relationship, Kiara is enraged and tries to kill the kids, whom she holds responsible. The situation is resolved following the revelation that Kiara was using Jerry to get over her previous boyfriend, much like Jerry was doing with her.
The President calls on Rick and Morty to defeat a monster in the tunnels underneath the White House, which they do with little effort. Annoyed that he constantly calls on them without any gratitude, they go back home, with the President quickly finding out. The resulting argument leads to a battle of egos that culminates in a fight in the White House between Rick and the President 's security. Meanwhile, fearing she might be a clone made by Rick, Beth reunites with Jerry to figure out the truth. Shortly after, the entire family gets together to hide from Rick, but he tracks them down. Rick eventually submits to Jerry once again being a family - member. Rick ends his conflict with the President by pretending to be Fly Fishing Rick, a Rick from a different reality, and calling a truce. The episode ends with the family happy to be together again, except for Rick who is disappointed by this outcome.
On August 12, 2015, shortly after a successful second - season premiere, Adult Swim renewed the series for a third season. Female writers were added to the staff for the first time, creating a gender - balanced writing room that consisted of four women and four men, counting out the co-creators of the show, Justin Roiland and Dan Harmon. Writing began on November 2, 2015, and the first episode was recorded on February 18, 2016.
In July 2016, already behind on schedule, the production team admitted that the success of the series has increased pressure to meet the expectations of the viewers. Creative freedom provided by Adult Swim entails taking responsibility for product quality. As the bar rises higher, work becomes harder, improvements are constantly being sought, and this often results in delays. Writing was finally completed in November 2016. On February 5, 2017, Dan Harmon, answering questions regarding the delayed release, announced on his podcast, Harmontown, that the show was in the animation process, after a long period of writing. On June 24, 2017, when production of the season had been completed, Harmon wrote a series of posts on Twitter, explaining that the writing process took that long to complete because of his perfectionism. As a result, the third season of the show consisted of only ten episodes instead of fourteen, as was initially intended.
The season currently holds a 97 % approval rating from review aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes based on 13 reviews, with an average rating of 8.77 out of 10 and an audience score average of 4.7 out of 5. Jesse Schedeen of IGN described the third season of the show as darker and more unpredictable than the first two, and praised its high - concept storytelling and character development. Schedeen gave the season an 8.8 out of 10 rating, saying that it "did n't quite reach the heights of Season 2, but it is the series ' most consistently entertaining and ambitious season yet. '' Julia Alexander of Polygon highlighted the philosophical conflict between nihilist realism and life in ignorant bliss as the season 's main theme, and noted that "after an introspective season built on the importance of self - realization and reflection, Rick and Morty 's third year ended on a total reset '', with Beth and the kids seeking comfort through escapism and ignoring the realities of their lives. Kayla Cobb of Decider focused on the dynamism displayed by Beth and Summer, as the characters broke the stereotypical conventions of the first two seasons. Cobb stated that "Season 3 is the first time Rick and Morty really handed over the reigns to its leading ladies, and it was a horrifying delight. ''
The McDonald 's Szechuan sauce reference in the season premiere brought huge online attention for the discontinued promotional product. Internet memes spread rapidly on Reddit and Twitter, more than 40,000 people signed a petition at Change.org, asking for the return of the sauce, while an eBay auction resulted in a 20 - year - old packet of this teriyaki sauce being sold for $14,700. On October 7, 2017, McDonald 's served limited quantities of Szechuan sauce, with the company calling it "the year 's most talked - about dipping sauce. ''
Following the conclusion of the show 's third season, Adult Swim has made a livestream marathon of Rick and Morty available to watch on its official website in select regions, hoping to dissuade viewers from watching other illegal livestreams. Uncensored versions of the season are also available to purchase on various digital platforms, including iTunes, Amazon and Microsoft Store. The digital release also includes commentary on every episode, as well as seven more short videos featuring co-creators Dan Harmon and Justin Roiland. The season is also available to watch on Netflix, in a number of countries outside the United States, including the United Kingdom.
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who was in charge of japan in 1945 | 1945 in Japan - wikipedia
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Events in the year 1945 in Japan.
1945 was the last year of World War II and the first year of the Allied occupation.
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early defibrillation is the third link in the chain of survival true or false | Chain of survival - wikipedia
The chain of survival refers to a series of actions that, properly executed, reduce the mortality associated with cardiac arrest. Like any chain, the chain of survival is only as strong as its weakest link. The four interdependent links in the chain of survival are early access, early CPR, early defibrillation, and early advanced cardiac life support
The "chain of survival '' metaphor was first published in the March 1981 newsletter of CPR for Citizens in Orlando, Florida. It was further developed by Mary M. Newman of the Sudden Cardiac Arrest Foundation, and used as a slogan for the 1988 Conference on Citizen CPR, and described in an article she wrote for the Journal of Emergency Medical Services in 1989, and in an editorial she wrote for the first issue of Currents in Emergency Cardiac Care in 1990. The American Heart Association adopted the concept and elaborated on it in its 1992 guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiac care, The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR) echoed the concept in 1997.
Ideally, someone must recognize an impending cardiac arrest or otherwise witness the cardiac arrest and activate the EMS system as early as possible with an immediate call to the emergency services. Unfortunately, many persons experiencing symptoms (for example, angina) that may lead to a cardiac arrest ignore these warning symptoms or, recognizing these warning symptoms correctly, fail to activate the EMS system, preferring to contact relatives instead (the elderly often contact their adult offspring rather than contact emergency services).
To be most effective, bystanders should provide CPR immediately after a patient collapses. Properly performed CPR can keep the heart in a shockable ventricular fibrillation for 10 -- 12 minutes longer.
Most adults who can be saved from cardiac arrest are in ventricular fibrillation or pulseless ventricular tachycardia. Early defibrillation is the link in the chain most likely to improve survival. Public access defibillation may be the key to improving survival rates in out - of - hospital cardiac arrest, but is of the greatest value when the other links in the chain do not fail.
Early advanced cardiac life support by paramedics is another critical link in the chain of survival. In communities with survival rates > 20 %, a minimum of two of the rescuers are trained to the advanced level. In some countries, EMS delivery may be performed by ambulance officers, paramedics, nurses, or doctors.
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the first time ever i saw your face meaning | The First time Ever I Saw Your Face - wikipedia
"The First Time Ever I Saw Your Face '' is a 1957 folk song written by British political singer / songwriter Ewan MacColl for Peggy Seeger, who later became his wife, to sing. At the time, the couple were lovers, although MacColl was married to someone else. Seeger sang the song when the duo performed in folk clubs around Britain. During the 1960s, it was recorded by various folk singers and became a major international hit for Roberta Flack in 1972, winning Grammy Awards for Record of the Year and Song of the Year. Billboard ranked it as the no. 1 Hot 100 single of the year for 1972.
There are two differing accounts of the origin of the song. MacColl said that he wrote the song for Seeger after she asked him to pen a song for a play she was in. He wrote the song and taught it to Seeger over the telephone. Seeger said that MacColl, with whom she had begun an affair in 1957, used to send her tapes to listen to whilst they were apart and that the song was on one of them.
The song entered the pop mainstream when it was released by the Kingston Trio on their 1962 hit album New Frontier and in subsequent years by other pop folk groups such as Peter, Paul and Mary, The Brothers Four, and the Chad Mitchell Trio, and by Gordon Lightfoot on his 1966 debut album Lightfoot!
MacColl made no secret of the fact that he disliked all of the cover versions of the song. His daughter - in - law wrote: "He hated all of them. He had a special section in his record collection for them, entitled ' The Chamber of Horrors '. He said that the Elvis version was like Romeo at the bottom of the Post Office Tower singing up to Juliet. And the other versions, he thought, were travesties: bludgeoning, histrionic, and lacking in grace. ''
The song was popularised by Roberta Flack in 1972 in a version that became a breakout hit for the singer. The song first appeared on Flack 's 1969 album First Take. Her rendition was much slower than the original, as an early solo recording by Seeger ran two and a half minutes long whereas Flack 's is more than twice that length.
Flack 's slower and more sensual version was used by Clint Eastwood in his 1971 directorial film debut, Play Misty for Me, during a lovemaking scene. With the new exposure, Atlantic Records cut the song down to four minutes and released it to radio. It became a very successful single in the United States where it reached No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 and easy listening charts in April 1972 for six week runs on each list. It reached # 14 on the UK Singles Chart. In Canada, it was No. 1 for three weeks in the RPM magazine charts.
In 2014, two films featured the song: Flack 's version was heard twice in the superhero film X-Men: Days of Future Past, set largely in 1973, while a "cover '' of it was performed by one of the protagonists in The Inbetweeners 2 for comic effect.
In 2015, Flack 's version was used as the outro in episode 88 of the television series Mad Men.
In 2016, Flack 's version was featured in the finale episode of the HBO series The Night Of.
In 2016, Flack 's version was played in the background of Episode 3, in the FX Cable TV Miniseries The People v. O.J. Simpson: American Crime Story.
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classical pluralist and neo-pluralist perspectives of the state | Pluralism (political theory) - wikipedia
Classical pluralism is the view that politics and decision making are located mostly in the framework of government, but that many non-governmental groups use their resources to exert influence. The central question for classical pluralism is how power and influence are distributed in a political process. Groups of individuals try to maximize their interests. Lines of conflict are multiple and shifting as power is a continuous bargaining process between competing groups. There may be inequalities but they tend to be distributed and evened out by the various forms and distributions of resources throughout a population. Any change under this view will be slow and incremental, as groups have different interests and may act as "veto groups '' to destroy legislation. The existence of diverse and competing interests is the basis for a democratic equilibrium, and is crucial for the obtaining of goals by individuals. A polyarchy -- a situation of open competition for electoral support within a significant part of the adult population -- ensures competition of group interests and relative equality. Pluralists stress civil rights, such as freedom of expression and organization, and an electoral system with at least two parties. On the other hand, since the participants in this process constitute only a tiny fraction of the populace, the public acts mainly as bystanders. This is not necessarily undesirable for two reasons: (1) it may be representative of a population content with the political happenings, or (2) political issues require continuous and expert attention, which the average citizen may not have.
Important theorists of pluralism include Robert A. Dahl (who wrote the seminal pluralist work, Who Governs?), David Truman, and Seymour Martin Lipset.
The list of possible sources of power is virtually endless: legal authority, money, prestige, skill, knowledge, charisma, legitimacy, free time, and experience. Pluralists also stress the differences between potential and actual power as it stands. Actual power means the ability to compel someone to do something and is the view of power as a causation. Dahl describes power as a "realistic relationship, such as A 's capacity for acting in such a manner as to control B 's responses '' (A Preface to Democratic Theory). Potential power refers to the possibility of turning resources into actual power. Cash, one of many resources, is only a stack of bills until it is put to work. Malcolm X, for example, was certainly not a rich person growing up, but received money from many groups after his prison term and used other resources such as his forceful personality and organizational skills. He had a greater impact on American politics than most wealthy people. A particular resource like money can not automatically be equated with power because the resource can be used skillfully or clumsily, fully or partially, or not at all.
The pluralist approach to the study of power, states that nothing categorical about power can be assumed in any community. The question then is not who runs a community, but if any group in fact does. To determine this, pluralists study specific outcomes. The reason for this is that they believe human behavior is governed in large part by inertia. That said, actual involvement in overt activity is a more valid marker of leadership than simply a reputation. Pluralists also believe that there is no one particular issue or point in time at which any group must assert itself to stay true to its own expressed values, but rather that there are a variety of issues and points at which this is possible. There are also costs involved in taking action at all -- not only losing, but expenditure of time and effort. While a structuralist may argue that power distributions have a rather permanent nature, this rationale says that power may in fact be tied to issues, which vary widely in duration. Also, instead of focusing on actors within a system, the emphasis is on the leadership roles itself. By studying these, it can be determined to what extent there is a power structure present in a society.
Three of the major tenets of the pluralist school are (1) resources and hence potential power are widely scattered throughout society; (2) at least some resources are available to nearly everyone; and (3) at any time the amount of potential power exceeds the amount of actual power.
Finally, and perhaps most important, no one is all - powerful unless proven so through empirical observation. An individual or group that is influential in one realm may be weak in another. Large military contractors certainly throw their weight around on defense matters, but how much sway do they have on agricultural or health policies? A measure of power, therefore, is its scope, or the range of areas where it is successfully applied as observed by a researcher. Pluralists believe that with few exceptions power holders usually have a relatively limited scope of influence. Pluralism does leave room for an elitist situation - Should a group A continuously exert power over multiple groups. For a pluralist to accept this notion, it must be empirically observed and not assumed so by definition.
For all these reasons power can not be taken for granted. One has to observe it empirically in order to know who really governs. The best way to do this, pluralists believe, is to examine a wide range of specific decisions, noting who took which side and who ultimately won and lost. Only by keeping score on a variety of controversies can one begin to identify actual power holders. Pluralism was associated with behavioralism.
A contradiction to pluralist power is often cited from the origin of one 's power. Although certain groups may share power, people within those groups set agendas, decide issues, and take on leadership roles through their own qualities. Some theorists argue that these qualities can not be transferred, thus creating a system where elitism still exists. What this theory fails to take into account is the prospect of overcoming these qualities by garnering support from other groups. By aggregating power with other organizations, interest groups can over-power these non-transferable qualities. In this sense, political pluralism still applies to these aspects.
Elite pluralists agree with classical pluralists that there is "plurality '' of power; however, this plurality is not "pure '' as some people and groups have more power than others. For example, some people have more money than others, so they can pay to have their opinion put across better (i.e. more advertising) than the working class can. This inequality is because society has "elites ''; people who have more power, perhaps through money, inheritance or social tradition than others.
Basically, it claims that elites play a big role in decision making. The idea behind reads as follow: in democracies the people participate in electing the elites who will represent them and, at the end, the ones who are going to make the laws. As Davita S. Glasberg and Deric Shannon highlights, "political elites are not a monoholitic, unified interest group representing their own narrow group of interests but rather are diverse, competitive elites representing a wide range of interests ''. They have to compete in "the political market place '' in order to gain voters being the power equally distributed between all the potential voters. Moreover, the stability in the system is achieved through this competition among the elites, as they have to negotiate in order to pass a bill. And, sometimes, they have to change their positions and points of view in order to reach a common point. Elites respect and follow the policy - making procedures because they are accountable of their acts and they can be replaced through legal procedures of through new elections.
While Pluralism as a political theory of the state and policy formation gained its most traction during the 1950s and 1960s in America, some scholars argued that the theory was too simplistic (see Connolly (1969) The Challenge to Pluralist Theory) -- leading to the formulation of neo-pluralism. Views differed about the division of power in democratic society. Although neo-pluralism sees multiple pressure groups competing over political influence, the political agenda is biased towards corporate power. Neo-pluralism no longer sees the state as an umpire mediating and adjudicating between the demands of different interest groups, but as a relatively autonomous actor (with different departments) that forges and looks after its own (sectional) interests. Constitutional rules, which in pluralism are embedded in a supportive political culture, should be seen in the context of a diverse, and not necessarily supportive, political culture and a system of radically uneven economic sources. This diverse culture exists because of an uneven distribution of socioeconomic power. This creates possibilities for some groups -- while limiting others -- in their political options. In the international realm, order is distorted by powerful multinational interests and dominant states, while in classical pluralism emphasis is put on stability by a framework of pluralist rules and free market society.
There are two significant theoretical critiques on pluralism: Corporatism and Neo-Marxism.
Charles E. Lindblom, who is seen as positing a strong neo-pluralist argument, still attributed primacy to the competition between interest groups in the policy process but recognized the disproportionate influence business interests have in the policy process.
Classical pluralism was criticized as it did not seem to apply to Westminster - style democracies or the European context. This led to the development of corporatist theories. Corporatism is the idea that a few select interest groups are actually (often formally) involved in the policy formulation process, to the exclusion of the myriad other ' interest groups '. For example, trade unions and major sectoral business associations are often consulted about (if not the drivers of) specific policies.
These policies often concern tripartite relations between workers, employers and the state, with a coordinating role for the latter. The state constructs a framework in which it can address the political and economic issues with these organized and centralized groups. In this view, parliament and party politics lose influence in the policy forming process.
From the political aspect, ' pluralism ' has a huge effect on the process and decision - making in formulating policy. In international security, during the policy making process, different parties may have a chance to take part in decision making. The one who has more power, the more opportunity that it gains and the higher possibility to get what it wants. According to M. Frances (1991), "decision making appears to be a maze of influence and power. ''
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an important difference between cpi and the gdp deflator is | GDP deflator - wikipedia
In economics, the GDP deflator (implicit price deflator) is a measure of the level of prices of all new, domestically produced, final goods and services in an economy. GDP stands for gross domestic product, the total value of all final goods and services produced within that economy during a specified period.
Like the consumer price index (CPI), the GDP deflator is a measure of price inflation / deflation with respect to a specific base year; the GDP deflator of the base year itself is equal to 100. Unlike the CPI, the GDP deflator is not based on a fixed basket of goods and services; the "basket '' for the GDP deflator is allowed to change from year to year with people 's consumption and investment patterns.
In most systems of national accounts the GDP deflator measures the ratio of nominal (or current - price) GDP to the real (or chain volume) measure of GDP. The formula used to calculate the deflator is:
The nominal GDP of a given year is computed using that year 's prices, while the real GDP of that year is computed using the base year 's prices.
The formula implies that dividing the nominal GDP by the GDP deflator and multiplying it by 100 will give the real GDP, hence "deflating '' the nominal GDP into a real measure.
It is often useful to consider implicit price deflators for certain subcategories of GDP, such as computer hardware. In this case, it is useful to think of the price deflator as the ratio of the current - year price of a good to its price in some base year. The price in the base year is normalized to 100. For example, for computer hardware, we could define a "unit '' to be a computer with a specific level of processing power, memory, hard drive space and so on. A price deflator of 200 means that the current - year price of this computing power is twice its base - year price - price inflation. A price deflator of 50 means that the current - year price is half the base year price - price deflation. This can lead to a situation where official statistics reflect a drop in prices, even though they have stayed the same.
Unlike some price indices (like the CPI), the GDP deflator is not based on a fixed basket of goods and services. The basket is allowed to change with people 's consumption and investment patterns. Specifically, for the GDP deflator, the "basket '' in each year is the set of all goods that were produced domestically, weighted by the market value of the total consumption of each good. Therefore, new expenditure patterns are allowed to show up in the deflator as people respond to changing prices. The theory behind this approach is that the GDP deflator reflects up to date expenditure patterns. For instance, if the price of chicken increases relative to the price of beef, it is claimed that people will likely spend more money on beef as a substitute for chicken.
In practice, the difference between the deflator and a price index like the Consumer price index (CPI) is often relatively small. On the other hand, with governments in developed countries increasingly utilizing price indexes for everything from fiscal and monetary planning to payments to social program recipients, even small differences between inflation measures can shift budget revenues and expenses by millions or billions of dollars.
The State Bank of Pakistan reports the GDP Deflator and the real GDP of Pakistan.
GDP Deflator in India is reported by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (India).
The GDP and GDP deflator are calculated by the US Bureau of Economic Analysis.
The GDP and GDP deflator series are published by the Office for National Statistics.
The GDP and GDP deflator series are published by Statistics Canada.
The GDP and GDP deflator are calculated by the Australian Bureau of Statistics.
The GDP and GDP deflator are calculated by the INDEC.
The GDP and GDP deflator are calculated by the Cabinet Office (Japan).
The GDP and GDP deflator series are published by the Census and Statistics Department (Hong Kong).
The GDP and GDP deflator series are published by the Central Bureau of Statistics.
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when does decendents 2 come out in uk | Descendants 2 - wikipedia
Descendants 2 is a Disney Channel Original Movie that premiered on July 21, 2017 on Disney Channel, and was simulcast on Disney - owned networks ABC, Disney XD, Freeform, Lifetime and Lifetime Movies. It is the sequel to the 2015 film Descendants. The film stars Dove Cameron, Cameron Boyce, Sofia Carson, Booboo Stewart, Mitchell Hope and China Anne McClain.
Mal struggles with her new celebrity life as the girlfriend of King Ben, dying her hair blonde, and maintaining a princess - like personality that she is uncomfortable with. She admits her issues to her friends Evie, Carlos, and Jay, but they are content with their new lives in Auradon and do not wish to return to the Isle of the Lost. Evie scolds Mal for relying on her mother 's spell book to solve her issues. Carlos, wishing to ask Jane to the upcoming Cotillion dance, turns to Mal for help to be honest with her. Mal gives him a sweet that will make him speak the truth, but his dog Dude eats it, magically speaking the truth in English and very frankly as a result.
Ben eventually discovers Mal 's reliance on magic, and she comes clean about her insecurities, causing the two to have a falling out. Mal returns to the Isle, now ruled by her former friend Uma, Ursula 's daughter, along with Harry and Gil, the sons of Captain Hook and Gaston. Mal visits hair stylist Dizzy Tremaine, Drizella 's daughter, who restores her signature purple hair, saying she felt that Mal 's blonde hair was unnatural. Harry discovers Mal has returned and informs Uma.
Ben, Evie, Jay, and Carlos learn of Mal 's departure and sneak onto the island to find her, but Gil recognizes them. Ben confronts Mal, who rejects his feelings for what she thought was both his sake and Auradon 's. Ben leaves dejected, only to be captured by Uma, who orders Mal and her friends to retrieve the Fairy Godmother 's wand or Ben dies. Carlos and Jay return to Auradon Prep, where they create a replica of the wand using a 3D printer. They are caught by Lonnie, Mulan 's daughter, who blackmails them into letting her come with them, having previously been rejected from Jay 's sports team based on her gender.
Uma speaks with Ben, bitter that she and the others were not chosen to go to Auradon. Ben takes this into account and invites her to Auradon, but Uma instead plots to make her own way there. Mal 's group return, handing over the fake wand in exchange for Ben, but Uma realizes it is a forgery. The group flee back to Auradon, but Mal and Ben 's relationship is still on the rocks. The villains ' children come to terms that they can not run from their pasts and agree to be honest with themselves and each other. Carlos confesses to Jane but struggles a little bit, while Jay appoints Lonnie as the captain of his team.
Aboard a ship during the Cotillion, Ben stuns everyone by appearing with Uma, who he declares as his true love and announces he will destroy the barrier on the Isle. Jane unveils a stain glass display Ben commissioned to show his affection for Mal, who realizes he loved her for who she was all along. Suspecting Uma has given him a love potion, Mal confesses her love for Ben and kisses him, breaking the spell. Feeling infuriated, Uma leaps into the water, using Ursula 's magic seashell to transform into an octopus, Mal fighting back by transforming into a dragon. Ben intervenes, quelling the battle, and Uma returns the ring, that Ben had originally given her, when he had declared her as his true love, and swims away despite his offer still standing.
Mal and Ben reunite, Mal surrendering her spell book over to the Fairy Godmother. Mal and Evie request that Dizzy be allowed to attend Auradon Prep. When she is given the offer, Dizzy accepts it immediately. In a post-credit scene, Uma addresses the audience, promising that the story is not over.
At the 2015 D23 Expo, Disney announced that a Descendants sequel film had been ordered. An official announcement was made on Disney Channel 's Facebook page on October 15, 2015. Deadline Hollywood reported that Parriott and McGibbon would return as screenwriters and executive producers for the sequel and that the cast from the first film was expected to return.
On June 10, 2016, China Anne McClain, who was already voicing Freddie on the Descendants spinoff series Descendants: Wicked World, was announced to be playing Ursula 's daughter, Uma, in Descendants 2. In July 2016 it was revealed that Thomas Doherty would play the role of Harry, the son of Captain Hook. In August 2016, Sarah Jeffery who portrays Audrey revealed that she would not be returning, while Brenna D'Amico revealed that she would be returning in Descendants 2, as were as Dianne Doan, Jedidiah Goodacre, and Zachary Gibson. On July 19, 2017, it was announced on The View that Whoopi Goldberg would be providing the voice for Ursula, the Sea Witch and Uma 's mother.
Descendants 2 made its debut on Disney Channel in Canada on July 21, 2017, at the same time as the United States. In the United States, the film premiered simultaneously across six - Disney owned networks: Disney Channel, Disney XD, Freeform, ABC, Lifetime, and Lifetime Movies. On Disney Channel, the film premiere alongside the world premiere of Raven 's Home, which premiered immediately after.
In total, the film was viewed by 8.92 million viewers across six networks on the night of its premiere, up from its predecessor in 2015; at least 13 million people watched a minute of the film. On Disney Channel, the film was watched by 5.33 million viewers, and topped the night on cable television, receiving a 1.20 rating. Although down from the first film, it was the most - viewed telecast on the network since the first film. ABC 's broadcast of the film received a 0.6 / 3 rating / share, drawing 2.41 million viewers; 0.47 million viewers watched the film on Disney XD with a 0.12 rating, 0.30 million viewers watched the film on Lifetime with a 0.09 rating, 0.26 million viewers watched the film on Freeform with a 0.08 rating, and 0.15 million viewers watched the film on Lifetime Movies with a 0.05 rating. In delayed viewing, the film rose to a total of 21 million viewers.
On Disney Channel, the film placed second in the week of its DVR ratings, jumping 92 % to a 2.3 rating, and topped the week in viewer gains, jumping 104 % with an additional 5.54 million viewers, the biggest viewer gain on cable television in two years, totaling to 10.90 million viewers on Disney Channel. On Freeform, the film jumped 207 % with an additional 0.54 million viewers, totaling to 0.80 million viewers on the network; on Lifetime Movie Network, the film gained 96 % with an additional 0.14 million viewers, totaling to 0.29 million viewers on the network.
Descendants 2 (Original TV Movie Soundtrack) is the soundtrack accompanying the film of the same name. The soundtrack and lead single, "Ways to Be Wicked '', was announced on April 12, 2017. The soundtrack was released on July 21, 2017.
The soundtrack debuted at number six on the U.S. Billboard 200 after earning 46,000 album - equivalent units, 35,000 of which were pure sales; sales for the soundtrack 's debuting week were up from the previous film. It dropped to number nine on the chart for its second week, earning an additional 27,000 units.
"Ways to Be Wicked '', performed by Dove Cameron, Sofia Carson, Cameron Boyce and Booboo Stewart, premiered on Radio Disney and then was officially released as first single on April 14 along with the pre-order of the soundtrack. It debuted at number 1 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles. The song is produced by Sam Hollander and Josh Edmondson who wrote the song with Grant Michaels and Charity Daw. "What 's My Name '', performed by China Anne McClain, Thomas Doherty and Dylan Playfair, premiered on Radio Disney and then was officially released as second single on June 2, 2017.
"Rather Be With You '', from "Descendants: Wicked World '', performed by Dove Cameron, Sofia Carson, Lauryn McClain and Brenna D'Amico, was released as first promotional single on October 28, 2016. "Evil '', from Wicked World, performed by Dove Cameron, was released on December 9, 2016 as second promotional single. "Better Together '', from Wicked World, performed by Dove Cameron and Sofia Carson, was released as third and final promotional single on March 3, 2017.
"Chillin ' Like a Villain '', performed by Sofia Carson, Cameron Boyce, Booboo Stewart and Mitchell Hope, peaked at number 95 on the US Billboard Hot 100. "It 's Goin ' Down '', performed by Dove Cameron, Sofia Carson, Cameron Boyce, Booboo Stewart, China Anne McClain, Mitchell Hope, Thomas Doherty and Dylan Playfair, peaked at number 77 on the Hot 100. "You and Me '', performed by Dove Cameron, Sofia Carson, Cameron Boyce, Booboo Stewart, Mitchell Hope and Jeff Lewis, debuted at number 20 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles.
A prequel novel called Rise of the Isle of the Lost was released on May 23, 2017. The novel details Uma 's rise to power and her earlier history with Mal. The main plot details Uma planning to get the migrating trident of King Triton in order to help bring down the barrier surrounding the Isle of the Lost.
In addition to the mentioning of Genie, Grumpy, and Merriwether being teachers at Auradon Prep, a third school called the Serpent Preparatory School for the Education of Miscreants is located on the Isle of the Lost which Uma, Harry Hook, and Gil attended. Serpent Prep is a rival of Dragon Hall.
The book also introduced Yen Sid 's Auradon intern Sophie, Ariel 's niece Arrabelle, and Mulan and Shang 's son Li'l Shang who is Lonnie 's brother. There was a mentioning that the Stabbington Brothers from Tangled are also on the Isle of the Lost where they have Stabbington Cousins. Other information listed here that was later referenced in the film was Audrey and Chad breaking up, the introduction of R.O.A.R., Mal keeping Maleficent 's lizard form as a pet, and Evie having her magic mirror placed in the museum.
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where is the hound from in game of thrones | Sandor Clegane - wikipedia
Sandor Clegane, nicknamed The Hound, is a fictional character in the A Song of Ice and Fire series of fantasy novels by American author George R.R. Martin, and its television adaptation Game of Thrones.
Introduced in 1996 's A Game of Thrones, Sandor is the younger brother of Ser Gregor Clegane, from the fictional Seven Kingdoms of Westeros. He subsequently appeared in Martin 's A Clash of Kings (1998), A Storm of Swords (2000) and A Feast for Crows (2005).
Sandor Clegane is portrayed by Rory McCann in the HBO television adaptation.
Sandor Clegane, known as the Hound, is a retainer to House Lannister and the younger brother of Gregor Clegane, a.k.a. The Mountain. He is regarded as one of the most dangerous and skilled fighters in Westeros. His face is distinguished by gruesome burn scars, which he received as a child when his brother pushed his head into a brazier. Consequently, he fears fire and hates his brother. He is also scornful of knight 's vows, as his brother is a knight, who indulges in rape and murder in spite of his knightly vows. He is described as a tormented man driven by anger and hate, aspiring only to kill his brother.
Sandor Clegane is not a point of view character in the novels, so his actions are witnessed and interpreted through the eyes of other people, such as Ned Stark, Sansa Stark, and Arya Stark. Sandor is mostly a background character in the novels.
Sandor Clegane is played by the Scottish actor Rory McCann in the television adaptation of the series of books. McCann has received acclaim for his role.
In A Game of Thrones, he acts as bodyguard and servant to Prince Joffrey Baratheon, who calls him Dog.
He is named a knight of Joffrey 's Kingsguard in A Clash of Kings and is often assigned to guard Sansa, trying to protect her from Joffrey 's abuse. He flees King 's Landing during the Battle of the Blackwater, due to the widespread use of wildfire, a fictional substance similar to Greek fire.
In A Storm of Swords, he is captured by the Brotherhood Without Banners which sentences him to trial by combat. Sandor prevails and is set free. He later kidnaps Arya to ransom her to her brother Robb Stark and hopes to earn a place in Robb 's service. He takes her to the Twins, where Robb is attending a wedding. However, just as they arrive, the Freys begin slaughtering the Starks. Sandor and Arya escape. They encounter three of Gregor 's men at an inn, and Sandor is seriously injured in the ensuing fight. Arya abandons him to his apparent death.
He is mentioned a few times in A Feast for Crows (2005), where the Elder Brother mentions to Brienne of Tarth that he found Sandor, who is now "at rest ''. However, the appearance of a mute gravedigger who matches Sandor physically and the Elder Brother 's refusal to confirm if Sandor is dead imply that he may still be alive.
Clegane accompanies the royal court on Robert Baratheon 's visit to Winterfell. On the way back to King 's Landing, Joffrey falsely accuses a butcher 's boy, Mycah, of threatening him, and Clegane kills the boy, attracting the hatred of Mycah 's friend Arya Stark. During the Tourney of the Hand, Sandor 's sadistic elder brother Gregor tries to kill Ser Loras Tyrell after he is unhorsed, but Sandor defends Loras from Gregor until Robert orders the men to stop fighting. When Ned Stark accuses Joffrey of being a bastard born of incest and orders his arrest, Clegane assists the Lannister soldiers in the subsequent purge of the Stark household and Sansa Stark 's capture, though he later comforts Sansa when Joffrey orders her beaten. With Joffrey 's ascension to the throne, Clegane is named to the Kingsguard to replace the ousted Ser Barristan Selmy, though Clegane refuses to take his knight 's vows.
Sandor continues to defend Sansa, including by covering her after Joffrey orders her stripped and rescuing her from being gang - raped during the King 's Landing riots. He participates in the Battle of the Blackwater against Stannis ' Baratheon 's forces, but is visibly horrified when Tyrion Lannister uses wildfire to incinerate much of Stannis ' fleet, and ultimately deserts after witnessing a man burning alive in the battle. Before he leaves, he offers to take Sansa north to Winterfell, but she ultimately refuses.
In the Riverlands, Clegane is arrested by the Brotherhood Without Banners, a group of knights and soldiers sent by Eddard Stark to kill his brother Gregor and restore order to the Riverlands. While being transported to their stronghold, he meets other members of the Brotherhood who are traveling with Arya Stark, and tells them of her true identity. At the Brotherhood 's hideout, their leader Ser Beric Dondarrion accuses Clegane of being a murderer; though Clegane asserts that the murders were done in order to protect Joffrey, Arya testifies that he had killed Mycah despite the boy not harming Joffrey. Ser Beric sentences Clegane to a trial by combat, which Clegane wins to secure his freedom, although Ser Beric is immediately resurrected by the Red Priest Thoros of Myr. Clegane later captures Arya, intending to ransom her to King Robb Stark at the wedding of Edmure Tully and Roslin Frey at The Twins. However, as they arrive at the Twins the Freys turn on the Starks and attack them, and Clegane and Arya barely escape the massacre.
With the rest of House Stark believed dead and the Riverlands now under the rule of House Frey, Clegane decides to ransom Arya to her aunt Lysa Arryn in the Vale. During their journey, Arya reveals to Clegane that she has not forgiven him for killing Mycah and has vowed to kill him. The duo arrive in the Vale to find that Lysa has ostensibly committed suicide. Returning from the Bloody Gate, they encounter Brienne of Tarth, sworn sword to Arya 's mother Catelyn, who had promised to take the Stark children to safety. When Arya refuses to go with Brienne, she and Clegane engage in a brawl that culminates in her throwing Clegane off a cliff, gravely wounding him. Though he begs Arya to kill him, she instead leaves him to die.
It is revealed Clegane had been discovered by a warrior turned septon, Ray, who nursed him back to health. Clegane assists Ray and his followers in building a sept, but one day after a brief journey into nearby woods, he returns to the community to find the villagers slaughtered by members of the Brotherhood Without Banners. Clegane takes up arms again to hunt down those responsible, killing four of them before discovering the remaining three about to be hanged by Ser Beric Dondarrion and Thoros of Myr, who inform him that the group were acting independently of the Brotherhood. Beric allows Clegane to kill two of the outlaws, and asks him to join the Brotherhood in their journey north to fight the White Walkers.
During their journey north, the Brotherhood stops at a farm owned by a farmer that Clegane had previously robbed; inside, they find the bodies of the farmer and his daughter. Remorseful, Clegane digs them a grave with the help of Thoros. Thoros has Clegane look into the flames of Brotherhood 's campfire, and in it he sees the White Walkers and their forces marching towards the Wall.
The Brotherhood attempts to cross the Wall via Eastwatch - by - the - Sea, but are intercepted by wildling scouts manning the castle and locked in the ice cells. Soon after, Jon Snow, Davos Seaworth, Jorah Mormont, and Gendry arrive at Eastwatch, intending to capture a wight to present to Cersei (now Queen of the Seven Kingdoms) as evidence of the White Walkers. Clegane, Beric, and Thoros are released to accompany Jon, Jorah, Gendry and Tormund Giantsbane beyond the Wall. The group soon captures a wight but are surrounded by the White Walkers and their army of wights, though not before Gendry flees to Eastwatch to request Daenerys Targaryen 's aid. Daenerys arrives with her dragons before the group can be overrun, and flies them to safety. Clegane joins Jon, Daenerys and Davos as they sail to King 's Landing.
At King 's Landing, he meets Brienne of Tarth. Despite their previous brutal fight, they converse on civil terms. Sandor learns that Arya is alive and with her family, prompting a rare smile. During the summit in the Dragon Pit outside King 's Landing, Sandor confronts his brother, promising that Sandor will eventually kill him. Sandor brings out the trunk containing the wight, revealing to Cersei and Jaime Lannister the threat that lies beyond the wall.
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list of family offices in the united states | List of federal agencies in the United States - wikipedia
This is a list of agencies of the United States federal government.
Legislative definitions of a federal agency are varied, and even contradictory, and the official United States Government Manual offers no definition. While the Administrative Procedure Act definition of "agency '' applies to most executive branch agencies, Congress may define an agency however it chooses in enabling legislation, and subsequent litigation, often involving the Freedom of Information Act and the Government in the Sunshine Act. These further cloud attempts to enumerate a list of agencies.
The executive branch of the federal government includes the Executive Office of the President and the United States federal executive departments (whose secretaries belong to the Cabinet). Employees of the majority of these agencies are considered civil servants.
The majority of the independent agencies of the United States government are also classified as executive agencies (they are independent in that they are not subordinated under a Cabinet position). There are a small number of independent agencies that are not considered part of the executive branch, such as the Library of Congress and Congressional Budget Office, administered directly by Congress and thus are legislative branch agencies.
Agencies and other entities within the legislative branch:
Agencies within the judicial branch:
Bureaus
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when's the last time tottenham won a trophy | Tottenham Hotspur F.C. - Wikipedia
Tottenham Hotspur Football Club, commonly referred to simply as Tottenham (/ ˈtɒtənəm /) or Spurs, is a professional football club in Tottenham, London, England, that competes in the Premier League. The club 's home ground for the 2018 -- 19 season will be Tottenham Hotspur Stadium but the club will play their first few home games of the season at Wembley Stadium. Their former home of White Hart Lane had been demolished to make way for the new stadium on the same site. Their training ground is on Hotspur Way in Bulls Cross in the London Borough of Enfield.
Founded in 1882, Tottenham won the FA Cup for the first time in 1901, the only non-League club to do so since the formation of the Football League in 1888. Tottenham were the first club in the 20th century to achieve the League and FA Cup Double, winning both competitions in the 1960 -- 61 season. After successfully defending the FA Cup in 1962, in 1963 they became the first British club to win a UEFA club competition -- the European Cup Winners ' Cup. They were also the inaugural winners of the UEFA Cup in 1972, becoming the first British club to win two different major European trophies. They have collected at least one major trophy in each of the six decades from the 1950s to 2000s -- an achievement only matched by Manchester United. In total, Spurs have won two league titles, eight FA Cups, four League Cups, seven FA Community Shields, one European Cup Winners ' Cup and two UEFA Cups.
The club 's Latin motto is Audere est Facere ("To Dare Is to Do ''), and its emblem is a cockerel standing upon a football. The club has a long - standing rivalry with nearby club Arsenal, with head - to - head fixtures known as the North London derby.
Originally named Hotspur Football Club, the club was formed on 5 September 1882 by a group of schoolboys led by Robert Buckle. They were members of the Hotspur Cricket Club and the football club was formed to play sports during the winter months. A year later the boys sought help with the club from John Ripsher, the Bible class teacher at All Hallows Church, who became the first president of the club and its treasurer. Ripsher helped and supported the boys through the club 's formative years, reorganised and found premises for the club. In April 1884 the club was renamed "Tottenham Hotspur Football Club '' to avoid confusion with another club, London Hotspur, whose post had been mistakenly delivered to North London.
Initially, the boys played games between themselves and friendly matches against other local clubs. The first recorded match took place on 30 September 1882 against a local team named the Radicals, which Hotspur lost 2 -- 0. The team entered their first cup competition in the London Association Cup, and won 5 -- 2 in their first competitive match on 17 October 1885 against a company 's works team called St Albans. The club 's fixtures began to attract the interest of the local community and attendances at its home matches increased. In 1892, they played for the first time in a league, the short - lived Southern Alliance.
The club turned professional on 20 December 1895 and, in the summer of 1896, was admitted to Division One of the Southern League. On 2 March 1898, the club also became a limited company, the Tottenham Hotspur Football and Athletic Company. Soon after, Frank Brettell became the first ever manager of Spurs, and he signed John Cameron, who took over as player - manager when Brettell left a year later. Cameron would have a significant impact on Spurs, helping the club win its first trophy, the Southern League title. The following year, on 27 April 1901, Spurs won the FA Cup by beating Sheffield United 3 -- 1 (in a replay of the 1901 Cup final) and became the only non-League club to achieve the feat since the formation of The Football League in 1888.
In 1908, the club was elected into the Football League Second Division and won promotion to the First Division in their first season, and finished runners - up in their first year in the league. In 1912, Peter McWilliam became manager; Tottenham finished bottom of the league at the end of the 1914 -- 15 season when football was suspended due to the First World War. Spurs were relegated to the Second Division on the resumption of league football after the war, but quickly returned to the First Division as Second Division champions of the 1919 -- 20 season.
On 23 April 1921, McWilliam guided Spurs to their second FA Cup win, beating Wolverhampton Wanderers 1 -- 0 in the Cup Final. Spurs finished second to Liverpool in the league in 1922, but would finish mid-table in the next five seasons. Spurs were relegated in the 1927 -- 28 season after McWilliam left. For most of the 1930s and 40s, Spurs languished in the Second Division, apart from a brief return to the top flight in the 1933 -- 34 and 1934 -- 35 seasons.
Former Spurs player Arthur Rowe became manager in 1949. Rowe developed a style of play, known as "push and run '', that proved to be successful in his early years as manager. He took the team back to the First Division after finishing top of the Second Division in the 1949 -- 50 season. In his second season in charge, Tottenham won their first ever top tier league championship title when they finished top of the First Division for the 1950 -- 51 season. Rowe resigned in April 1955 due to a stress - induced illness from managing the club. Before he left, he signed one of Spurs ' most celebrated players, Danny Blanchflower, who would win the FWA Footballer of the Year twice while at Tottenham.
Bill Nicholson took over as manager in October 1958. He would become the club 's most successful manager, guiding the team to major trophy success three seasons in a row in the early 1960s: the Double in 1961, the FA Cup in 1962 and the Cup Winners ' Cup in 1963. Nicholson signed Dave Mackay and John White in 1959, two influential players of the Double - winning team, and Jimmy Greaves in 1961, the most prolific goal - scorer in the history of the top tier of English football.
The 1960 -- 61 season started with a run of 11 wins, followed by a draw and another four wins, at that time the best ever start by any club in the top flight of English football. The title was won on 17 April 1961 when they beat the eventual runner - up Sheffield Wednesday at home 2 -- 1, with three more games still to play. The Double was achieved when Spurs won 2 -- 0 against Leicester City in the final of the 1960 -- 61 FA Cup. It was the first Double of the 20th century, and the first since Aston Villa achieved the feat in 1897. The next year Spurs won their second consecutive FA Cup after beating Burnley in the 1962 FA Cup Final.
On 15 May 1963, Tottenham became the first British team to win a European trophy by winning the 1962 -- 63 European Cup Winners ' Cup when they beat Atlético Madrid 5 -- 1 in the final. Spurs also became the first British team to win two different European trophies when they won the 1971 -- 72 UEFA Cup with a rebuilt team that included Martin Chivers, Pat Jennings, and Steve Perryman. They had also won the FA Cup in 1967, and two League Cups (in 1971 and 1973). In total, Nicholson won eight major trophies in his 16 years at the club as manager.
Spurs went into a period of decline after the successes of the early 1970s, and Nicholson resigned after a poor start to the 1974 -- 75 season. The team was then relegated at the end of the 1976 -- 77 season with Keith Burkinshaw as manager. Burkinshaw quickly returned the club to the top flight, building a team that included Glenn Hoddle, as well as two Argentinians, Osvaldo Ardiles and Ricardo Villa, whose signings were particularly uncommon in the British game as foreign players in British football were rare at that time. The team that Burkinshaw rebuilt went on to win the FA Cup in 1981 and 1982 and the UEFA Cup in 1984.
The 1980s was a period of change that began with a new phase of redevelopment at White Hart Lane, as well as a change of directors. Irving Scholar took over the club and moved it in a more commercial direction, the beginning of the transformation of English football clubs into commercial enterprises. Debt at the club would again lead to a change in the boardroom, and Terry Venables teamed up with businessman Alan Sugar in June 1991 to take control of Tottenham Hotspur plc. Venables, who had become manager in 1987, signed players such as Paul Gascoigne and Gary Lineker. Under Venables, Spurs won the 1990 -- 91 FA Cup, making them the first club to win eight FA Cups.
Tottenham was one of the five clubs that pushed for the founding of the Premier League, created with the approval of The Football Association, replacing the Football League First Division as the highest division of English football. Despite a succession of managers and players such as Teddy Sheringham, Jürgen Klinsmann and David Ginola, for a long period in the Premier League until the late 2000s, Spurs finished mid-table most seasons with few trophies won. They won the League Cup in 1999 under George Graham, and again in 2008 under Juande Ramos. Performance improved under Harry Redknapp with players such as Gareth Bale and Luka Modrić, and the club finished in the top five in the early 2010s.
In February 2001, Sugar sold his share holding in Spurs to ENIC Sports plc, run by Joe Lewis and Daniel Levy, and stepped down as chairman. Lewis and Levy would eventually own 85 % of the club, with Levy responsible for the running of the club. The current manager is Mauricio Pochettino, who was appointed in May 2014. Led by Harry Kane, Spurs finished second in the 2016 -- 17 season, their highest placed league finish since the 1962 -- 63 season.
Spurs played their early matches on public land at the Park Lane end of Tottenham Marshes, where they had to mark out and prepare their own pitch. Occasionally fights broke out on the marshes in disputes with other teams over the use of the ground. The first Spurs game reported by the local press took place on Tottenham Marshes on 6 October 1883 against Brownlow Rovers, which Spurs won 9 -- 0. It was at this ground that, in 1887, Spurs first played the team that would later become their arch rivals, Arsenal (then known as Royal Arsenal) leading 2 -- 1 until the match was called off due to poor light after the away team arrived late.
As they played on public parkland, the club could not charge admission fees and, while the number of spectators grew to a few thousand, it yielded no gate receipts. In 1888, the club rented a pitch at Asplins Farm, next to the railway line at Northumberland Park, at a cost of £ 17 per annum, where spectators were charged 3d a game, raised to 6d for cup ties. The first game at the Park was played on 13 October 1888, a reserve match that yielded gate receipts of 17 shillings. The first stand with just over 100 seats and changing rooms underneath was built at the ground for the 1894 -- 95 season at a cost of £ 60. However, the stand was blown down a few weeks later and had to be repaired. In April 1898, 14,000 fans turned up to watch Spurs play Woolwich Arsenal. Spectators climbed on the roof of the refreshment stand for a better view of the match. The stand collapsed, causing a few injuries. As Northumberland Park could no longer cope with the larger crowds, Spurs were forced to look for a larger ground and moved to the White Hart Lane site in 1899.
The White Hart Lane ground was built on a disused nursery owned by the brewery Charringtons and located behind a public house named the White Hart on Tottenham High Road (White Hart Lane actually lies a few hundred yards north of the main entrance). The ground was initially leased from Charringtons, and the stands they used at Northumberland Park were moved here, giving shelter for 2,500 spectators. Notts County were the first visitors to ' the Lane ' in a friendly watched by 5,000 people and yielding £ 115 in receipts; Spurs won 4 -- 1. Queens Park Rangers became the first competitive visitors to the ground and 11,000 people saw them lose 1 -- 0 to Tottenham. In 1905, Tottenham raised enough money to buy the freehold to the land, as well as land at the northern (Paxton Road) end.
After Spurs were admitted to the Football League, the club started to build a new stadium, with stands designed by Archibald Leitch being constructed over the next two and a half decades. The West Stand was added in 1909, the East Stand was also covered this year and extended further two years later. The profits from the 1921 FA Cup win were used to build a covered terrace at the Paxton Road end and the Park Lane end was built at a cost of over £ 3,000 some two years later. This increased the stadium 's capacity to around 58,000, with room for 40,000 under cover. The East Stand (Worcester Avenue) was finished in 1934 and this increased capacity to around 80,000 spectators and cost £ 60,000.
Starting in the early 1980s, the stadium underwent another major phase of redevelopment. The West Stand was replaced by an expensive new structure in 1982, and the East Stand was renovated in 1988. In 1992, following the Taylor Report 's recommendation that Premier League clubs eliminate standing areas, the lower terraces of the south and east stand were converted to seating, with the North Stand becoming all - seater the following season. The South Stand redevelopment was completed in March 1995 and included the first giant Sony Jumbotron TV screen for live game coverage and away match screenings. In the 1997 -- 98 season the Paxton Road stand received a new upper tier and a second Jumbotron screen. Minor amendments to the seating configuration were made in 2006, bringing the capacity of the stadium to 36,310.
By the turn of the millennium, the capacity of White Hart Lane had become lower than other major Premier League clubs. Talks began over the future of the ground with a number of schemes considered, such as increasing the stadium capacity through redevelopment of the current site, or using of the 2012 London Olympic Stadium in Stratford. Eventually the club settled on the Northumberland Development Project, whereby a new stadium would be built on a larger piece of land that incorporated the existing site. In 2016, the northeast corner of the stadium was removed to facilitate the construction of the new stadium. As this reduced the stadium capacity below that required for European games, Tottenham Hotspur played every European home game in 2016 -- 17 at Wembley Stadium. Domestic fixtures of the 2016 -- 17 season continued to be played at the Lane, but demolition of the rest of the stadium started the day after the last game of the season, and White Hart Lane was completely demolished by the end of July 2017.
In October 2008, the club announced a plan to build a new stadium immediately to the north of the existing White Hart Lane stadium, with the southern half of the new stadium 's pitch overlapping the northern part of the Lane. This proposal would become the Northumberland Development Project. The club submitted a planning application in October 2009 but, following critical reactions to the plan, it was withdrawn in favour of a substantially revised planning application for the stadium and other associated developments. The new plan was resubmitted and approved by Haringey Council in September 2010, and an agreement for the Northumberland Development Project was signed 20 September 2011.
After a long delay over the compulsory purchase order of local businesses located on land to the north of the stadium and a legal challenge against the order, resolved in early 2015, planning application for another new design was approved by Haringey Council on 17 December 2015. Construction started in 2016, and the new stadium is scheduled to open during the 2018 -- 19 season. While it is under construction, all Tottenham home games in the 2017 -- 18 season and the first in 2018 -- 19 would be played at Wembley Stadium. The new stadium would be called Tottenham Hotspur Stadium until a naming - rights agreement is reached.
Since the 1921 FA Cup final the Tottenham Hotspur crest has featured a cockerel. Harry Hotspur, after whom the club is named, was said to have been given the nickname Hotspur as he dug in his spurs to make his horse go faster as he charged in battles, and he was also said to be fond of fighting cocks fitted with spurs. The club used spurs as a symbol in 1900, which then evolved into a fighting cock. A former player named William James Scott made a bronze cast of a cockerel standing on a football at a cost of £ 35, and this 9 - foot 6 - inch figure was then placed on top of the West Stand the end of the 1909 -- 10 season. Since then the cockerel and ball emblem has become a part of the club 's identity.
Between 1956 and 2006 Spurs used a faux heraldic shield featuring a number of local landmarks and associations. The lions flanking the shield came from the Northumberland family (of which Harry Hotspur was a member). The castle is Bruce Castle, 400 yards from the ground and the trees are the Seven Sisters. The arms featured the Latin motto Audere Est Facere (to dare is to do).
In 1983, to overcome unauthorised "pirate '' merchandising, the club 's badge was altered by adding the two red heraldic lions and the motto scroll. This device appeared on most Spurs ' playing kits for the next 23 years.
In 2006, in order to rebrand and modernise the club 's image, the club badge and coat of arms were replaced by a professionally designed logo / emblem. This revamp showed to be more sleeker and elegant on an old - time football. The club claims that they dropped their club name and would be using the rebranded logo only. In November 2013, Tottenham forced non-league club Fleet Spurs to change their badge because its new design was "too similar '' to the Tottenham crest.
Crest 1956 -- 1983
Crest 1983 -- 2005
Crest 2006 -- present
The first Tottenham kit included a navy blue shirt with a letter H on a scarlet shield on the left breast. In 1884, the club changed to a "quartered '' kit similar in style to that of Blackburn Rovers after watching them win in the 1884 FA Cup Final. Shortly after moving to Northumberland Park, the kit changed again to red shirt and blue shorts. Five years later, after becoming a professional club, they switched to a chocolate and gold striped kit.
In the 1898 -- 99 season, their final year at Northumberland Park, the club switched colours to the white shirts and blue shorts. This colour choice was in homage to Preston North End who had recently done the Double. White and navy blue have remained as the club 's basic colours ever since, with the white shirts giving the team the nickname "The Lilywhites ''. In 1921, after they had won the FA Cup, the cockerel badge was added to the shirt. In 1939 numbers first appeared on shirt backs. In 1991, the club was the first to wear long - cut shorts, an innovation at a time when football kits all featured shorts cut well above the knee.
The early supplier of Spurs ' jerseys was a local firm on Seven Sisters Road, HR Brookes. In the 1920s, Bukta produced the jerseys for the club. From the mid-1930s onwards, Umbro supplied the kits for Spurs for forty years until it was replaced by Admiral in 1977, followed by Le Coq Sportif in 1980.. In 1985, Spurs entered into a business partnership with Hummel, who then supplied the strips. However, the attempt by Tottenham to expand the business side of the club failed, and in 1991, they returned to Umbro. This was followed by Pony in 1995, Adidas in 1999, and Kappa in 2002. In 2006, they signed a five - year deal with Puma. In March 2011, Under Armour announced a five - year deal to supply Spurs with shirts and other apparel from the start of 2012 -- 13. The home and away kits were revealed in July 2012 in London, with the third kit revealed the following month via the promotion of Electronic Arts ' FIFA 13 video game. The shirts incorporate technology that can monitor the players ' heart rate and temperature and send the biometric data to the coaching staff.
Shirt sponsorship in English football was first adopted by the non-league club Kettering Town F.C. in 1976, and this practice then spread to the major clubs. In December 1983, soon after the club was floated on the London Stock Exchange, Holsten became the first commercial sponsor logo to appear on a Spurs shirt. When Thomson was chosen as kit sponsor in 2002 some Tottenham fans were unhappy as the shirt - front logo was red, the colour of their closest rivals, Arsenal. In 2006, Tottenham secured a £ 34 million sponsorship deal with internet casino group Mansion.com. In July 2010, Spurs announced a two - year shirt sponsorship contract with software infrastructure company Autonomy said to be worth £ 20 million. A month later they unveiled a £ 5 million deal with leading specialist bank and asset management firm Investec as shirt sponsor for the Champions League and domestic cup competitions for the next two years. Since 2014, AIA has been the main shirt sponsor in a deal worth over £ 16 million annually.
In June 2017, it was announced that Nike would be supplying Spurs ' kits in a "multi-year agreement '' after Under Armour 's contract expired. The 2017 -- 18 kit was released on 30 June, featuring the Spurs ' crest encased in a shield, paying homage to Spurs ' 1960 -- 61 season, where they became the first post-war - club to win both the Football League First Division and the FA Cup.
Only appeared in the Premier League. Investec Bank appeared in the Champions League, FA Cup, League Cup and Europa League.
Aurasma is a subsidiary of the Autonomy Corporation.
Hewlett - Packard is the parent company of the Autonomy Corporation and only appeared in the Premier League. AIA appeared in the FA Cup, League Cup and Europa League.
Tottenham Hotspur F.C. became a limited company, The Tottenham Hotspur Football and Athletic Company Ltd, on 2 March 1898 so as to raise funds for the club and limit the personal liability of its members. 8,000 shares were issued at £ 1 each, although only 1,558 shares were taken up in the first year. Members of the Wale family, who had association with the club since the 1930s and were chairmen of Tottenham Hotspur F.C. in the 1960s and 1970s, were once the largest shareholder of the club. In the early 1980s, cost overruns in the construction of a new West Stand together with the cost of rebuilding the team in previous years led to financial difficulties for the club. In November 1982, Irving Scholar bought 25 % of the club for £ 600,000, and together with Paul Bobroff gained control of the club. Scholar floated Tottenham Hotspur plc, which wholly owns the football club, on the London Stock Exchange in 1983, the first European sports club to be listed in a stock market. The share issue was successful with 3.8 million shares quickly sold. Ill - judged financial decisions led to accumulating debts, and in June 1991 Terry Venables teamed up with businessman Alan Sugar to buy the club, initially as equal partner with each investing £ 3.25 million. Sugar increased his stake to £ 8 million by December 1991 and became the dominant partner with effective control of the club. In May 1993, Venables was sacked from the board after a dispute. By 2000, Sugar began to consider selling the club, and in February 2001, he sold the major part of his shareholding to ENIC International Ltd.
Between 2001 and 2011 shares in Tottenham Hotspur F.C. were listed on the Alternative Investment Market (AIM index). The majority shareholder, ENIC International Ltd, is an investment company established by the British billionaire Joe Lewis. Daniel Levy, Lewis 's partner at ENIC, is Executive Chairman of the club. They had acquired 29.9 % after buying 27 % share of the club for £ 22 million from Sugar in 1991. Shareholding by ENIC increased over the decade through the purchase of the remaining 12 % holding of Alan Sugar in 2007 for £ 25m, and the 9.9 % stake belonging to Stelios Haji - Ioannou through Hodram Inc in 2009. On 21 August 2009 the club reported that they had issued a further 30 million shares to fund the initial development costs of the new stadium project, and that 27.8 million of these new shares had been purchased by ENIC. The Annual Report for 2010 indicated that ENIC had acquired 76 % of all Ordinary Shares and also held 97 % of all convertible redeemable preference shares, equivalent to a holding of 85 % of share capital. Following an announcement at the 2011 AGM, in January 2012 the club confirmed that they had been transferred into the private ownership of ENIC.
Tottenham has a large fanbase in the United Kingdom, drawn largely from North London and the Home counties. The attendance figures for its home matches, however, have fluctuated over the years. Five times between 1946 and 1969, Tottenham had the highest average attendance in England. Tottenham was 9th in average attendances for the 2008 -- 09 Premier League season, and 11th for all Premier League seasons. In the 2017 -- 18 season when Tottenham used Wembley as its home ground, it had the second highest attendance in the Premier League. Historical supporters of the club have included such figures as philosopher A.J. Ayer. There are many official supporters ' clubs located around the world, while an independent supporters club, the Tottenham Hotspur Supporters ' Trust, is officially recognised by the club as the representative for Spurs supporters.
Historically, the club had a significant Jewish following from the Jewish communities in East and Northeast London, with around a third of its supporters estimated to be Jewish in the 1930s. It no longer has a greater Jewish contingent among its fans than other major London clubs (Jewish supporters are estimated to form at most 5 % of its fanbase), it is nevertheless identified as a Jewish club by rival fans. This has led to much antisemitic provocation with chants of "Yids '' or "Yiddos '' against Tottenham supporters. In response to the abusive chants, Tottenham supporters, Jewish and non-Jewish alike, began to chant back the insults and adopt the "Yids '' or "Yid Army '' identity starting from around the late 1970s or early 1980s. Some fans view adopting "Yid '' as a badge of pride, helping defuse its power as an insult. The use of "Yid '' as a self - identification, however, has been controversial; some argued that the word is offensive and its use by Spurs fans "legitimis (es) references to Jews in football '', and that such racist abuse should be stamped out in football. Others, such as Prime Minister David Cameron, argued that there is "a difference between Spurs fans self - describing themselves as Yids and someone calling someone a Yid as an insult '' as its use by the Spurs fans is not motivated by hate and therefore can not be considered hate speech.
There are a number of songs associated with the club and frequently sung by Spurs fans, such as "Glory Glory Tottenham Hotspur ''. The song originated in 1961 after Spurs completed the Double in 1960 -- 61, and the club entered the European Cup for the first time. Their first opponents were Górnik Zabrze, the Polish champions, and after a hard - fought match Spurs suffered a 4 -- 2 reverse. Tottenham 's tough tackling prompted the Polish press to describe them as "they were no angels ''. These comments incensed a group of three fans and for the return match at White Hart Lane they dressed as angels wearing white sheets fashioned into togas, sandals, false beards and carrying placards bearing biblical - type slogans. The angels were allowed on the perimeter of the pitch and their fervour whipped up the home fans who responded with a rendition of "Glory Glory Hallelujah '', which is still sung on terraces at White Hart Lane and other football grounds. The Lilywhites also responded to the atmosphere to win the tie 8 -- 1. Then manager of Spurs, Bill Nicholson, wrote in his autobiography:
A new sound was heard in English football in the 1961 -- 2 season. It was the hymn Glory, Glory Hallelujah being sung by 60,000 fans at White Hart Lane in our European Cup matches. I do n't know how it started or who started it, but it took over the ground like a religious feeling.
There had been a number of incidences of hooliganism involving Spurs fans, particularly in the 1970s and 1980s. Significant events include the rioting by Spurs fans in Rotterdam at the 1974 UEFA Cup Final against Feyenoord, and again during the 1983 -- 84 UEFA Cup matches against Feyenoord in Rotterdam and Anderlecht in Brussels. Although fan violence has since abated, the occasional incidences of hooliganism continued to be reported.
Tottenham supporters have rivalries with several clubs, mainly within the London area. The fiercest of these is with north London rivals Arsenal. The rivalry began in 1913 when Arsenal moved from the Manor Ground, Plumstead to Arsenal Stadium, Highbury, and this rivalry intensified in 1919 when Arsenal were unexpectedly promoted to the First Division, taking a place that Tottenham believed should have been theirs. They also share notable rivalries with fellow London clubs Chelsea and West Ham United.
The club through its Community Programme has, since 2006, been working with Haringey Council and the Metropolitan Housing Trust and the local community on developing sports facilities and social programmes which have also been financially supported by Barclays Spaces for Sport and the Football Foundation. The Tottenham Hotspur Foundation received high - level political support from the prime minister when it was launched at 10 Downing Street in February 2007.
In March 2007 the club announced a partnership with the charity SOS Children 's Villages UK. Player fines will go towards this charity 's children 's village in Rustenburg, South Africa with the funds being used to cover the running costs as well as in support of a variety of community development projects in and around Rustenburg. In the financial year 2006 -- 07, Tottenham topped a league of Premier League charitable donations when viewed both in overall terms and as a percentage of turnover by giving £ 4,545,889, including a one - off contribution of £ 4.5 million over four years, to set up the Tottenham Hotspur Foundation. This compared to donations of £ 9,763 in 2005 -- 06.
The football club is one of the highest profile participants in the 10: 10 project which encourages individuals, businesses and organisations to take action on environmental issues. They joined in 2009 in a commitment to reducing their carbon footprint. To do this they upgraded their lights to more efficient models, they turned down their heating dials and took less short - haul flights among a host of other things. After working with 10: 10 for one year, they reported that they had reduced their carbon emissions by 14 %.
In contrast, they have successfully sought the reduction of section 106 planning obligations connected to the redevelopment of the stadium in the Northumberland Development Project. Initially the development would incorporate 50 % affordable housing (100 out of 200), but this was reduced to 0 out of 285 when Spurs suggested that the development was not financially viable with this obligation. In addition, a payment of £ 16m for community infrastructure was reduced to £ 0.5 m. This is controversial in an area which has suffered high levels of deprivation as Spurs had bought up properties for redevelopment, removing existing jobs and businesses for property development but not creating enough new jobs for the area. The club however argued that the project, when completed, would support 3,500 jobs and inject an estimated £ 293 million into the local economy annually, and that it would serve as the catalyst for a wider 20 - year regeneration programme for the Tottenham area.
Tottenham 's women 's team was founded in 1985 as Broxbourne Ladies. They started using the Tottenham Hotspur name for the 1991 -- 92 season and played in the London and South East Women 's Regional Football League (then fourth tier of the game). They won promotion after topping the league in 2007 -- 08. In the 2016 -- 17 season they won the FA Women 's Premier League Southern Division and a subsequent playoff, gaining promotion to the FA Women 's Super League 2.
League competitions
Cup competitions
Steve Perryman holds the appearance record for Spurs, having played 854 games for the club between 1969 and 1986, of which 655 were league matches. Jimmy Greaves holds the club goal scoring record with 266 goals in 380 league, cup and European appearances.
Tottenham 's record league win is 9 -- 0 against Bristol Rovers in the Second Division on 22 October 1977. The club 's record cup victory came on 3 February 1960 with a 13 -- 2 win over Crewe Alexandra in the FA Cup. Spurs ' biggest top - flight victory came against Wigan Athletic on 22 November 2009, when they won 9 -- 1 with Jermain Defoe scoring five goals. The club 's record defeat is an 8 -- 0 loss to 1. FC Köln in the Intertoto Cup on 22 July 1995.
The record home attendance at White Hart Lane was 75,038 on 5 March 1938 in a cup tie against Sunderland. The highest recorded home attendances were at their temporary home, Wembley Stadium, due to its higher capacity -- 85,512 spectators turned up on 2 November 2016 for the 2016 -- 17 UEFA Champions League game against Bayer Leverkusen, while 83,222 attended the North London Derby against Arsenal on 10 February 2018 which is the highest attendance recorded for any Premier League game.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
The following players are noted as "greats '' for their contributions to the club or have been inducted into the club 's Hall of Fame: The most recent additions to the club 's Hall of Fame are Steve Perryman and Jimmy Greaves on 20 April 2016.
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what is a single strike that kills called | Lightning strike - wikipedia
A lightning strike or lightning bolt is an electric discharge between the atmosphere and an Earth - bound object. They mostly originate in a cumulonimbus cloud and terminate on the ground, called cloud to ground (CG) lightning. A less common type of strike, called ground to cloud (GC), is upward propagating lightning initiated from a tall grounded object and reaches into the clouds. About 25 % of all lightning events worldwide are strikes between the atmosphere and earth - bound objects. The bulk of lightning events are intra-cloud (IC) or cloud to cloud (CC), where discharges only occur high in the atmosphere.
A single lightning event is a "flash '', which is a complex, multi-stage process, some parts of which are not fully understood. Most cloud to ground flashes only "strike '' one physical location, referred to as a "termination ''. The primary conducting channel, the bright coursing light that may be seen and is called a "strike '', is only about one inch in diameter, but because of its extreme brilliance, it often looks much larger to the human eye and in photographs. Lightning discharges are typically miles long, but certain types of horizontal discharges can be upwards of tens of miles in length. The entire flash lasts only a fraction of a second. Most of the early formative and propagation stages are much dimmer and not visible to the human eye.
Lightning strikes can injure humans in several different ways:
Lightning strikes can produce severe injuries, and have a mortality rate of between 10 % and 30 %, with up to 80 % of survivors sustaining long - term injuries. These severe injuries are not usually caused by thermal burns, since the current is too brief to greatly heat up tissues; instead, nerves and muscles may be directly damaged by the high voltage producing holes in their cell membranes, a process called electroporation.
In a direct strike, the electrical currents in the flash channel pass directly through the victim. The relatively high voltage drop around poorer electrical conductors (such as a human being), causes the surrounding air to ionize and break down, and the external flashover diverts most of the main discharge current so that it passes "around '' the body, reducing injury.
Metallic objects in contact with the skin may "concentrate '' the lightning 's energy, given it is a better natural conductor and the preferred pathway, resulting in more serious injuries, such as burns from molten or evaporating metal. At least two cases have been reported where a strike victim wearing an iPod suffered more serious injuries as a result.
However, during a flash, the current flowing through the channel and around the body will generate large electromagnetic fields and EMPs, which may induce electrical transients (surges) within the nervous system or pacemaker of the heart, upsetting normal operations. This effect might explain cases where cardiac arrest or seizures followed a lightning strike that produced no external injuries. It may also point to the victim not being directly struck at all, but just being very close to the strike termination.
Another effect of lightning on bystanders is to their hearing. The resulting shock wave of thunder can damage the ears. Also, electrical interference to telephones or headphones may result in damaging acoustic noise.
One estimate is that 24,000 people are killed by lightning strikes around the world each year and about 240,000 are injured.
Another estimate is that the annual global death toll is 6,000.
According to the NOAA, over the last 20 years, the United States averaged 51 annual lightning strike fatalities, placing it in the second position, just behind floods for deadly weather. In the US, between 9 % and 10 % of those struck die, for an average of 40 to 50 deaths per year (28 in 2008).
In Kisii in western Kenya, some 30 people die each year from lightning strikes. Kisii 's high rate of lightning fatalities occurs because of the frequency of thunderstorms and because many of the area 's structures have metal roofs.
These statistics do not reflect the difference between direct strikes, where the victim was part of the lightning pathway, indirect effects of being close to the termination point, like ground currents, and resultant, where the casualty arose from subsequent events, such as fires or explosions. Even the most knowledgeable first responders may not recognize a lightning related injury, let alone particulars, which a medical examiner, police investigator or on the rare occasion a trained lightning expert may have difficulty identifying to record accurately. This ignores the reality that lightning, as the first event, may assume responsibility for the overall and resulting accident.
Direct strike casualties could be much higher than reported numbers.
Trees are frequent conductors of lightning to the ground. Since sap is a relatively poor conductor, its electrical resistance causes it to be heated explosively into steam, which blows off the bark outside the lightning 's path. In following seasons trees overgrow the damaged area and may cover it completely, leaving only a vertical scar. If the damage is severe, the tree may not be able to recover, and decay sets in, eventually killing the tree.
In sparsely populated areas such as the Russian Far East and Siberia, lightning strikes are one of the major causes of forest fires. The smoke and mist expelled by a very large forest fire can cause electric charges, starting additional fires many kilometers downwind.
When water in fractured rock is rapidly heated by a lightning strike, the resulting steam explosion can cause rock disintegration and shift boulders. It may be a significant factor in erosion of tropical and subtropical mountains that have never been glaciated. Evidence of lightning strikes includes erratic magnetic fields.
Telephones, modems, computers and other electronic devices can be damaged by lightning, as harmful overcurrent can reach them through the phone jack, Ethernet cable, or electricity outlet. Close strikes can also generate electromagnetic pulses (EMPs) -- especially during "positive '' lightning discharges.
Lightning currents have a very fast rise time, on the order of 40 kA per microsecond. Hence, conductors of such currents exhibit marked skin effect, causing most of the currents to flow through the outer surface of the conductor.
In addition to electrical wiring damage, the other types of possible damage to consider include structural, fire, and property damage.
The field of lightning protection systems is an enormous industry worldwide due to the impacts lightning can have on the constructs and activities of humankind. Lightning, as varied in properties measured across orders of magnitude as it is, can cause direct effects or have secondary impacts; lead to the complete destruction of a facility or process or simply cause the failure of a remote electronic sensor; it can result in outdoor activities being halted for safety concerns to employees as a thunderstorm nears an area and until it has sufficiently passed; it can ignite volatile commodities stored in large quantities or interfere with the normal operation of a piece of equipment at critical periods of time.
Most lightning protection devices and systems protect physical structures on the earth, aircraft in flight being the notable exception. While some attention has been paid to attempting to control lightning in the atmosphere, all attempts proved extremely limited in success. Chaff and silver iodide crystal concepts were devised to deal directly with the cloud cells and were dispensed directly into the clouds from an overflying aircraft. The chaff was devised to deal with the electrical manifestations of the storm from within, while the silver iodide salting technique was devised to deal with the mechanical forces of the storm.
Hundreds of devices, including lightning rods and charge transfer systems, are used to mitigate lightning damage and influence the path of a lightning flash.
A lightning rod (or lightning protector) is a metal strip or rod connected to earth through conductors and a grounding system, used to provide a preferred pathway to ground if lightning terminates on a structure. The class of these products are often called a "finial '' or "air terminal ''. A lightning rod or "Franklin rod '' in honor of its famous inventor, Benjamin Franklin, is simply a metal rod, and without being connected to the lightning protection system, as was sometimes the case in the old days, will provide no added protection to a structure. Other names include "lightning conductor '', "arrester '', and "discharger ''; however, over the years these names have been incorporated into other products or industries with a stake in lightning protection. Lightning arrester, for example, often refers to fused links that explode when a strike occurs to a high voltage overhead power line to protect the more expensive transformers down the line by opening the circuit. In reality, it was an early form of a heavy duty surge protection device (SPD). Modern arresters, constructed with metal oxides, are capable of safely shunting abnormally high voltage surges to ground while preventing normal system voltages from being shorted to ground.
The exact location of a lightning strike or when it will occur is still impossible to predict. However, products and systems have been designed of varying complexities to alert people as the probability of a strike increases above a set level determined by a risk assessment for the location 's conditions and circumstances. One significant improvement has been in the area of detection of flashes through both ground and satellite - based observation devices. The strikes and atmospheric flashes are not predicted, however the level of detail recorded by these technologies has vastly improved in the past 20 years.
Although commonly associated with thunderstorms at close range, lightning strikes can occur on a day that seems devoid of clouds. This occurrence is known as "A Bolt From the Blue ''; lightning can strike up to 10 miles from a cloud.
Lightning interferes with AM (amplitude modulation) radio signals much more than FM (frequency modulation) signals, providing an easy way to gauge local lightning strike intensity. To do so, one should tune a standard AM medium wave receiver to a frequency with no transmitting stations, and listen for crackles amongst the static. Stronger or nearby lightning strikes will also cause cracking if the receiver is tuned to a station. As lower frequencies propagate further along the ground than higher ones, the lower medium wave (MW) band frequencies (in the 500 -- 600 kHz range) can detect lightning strikes at longer distances; if the longwave band (153 -- 279 kHz) is available, using it can increase this range even further.
Lightning detection systems have been developed and may be deployed in locations where lightning strikes present special risks, such as public parks. Such systems are designed to detect the conditions which are believed to favor lightning strikes and provide a warning to those in the vicinity to allow them to take appropriate cover.
The U.S. National Lightning Safety Institute advises American citizens to have a plan for their safety when a thunderstorm occurs and to commence it as soon as the first lightning is seen or thunder heard. This is important as lightning can strike without rain actually falling. If thunder can be heard at all, then there is a risk of lightning. The safest place is inside a building or a vehicle. Risk remains for up to 30 minutes after the last observed lightning or thunder.
The National Lightning Safety Institute recommends using the F-B (flash to boom) method to gauge distance to a lightning strike. The flash of a lightning strike and resulting thunder occur at roughly the same time. But light travels 300,000 kilometers in a second, almost a million times the speed of sound. Sound travels at the slower speed of 344 m / s, so the flash of lightning is seen before thunder is heard. A method to determine the distance between lightning strike and viewer, involves counting the seconds between the lightning flash and thunder. Then, dividing by three to determine the distance in kilometers, or by five for miles. Immediate precautions against lightning should be taken if the F-B time is 25 seconds or less, that is, if the lightning is closer than 8 km (5.0 mi).
Reports differ regarding what to do if caught outside during a storm. One study shows that prostration is safer than lying down flat when there are no other alternatives. A contrasting report suggested that it did not matter whether a person was standing up, squatting, or lying down when outside during a thunderstorm, because lightning can travel along the ground; this report suggested it was safest to be inside a solid structure or vehicle. In the United States, the average annual death toll from lightning is 51 deaths per year, although there were only 23 deaths in 2013, which was a record low; the riskiest activities include fishing, boating, camping, and golf. A person injured by lightning does not carry an electrical charge, and can be safely handled to apply first aid before emergency services arrive. Lightning can affect the brainstem, which controls breathing.
Several studies conducted in South Asia and Africa suggest that the dangers of lightning are not taken sufficiently seriously there. A research team from the University of Colombo found that even in neighborhoods which had experienced deaths from lightning, no precautions were taken against future storms. An expert forum convened in 2007 to address how to raise awareness of lightning and improve lightning protection standards, and expressed concern that many countries had no official standards for the installation of lightning rods.
All events associated or suspected of causing damage are called "lightning incidents '' due to four important factors.
As such it is often inconclusive, albeit highly probably a lightning flash was involved, hence categorizing it as a "lightning incident '' covers all bases.
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where is the stern of a ship located | Stern - wikipedia
The stern is the back or aft-most part of a ship or boat, technically defined as the area built up over the sternpost, extending upwards from the counter rail to the taffrail. The stern lies opposite of the bow, the foremost part of a ship. Originally, the term only referred to the aft port section of the ship, but eventually came to refer to the entire back of a vessel. The stern end of a ship is indicated with a white navigation light at night.
Sterns on European and American wooden sailing ships began with two principal forms: the square or transom stern and the elliptical, fantail, or merchant stern, and were developed in that order. The hull sections of a sailing ship located before the stern were composed of a series of U-shaped rib - like frames set in a sloped or "cant '' arrangement, with the last frame before the stern being called the fashion timber (s) or fashion piece (s), so called for "fashioning '' the after part of the ship. This frame is designed to support the various beams that make up the stern.
In 1817 the British naval architect Sir Robert Seppings first introduced the concept of the round or circular stern. The square stern had been an easy target for enemy cannon, and could not support the weight of heavy stern chase guns. But Seppings ' design left the rudder head exposed, and was regarded by many as simply ugly -- no American warships were designed with such sterns, and the round stern was quickly superseded by the elliptical stern. The United States began building the first elliptical stern warship in 1820, a decade before the British. USS Brandywine became the first sailing ship to sport such a stern. Though a great improvement over the transom stern in terms of its vulnerability to attack when under fire, elliptical sterns still had obvious weaknesses which the next major stern development -- the iron - hulled cruiser stern -- addressed far better and with much different materials.
In naval architecture, the term "transom '' has two meanings. First, a transom can refer to any of the individual beams that run side - to - side or "athwart '' the hull at any point abaft the fashion timber; second, a transom can refer specifically to the flat or slightly curved surface that is the very back panel of a transom stern. In this sense, a transom stern is the product of the use of a series of transoms, and hence the two terms have blended.
The stern of a classical sailing ship housed the captain 's quarters and became increasingly large and elaborate between the 15th and 18th centuries, especially in the baroque era, when such wedding - cake - like structures became so heavy that crews sometimes threw the decoration overboard rather than be burdened with its useless weight. But until a new form of stern appeared in the 19th century, the transom stern was a floating house -- and required just as many timbers, walls, windows, and frames. The stern frame provided the foundational structure of the transom stern, and was composed of the sternpost, wing transom, and fashion piece.
Abaft the fashion timber, the transom stern was composed of two different kinds of timbers:
The flat surface of any transom stern may begin either at or above the waterline of the vessel. The geometric line which stretches from the wing transom to the archboard is called the counter; a large vessel may have two such counters, called a lower counter and a second or upper counter. The lower counter stretches from directly above the wing transom to the lower counter rail, and the upper counter from the lower counter rail to the upper counter rail, immediately under the stern 's lowest set of windows (which in naval parlance were called "lights '').
The visual unpopularity of Seppings ' circular stern was soon rectified by Sir William Symonds. In this revised stern, a set of straight post timbers (also called "whiskers '', "horn timbers '', or "fan tail timbers '') stretches from the keel diagonally aft and upward. It rests on the top of the sternpost and runs on either side of the rudder post (thus creating the "helm port '' through which the rudder passes) to a point well above the vessel 's waterline. Whereas the timbers of the transom stern all heeled on the wing transom, the timbers of the elliptical stern all heel on the whiskers, to which they are affixed at a 45̊ angle (i.e., "canted '') when viewed from overhead and decrease in length as they are installed aft until the curvature is complete. The finished stern has a continuous curved edge around the outside and is raked aft. Other names for the elliptical stern include a "counter stern, '' in reference to its very long counter, and a "cutaway stern. '' The elliptical stern began use during the age of sail, but remained very popular for both merchant and warships well into the nautical age of steam and through the first eight decades of steamship construction (roughly 1840 -- 1920), despite the fact that the design left the rudder exposed and vulnerable in combat situations.
As ships of wooden construction gave way to iron and steel, the cruiser stern -- another design without transoms and known variously as the canoe stern, parabolic stern, and the double - ended stern -- became the next prominent development in ship stern design, particularly in warships of the latter half of the 20th century. The intent of this re-design was to protect the steering gear by bringing it below the armor deck. The stern now came to a point rather than a flat panel or a gentle curve, and the counter reached from the sternpost all the way to the taffrail in a continuous arch. It was soon discovered that vessels with cruiser sterns experienced less water resistance when under way than those with elliptical sterns, and between World War I and World War II most merchant ship designs soon followed suit.
None of these three main types of stern has vanished from the modern naval architectural repertoire, and all three continue to be utilized in one form or another by different sets of designers and for a broad spectrum of uses. Variations on these basic designs have resulted in an outflow of "new '' stern types and names, only some of which are itemized here.
The reverse stern, reverse transom stern, sugar - scoop, or retroussé stern is a kind of transom stern that is raked backwards (common on modern yachts, rare on vessels before the 20th century); the vertical transom stern or plumb stern is raked neither forward nor back, but falls directly from the taffrail down to the wing transom. The rocket ship stern is a term for an extremely angled retroussé stern. A double ended ship with a very narrow square counter formed from the bulwarks or upper deck above the head of the rudder is said to have a pink stern or pinky stern. The torpedo stern or torpedo - boat stern describes a kind of stern with a low rounded shape that is nearly flat at the waterline, but which then slopes upward in a conical fashion towards the deck (practical for small high - speed power boats with very shallow drafts).
A Costanzi stern is a type of stern designed for use on ocean - going vessels. It is a compromise between the ' spoon - shaped ' stern usually found on ocean liners, and the flat transom, often required for fitting azimuth thrusters. The design allows for improved seagoing characteristics. It is the stern design on Queen Mary 2, and was originally proposed for SS Oceanic and Eugenio C, both constructed in the 1960s.
A lute stern is to be found on inshore craft on the Sussex, England shore. It comprises a watertight transom with the topside planking extended aft to form a non-watertight counter which is boarded across the fashion timbers curving outward aft from the transom. Some working boats and modern replicas have a similar form of counter, built to be water tight as described in the "transom stern '' section above. These are being confused with lute sterns but as a lute is not watertight, a better term is needed. Chappelle in American Small Sailing Craft refers to a Bermudan boat with this form of counter, using the term "square tuck stern '' to describe it. The term "tuck '' is used in the northwest of England for this area of the hull at the sternpost, and for the bulkhead across the counter if one is fitted.
The fantail stern describes a stern that starts at the water and widens as you go upwards. This is famous on many 19th century tea clippers and the ill - fated RMS Titanic.
A bustle stern refers to any kind of stern (transom, elliptical, etc.) that has a large "bustle '' or blister at the waterline below the stern to prevent the stern from "squatting '' when getting underway. It only appears in sailboats, never in power - driven craft.
The transom of Soleil Royal, by Jean Bérain the Elder
The stern of the Dutch East India Company ship Amsterdam (transom stern)
The stern of a modern sailboat (Tirion28)
The stern of a UK Severn - class lifeboat
The tall ship Christian Radich, showing her elliptical stern
The elliptical stern of the metal - hulled Empire Sandy
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who plays ada on marvel agents of shield | List of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Characters - wikipedia
Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. is an American television series created for ABC by Joss Whedon, Jed Whedon, and Maurissa Tancharoen, based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D. (Strategic Homeland Intervention, Enforcement and Logistics Division), a fictional peacekeeping and spy agency in a world of superheroes. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the feature and short films of the franchise.
The series stars Clark Gregg, reprising his role of Phil Coulson from the films, as well as Ming - Na Wen, Brett Dalton, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, and Elizabeth Henstridge. Nick Blood and Adrianne Palicki joined the cast for the second and third seasons, while Henry Simmons and Luke Mitchell had recurring roles in the second season before being promoted to the main cast for the third. John Hannah, who recurred in the third season, joined the main cast in the fourth. Additionally, several other characters from Marvel Cinematic Universe films and Marvel One - Shots also appear throughout the series, along with other characters based on various Marvel Comics properties. Several characters from the series also appear in the supplemental digital series Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: Slingshot.
This list includes the series ' main cast, all guest stars deemed to have had recurring roles throughout the series, and any other guest who is otherwise notable.
Phillip "Phil '' Coulson (portrayed by Clark Gregg) was the S.H.I.E.L.D. agent in charge of Project T.A.H.I.T.I., meant to bring a potential dead Avenger back to life using a drug derived from an ancient alien corpse. Following his death in The Avengers, Fury resurrected Coulson using T.A.H.I.T.I., and had his memories of the project replaced. Coulson puts together a team of agents, and they travel the world dealing with strange new cases. During this time, Hydra is revealed to have infiltrated S.H.I.E.L.D., leading to the latter 's demise. Fury makes Coulson the new Director of S.H.I.E.L.D., and tasks him with rebuilding the agency "the right way ''. Coulson becomes romantically involved with Rosalind Price, the leader of an anti-Inhuman government taskforce, until her death at the hands of Grant Ward, one of Coulson 's former agents. He gets revenge by crushing Ward 's chest with his prosthetic hand. Following the signing of the Sokovia Accords, S.H.I.E.L.D. is re-legitimized, with the still officially dead Coulson replaced as director. In the Framework virtual reality, Coulson teaches about the dangers of Inhumans.
Phil Coulson was created for Iron Man; he was the first S.H.I.E.L.D. agent introduced in the MCU, and was portrayed by Gregg, who went on to play the character in several other MCU films and Marvel One - Shots. At the 2012 New York Comic Con, Gregg was announced to be starring as Coulson in Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., despite the character dying in The Avengers. '' In April 2013, Gregg said that he had found creator Joss Whedon 's explanation for Coulson 's resurrection "fascinating '' and "true to the world of the comics and mythology in general ''. On whether the resurrected Coulson would be the same as before he died, Gregg said "I think if he had n't gone through some kind of change, it would n't be any good. '' After Coulson was promoted to Director of S.H.I.E.L.D., Gregg said "He kind of got his dream job that I do n't even think he would have ever dreamed he would be given... it 's going to require him to move a little bit in the direction of a more pragmatic figure like Nick Fury ''. Discussing Coulson 's character progression through three seasons, executive producer Jeffrey Bell said, "First season Coulson would have beat Ward up and then thrown him over his shoulder and brought him back to Earth and locked him away. Season two Coulson would have defeated him and left him there on the other planet to fend for himself, '' while season three Coulson paused while a portal to Earth was closing to take the time to kill Ward.
Melinda Qiaolian May (portrayed by Ming - Na Wen) is a S.H.I.E.L.D. ace pilot and weapons expert who is called "the Cavalry '', against her wishes, after a mission to Bahrain where she saved an entire S.H.I.E.L.D. team from a rogue gifted -- unbeknownst to S.H.I.E.L.D., she did this by killing a young girl named Katya Belyakov. Still struggling to move past this event years later, May agrees to watch her old friend and partner Coulson for Fury, reporting to the latter and looking for potential side - effects of Project T.A.H.I.T.I. in the former. When Coulson becomes the new Director of S.H.I.E.L.D., May acts as his second - in - command, and over time begins to move past the events of Bahrain and even develop familial relationships with characters such as Skye. In the Framework, May did not kill Belyakov and becomes a top operative within Hydra.
Wen was cast as May in October 2012. Whedon had the character, who was originally listed with the name Agent Althea Rice on casting sheets, "rolling around in his head '' for a long time. In preparation for the role, Wen was "given a couple of background stories '' about May, but found it challenging to play a character who is respected by those around her when the audience does n't know why, stating "It 's a challenge in different ways... I use some of my own personal experience where we 've been scarred or we 've been greatly disappointed ''. When May 's past was revealed in "Melinda '', Wen called it "devastating '', explaining "She was married, she was in love with Andrew, she had a job that she excelled at and loved and believed in -- so her world was pretty perfect... To have learned what she had to do, for the good of the many... I can understand why it would traumatize her so much and cause her to retreat. '' May 's shirt is the same blue as many S.H.I.E.L.D. agents in The Avengers such as Maria Hill, so as to have some continuity between her uniform and those established in the films. The rest of her costume is inspired by military flight suits, including a leather vest, and pants with stretch panels to aid with fighting.
Following the series premiere, Wen teased the character, saying "She 's very much the observer, and whenever she wants to put in her two cents, it 's something that you want to listen to and kind of pay attention to... She 's slow in getting acclimated to part of the group and being in the field again. '' Talking about May 's reasons for staying with S.H.I.E.L.D., Wen explained "May 's friendship and... loyalty and her love for Coulson (keeps her there). Maybe not romantic (love), it 's just really -- it 's hard to describe -- it 's a bond, it 's unbreakable, and she will watch over Coulson and take care of him and help him through whatever he needs to at this point in his life... She wants to be there for him, and if it serves S.H.I.E.L.D., that 's just more or less a side effect, really. '' Wen admitted that May develops a relationship with Skye over the course of the series, going from thinking of Skye as "someone that she did n't want as part of the team and did n't understand why Coulson wanted her '' to wanting Skye "to be the best agent that she can be. '' After discovering that Skye is an Inhuman, Wen stated that "it 's like when you have your child or your daughter losing control or getting involved with situations or people that you 're not sure about. You do n't have the control anymore. It 's very frightening. For Skye to be an unknown entity, May still holds out hope. She hopes that her training with her will help her be able to control her new powers, but you never know. Sometimes the power overtakes everything else. ''
On how May deals with her ex-husband Andrew becoming the Inhuman killer Lash, Wen said, "She 's come to the understanding that it was something he had no control over. The betrayal might be not sharing that information of what happened to him with her. I think she understands that, in a way, he was scared and trying to be protective of their relationship and doing it all for the wrong reasons. I think, ultimately, Agent May is kind of shut down when it comes to Lash and Andrew at this point. That 's why she 's re-focusing all her energy back into S.H.I.E.L.D., back being by Coulson 's side. That 's where she 's most comfortable. '' Wen went on to describe May as "unconventionally maternal... she 's taking care of Simmons and really believing that she needs to be able to protect herself, she 's very, very concerned about the family 's well being. ''
Wen received nominations for ' Favorite Actress in a New TV Series ' at the 40th People 's Choice Awards and ' Favorite Female TV Star -- Family Show ' at the 29th Kids ' Choice Awards. Wen was also named TVLine 's "Performer of the Week '' for the week of April 12, 2015, for her performance in "Melinda '', specifically her portrayal of May in the flashback sequences.
Grant Douglas Ward (portrayed by Brett Dalton), the son of politicians, was abused by his parents and older brother Christian growing up. After attempting to kill Christian by burning their house down, Grant meets John Garrett, a Hydra double agent within S.H.I.E.L.D., who trains Grant to be a skilled agent. Later being assigned to Coulson 's team, Grant is outed as Hydra when that organisation is revealed to the world, and, after the death of Garrett, becomes a prisoner of S.H.I.E.L.D. In love with his former teammate Skye, Grant escapes custody, apparently kills Christian and their parents, and infiltrates Hydra so Skye can meet her father. Despite this, Skye turns on Ward and shoots him, and he escapes only with the help of former S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Kara Palamas, with whom he develops a romantic relationship. He accidentally kills Palamas while she is in disguise as May, and blaming S.H.I.E.L.D., decides to take over the now leader-less Hydra. Joining forces with one of Hydra 's previous leaders, Gideon Malick, Ward travels through a portal to an alien planet in search of the ancient Inhuman Hive, but is killed there by Coulson. This allows Hive to use Ward 's body as a host. Ward returns in the Framework created by Holden Radcliffe as Johnson 's boyfriend and a double agent working for the Inhuman resistance.
Dalton was cast in November 2012. From the conception of the series it was decided that Grant Ward would be a traitor, with executive producer Jed Whedon saying "since (the events of Captain America: The Winter Soldier are) an infiltration based on betrayal on a massive scale, we wanted to have it on the small scale, and have it be a really personal dagger to the heart. '' Ward 's initial costumes were inspired by Jason Bourne and Ethan Hunt, with his look based purely in function and with a muted color palette to reflect his serious attitude. After Ward was outed as Hydra and became a prisoner of S.H.I.E.L.D., Dalton grew a beard for the character, explaining that S.H.I.E.L.D. would not provide a prisoner with a razor, "so it just happens to work out that I have a beard and beards can have a sort of evil connotation. '' Austin Lyon portrays a young Ward.
Dalton has described Ward as he first appeared in the series as "a guy who is very trustworthy and rolled up his sleeves and did all the heavy lifting and did n't really question authority. You know, a by - the - book risk assessor ''. Although it was eventually revealed that Ward was a Hydra imposter, Dalton noted that that does n't necessarily mean the relationships the character built with his S.H.I.E.L.D. team were n't genuine, since going undercover meant letting his guard down to make the other characters trust him, opening himself up to those relationships despite his ulterior motives.
Following the death of Garrett, the question was asked, "Who is (Grant Ward) without someone telling him what to do? '' Dalton answered that "he can follow commands really well. He can do and make tough choices and he can sometimes do unpleasant things in the name of something that he feels he believes in. But... I do n't think that Ward knows the answer to that question himself. '' Dalton called the character a ' wildcard ', since he was loyal to Garrett as a father figure rather than Hydra, "and he was more about his teammates rather than the team '', later elaborating that "It 's not quite good guy, it 's not quite bad guy. It 's not trying to get in with S.H.I.E.L.D. again, it 's not trying to get in with Hydra. He 's really on his own path. He 's living by his code at this particular point in life. '' Explaining Ward 's relationship with Palamas, Dalton stated
When they first started this relationship, I thought they 're two people who have experienced something similar by following orders and then finding themselves not knowing who they are when someone 's not telling them what to do... But it really (has) developed into something that 's much more complicated than that. There 's a teacher - student relationship there as well as what seems like a genuinely romantic relationship. You see us really lovey - dovey in the cockpit and it 's making everybody around us sick. In some ways, we have the most healthy relationship out of all of the other dynamics on the show, which is saying something because Ward is not a lovey - dovey kind of guy. That 's interesting that he 's now in probably the most stable relationship there is.
When Ward accidentally kills Palamas in the season two finale, Dalton said that "This affects him in a way that is deep and lasting. There was a shred of humanity in there, and always the possibility and the thought that he could be redeemed... After Kara 's death -- that is actually at my hands -- after all the time and effort and energy that 's been invested in this relationship, it turns him. You see it in his eyes... This whole thing of closure keeps coming up over and over again. There is so much closure out there in the world that needs to be achieved. There 's a lot of unfairness that he wants to fix, so we see somebody who is determined, who knows who he is, and is like, ' Fine, if you want to call me the bad guy, I 'm the bad guy. ' ''
Speaking about the monologue Ward gives in "Maveth '', Dalton noted that some viewers thought Ward sounded like "a born - again, devout, off - my - rocker person at that point '', but Dalton felt that it was "a real moment for Ward where he actually gets a sense of there 's something greater than revenge and all of these smaller emotions; there 's actually something that 's bigger out there that he 's a part of. '' Following Ward 's death later in the episode, Bell discussed whether the writers ever considered redeeming the character, saying, "No character is too high to fall or too low to be redeemed, theoretically... but for someone to be redeemed, they need to ask forgiveness, or want to be redeemed... (Ward) never felt like he needed to apologize for what he did. '' Dalton returned to the series in the fourth season to portray Ward in the Framework. Dalton felt returning to the character in this capacity allowed him to "finally get to have the hero arc that Grant Ward deserves. ''
Dalton won for ' Male Breakout Star ' at the 2014 Teen Choice Awards. The character of Grant Ward garnered a fan following, with a group known as the "Ward Warriors '' often using the hashtag "StandWithWard '' on social media. Dalton was surprised that people "seem to be standing with Ward no matter what he does... there are people out there who just seem to be following this character wherever he goes. I think that 's brilliant... There is n't any character like him on the show, and I would say even within the Marvel canon. '' As a "shoutout '' to these fans, Palamas says, "I will always stand with Ward '' in the second - season finale, which Dalton called "a testament to the fans, this incredibly loyal fanbase that has now influenced the script of our show. ''
Hive (from Latin: Alveus) is one of the first Inhumans, a parasite who can connect with and control the minds of other Inhumans and feed off of or possess humans. Created by the Kree from a Mayan hunter (portrayed by Jason Glover) to lead their Inhuman army against mankind, Hive ultimately incited a rebellion, uniting humans and Inhumans to drive the Kree from Earth. Soon, a faction of Hive 's followers who feared his power banished him through a portal to the planet Maveth, where he destroyed an entire civilization over centuries. He eventually only survived on human sacrifices sent through the portal by followers, and their descendants, still loyal to him -- Hydra. Hive escapes back through the portal in modern times by possessing the body of Grant Ward. He retains the memories of all the bodies he has inhabited, including now Hydra leader Gideon Malick 's brother Nathaniel, and punishes Gideon for causing Nathaniel 's sacrifice by murdering his daughter Stephanie, before taking control of Johnson, who Ward was in love with, and using her to kill Gideon. Hive then takes steps to recreate the original Kree experiment that made him, planning to use a warhead to spread a pathogen around the world and transform all humans into Primitive Inhumans. He is destroyed when S.H.I.E.L.D. traps him in a quinjet with the warhead and detonates it in space.
Based on the Hive, "a genetic experiment created by Hydra '' in the Secret Warriors comic, Hive possesses the corpses of first Will Daniels and then Grant Ward in the show, with Dillon Casey and Brett Dalton portraying the reanimated bodies, respectively. Jason Glover briefly appears as Hive 's original human form, while Dalton portrays Hive 's true, CGI - created Inhuman form through motion capture. On having Hive possess Ward 's body, Whedon explained that Ward has "been the baddie for a while and I thought it was a nice way to escalate this character... there 's still memories in there. So there 's still an aspect of the man we came to love to hate in there, but we wanted to give it some extra juice and we wanted to give Brett one more challenge where he has to change his character. ''
Dalton aimed to emulate Meryl Streep 's character in The Devil Wears Prada, who never spoke above "a conversational level... She did n't pound on her chest and make sure everybody knew that she 's powerful, she just was. '' Dalton also changed his voice to represent the memories of Will Daniels and Nathaniel Malick "just a little bit. I tried to change my voice in there, I tried to change even my level of expression in there because I was supposed to be channeling somebody else entirely coming through. '' Dalton called the coat that Hive wears later in the third season "iconic and timeless '', noting that "fashion was n't on the forefront of (Ward 's) mind '', while Hive is more theatrical, "colorful without having to do much. ''
Hive 's ultimate goal is "connection '', with Dalton saying, "all these Inhumans have a purpose. Hive finds his purpose has to do with somehow connecting all of the Inhumans. What we see is Hive 's attempt to fulfill what he thinks is his destiny... this desperate need to connect. Gregg called Hive "the perfect villain for this show because he carries with him the memories, desire, hatreds and agendas of Will and of Grant Ward. At the same time, he 's got a much deeper, bigger agenda that 's thousands of years old, and gave birth to Hydra. '' Dalton described him as a "survivor '' who "does not think small. This person has been around for way too long to think in anything other than global terms. '' He saw this as a fundamental difference between the character and Ward, who "just becomes single minded and is hellbent on one thing at a time... Hive is the opposite. He sees every move on the chess board. That 's what we 're seeing in terms of Hive 's thinking. It is about a new world order of sorts. '' On how much influence the memories of those whose bodies Hive inhabits have on the character, Dalton said, "It 's the motivations... you 're seeing a flash of it. It 's almost like seeing your kid. There are flashes of you in there... but then again, it 's not me. ''
Dalton realized that Hive would not be on the show for long when he took the part, with "the big, big bad '' less likely to last as long as an "anti-hero '' like Ward. On Hive 's final scene in the third - season finale, Dalton noted that there would have been no point in the character doing anything other than reflect: "It 's like looking into a fire. Somehow the truth comes out. You 're looking at the Earth, man. It 's so far away. And you 'll get a perspective on things. For Hive, he was trying to change that entire thing and everyone who was on there... I think there 's a great deal of remorse (that he was not) able to achieve that connection and do all the things that (he) wanted to do. But there was also an acceptance. ''
Daisy Johnson (portrayed by Chloe Bennet) was born in China to Calvin Johnson and his Inhuman wife Jiaying, but was soon taken by S.H.I.E.L.D. agents and raised as an orphan by nuns. Taking the name "Skye '', she became a skilled hacktivist, opposing organisations like S.H.I.E.L.D. This led to her involvement with Coulson, who decided to recruit her, and have Ward, and then May, train her to be a formidable field agent. After reuniting with her father, Skye chooses to drive him away, knowing him to be a monster and murderer, though his wishes for her to fulfill her destiny -- by unlocking her Inhuman abilities -- are granted when she unintentionally comes into contact with the Terrigen Mists, which give her earthquake - generating abilities. Skye soon meets Jiaying, who helps Skye control her abilities. Skye 's loyalties are tested when Jiaying attempts to start a war with S.H.I.E.L.D., and she ultimately sides with S.H.I.E.L.D. Now using her birth name, Johnson forms a S.H.I.E.L.D. team of Inhumans named the Secret Warriors. After briefly being connected to Hive, and watching Lincoln Campbell, with whom she developed a romantic relationship, sacrifice himself for her, Johnson leaves S.H.I.E.L.D. and becomes known as the powered vigilante "Quake '' to the public.
Daisy Johnson was created by Brian Michael Bendis and Gabriele Dell'Otto for Secret War # 2. When the character of Skye was introduced to the series, it was always intended that she would be the MCU version of Johnson, as executive producer Maurissa Tancharoen explained, "there are always the series of clearances, but we always knew we wanted to evolve Skye into something else. Daisy Johnson was the main character that we wanted to go for. We got confirmation on that very early on, so we 've been on that track ever since. '' Bennet was cast as Skye in December 2012, out of more than 400 actresses who auditioned for the role. Unlike the comic version, Skye is an Inhuman; Jed Whedon explained that "We 've created a different origin for her... we merged those two ideas together also because there are such rabid fans out there that if we stick to original story points from the comics, they will smell story points from miles away. Those two factors led us to coming up with a different notion of how she got her powers. '' During a single - shot fight sequence in "The Dirty Half Dozen '', Bennet broke her arm and finished the second season without wearing a cast.
Skye 's initial costume design was intended to keep her relatable, with inspiration coming from street style blogs, but as she became a more experienced S.H.I.E.L.D. agent in the second season, she received a more tactical outfit. For the third season, Bennet cut her hair to further her character 's transformation to Daisy Johnson, as she is portrayed in the comics, though she did not cut her hair as short as her comic counterpart; Bennet explained that "the comic book version of Daisy Johnson has very short, Miley Cyrus-esque hair. We wanted to stay true to the comic book character fans love; I wanted to please them but also make sure there was still some movement and length and sexiness in the hair. '' Bennet also received a superhero costume for the third season, again bringing the character closer to the version in the comics. Foley felt that "one of the most important things was that the symbol be incorporated into her costume but especially onto the gauntlets, And it 's also on the back of her suit, which was a fun little touch that we added. As far as the silhouette, we wanted to stay true to the comics and pay tribute to those original designs. I also wanted to incorporate the gold color that I 've seen in some of the illustrations of her suit throughout the comics, which is why we have the gold lines that we see on the suit. Finally, for me personally, I wanted a nod to her tactical look from last season, so if you look at the style lines around the top of the costume, you will see that they 're similar to her tactical hood from Season 2. '' The suit was "made out of printed EuroJersey, which works well for these costumes because it 's a four - way stretch that gives Chloe the ability to move and do her stunts... But there is a lot more leather in her suit than in some of the others. '' Legacy Effects created Johnson 's iconic gauntlets from the comics, making them "out of flexible materials painted to look like metal '' so as not to injure anyone during stunts.
Bennet, talking about Skye 's commitment to S.H.I.E.L.D., stated that "I think at the beginning she came into S.H.I.E.L.D. thinking it was this government - run, CIA - type thing, where they 're not for the people and their motives were not good ones. But throughout the (first) season, being on the team and seeing what was happening, she really got to know why S.H.I.E.L.D. is there. It really is to protect people, and the intention behind the organization is pure... I think she finds a parallel between S.H.I.E.L.D. and Coulson, and I think that 's why she 's committed to it so deeply. '' Elaborating on this, Bennet said "she 's always had this unspoken bond with Coulson that 's a very father / daughter relationship where clearly the love they have for each other is evident in a very caring way. ''
Going into the second season, Bennet noted on the character, "I think she 's always someone who will wear her heart on her sleeve, but I think she 's much smarter about it now, if that makes any sense. I do n't think she 's the type of person who can halfass anything, and that includes emotions. If she feels something, she feels something. But she knows how to control it more ''. Talking about the changes to the character after it was revealed that she was Daisy Johnson and an Inhuman, Tancharoen said "With this discovery will come some consequences, especially in her relationships with everyone around her, specifically Coulson... Needless to say, it 's going to be a very complex, emotional journey for her. We have the ability on a television show to really explore the emotional journey of that. What does that mean now that she has this ability? Does she even want it? '' Explaining some of these changes in the character, Bennet stated that "I make sure to try to keep the season one Daisy weaved through the new, badass Daisy... (but) she 's changed a lot. She went into S.H.I.E.L.D. hating organizations like S.H.I.E.L.D., and now she 's the epitome of S.H.I.E.L.D. She believes in everything that they believe in. ''
Discussing the character becoming leader of the Secret Warriors, Bennet said, "What makes her such a good leader is how much she 's been through, so she can relate to everyone on the team and she really has so much empathy and that 's what I love about playing her. She really genuinely cares about everyone so deeply and it wears heavily on her because she obviously went through this big Inhuman change... And so what I think makes her such a good kind of... unconventional leader is that she 's really kind of still learning and I think that 's so realistic that leaders are -- it 's almost like when you grow up and you realize that your parents are just humans, parenting. '' Wen noted how the character "has evolved from being so anti-establishment into suddenly being someone who wants to create an establishment that would help and enhance the betterment of the world '', to which Bennet said, "she was lost for a really long time, she was an orphan and she wanted to find her parents and all of a sudden she does and it 's not what she expected. You know, when your mom tries to kill you and your dad is Hyde. So she 's kind of grown into this. ''
Entering the fourth season, Bennet felt that, after the events of the final episode of season three, Johnson was "in a darker place. She 's mourning. She cares about the team so much that she feels like she is protecting them by kind of pushing them away, because I think she feel like everything bad happens around her and she ca n't help but cause problems. Her way of taking care of the people she cares about is kind of pushing them away, which... is not the best thing. '' She also added that physically, Johnson would not be in great shape, since she is no longer under S.H.I.E.L.D. 's monitoring "containing and helping me grow my powers '' so there would be "repercussions of her kind of using these powers and... abusing her body ''.
Bennet received nominations for ' Favorite TV Actress ' and ' Favorite Female TV Star -- Family Show ' at the 28th and 29th Kids ' Choice Awards, respectively.
Leopold "Leo '' James Fitz (portrayed by Iain De Caestecker) is brought on to Coulson 's team as an engineering and weapons technology specialist, and provides tech support for the team throughout the first season. He has a close bond with Agent Simmons, the two having graduated from the S.H.I.E.L.D. academy together. At the end of the first season he confesses to Simmons that he has romantic feelings towards her, before nearly dying in an attempt to save her. Left with severe brain damage, Fitz struggles with technology and speech, but over time becomes a full member of the team again. In the Framework, Fitz works for Hydra as "The Doctor '' and has a relationship with Madame Hydra.
De Caestecker was cast as Fitz in November 2012. Following injuries the character receives at the end of the first season, the series began to deal with brain trauma, as De Caestecker explained "From the get - go, before I even knew about it, the writers had the idea, and they did a lot of research in it with doctors. When I found out about it, I did my own research and correlated it together. It 's just something that should never be trivialized. It 's a real and serious thing to a lot of people, brain trauma, so we just have to constantly be respectful towards it. We talk about it all the time. Even if you do n't see it or it 's not obvious, it 's always something that 's in our heads that we 're keeping going. It 's the realization that you never get fully better, it 's about embracing the new side of you and making that work in the world that you 're in. I suppose the idea of a cure -- I do n't know if that could happen. '' For Fitz 's costume design, Foley tried to have his clothes reflect his personality, without "getting too cliché... we try and play up his "heritage style ''... using classic design details on him like paisley & leather elbow patches and mixing them with different plaids. ''
De Caestecker, in describing the character, said that "Fitz has got this funny kind of temper. He 's quite passionate about what he does. So those moments where -- I do n't think he 's someone that really responds very quickly to emotion; he does n't really understand emotions as much ''. Fitz has a lot of interaction with Simmons in the series, with De Caestecker explaining "My character, he 's Engineering, so he 's on the computer and tech side of everything. He 's consumed within that world, and he works very closely with Simmons, who 's Biochem. They 've got this kind of weird chemistry together, and they just kind of fit each other in a very weird way. '' Regarding the changing dynamic over time between Fitz and Simmons, De Caestecker said "I suppose what 's happened from the start of season two up to midseason is, they 've become a lot stronger as individuals, I think. But I think they still care for and need each other a lot, and they also work better together when they are together. But I think there 's a lot of things that have still been unsaid and will hopefully come out, certain confrontations that are still bubbling under. ''
De Caestecker was named TVLine 's "Performer of the Week '' for the week of September 27, 2015, for his performance in "Laws of Nature '', particularly the episode 's final scene.
Jemma Simmons (portrayed by Elizabeth Henstridge) is brought on to Coulson 's team as a life sciences (both human and alien) specialist, and has a close bond with Agent Fitz, the two having graduated from the S.H.I.E.L.D. academy together. She grows to mistrust all things alien and superhuman, but shows her loyalty to Coulson despite this when they are faced with the rival S.H.I.E.L.D. faction. Following the fight against the Inhumans, Simmons is absorbed by the Kree monolith, a portal to the alien planet Maveth. There she falls in love with Will Daniels, who sacrifices himself so she can return to Earth. Simmons eventually moves on from Daniels and begins a relationship with Fitz.
Henstridge was also cast in November 2012. She described her character as "a biochem expert. She 's young and hungry and she 's a great woman to play because she 's intelligent and focused and curious and she does n't apologize for it. She 's got a wonderful relationship with Fitz. They kind of bounce off each other. '' After the reveal during the season two premiere that Fitz was just imagining Simmons in the episode, Henstridge explained that the showrunners "tell you what you need to know to act your scenes, but anything after that, you never know. '' For Simmons ' costume design, Foley tried to have her clothes reflect her personality, without "getting too cliché... we mix the hard with the soft -- we combine the feminine elements like peter pan collars, silk blouses and florals with the masculine touches like ties ''.
Henstridge talked about the characters of Fitz and Simmons being separated over the course of the series, noting that they have "never been without each other. When you see them without each other, that brings a whole new dynamic just to them as characters in discovering what it 's like to have to be independent ''. On Simmons ' guilt over Fitz 's brain damage, Henstridge said "She feels a huge amount of guilt. There 's a lot of emotions happening. A lot of it revolves around Fitz and Ward. She feels a lot of anger and resentment at the situation. When something catastrophic happens to someone you love, or a situation arises that affects people you love the most, if that 's the first time you 've been in that position, you never really know what to do. '' As this relationship developed through the second season, Henstridge said, "I do n't think they fully realize the implication of how far apart they are. There 's so much hurt there. I do n't think they realize what they 're sacrificing by not figuring this out. '' Talking about the harsher side of Simmons seen later in the second season, after the reveal of the Inhumans and the subsequent death of Agent Triplett, Henstridge explained that at the beginning of the series, Simmons was "very mathematical '' but throughout the first season "understood that it was more about human relationships and what it means to save someone 's life ''. Now, "she 's had a traumatic event and she 's gone straight back to what she knows of trying to make everything black and white '', and so "It makes sense (to her) if there are these people -- call them what you want; Inhumans -- that cause destruction, and you can get rid of them, then they wo n't be a destruction (sic) anymore... Of course it is n't '' that simple.
After Simmons is trapped on the planet Maveth for six months, she becomes "profoundly different '', with Henstridge describing her as "definitely still her essence -- she does n't just completely change. But she 's been through so much. She 's hardened. She 's had to face things that she never would 've imagined, also by herself without Fitz, so she 's definitely changed, stronger and kind of damaged. '' Describing the relationship that Simmons develops with Daniels on the planet, and comparing it to that with Fitz, Henstridge said, "It 's very visceral. It 's more primal and intense. That just comes from having to survive in a hostile environment, only having each other on the whole planet. The stakes are always so high, so it 's more physical than her relationship with Fitz. FitzSimmons is a slow burn that 's taken years and years, and they connected over intellect, whereas her and Will, it 's an "us against the world '' kind of thing. '' After Daniels dies and Simmons eventually moves on with Fitz, the latter two are shown consummating their relationship after several seasons worth of build up. "We imagine they spend the morning after laughing a lot about what just happened, '' said Whedon and Tancharoen, "We want their relationship to feel like their friendship did, because all the best relationships are just that. So moving forward, while this change in their friendship would hopefully only deepen their connection, it is bound also to make things a bit more complicated. ''
Henstridge was named TVLine 's "Performer of the Week '' for the week of October 25, 2015, for her performance in "4,722 Hours '', particularly for carrying the episode herself.
Lance Hunter (portrayed by Nick Blood), an SAS lieutenant turned mercenary, joins post-Hydra S.H.I.E.L.D. at the request of Coulson following a recommendation from his ex-wife Bobbi Morse. Despite a tumultuous relationship with Morse, Hunter becomes a full - time S.H.I.E.L.D. agent, and risks his life to save her when she is kidnapped. Following an incident in Russia involving the near - assassination of Prime Minister Olshenko, Hunter and Morse decide to disavow themselves from S.H.I.E.L.D. to protect Coulson and the team.
Lance Hunter, created by Gary Friedrich as the British version of Nick Fury for Captain Britain Weekly, was confirmed in September 2014 to be a member of the principal cast for the second season. Blood was announced as cast at the 2014 San Diego Comic Con, where the character was described as not a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent, but a mercenary. On his character joining the cast, Blood explained that "each different character, the original characters, has a different kind of response to (Hunter). Generally I think they 're slightly wary, a little bit suspicious, (but also) a little bit amused by him. Because the nice thing about him coming into this group is that Lance does n't really care that much of what people think of him. So he 's very much himself and very comfortable in it. He does n't bow down to the etiquette of the S.H.I.E.L.D. hierarchy. ''
Talking about Hunter 's integration into the team following an offer from Coulson to become a full - time agent, Blood said, "I feel Hunter probably feels very independent, still, so I do n't think he would like to admit that he 's not an outsider, that he 's a part of it... He does n't have too much respect for authority and titles, particularly in this world, but I think he takes each decision as it comes. If Coulson does something he respects, that 's all good. If he does n't, he 's going to say something. But I think he sees that (Coulson is) trying to do the right thing, and he 's got a lot of respect for him in that sense ''. Also, on Hunter 's on - again, off - again relationship with Morse, Blood said, "I think the dynamic 's great. I think it 's really good and there is a lot of truth in it of those relationships you have where it 's kind of, "ca n't live with each other, ca n't kill each other, '' and that sort of thing. '' After Hunter kills a man in "A Wanted (Inhu) man '', Blood said, "I think that 's probably newer for the audience than it is for Hunter. I think Hunter, in his past, has probably done some morally questionable acts... not to say he 's ever been a vicious, vindictive, or immoral person. I think he 's just kind of straddled that line between right and wrong. ''
Blood left the series following the season three episode "Parting Shot '' to star in the spin - off show Marvel 's Most Wanted. As that series was not picked up in May 2016, it was announced in September 2017 that Blood would return to Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D during season five.
Barbara "Bobbi '' Morse (portrayed by Adrianne Palicki) is Hunter 's ex-wife and an agent of S.H.I.E.L.D. A founding member of the "real S.H.I.E.L.D. '' after disobeying Fury 's orders to save hundreds of S.H.I.E.L.D. lives, she infiltrates Coulson 's group for reconnaissance. Coulson sends her undercover within Hydra, where she gave up the location of Agent 33 rather than risk the lives of many other S.H.I.E.L.D. agents. She later agrees, along with her fellow "real S.H.I.E.L.D. '' leaders, to combine their faction with Coulson 's. Ward then kidnaps her in an attempt to force her to confess to giving up 33 to Hydra, but when Morse is unrepentant, Ward sets a trap for Hunter which will see him killed in front of her. Morse takes the bullet for Hunter, barely surviving. Following an incident in Russia involving the near - assassination of Prime Minister Olshenko, Morse and Hunter decide to disavow themselves from S.H.I.E.L.D. to protect Coulson and the team.
At the 2014 San Diego Comic Con, the character of Bobbi Morse / Mockingbird, who was first introduced in Astonishing Tales # 6 by Gerry Conway, was revealed to be appearing in the second season. That August, Palicki was cast as Morse in a guest role, to appear in the episode "A Hen in the Wolf House '', but with the potential to return. Palicki, a comic fan, was approached by the showrunners specifically for the part, and at first hesitated to take the role, thinking "I will never be able to play another Marvel character if I go forward in this role. '' Palicki already had martial arts and gun training, but had to learn to use the character 's signature arnis sticks, and noted similarities between Morse 's fighting style and that of Scarlett Johansson 's Black Widow from the MCU films. Palicki was promoted to series regular with the season two episode "Aftershocks ''.
In approaching Morse 's costume, Foley "looked at all of her comic appearances and really wanted to try to bring elements of the look from the comics into the costume that we 're doing now for the show... but we had to change it, obviously, for practicality, because it had to fit into our world. It had to have a kind of tactical feeling to it too so that it made sense in our universe. She 's got rivets that are in the straps across her chest, and those are there as a tribute to the buttons that go down the side of her (most recent comics) costume ''. The character 's comics costume is traditionally navy blue and white, which was changed to navy blue and grey for the series. Three sets of the costume were produced; two for Palicki to wear, and one for her stunt double. Foley used "lots of stretch panels '' and leather to ensure freedom of movement in the character 's many action sequences.
With the reveal of Morse 's loyalty to the "real S.H.I.E.L.D. '' faction, Palicki explained that the character was "not doing anything wrong in her (own) eyes... This was a choice she made. She 's been through hell with these people. She does care about Coulson 's team. She 's torn because of Hunter and she has a soft spot for Coulson. But at the end of it, she really is a true soldier and she feels there has been a compromise and she needs to take care of it. '' Bell, in response to a question on whether Morse had more secrets than those revealed during the second season, stated that "she and Hunter have been keeping secrets from one another, evidently for years. And one of the things I find interesting about her is she seems to be more of an ideologue -- she 's loyal to an idea -- and sometimes, the short term of what appears to be betrayal or short term conflict is often because of what she views as the greater good. And that 's an interesting character to have in a world where Coulson is much more "we need to protect or save that person. '' Are you loyal to a person? Are you loyal to the guy in the bunker next to you? Or are you loyal to the larger concept of what we 're fighting for? ''
When asked about her character potentially appearing in an MCU film, Palicki said "that was one of the things that was discussed when I was coming on for the part, and you know, we 'll see what happens. It 's such a nice world that we live in that crossover can happen so often now which in the past it never really did so, to see these worlds come together on the small screen and the big screen is really cool. '' Palicki left the series following the season three episode "Parting Shot '' to star in the spin - off show Marvel 's Most Wanted.
Palicki was named as an honorable mention for TVLine 's "Performer of the Week '' for the week of March 20, 2016, for her performance in "Parting Shot ''.
Alphonso "Mack '' MacKenzie (portrayed by Henry Simmons), a S.H.I.E.L.D. mechanic under Robert Gonzales, is a founding member of the "real S.H.I.E.L.D. '', and infiltrates Coulson 's group with Morse. After being briefly mind - controlled by Kree technology Mack 's distrust in alien and the superhuman is deepened, and he decides to leave S.H.I.E.L.D. when his fellow leaders agree to join forces with Coulson. However, following the war with the Inhumans, Coulson convinces Mack to stay, and places him in charge of all alien materials. Coulson makes Mack acting director of S.H.I.E.L.D. when he goes after Ward and Hydra. In the Framework, Mack 's daughter Hope is still alive. After being used by Hydra to reveal Johnson is from the real world, he seeks out the S.H.I.E.L.D. resistance to help them. When the exit point from the Framework is found, Mack chooses to stay behind, saying that the time he spent with the Framework version of Hope was real enough for him. He later leaves the Framework when Hope disappears amongst the Framework 's collapse.
In August 2014, Simmons joined the cast as Mack, a recurring character inspired by one that first appeared in Nick Fury vs. S.H.I.E.L.D. # 3. He was promoted to series regular for the third season.
Simmons described Mack as "a big guy. That is, he has a big heart, but when it comes down to it and business has to get done, there 's another side of him that gets it done... He wants to make a difference, so that 's why he wants to be a part of this team ''. On the different dynamic that a mechanic brings to the S.H.I.E.L.D. team, Simmons said "I think my guy does have a little bit of a different element, (because) the other people have the stress of the everyday life or death danger situations. Mack does n't have that quite yet. He has the stress of getting things done because he wants to contribute, but he 's not out there in the field... They might have their quips and everything, but everything is very serious. I see that my guy brings a little bit of a different color to everything. He has a little bit more humor to him, he 's a little bit more laid back. '' On Mack 's stance on violence, Simmons confirmed that "Mack really is a guy that does not like violence at all, but, when pushed, it 's "by any means necessary. '' He does n't enjoy it, but he 'll do what he has to do. ''
After Mack 's allegiance to the "real S.H.I.E.L.D. '' faction is revealed, and as his distrust of Coulson grew throughout the second season, Simmons spoke of Mack 's feelings towards Coulson: "He respects Coulson. And I think he genuinely likes Coulson. But I think he just believes that Coulson is not the right man for the job... look, I 'm loyal, but if the head is going about doing things that really are n't in our job description, and he 's using us to do things for personal reasons, and then one of my brothers dies because of it? Yeah, I have a problem. And everyone else should, too... when Coulson is in his most crazed state and on the verge of killing Sebastian Derik, no one has ever seen Coulson like that. Skye witnessed it, but she has a different relationship to him; there 's like a father / daughter thing going. So out of the whole team, I was the only one to see him like that, completely out of control. I tried to explain it to Hunter -- if that happened in that instant, what 's going to happen when everything is on the line? How is he going to act? -- and Hunter kind of brushed it aside. But that 's another reason why Mack is very, very deeply skeptical. ''
Lincoln Campbell (portrayed by Luke Mitchell) is an Inhuman doctor with the ability to control electric charges. He helps Skye adjust to her new life post-terrigenesis, and his later attempt to protect her from S.H.I.E.L.D. and Hydra leads to his capture and experimentation at the hands of Dr. List. Skye saves his life, and when she turns on Jiaying once realizing her true intentions, Campbell is shortly convinced to do the same. Following Jiaying 's death, Campbell attempts to live a normal life, convinced that his Inhuman abilities are a curse, but is hunted by the ATCU and becomes a fugitive. He subsequently joins S.H.I.E.L.D. for protection and to be near Skye -- now going by Daisy Johnson and with whom Campbell forms a relationship -- and becomes a Secret Warrior. Campbell chooses to sacrifice himself to save the team and the world from Hive 's plan by taking Hive and a nuclear warhead to space in a quinjet where the weapon can detonate without affecting Earth.
Mitchell was introduced as Lincoln Campbell, a recurring character, in the second season. He was promoted to series regular for the third season. Regarding the character 's introduction, Bell stated that "Meeting Luke 's character in the Inhuman world is just setting up a new dynamic. We 're taking Skye into a group with a whole bunch of different people. So far, we 've seen that there 's a guy with no eyes, and there 's a woman who now is covered in thorns. And as in the X-Men world, there are a handful of people who look more like them, but a lot of them turn out to be just attractive people with powers. And we thought, "Hey, let 's have some of those as well! '' We were looking for a new character to come on, and Luke just really impressed us. He was a good actor, had a nice quality, and we felt he might be a good person to sort of usher Skye into this other world. ''
Heading into season three, Mitchell explained that "the Lincoln that the audience was introduced to in season two was a side of Lincoln, and that side of Lincoln was not necessarily a lie or the truth or whatever, but we all put on different faces in different environments... I think in that environment Lincoln was very much under the spell of the Inhuman Elders. He played his part in the hierarchy there and he believed in the cause, which then was exposed to be evil. Then in season three, it 's like, wow, how is he dealing with the events in season two? '' On seeing Lincoln 's darker side in the third season, Mitchell said, "I think we 're going to see a lot more of Lincoln 's issues with his past pop up, in particular possibly some anger issues that have been unresolved. They pop their heads up from time to time. Certainly in matters of conflict, in pressure situations ''.
On the relationship that Campbell develops with Johnson, the only person who can "keep him somewhat in check when it comes to his anger '', Mitchell said, "he wants to make something of his life, but he does n't see anything without Daisy in the picture '', and "if something were to happen to Daisy, I think Lincoln would n't stay in S.H.I.E.L.D. Daisy is his life. He 'll do anything to get her back. '' This is seen when he agrees to wear a "murder vest '' as a fail safe, and when he disobeys orders to test an experimental antitoxin on himself -- "Once he does that, and it does n't work, then they put him in the containment module for his own benefit, because his immune system is done. It becomes incredibly frustrating. '' Mitchell added, "He makes these decisions, but you still see the fear in him when he does this. It 's not just bravado... There 's a deep well of emotion in him. ''
The episode "Bouncing Back '' opens with "a mysterious flash - forward to three months in the future, showing an unidentified S.H.I.E.L.D. agent seemingly dead in space '', leading to a "four - episode event '' for the final episodes of the season, marketed as Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: Fallen Agent. A poster created by Greg Land for the event recreated the cover of the "iconic '' The Amazing Spider - Man # 121 that served as the first issue of the story arc "The Night Gwen Stacy Died '', and ahead of the season finale, Marvel released a series of videos that "memorialized '' each of the potential character who could have been the Fallen Agent. The final episode of the season reveals that it is Campbell who dies, which the executive producers had known going into the season when forming the arcs for Lincoln, Daisy, and Ward. Bell said he "earned it '', adding that Lincoln comes to a point where he realizes what his purpose is, with Whedon explaining that the decision was based on the fact that the series did not "want to be a body count show, but it is a real world with real stakes. What we had not done is the heroic death and the full - sacrifice death. This was a conscious decision. We also think that there 's a poetry in the fact that the person doing it does n't consider himself a hero. That 's the beauty of the moment -- it 's not just for (Daisy), but it is, and it 's not just for him, but it is. ''
Holden Radcliffe (portrayed by John Hannah) is a transhumanist who believes in the improvement of humanity through enhancement. Due to his studies of parasites, Fitz and Simmons seek his help with counteracting Hive 's abilities, but he is kidnapped by Hive first to help recreate the original Kree experiment that created the Inhumans. After a S.H.I.E.L.D. raid on Hive 's base, Radcliffe escapes and agrees to cooperate with Coulson and Talbot. After being acquitted, Radcliffe transfers his artificial intelligence AIDA into a Life Model Decoy (LMD), an old S.H.I.E.L.D. project, which Radcliffe also names Aida. After seeing pages from the Darkhold, Radcliffe begins using his LMDs, including Aida and a decoy of May, to try and take it for himself in an attempt to learn the secret to eternal life. Fearing for his safety, Radcliffe also creates a decoy of himself, and seeks protection from the Watchdogs. Using the Darkhold and the resources of the Watchdogs ' Superior, Racliffe creates an entire digital world within the Framework. Feeling that Radcliffe may one day jeopardize the Framework himself, Aida slits Radcliffe 's wrists and uploads his mind to the Framework as his body dies. Within the Framework, his consciousness resided on Ogygia with Agnes in exchange for not interfering with Aida 's work as Madame Hydra. After redeeming himself, Holden is deleted amongst the Framework 's collapse.
Hannah recurred as Radcliffe during the end of the third season, before being promoted to the main cast for the fourth season. On Radcliffe transferring his artificial intelligence AIDA into a Life Model Decoy, Whedon said, "Radcliffe has a good heart, but he 's willing to do anything for science. He 's excited about the prospect. He said Fitz and Simmons had friends die and maybe they did n't have to. He 's clearly opening a box. Whether or not it 's Pandora 's box, we 'll see. He thinks there 's something beyond humans. '' Tancharoen added, "To someone like Radcliffe, he might believe that to be just the next step in human evolution. There are a number of people who are into body modification now, so what does that mean? What 's the root of that? ''
Hannah felt portray Radcliffe was "quite interesting '', describing him as "someone who is not the up - down, white - hearted good guy '' but still is not "a bad guy ''. He also noted the fatherly feelings Radcliffe has towards Aida, stating, "possibly as (their relationship) develops, as she proves there 's almost a paternal... caring and sympathetic way in which that technology has developed self - awareness and how that self - awareness disappoints. A bit like you would with a child, where a child becomes aware of their own limitations, their own lackings. I would say there 's certainly have a very benign kind of deity sense about it -- a benign... not dictatorship about it, but a benign parental way about it. ''
The following is a list of guest characters that have recurring roles throughout the series. The characters are listed by the MCU media or season in which they first appeared.
Gideon Malick (portrayed by Powers Boothe) is a former member of the World Security Council and secret leader of Hydra who ascended to power following the death of his father in 1970. Gideon was joined by his brother Nathaniel, but the two soon learned of a trick their father used to avoid being sacrificed to Hive, and when Gideon followed suit, Nathaniel was sacrificed. Gideon successfully opens the portal to allow Hive to return to Earth, but Hive reveals that he has retained Nathaniel 's memories, and punishes Gideon by murdering his daughter Stephanie. After being captured by S.H.I.E.L.D., Gideon cooperates with Coulson against Hive. Gideon is murdered by Johnson while she is controlled by Hive.
In October 2015, it was announced that Boothe was joining the series as a recurring character early in the third season, reprising his role from The Avengers (where he was credited only as "World Security Council ''). On how much the series would use the character later in the third season, following the midseason finale, Whedon stated that "we 'd be fools not to use him more. We could n't be bigger fans of (Boothe 's) portrayal of the role. We knew going in that we were going to get some bang for our buck, and we 've been loving writing the character. We love the way he 's attacking the scenes. We plan on keeping him around, because we 'd be idiots not to. '' Cameron Palatas portrays a young Gideon Malick.
Mike Peterson (portrayed by J. August Richards) is an ordinary man that was artificially enhanced with the Extremis - containing Centipede serum by Project Centipede. Peterson later joins S.H.I.E.L.D, but is caught in an explosion and awakens without his right leg and under the control of the "Clairvoyant '', who gives him a bionic prosthetic limb as part of "Project Deathlok ''. After the defeat of Centipede and the "Clairvoyant '', Peterson works for Coulson covertly, and aids in the take down of Hydra leader Dr. List.
Richards appeared in Joss Whedon 's Angel as Charles Gunn before being cast as Peterson, who was revealed to be the MCU version of Deathlok in January 2014. Created by Rich Buckler and Doug Moench in 1974, Deathlok has gone through many different iterations in the comics. Richards called the role "a dream come true '', and described the character 's costume and makeup, which took "about five departments... two hours to do the makeup and then (about) 15 or 20 minutes to get into the costume '', as "restrictive. I love the costume and it really helps me to play the character, because it makes me feel part - machine, part - human. '' The costume also had to be enhanced with visual effects, including the addition of a robotic leg and an arm mounted rocket launcher, as well as a half metal plated skull with robotic eye for when Deathlok is seen with x-ray vision. The costume was updated and evolved to be closer to the comic version for Deathlok 's appearance in the second season.
Richards found "the theme of Deathlok (to be) about deep, internal conflict, and that 's what we 're bringing with this (version). '' After returning late in the second season, Richards looked back, and felt that his initial awkwardness and reluctance with the character and the costume reflected Peterson 's own journey becoming Deathlok. He also noted that when the character says "Mike Peterson is dead '', "the only way that line could have meaning (is) if it were not true. I always think of Mike Peterson being at the core of this character, and whatever happens as a result of that, is all Mike Petersen. ''
Ian Quinn (portrayed by David Conrad) is a wealthy industrialist / philanthropist and the CEO of Quinn Worldwide, who is involved with The Clairvoyant. He acquires Deathlok technology for Mike Peterson, and attempts to sell more Deathlok soldiers to the U.S. military. After Garrett is defeated, Quinn goes into hiding with his gravitonium.
Raina (portrayed by Ruth Negga) was raised by Calvin Johnson, and grew up with stories of her heritage as an Inhuman, and her potential to be more. Becoming the Project Centipede recruiter due to her interest in powered people, Raina works with Hydra in an attempt to replicate the GH - 325 serum that was used to resurrect Coulson. She eventually goes through Terrigenesis, gaining the power of precognition, but also a monstrous appearance. Raina comes to accept her new circumstances, and later allows Jiaying to kill her so that Skye can learn of the former 's true intent.
Negga was first cast as a guest star in October 2013, with executive producer Jeffrey Bell later explaining that "Ruth Negga showed up and we just fell in love with her and found ways to use her beyond our initial conception ''. Foley was informed of Raina ahead of time, allowing her to flesh out the character with illustrations, as well as print specific fabric. When Raina is introduced in "Girl in the Flower Dress '', Foley and Negga "wanted to show a progression in her dresses that reflects where her character might be going '', with her initially unclear intentions paired with "a softer silhouette '' and a pattern of white with black flowers. For her second appearance in the episode, "it 's becoming clear that she has an agenda '' so the dress is more streamlined, and the colors are flipped to black with white flowers. For her final appearance in the episode, her dress is red with black flowers. Foley concluded, "By the time you see her again in ('' The Bridge ") you know she means business ''. After Raina is transformed in the second season she hides her hideous appearance with a hooded jacket, which Foley subtly added a flower pattern to, as "she was always going to be the girl in the flower dress, so I wanted to pay tribute to that ''.
Raina 's Inhuman look was created by Glenn Hetrick of Optic Nerve Studios. To get to the final look, the writers spent a lot of time discussing what her transformed look would entail, such as if she would have a nose, or a tail, with series writer Drew Greenberg eventually suggesting thorns. With the design idea in hand, Hetrick and his team began compiling potential designs for the character, looking to the Clive Barker film Nightbreed, specifically the character Shuna Sassi, because "She 's a creature covered in porcupine quills and that image is so strong -- it creates such a striking silhouette ''. Since Hetrick and his team did not have source material to pull from in the comics, he wanted to "make her feel like the first real Inhuman '' and give her face a level of symmetry. When creating the prosthetic makeup, which was done in two weeks, the producers wanted to still be able to see Negga 's eyes, with Bell saying, "Ruth Negga has amazingly expressive eyes and eyebrows. And she gets so much of who Raina is through the eyes. We wanted her to still be able to communicate, we still wanted you to feel her expressions through all of (the makeup). ''
Victoria Hand (portrayed by Saffron Burrows) is introduced as the high - ranking S.H.I.E.L.D. agent who runs The Hub, a S.H.I.E.L.D. base. After discovering that Hydra exists within S.H.I.E.L.D., Hand turns on Coulson, believing him to be a double agent. However, Garrett soon reveals himself to be the traitor, and Hand works with Coulson to detain him. She is killed by Ward when he reveals himself to be a member of Hydra to save Garrett from imprisonment.
In November 2013, Burrows was announced as playing Hand, who was created by Brian Michael Bendis and Mike Deodato, and played an integral role in their Dark Avengers comic book series. The character was intentionally introduced in the first season as a mislead for the true identity of the Clairvoyant. With the introduction of Lucy Lawless as Isabelle Hartley in the second season, the executive producers considered establishing a relationship between Hand and Hartley, since the comic book - counterpart of Hand was in a relationship with a character called Isabelle, but Tancharoen stated that "it started to be irresponsible if we addressed it to not address it with more weight and time and energy. '' However, this relationship was later hinted at onscreen in "One Door Closes ''.
Davis (portrayed by Maximilian Osinski) is a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent who worked alongside Phil Coulson 's group on investigating the explosion at StatiCorp 's Particle Accelerator Complex before the Hydra Uprising. He later returned to S.H.I.E.L.D. when Jeffrey Mace became its director. During the LMD infiltration of the S.H.I.E.L.D. base, Davis and a few surviving S.H.I.E.L.D. agents help Daisy Johnson and Jemma Simmons escape the base. Davis is later killed by Ophelia.
Anne Weaver (portrayed by Christine Adams) is the director of the S.H.I.E.L.D. Academy of Science and Technology who joins the leadership of the "real S.H.I.E.L.D. '' following the fall of the original organization, in which she fought one of Hydra 's enhanced soldiers, developing a distrust in the superhumans. She takes over command of the S.H.I.E.L.D. warship The Iliad following the death of Robert Gonzales.
John Garrett (portrayed by Bill Paxton) was a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent who was left for dead by that organization, and only survived by becoming the first Deathlok. Joining Hydra, he became "The Clairvoyant '', leader of the Centipede group, and was focused on discovering the secret to Coulson 's resurrection given the impending failure of his now outdated Deathlok technology. Under the guise of a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent tasked with capturing and interrogating Ian Quinn, Garrett joins in Coulson 's efforts to find the GH - 325 drug. Based on his findings, Raina is able to synthesize a version of the drug, which does save his life. However, after Hydra is revealed to have infiltrated S.H.I.E.L.D. and Garret is outed as the Clairvoyant, Coulson kills him by disintegration.
In December 2013, "a high - level S.H.I.E.L.D. agent / munitions expert who has past ties to both Coulson and Ward '' was set to be added to the series. The next month, Paxton was cast as Agent John Garrett, "a rough - and - tumble former cohort of Agent Coulson with a little bit of attitude and cigar - smoking swagger ''. Garrett was first introduced by Frank Miller and Bill Sienkiewicz in Elektra: Assassin. Jed Whedon said that "We actually discussed Bill Paxton in the room, when we were talking about the character... Then when he came up as an actual possibility, we could n't believe it. '' Following the revelation that Garrett was The Clairvoyant, Paxton said, "He 's felt like he 's found a true home in Hydra, which is more of a Darwinian outfit. It 's survival of the fittest. He can relate to that. ''
Antoine Triplett (portrayed by B.J. Britt) worked with Garrett until the Hydra reveal, after which he joins Coulson 's team. Trip perishes when he becomes trapped in the chamber Skye and Raina undergo Terrigenesis in and gets hit by a fragment of the Diviner. In the Framework, Antoine Triplett is Jeffrey Mace 's inside man who got caught and was incarcerated at a Hydra Cultivation Enlightenment Camp until he was freed by Mace and Phil Coulson.
In December 2013, "an African - American agent who specializes in combat / weapons '' was set to be added to the series. In February, Britt was announced as cast in the role of Triplett. Britt 's smile and charm were incorporated into the character after he had worked with the writers for several episodes, with Tancharoen saying to Britt "I love your smile. We have to incorporate the smile of Trip into the show. '' Britt said of the character, "Trip likes to make sure everything is in order... he 's going make sure that stuff does n't go wrong. (But) I still feel like Trip has something to prove. That 's going to cross over to the second season where Trip wants to show Coulson that he can trust him. '' Britt returned in the fourth season to reprise the character within the Framework reality.
Glenn Talbot (portrayed by Adrian Pasdar) is a United States Air Force colonel and later brigadier general who hunts active S.H.I.E.L.D. agents after the organization 's disbandment. Coulson earns his trust over time, and the two soon enter an agreement in which S.H.I.E.L.D. provides the government with sensitive assets and helps with the take down of Hydra in exchange for being left alone. He is made head of the Advanced Threat Containment Unit (ATCU) following the death of Rosalind Price, an arrangement which sees him reluctantly working for Coulson. Glenn Talbot is later placed in a coma following a head shot caused by the Daisy Johnson LMD at a government meeting.
Created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko for Tales to Astonish # 61, Talbot was a recurring antagonist of the Hulk. Pasdar was cast as Talbot by March 2014, with this version focused on taking down Hydra.
Eric, Billy, Sam, and Thurston Koenig (portrayed by Patton Oswalt) are identical brothers. The former three are S.H.I.E.L.D. agents, programmers in the initial S.H.I.E.L.D. LMD program. Eric is stationed at the Providence base and assists Coulson in the wake of Hydra 's emergence, but is soon killed by Ward. Coulson and his team meet Billy, the brother of Eric, at the Playground base soon after. Billy and Sam work with Coulson on the mysterious Theta Protocol, the maintenance of a S.H.I.E.L.D. helicarrier for use by Nick Fury. Later, Coulson entrusts the Darkhold to Billy and Sam, who hide the book in the Labyrinth, a S.H.I.E.L.D. base only accessible by the Koenigs.
Oswalt joined the series as Eric Koenig in March 2014. This version of the character is loosely inspired by one that first appeared in Sgt. Fury and his Howling Commandos # 27. Oswalt also portrays Eric 's brothers. After previously working on Joss Whedon 's Dollhouse and being a long time fan of Marvel, Oswalt was sought for the part specifically.
Calvin Johnson (portrayed by Kyle MacLachlan), a young doctor, met the Inhuman Jiaying while in China. The two eventually married, and had a daughter, Daisy. After Jiaying was torn apart by Hydra, and Daisy was taken by S.H.I.E.L.D. agents, Cal stitched his wife back together, found innocent people whose life - force was used to bring Jiaying back to life, and began searching for his daughter, at some point changing his last name. He also began experimenting on himself in an attempt to be stronger, blaming himself for not protecting his family. Jiaying eventually abandoned the search to live a peaceful life with other Inhumans like her, but Cal continued, eventually meeting Daisy -- now going by Skye -- and over time forming a bond with her, despite her hatred for his past actions. Coulson later convinces Cal that Jiaying is a monster who has forced him to do terrible things, and when Jiaying starts a war with S.H.I.E.L.D. that leads to a face down with Skye, Cal kills Jiaying. S.H.I.E.L.D. then wipes Cal 's memory to allow him to live a peaceful life.
During the first - season finale, Skye 's father is briefly seen from behind, portrayed by a stand - in. In August 2014, MacLachlan was cast in the role, to recur throughout the second season. Initially referred to as "The Doctor '', his character was revealed to be Calvin Zabo, also known as Mister Hyde, in December 2014. Zabo was created by Stan Lee and Don Heck for Journey into Mystery in 1963, and is influenced by Robert Louis Stevenson 's The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. MacLachlan 's makeup for his transformation into the Mister Hyde persona in the second - season finale took around two and a half hours to apply. Following the conclusion of season two, Bell said on Cal 's storyline, "He got to live a happily ever after in a beautiful way. We would never write off the idea of finding more story for him down the road, but we had a great time with Kyle this year and feel like that was a story that ended nicely. '' Bell elaborated that they "felt like everything he did came from the right place but that he was just a really horrible, broken man. The idea of (using) the T.A.H.I.T.I. program to reset him as the good person that has always been in there was too good to pass up. ''
Werner Reinhardt (portrayed by Reed Diamond), a high ranking Nazi officer and an elite member of Hydra in 1945, was experimenting on the Diviner when his base was taken by the SSR and he was imprisoned for life. Released by Alexander Pierce in 1988, Reinhardt discovered that a woman unaffected by the Diviner, Jiaying, had apparently not aged in four decades. Dissecting her, Reinhardt discovered the secret to her youthfulness and used it to de-age himself. Taking the name Daniel Whitehall, he became the North American leader of Hydra following Pierce 's death, fighting against Coulson 's S.H.I.E.L.D. while remaining interested in the Diviner and other alien matters. He is killed by Coulson while trying to unlock the true power of the Diviner.
At the San Diego Comic Con in July 2014, Diamond was announced as portraying Daniel Whitehall, also known as the Kraken in the comics, where he was introduced by Jonathan Hickman for Secret Warriors # 7. Diamond previously worked with the creators on Dollhouse and Much Ado About Nothing, and though they had wanted him for parts throughout the first season, he had been unavailable due to commitments to another series. Diamond accepted the role of Whitehall with just 24 hours to prepare, during which he formed the character 's German accent to use for flashback sequences. In developing the character, Diamond watched Nazi documentaries, and re-watched Marvel 's films, looking at the characters of Loki and Red Skull in particular. From the former, Diamond was inspired by his The Avengers quote, "I am burdened with glorious purpose '', as he had never played a super villain, "someone who really believed that they were the best person to rule the universe, or at least the Earth. '' For Hugo Weaving 's portrayal of the Red Skull, Diamond looked at his anger and voice to see "how (Whitehall) would fit in within that spectrum '', and settled on "this is TV. I 'm the smiling, calm, villain. '' Diamond also sought advice from Malcolm McDowell, who told him to "Always smile and let the lines do the work. '' The character is often seen cleaning his glasses, an "identifying quality '' devised by Jed Whedon.
Sunil Bakshi (portrayed by Simon Kassianides), the right - hand man to Whitehall, is instrumental in the brainwashing of Hydra 's subjects, including S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Kara Palamas, who later gets revenge by brainwashing Bakshi herself. Now loyal to Palamas and Ward, Bakshi sacrifices his life to save the latter when Simmons tries to kill him. In the Framework, Sunil Bakshi is a news presenter who hosts The Bakshi Report where he reports on Hydra 's actions against the S.H.I.E.L.D. resistance.
Kassianides, a fan of the series and of comic books in general, was cast in the "major recurring role '' of Bakshi in July 2014. The producers intended for Bakshi to be killed off in the fifth episode of the second season, but changed their minds after Kassianides ' early table reads and extended his run on the show through to the nineteenth episode. Speaking of the character 's relationship with Whitehall, Kassianides explained, "Bakshi really feels he can act under the authority of Whitehall on his own, using his own judgment. He has the trust of Whitehall and is acting as he sees fit, the consequences of which will play out. '' On Bakshi 's motivations and thought process, Kassianides said "When you 're that committed to any ideology, I think that it allows for elements of insanity... whether that 's been trained in him or it 's inherent, it 's not clear, but he 's certainly at that point where hurting people, torturing people, and operating under this ideology is something he quite enjoys. ''
Kara Palamas (portrayed by Maya Stojan) was a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent betrayed to Hydra by the then undercover Morse and subjected to brainwashing by Bakshi and Whitehall. The now Hydra - loyal Palamas used a nanomask to take on the appearance of May, and when the latter electrocutes Palamas whilst in this disguise, she is left stuck as May, but deformed. After Coulson kills Whitehall, Palamas works with Ward, the two forming a romantic relationship while the latter does everything in his power to bring Palamas "closure ''. They get her nanomask repaired so that she can become whoever she wishes, brainwash Bakshi, and kidnap Morse in an attempt to force a confession out of her. When May and Hunter come to rescue Morse, Ward accidentally kills Palamas while she is in disguise as May.
While Stojan portrays Palamas, the character is also portrayed by other cast members, including Ming - Na Wen and Chloe Bennet, when she takes on the appearance of their characters. Stojan had to balance working on the series with her concurrent recurring role on Castle, but was still able to appear in every episode offered to her. Speaking about portraying Palamas, and the differences between her and May, Wen said, "not only did she lose her face, she lost her will, really. I mean she is completely controlled by Whitehall and... it 's sort of a sad character for me to portray because she 's so opposite from May. May is so confident and knows exactly what she needs to do and can get the job done based on her own opinions and with Agent 33, not only is she disfigured, not only does n't she have her face anymore, she does n't have her identity anymore. '' After Palamas breaks free of her brainwashing and joins Ward, Stojan said of the character and their new relationship, "That love / romance that she has with Ward... she 's really, I think, trying to find herself -- whether it 's good or bad. She truly believes in that one man, and she 's going to follow him. ''
Jiaying (portrayed by Dichen Lachman) is the Inhuman wife of Calvin Johnson, and Daisy 's mother, who does not age and can heal rapidly thanks to an elder of her village giving their life each year. Pieced back together by Calvin after Whitehall dissects her to discover the secret to her abilities, Jiaying is never the same, and goes to great lengths to find her daughter, now willingly taking innocent lives to feed her abilities, having no regard for humans. Eventually Jiaying tries to escape this new persona by founding Afterlife, a haven for Inhumans, and when Daisy (going by Skye) journeys to Afterlife, Jiaying happily becomes her mentor. However, when S.H.I.E.L.D. discovers the location of Afterlife, Jiaying starts a war with them, and attempts to kill all humans with artificial Terrigen crystals. She even tries to drain Skye 's life when the former turns on her, but is stopped by Calvin, who kills her.
Speaking about the levels of violence depicted in the series, Bell admitted that the executive producers and the network did question the graphicness of the sequence where Jiaying is dissected by Whitehall, but that it was ultimately kept as is because they felt that "it was important for you to understand how horrible that was and what she went through and miraculously survived -- that was a big part of our story. '' For Jiaying 's costume, Foley "wanted her to have an other - worldly kind of feeling and then also, at the time, Dichen (Lachman) was pregnant, so we needed to come up with a silhouette that could hide the pregnancy, and kind of grow with her which is why we landed on that tunic. The great thing about it is that it had this really cool Asian feeling to it with the high neck and the buttons down the front. '' Foley chose the fabrics for Jiaying 's tunics based on what was going on in the story and how she felt the character was thinking.
In regards to Jiaying 's perceived role as the main villain of the second season due to her actions in the final episodes, Bell said "In our minds, (Jiaying) was n't a villain so much; she was an antagonist, but if you look at why she feels the way she does, Jiaying really earned that position. '' After the character 's backstory and motivations were revealed, she was compared by some to the Marvel Comics character Magneto. In response to this, Bell said "We did n't consciously mimic (Magneto), but what they both have in common is a valid motive. Jiaying was ripped to shreds... I feel like her motive is really earned in the same way that Magneto 's is fairly earned. We always want our antagonists to have good motives... We tried to make everything she says be true. ''
Gordon (portrayed by Jamie Harris) is an eyeless Inhuman with the ability to teleport and emit force fields. His transition to an Inhuman was tended to by Jiaying, and he remained loyal to her in his adult life, ensuring that only a select few could enter and leave Afterlife, and joining with her in her war against S.H.I.E.L.D. While trying to spread Terrigen mist through the ventilation of The Iliad, he is killed by Fitz.
Andrew Garner (portrayed by Blair Underwood) is May 's ex-husband and a psychologist at Culver University who assesses gifted people for S.H.I.E.L.D. Following a vacation with May to try and rekindle their relationship, Garner is exposed to Terrigen which unlocks Inhuman abilities within him; he becomes the monstrous Lash (portrayed by Matt Willig), who uses energy abilities to hunt and kill ' unworthy ' Inhumans. Garner surrenders himself to S.H.I.E.L.D. before the transformation becomes permanent, and manages to say goodbye to May before completely becoming Lash. S.H.I.E.L.D. then send Lash to fight Hive, hoping that his Inhuman purpose is to destroy the latter. Though this is not the case, Lash is able to purge Daisy Johnson of Hive 's control, before being killed by Hellfire.
In December 2014, Underwood was revealed to be cast as Garner for multiple appearances starting in the second season. In July 2015, the Inhuman Lash, who was created by Charles Soule and Joe Madureira for Inhuman # 1, was announced as appearing in the third season. That August, Willig was revealed to be cast as Lash, with Hetrick again working alongside the series ' makeup and visual effects teams to realize the character 's "unique look '' from the comics. Whedon noted that it would be their "own take on (Lash). There will be some elements from the comics for sure, but as we always do... we 're changing it up a little bit. '' Bell elaborated that "it 's hard to have a hidden or magical city '' in the MCU, such as Lash 's comic home of Orollan, but "Lash 's agenda can certainly remain true to what it was in the comics '', with him judging whether Inhumans are worthy. Willig 's Lash make - up initially took six hours to apply, but the make - up team was able to reduce the time to four and a half hours.
Whedon noted that the series already has several Inhumans who are "fairly attractive '' and the producers wanted "to also show the other side of the change that bad things can happen '', with Tancharoen elaborating that "on a very basic level, we were interested in putting a monster in the mix, because he is not human and his looks are pretty crazy and scary. We wanted to put our team up against something like that. '' On how the cast and characters react to seeing Lash, Bennet said, "I like to think that they 've seen their fair share of crazy shit and that 's just something that 's pretty insane but not totally mind - blowing. '' Following the reveal that Lash still had a human form, Bell said that they would spend time exploring different characters as potential candidates, though the human form was revealed to be Garner two episodes later. For the onscreen CGI transformation from Garner to Lash, Underwood and Willig were 3D scanned (the latter while in full prosthetics and make - up), and then Underwood provided motion capture for the sequence, as visual effects supervisor Mark Kolpack noted the lack of resemblance between Underwood and the final Lash design, and so wanted to keep as much of Underwood 's "essence '' throughout the transformation process as possible. Underwood portrayed the transformation as "painful '', "rigid '', and "tiring '', though he noted that it would become easier for the character to transform the more it happened.
Going into the third season, Underwood had only known that the producers wanted to explore more of Garner 's personal life, after his appearances in the second season were "as an appendage to Agent May... a device and a construct to open her up and see more of her life. '' He also did not see the Lash reveal coming, which he did not learn until the table read for "Devils You Know '', when it is presumed Garner is dead, and the producers approached him afterwards to tell them their plan for the character. Underwood compared the Garner / Lash dynamic to Jekyll and Hyde and Bruce Banner / the Hulk, and compared the new May / Garner dynamic to Beauty and the Beast. On Lash 's motivations, Underwood stated that "Lash sees (the Inhumans) as an exalted society and it 's an honor to be an Inhuman. Not everyone is worthy of that moniker. He takes it upon himself to be judge, jury and executioner of who is worthy of being an Inhuman and who is not. '' Elaborating on this and Garner 's connection to Lash, Underwood said, "If you look at his work as a psychologist... in S.H.I.E.L.D., he determines (who) is worthy and is not worthy to be part of the Secret Warriors team... it makes sense that it 's kind of that same kind of rationale, but on steroids ''.
Robert Gonzales (portrayed by Edward James Olmos) is an elderly S.H.I.E.L.D. agent, tactician, and the commander of The Iliad during the fall of S.H.I.E.L.D. who is tasked with protecting the Kree monolith. He is convinced not to destroy the ship (to prevent Hydra from claiming the monolith) so that the hundreds of agents on board may live, disobeying Fury 's orders, and subsequently becomes a founding member of the "real S.H.I.E.L.D. '' alongside Anne Weaver, Tomas Calderon, and Agent Oliver. He remains distrustful of secrets and all things alien, even after agreeing to keep Coulson on as Director of a new, unified S.H.I.E.L.D., but still attempts to negotiate with Jiaying and the Inhumans peacefully. However, Jiaying kills Gonzales and shoots herself, claiming that he attacked her, in order to start a war against S.H.I.E.L.D.
It was announced in January 2015 that Olmos would be joining the series as Robert Gonzales, with Olmos describing joining the MCU one of the high points of his career. Concerning the apparent difference in philosophies between Gonzales and Coulson, Olmos explained that "the situations that I 've come across and the situations that he 's come across have changed our ability to work with the same understanding. He 's working like Fury worked and under that understanding. I do n't work under Fury 's understanding... I think that Coulson 's philosophy is the same as mine! We are S.H.I.E.L.D. We are not anything but S.H.I.E.L.D. people. It 's just that our S.H.I.E.L.D., the one that we originally put forth, was very, very transparent. And the S.H.I.E.L.D. that has materialized under Fury -- and now Coulson -- is much more secretive. '' Olmos also compared the relationship between the two factions of S.H.I.E.L.D. to that between the Democrats and the Republicans.
Alisha Whitley (portrayed by Alicia Vela - Bailey) is a duplicating Inhuman who was loyal to Jiaying until she learned that the latter started the war with S.H.I.E.L.D. After Jiaying 's death, Alisha helps S.H.I.E.L.D. until she falls under the influence of Hive. She is later murdered by a Kree reaper.
Kebo (portrayed by Daz Crawford) is a member of Hydra, second - in - command to Ward until he is killed by Morse. Crawford only signed on for the second - season finale, but the writers liked him in the character and so brought him back for the third season. Crawford said that Kebo has reservations about Ward as a boss, but "some people like their bosses, some people do n't. ''
Rosalind Price (portrayed by Constance Zimmer) is the head of the ATCU as it crosses paths with S.H.I.E.L.D. in the hunt for Inhumans. After developing a romantic relationship with Coulson, Price is killed by Ward.
In July 2015, Zimmer was cast as Price, who Gregg described as "a potent... I would n't say doppelganger, but she 's definitely got a lot in common with Coulson. She represents a character who 's not someone he comes across every day, who has more in common with him than most other people do. '' That September, Bell elaborated, "Where in the past, Coulson frequently plays sort of a paternal role on the show, because Daisy is kind of a surrogate daughter figure -- suddenly there 's another adult (in Price), who can banter, who can hold her own, and there 's something nice about seeing him in that relationship. ''
Luther Banks (portrayed by Andrew Howard) is an ATCU agent and former Marine loyal to Price. He is killed by Giyera.
Joey Gutierrez (portrayed by Juan Pablo Raba) is an Inhuman and former construction worker with the ability to melt certain metals who is recruited by S.H.I.E.L.D. for Daisy Johnson 's Secret Warriors team.
Raba was announced as cast in August 2015. Scott Meslow of Vulture and Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club, reviewing the season three episode "Laws of Nature '', both indicated their pleasure in seeing Gutierrez, a gay character, appear on the series, which Meslow noted appeared to be the first openly gay character in the MCU.
Werner von Strucker (portrayed by Spencer Treat Clark) is the son of Hydra leader Wolfgang von Strucker, who is recruited to Hydra by Ward after Wolfgang 's death. After failing to follow Ward 's orders to kill Garner, Werner is left in a vegetative state by Kebo, and is taken into S.H.I.E.L.D. custody.
R. Giyera (portrayed by Mark Dacascos) is a telekinetic Inhuman and head of security for the ATCU, secretly loyal to Malick. He is eventually swayed over to Hive 's side, until he is killed by Fitz.
Elena Rodriguez (portrayed by Natalia Cordova - Buckley) is a Colombian Inhuman who can move at a super speed for a beat of her heart, before returning to the point she started moving from. She comes into contact with S.H.I.E.L.D. when they investigate her for stealing weapons from the corrupt members of the local police. She grows close to Mack, who nicknames her "Yo - Yo '', and eventually agrees to join the Secret Warriors. After the signing of the Sokovia Accords, Rodriguez returns to her life with occasional monitoring by S.H.I.E.L.D. Rodriguez later helps Daisy Johnson and Jemma Simmons to infiltrate the Framework. After Johnson and Simmons are unable to rescue Mack from the Framework, Rodriguez goes in to rescue him.
By February 2016, Cordova - Buckley was cast as "Yo - Yo '' Rodriguez, based on the comic Secret Warrior of the same name. Cordova - Buckley learned of the role after she had been cast in the series, and subsequently researched the comics for inspiration. She described the character, as she is initially introduced in the series, as a freedom fighter who "in a lot of ways she wants to help her people in Colombia and she wants to do good with her powers and she makes sure that she 's very adamant on how she goes about things. '' She also noted the rarity of the character 's spirituality, saying that she "has this whole spiritual connection to her powers which is rare to ever see in a super hero movie... She wants to use (her powers) as what she calls a blessing and a gift from God to help others, so it 's a very unique approach to it all ''. When first portraying the character, Cordova - Buckley smiled whenever Rodriguez was about to use her abilities, to show an adrenaline rush and the feeling of having such power. After positive fan responses to this, the actress morphed this trait into a more mischievous personality for the character.
J.T. James (portrayed by Axle Whitehead) is an Inhuman who was refused the right of Terrigenesis by Jiaying and banished from Afterlife. Johnson subjects James to the transformation while under the influence of Hive, giving James the ability to imbue objects with fire. He is then taken under Hive 's influence himself, and chooses the codename Hellfire. After Hive is destroyed, James suffers terrible withdrawal symptoms and comes to hate being an Inhuman as a result. He betrays his kind to the Watchdogs, helping them track and kill other Inhumans, with the promise that they would kill him when they are done.
Whitehead first guest starred as James in "Paradise Lost '', introduced as someone from Lincoln 's past, with Whitehead and Mitchell having previously starred together on Home and Away. With the character recurring through the rest of the third season, he was revealed to be an adaptation of the comic Secret Warrior character Hellfire. Executive producer Tancharoen felt it was "a no - brainer '' to include Hellfire in the series, despite him not being Inhuman in the comics. Whedon expanded, saying, "We liked his attitude. He 's a tell - it - like - it - is guy. He 's a little bit of a prick. He does not care if he 's liked, and that 's fun to write. '' The producers were also able to find a way to incorporate Hellfire 's signature fire chain into the series. In the fourth season, it is revealed that his full name is J.T. James.
Anderson (portrayed by Alexander Wraith) is a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent and assistant to Coulson.
Piper (portrayed by Briana Venskus) is a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent and member of May 's strike team.
Aida (portrayed by Mallory Jansen) is a Life Model Decoy, an android body based on Radcliffe 's former lover and partner Agnes Kitsworth (also portrayed by Jansen) into which he transferred his artificial intelligence AIDA (voiced by Amanda Rea). After the Darkhold shows Radcliffe the secret to eternal life, Radcliffe programs Aida to go rogue in an attempt to steal the book from S.H.I.E.L.D. She is ultimately beheaded in battle against S.H.I.E.L.D., and Radcliffe builds a new model of the android. Aida later kills Kitsworth, so her consciousness can reside in the Framework reality. Aida enters the Framework where she takes up the name "Ophelia '' and is also known as Madame Hydra, the leader of Hydra. She also has a relationship with Leo Fitz in his alias of The Doctor. Agnes also resides in the Framework, living with Radcliffe 's consciousness on Ogygia before she is deleted by The Doctor. With the help of Project Looking Glass, Aida succeeds in making her organic body, and once again goes by Ophelia. Ophelia also gains the Inhuman abilities of teleportation, electric charge manipulation, and a healing factor. She is later killed by Phil Coulson possessed by Ghost Rider.
The artificial intelligence AIDA is briefly voiced by Amanda Rea in the third - season finale. By June 2016, casting was underway for a "very attractive '' actress to portray the robot in a recurring role for the fourth season. The character was described as moving around "quite naturally '', but speaking "a bit formally '' like Iron Man 's J.A.R.V.I.S. A.I. in the MCU films. In August, Jansen was cast in the role; she also portrays Agnes Kitsworth, for which she uses her native Australian accent. In April 2017, it was revealed that Aida would appear in the Framework reality as Madame Hydra, also portrayed by Jansen. On having Aida become Madame Hydra, Whedon noted, "We had what is one of most formidable female villains we 've ever had (in Aida), and we were bringing back Hydra, so it seemed like a natural pairing. She 's plugged herself into this world and clearly she 's trying to live some other new, unique life. We felt like if you grew up in a world and tried to be as powerful as you could be, and that world was Hydra - dominated, then it would be natural that she would become (Madame Hydra). We thought it would be a fun way to introduce that character that 's so creepy, odd, weird, and fun. ''
Aida 's costume was custom made, and inspired by the works of Alexander McQueen. Foley wanted it to be simple to "not take away from the character at all '', but also "sort of a ' Where did this outfit come from? ' kind of a feeling so that it 's specifically hers. It just adds to the mystery of who she is. '' Jansen described "Aida 2.0 '' as being programmed to be more ruthless, with the character 's costume a darker shade of gray than that worn by the original Aida to reflect these changes. New costume designer Amanda Riley took Foley 's costumes for Aida as the base shape of the Madame Hydra costume, but looked to make it feel "stronger '' and more military-esque than those costumes by having the shoulders of the costume evoke epaulettes. The costume uses the color green, which is closely tied with the character in the comics.
Roberto "Robbie '' Reyes (portrayed by Gabriel Luna) is a mechanic who, alongside his brother Gabe, was attacked by gang members who were hired to kill their uncle Eli Morrow. Gabe was paralyzed and Robbie was killed, but his life was saved when a Ghost Rider riding a motorcycle gave Robbie his power, creating a new Ghost Rider. Robbie lives to protect his Gabe, and at night he seeks out "vengeance '' by hunting the guilty and murdering them. His actions bring him into contact with the vigilante Quake and the agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., through whom he learns of his uncle 's interests in the Darkhold. This leads to Robbie taking Morrow through a portal to another dimension. After returning to Earth, Robbie Reyes helps to defeat Aida and uses his new portal - making abilities to take the Darkhold far away.
Advertisements for Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. ahead of the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con International featuring a flaming chain lead to speculation that the character of Ghost Rider would be joining the series during the season, though it was noted that the image could indicate an increased role for Hellfire after his introduction in the third season. When casting for a Latino character matching the description of Marvel Comics ' Robbie Reyes, was revealed to be underway for the series, further speculation pointed to the inclusion of Ghost Rider, a mantle that Reyes took over in the comics. At the series ' Comic - Con panel, this speculation was confirmed, and Luna was announced to be cast in the role. Luna had initially been hesitant to sign up for a recurring, rather than starring, role, but changed his mind once he was told that the character would be Ghost Rider, who he was a fan of growing up. He felt it was "too good to be true '' that Reyes "was a character who looked like me, acted like me, and had this amazing family dynamic with his brother '', with Luna relating to the latter since his father died before he was born leaving Luna the "oldest male in (his) immediate family ''.
Luna described the Ghost Rider as a "separate entity '' from Reyes, comparing the dynamic to the Hulk. Reyes was chosen as the Ghost Rider for the series, over other versions of the character, since his is the newest version from the comics, and the executive producers thought "it would be interesting to bring in someone with (his) background into our dynamic ''. Regarding if the character would be possessed by a Satanic serial killer, as in the comics, or by the more traditional Spirit of Vengeance, Tancharoen said, "We 're staying true to his circumstance. But as always with any property that we use, we 're taking our liberties with it, '' with Whedon adding that they would be "pulling a little bit from different versions of the Ghost Rider '' with "a little mixing and matching ''. Luna said that due to the character 's recent introduction in the comics, "a lot of the show is going to be expanding the Ghost Rider canon ''; however Luna read all 12 issues of the All - New Ghost Rider series that introduced Reyes for preparation. The character drives a 1969 Dodge Charger in the show, the "Hellcharger '' of the comics which Luna nicknamed Lucy, for Lucifer. The production had a hero car and a double for stunts, while the visual effects team used a CG double when needed. Eric Norris serves as Luna 's stunt driver, with Morgan Benoit, a frequent collaborator with Luna, as his stunt double.
The character 's signature jacket and flaming head were designed by Marvel Television creative director Joshua Shaw, based on Felipe Smith 's design from the comics. The skull design includes exhaust - type jets of flames coming from the temples to mimic the effects on his car. For the CG skull, Luna wore tracking markers on his face to provide performance - reference for these sequences, especially for the animation of Ghost Rider 's coal - like eyes. Luna also wears a hood fitted with flickering lights, to create the effect of fire lighting up his costume and surfaces around him. The lights can be adjusted to match different temperature fire for different situations. Whedon noted that the series depicts Reyes ' flaming head "exactly as much as we can afford '', adding, "We 're hoping that the character has not just a flaming skull but some real heart to him, and some depth. '' Foley paired the character 's jacket with jeans and Vans to keep Reyes "grounded in the reality of where he was brought up in Los Angeles ''. Foley also worked with Kolpack to ensure that the costume would not interfere with the visual effects. Since a skeleton does not have a voice box, the Ghost Rider does not speak in the series.
In August 2016, Marvel Television head Jeph Loeb said that the character "could venture into other sections of the Marvel Cinematic Universe '', depending on the audience 's response to their take on him, saying, "if we can tell that story in a compelling way, then the thing to do is to then have people want more. And if they want more, the networks say, oh, we want more. '' On this, Luna noted that he "signed on the line to do all the work necessary... that 's extremely exciting. '' That October, Luna said that there had been "rumblings '' about a spin - off for the character, but reiterated that it would depend on audience response.
Gabriel "Gabe '' Reyes (portrayed by Lorenzo James Henrie) is Robbie 's younger brother, who was paralyzed in the accident that led to Robbie becoming the Ghost Rider.
Casting for a Latino character matching the description of Gabe Reyes, was revealed to be underway for the series at the same time as it was for Robbie. Robbie Reyes was confirmed for the series in September 2016, and Henrie was revealed to be portraying Gabe later that month. The role was one of the first that Henrie auditioned for after he finished filming for Fear the Walking Dead, in which his character is killed off. At his audition, Henrie confirmed that he would be able to dedicate his time to Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. without spoiling the events of Fear for the S.H.I.E.L.D. casting team, and was cast in the role the next day. His introduction as Gabe aired only weeks after his Fear the Walking Dead death aired.
Lucy Bauer (portrayed by Lilli Birdsell) was a scientist working at Momentum Labs in a group including her husband Joseph and engineer Eli Morrow. They were experimenting with the mysterious Darkhold until Morrow took steps to gain the book 's power for himself by creating a machine that turned Lucy and her co-workers into ghost - like beings. Lucy later attempts to force Morrow to restore her body, but his nephew Robbie Reyes exorcised her first with the power of the Ghost Rider.
Jeffrey Mace (portrayed by Jason O'Mara) is the new Director of S.H.I.E.L.D., who was appointed to try and restore the trust of the public following the public outlawing of Steve Rogers and several of the Avengers due to the Sokovia Accords. Originally thought by the public and other members of S.H.I.E.L.D. to be an Inhuman with super-strength and invulnerability, Mace instead received his abilities from the U.S. government 's Project Patriot, which used a super-serum derived from Calvin Johnson 's formula. Mace received the serum after being heralded for a heroic moment at a ceremony in Vienna, Austria following the signing of the Sokovia Accords. With S.H.I.E.L.D. in need of a new, enhanced director on the recommendation of outgoing director Coulson, Talbot and the U.S. government gave the job to Mace, who they could trust. After it was revealed that Mace 's powers were a lie, Coulson decided that Mace should stay on as "the Patriot '' and the face and political leader of S.H.I.E.L.D., while Coulson takes back command of S.H.I.E.L.D. operations. In the Framework, Mace is the head of the S.H.I.E.L.D. resistance. During the raid on the Hydra Cultivation Enlightenment Camp, Mace sacrifices himself to buy everyone time to get out of the collapsing quarantine building, resulting in his death in the real world as well.
A flash - forward at the end of the third - season finale revealed that Coulson would no longer be the director of S.H.I.E.L.D. in the fourth season. The showrunners intentionally avoided giving hints as to who the new director would be in the sequence. After speculation in the media about which previously introduced character could be taking on the role, it was revealed that the new leader would actually be a new character to the series portrayed by O'Mara, described as a character "whose Marvel roots go back to the 1940s ''. The character was always going to be new to the series, as the executive producers felt that replacing Coulson with someone he knows "would n't (provide) as much tension to mine from ''. The character was revealed to be Mace and an Inhuman with super strength with his introduction in "Meet the New Boss ''. O'Mara, a big Marvel fan as a child who has worked a lot with ABC, found out that Marvel was "really seriously '' interested in him for the part in the same call that his agent told him that his A&E pilot The Infamous was not getting picked up to series. Within 24 hours, O'Mara had talked to Loeb, watched some of the third season of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., and accepted an offer to join the season without reading a script for it. He described the character as "high status '', saying that "he comes in and he 's the boss, telling the other characters orders. Here I come in after (the other actors) been doing this for four years and I 'm telling them what to do. It 's a little awkward ''.
Ellen Nadeer (portrayed by Parminder Nagra) is a senator and leader of the Humans First movement, who hates Inhumans after her mother 's death during an alien invasion. Nadeer allies herself with the Watchdogs, but when high - ranking Watchdog Tucker Shockley tests Nadeer 's humanity with a Terrigen crystal, it reveals his own explosive Inhuman abilities. Nadeer and those with her die in the ensuing explosion.
Burrows (portrayed by Patrick Cavanaugh) is a member of S.H.I.E.L.D. 's PR division loyal to Mace. In the Framework, Burrows is part of the S.H.I.E.L.D. resistance.
Elias "Eli '' Morrow (portrayed by José Zúñiga) is the uncle of Robbie and Gabe Reyes, and engineer who helped raise his nephews. After his coworkers at Momentum Energy labs began experimenting with the Darkhold, Morrow came to crave its power for himself. He put Joseph Bauer into a coma trying to find the book, and ultimately turned the rest of his coworkers into ghost - like beings. S.H.I.E.L.D. breaks him out of prison believing him to be a victim, but he uses the Darkhold to create a machine that gives him the power to create matter.
The comics version of Eli Morrow is a Satanist who, after dying, possesses his nephew Robbie and turns him into the Ghost Rider. In August 2016, Whedon cautioned that the series would not necessarily be directly adapting the comics ' storyline, saying, "We ca n't say much about what we 're going to do with (Robbie Reyes ') origin, but we are doing our own spin on it. We do n't want people who have read the comics to know exactly what 's coming. '' In October, Morrow was confirmed to be appearing in the series, with Zúñiga cast. He is changed for the series by introducing him as an apparently innocent man, and then revealing him to be as power hungry as his fellow scientists experimenting on the Darkhold. The abilities he gains from his experiments have been compared to those of the comic character Molecule Man.
Anton Ivanov (portrayed by Zach McGowan) is a reclusive Russian industrialist known as "The Superior '', who champions traditional values and old - fashioned hardware over modern technology and extraterrestrial entities. He believes that Coulson is the cause of Earth 's alien problems, and works with the Watchdogs, Senator Nadeer, and Holden Radcliffe to fight S.H.I.E.L.D. After being crippled by Daisy Johnson, Aida decapitates Ivanov and creates an android body for his mind to control. Ivanov then creates multiple additional bodies for his mind to control.
Hope MacKenzie (portrayed by Jordan Rivera) is Mack 's daughter. While she has died sometime after birth in real life, she appears alive in the Framework. Hope 's Framework counterpart is later deleted when the Framework collapses.
The following is a supplementary list of guest stars that appear in lesser roles, make significant cameo appearances or who receive co-starring credit over multiple appearances. The characters are listed by the MCU media or season in which they first appeared.
George Stephanopoulos makes a cameo appearance as himself.
George Stephanopoulos once again makes a cameo appearance as himself.
Season 1
Season 2
Season 3
Season 4
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who played uhura in the original star trek | Nichelle Nichols - wikipedia
Nichelle Nichols (born Grace Dell Nichols; December 28, 1932) is an American actress, singer and voice artist. She sang with Duke Ellington and Lionel Hampton before turning to acting.
She played communications officer Lieutenant (later, Commander) Uhura aboard the USS Enterprise in the Star Trek television series (1966 -- 1969), as well as the succeeding motion pictures. Nichols ' role was groundbreaking as one of the first African American female characters on American television not portrayed as a servant. She also worked to recruit diverse astronauts to NASA, including women and ethnic minorities.
Grace Dell Nichols was born in Robbins, Illinois, near Chicago, to Samuel Earl Nichols, a factory worker who was elected both town mayor of Robbins and its chief magistrate, and his wife, Lishia (Parks) Nichols. Later, the family moved into an apartment in Chicago.
She studied in Chicago as well as New York and Los Angeles. Her break came in an appearance in Kicks and Co., Oscar Brown 's highly touted, but ill - fated 1961 musical. In a thinly veiled satire of Playboy magazine, she played Hazel Sharpe, a voluptuous campus queen who was being tempted by the devil and Orgy Magazine to become "Orgy Maiden of the Month ''. Although the play closed after its brief try - out in Chicago, in an ironic twist, she attracted the attention of Hugh Hefner, the publisher of Playboy, who booked her for his Chicago Playboy Club. While still in Chicago, she performed at the "Blue Angel '', and in New York, Nichols appeared at that city 's Blue Angel as a dancer and singer. She also appeared in the role of Carmen for a Chicago stock company production of Carmen Jones and performed in a New York production of Porgy and Bess. Between acting and singing engagements, Nichols did occasional modeling work.
In January 1967, Nichols also was featured on the cover of Ebony magazine, and had two feature articles in the publication in five years.
Nichols toured the United States, Canada and Europe as a singer with the Duke Ellington and Lionel Hampton bands. On the West Coast, she appeared in The Roar of the Greasepaint -- The Smell of the Crowd, For My People, and garnered high praise for her performance in the James Baldwin play Blues for Mister Charlie. Prior to being cast as Lieutenant Uhura in Star Trek, Nichols was a guest actress on television producer Gene Roddenberry 's first series The Lieutenant (1964) in an episode, "To Set It Right '', which dealt with racial prejudice.
On Star Trek, Nichols was one of the first black women featured in a major television series not portraying a servant; her prominent supporting role as a bridge officer was unprecedented. During the first year of the series, Nichols was tempted to leave the show, as she wanted to pursue a Broadway career; however, a conversation with Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. changed her mind. She has said that King personally encouraged her to stay on the show, telling her that he was a big fan of Star Trek. He said she "could not give up '' because she was playing a vital role model for black children and young women across the country, as well as for other children who would see blacks appearing as equals. In an interview, she said that the day after she told Roddenberry she planned to leave the show, she was at a fundraiser at the NAACP and was told there was a big fan who wanted to meet her. Nichols said:
I thought it was a Trekkie, and so I said, ' Sure. ' I looked across the room, and there was Dr. Martin Luther King walking towards me with this big grin on his face. He reached out to me and said, ' Yes, Ms. Nichols, I am your greatest fan. ' He said that Star Trek was the only show that he, and his wife Coretta, would allow their three little children to stay up and watch. (She told King about her plans to leave the series.) I never got to tell him why, because he said, ' You ca n't. You 're part of history. '
When she told Roddenberry what King had said, he cried.
Former NASA astronaut Mae Jemison has cited Nichols ' role of Lieutenant Uhura as her inspiration for wanting to become an astronaut and Whoopi Goldberg has also spoken of Nichols ' influence. Goldberg asked for a role on Star Trek: The Next Generation, and the character of Guinan was specially created, while Jemison appeared in an episode of the series.
In her role as Lieutenant Uhura, Nichols kissed white actor William Shatner as Captain James T. Kirk in the November 22, 1968, Star Trek episode "Plato 's Stepchildren ''. The episode is cited as the first example of an interracial kiss on U.S. television. The Shatner / Nichols kiss was seen as groundbreaking, even though it was portrayed as having been forced by alien telekinesis. There was some praise and some protest. On page 197 of her 1994 autobiography Beyond Uhura, Star Trek and Other Memories, Nichols cites a letter from a white Southerner who wrote, "I am totally opposed to the mixing of the races. However, any time a red - blooded American boy like Captain Kirk gets a beautiful dame in his arms that looks like Uhura, he ai n't gon na fight it. '' During the Comedy Central Roast of Shatner on August 20, 2006, Nichols jokingly referred to the kiss and said, "Let 's make TV history again -- and you can kiss my black ass! ''
Despite the cancellation of the series in 1969, Star Trek lived on in other ways, and continued to play a part in Nichols ' life. She again provided the voice of Uhura in Star Trek: The Animated Series; in one episode, "The Lorelei Signal '', Uhura assumes command of the Enterprise. Nichols noted in her autobiography her frustration that this never happened in the original series. Nichols has co-starred in six Star Trek films, the last one being Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country.
After the cancellation of Star Trek, Nichols volunteered her time in a special project with NASA to recruit minority and female personnel for the space agency. She began this work by making an affiliation between NASA and a company which she helped to run, Women in Motion.
The program was a success. Among those recruited were Dr. Sally Ride, the first American female astronaut, and United States Air Force Colonel Guion Bluford, the first African - American astronaut, as well as Dr. Judith Resnik and Dr. Ronald McNair, who both flew successful missions during the Space Shuttle program before their deaths in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster on January 28, 1986. Recruits also included Charles Bolden, the former NASA administrator and veteran of four shuttle missions, Frederick D. Gregory, former deputy administrator and a veteran of three shuttle missions and Lori Garver, former deputy administrator.
An enthusiastic advocate of space exploration, Nichols has served since the mid-1980s on the board of governors of the National Space Society, a nonprofit, educational space advocacy organization founded by Dr. Wernher von Braun.
In late 2015 Nichols flew aboard NASA 's Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) Boeing 747SP, which analyzed the atmospheres of Mars and Saturn on an eight - hour, high - altitude mission. She was also a special guest at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, on July 17, 1976, to view the Viking 1 soft landing on Mars. Along with the other cast members from the original Star Trek series, she attended the christening of the first space shuttle, Enterprise, at the North American Rockwell assembly facility in Palmdale, California.
On July 14, 2010, she toured the space shuttle simulator and Mission Control at the Johnson Space Center.
In 1994, Nichols published her autobiography Beyond Uhura: Star Trek and Other Memories. In it, she claimed that the role of Peggy Fair in the television series Mannix was offered to her during the final season of Star Trek, but producer Gene Roddenberry refused to release her from her contract. Between the end of the original series and the Star Trek animated series and feature films, Nichols appeared in small television and film roles. She briefly appeared as a secretary in Doctor, You 've Got to Be Kidding! (1967), and portrayed a foul - mouthed madam in Truck Turner (1974) opposite Isaac Hayes, her only appearance in a blaxploitation film.
Nichols appeared in animated form as one of Al Gore 's Vice Presidential Action Rangers in the "Anthology of Interest I '' episode of Futurama, and she provided the voice of her own head in a glass jar in the episode "Where No Fan Has Gone Before ''. She voiced the recurring role of Elisa Maza 's mother Diane Maza in the animated series Gargoyles, and played Thoth - Kopeira in an episode of Batman: The Animated Series. In 2004, she provided the voice for herself in The Simpsons episode "Simple Simpson ''.
In the comedy film Snow Dogs (2002), Nichols appeared as the mother of the male lead, played by Cuba Gooding Jr.
In 2006, she appeared as the title character in the film Lady Magdalene 's, the madam of a legal Nevada brothel in tax default. She also served as executive producer and choreographer, and sang three songs in the film, two of which she composed.
In addition to her acting skills, Nichols is an accomplished dancer and singer. She has twice been nominated for the Chicago theatrical Sarah Siddons Award for Best Actress. The first nomination was for her portrayal of Hazel Sharpe in Kicks and Co.; the second for her performance in The Blacks.
Nichols played a recurring role on the second season of the NBC drama Heroes. Her first appearance was on the episode "Kindred '', which aired October 8, 2007. She portrayed Nana Dawson, the matriarch of a New Orleans family financially and personally devastated by Hurricane Katrina, who cares for her orphaned grandchildren and her great - nephew, series regular Micah Sanders.
In 2008, she starred in the film The Torturer, playing the role of a psychiatrist.
In 2009, she joined the cast of The Cabonauts, a sci - fi musical comedy that debuted on the Internet. Playing CJ, the CEO of the Cabonauts Inc, Nichols is also featured singing and dancing.
On August 30, 2016, she was introduced as the aging mother of Neil Winters on the long - standing soap opera The Young and the Restless. She received her first Daytime Emmy nomination in the "Outstanding Guest Performer in a Drama Series '' category for this role March 22, 2017.
Nichols has released two music albums. Down to Earth is a collection of standards released in 1967, during the original run of Star Trek. Out of This World, released in 1991, is more rock oriented and is themed around Star Trek and space exploration.
Nichols ' brother, Thomas, was a member of the Heaven 's Gate cult. He died on March 26, 1997 in the cult 's mass suicide that purposely coincided with the passing of the Hale - Bopp comet. A member for 20 years, he identified himself as the brother of Nichols in the group video tape prior to the event and left a final message saying: "I 'm the happiest person in the world. ''
In her autobiography, Nichols stated that she was romantically involved with Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry for several years in the 1960s. She said the affair ended well before Star Trek began, when she and Roddenberry realized he was in love with Majel Hudec, who was an acquaintance of Nichols '. When Roddenberry 's health was fading, Nichols co-wrote a song for him, entitled "Gene '', which she sang at his funeral.
Nichols has been married twice, first to dancer Foster Johnson (1917 -- 1981). They were married in 1951 and divorced that same year. Foster and Nichols had one child together, Kyle Johnson, who was born August 14, 1951. She married Duke Mondy in 1968 and they were divorced in 1972.
On February 29, 2012, Nichols met with President Obama in the White House Oval Office. She later Tweeted about the meeting, "'' Months ago Pres Obama was quoted as saying that he 'd had a crush on me when he was younger, '' Nichols also wrote. "I asked about that & he proudly confirmed it! President Obama also confirmed for me that he was definitely a Trekker! How wonderful is that?! ''
On June 4, 2015, Nichols ' booking agency announced that she had suffered a mild stroke at her Los Angeles home and had been admitted to a Los Angeles - area hospital. This was barely three months after the death of her friend and Star Trek co-star Leonard Nimoy. Doctors were conducting tests to determine the severity of the stroke. Nichols was reportedly awake and resting comfortably. An online news article by Frazier Moore of the Associated Press, which cited news updates from the actress 's Facebook page, stated that, four days afterward, the hospitalized actress was feeling much better and was improving, remaining cheerful and alert and taking the time to read the messages from fans and well - wishers on her Facebook page, of which there were many. A magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan did reveal a small stroke but she was able to begin inpatient therapy on June 5, 2015, for rehabilitation and recovery and to further evaluate her condition and determine the prognosis. Her fellow Star Trek actor George Takei, who played Hikaru Sulu, wished her well on his Twitter account page.
Nichols is an honorary member of Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority.
Robert A. Heinlein in part dedicated his 1982 novel Friday to her.
On June 8, 2010, Nichols received an honorary degree from Los Angeles Mission College.
Asteroid 68410 Nichols is named in her honor.
In 2016, she received The Life Career Award, from the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy and Horror Films and it was presented as part of the 42nd Saturn Awards ceremony.
Nichols was portrayed by Raven - Symoné in the Game Changers episode of the Comedy Central series Drunk History.
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who plays joseph smith in prophet of the restoration | Joseph Smith: the prophet of the Restoration - Wikipedia
Joseph Smith: The Prophet of the Restoration is a 2005 film that focuses on some of the events during the life of Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, which was both filmed and distributed by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church). The film was shown in the Legacy Theater of the Joseph Smith Memorial Building from its opening on December 17, 2005 until early 2015, and opened in several LDS Church visitors ' centers on December 24, 2005.
The film used 65 mm film and is currently being projected digitally. It also took advantage of the new and developing digital intermediate process. In March 2011, the church released a revised cut of the film, which is available to watch in select visitors ' centers and online.
The film begins on June 21, 1844, on a riverboat named Memphis on the Mississippi River. Mary, a recent Mormon convert, has traveled over 4,000 miles to Nauvoo, Illinois, with her father, who would n't let her make the trip by herself. He asks her if she intends to meet Joseph Smith to know that he is a prophet of God. Mary responds that she already knows that Smith is a prophet of God. She says that her father can know too by reading what he wrote.
The movie then shows Mary 's father beginning to read an issue of Times and Seasons and the Book of Mormon. Significant parts of the life of Smith, with occasional narration from Smith, are presumably from the issue of Times and Seasons shown. Smith 's life and the organization of the church is then shown. The first event is in 1813 when the bone in his left leg was seriously infected. Amputation was avoided by an experimental operation to remove the infected parts of the bone.
The next segment tells of Smith 's First Vision of God and Jesus Christ. Narration relates that the time was early in the spring of 1820.
Three years later, Smith receives a visitation from the Angel Moroni who tells him where to find the golden plates. After finding them, he relates that he has been told that there will be several years of training and preparation before he can take the plates. Shortly thereafter, Joseph 's eldest brother, Alvin, dies. The film has shown the close relationship that Alvin, Hyrum, and Joseph had, so the death of Alvin deeply affects Smith. This issue is later resolved with Smith 's 1836 vision at the Kirtland Temple, where he sees Alvin in the celestial kingdom, and the doctrine of salvation for the dead is revealed.
The film then shows a major event during Smith 's preparation to receive the plates, which is when he meets and marries Emma Hale, against the objections of her parents.
After a few years, Smith is allowed to retrieve the golden plates and translates them. During one session of translation, a passage about the necessity of baptism is translated. Smith and his scribe, Oliver Cowdery, pray to learn more and receive a visitation from John the Baptist, who confers upon them the authority to baptize. Next is a visitation of Peter, James and John, who confer upon them the authority to organize the Church of Christ, which they do in April 1830.
The rest of the film deals with the growth and movement of the church throughout the United States, since this is what took up the remainder of Smith 's life. The film shows the first major movement of church members to Kirtland, Ohio in 1836, highlighting the annoyance of previous Ohio residents with the dramatic increase in church members, the poverty that many members experienced because of the move and the harassment of Smith by local mobs. In one scene, Smith is taken from his bed at night, and tarred and feathered. Emma removes what tar she can, and Smith preaches a sermon the next day. While in Kirtland, Smith reveals that God wants them to build a temple. After it is finished and a meeting has been held, Smith and Cowdery see another vision where God accepts the temple. Other personages then appear and confer additional priesthood keys or authorities on them.
Despite the success of the finished temple and visions, the film hints that there are troubles in Ohio, causing Smith and many others to leave. They travel to Missouri, where the Smith and the church members are persecuted. The incidents of Smith and associates being arrested and held in jails in Missouri are shown intermixed with other persecutions of Smith 's followers. The events shown include the time in Richmond, Missouri when the guards were talking about what they had done to the Mormons, and Smith stands up in his bonds and forcefully rebukes them to be silent despite being unarmed himself. The main jail scene shown is the incarceration of Smith, Hyrum, and some others in a jail in Liberty, Missouri. Smith questions God, "How long shall thy hand be stayed? '' It is made clear during this incarceration that Smith is growing discouraged and having doubts about what he is doing. Smith then hears a voice, "My son, peace be unto thy soul; thine adversity and thine afflictions shall be but a small moment; And then, if thou endure it well, God shall exalt thee on high ''.
Smith 's voiceover tells us that the entire group in jail is freed, around which time the church leaves Missouri for Illinois to escape persecution. They begin building a new city, Nauvoo, Illinois. Smith calls several men to travel and preach the gospel to the British Isles for the first time. One of these pairs of men is shown preaching somewhere in the British Isles, where they encounter Mary and her father. (This is presumably where the story switches from the story being read to what is happening at the movie 's present time.)
Back in Nauvoo, Smith tells the people that God has told him to build another temple. After quite a bit of the construction has been completed, Smith and Hyrum are in the basement of the temple discussing going to Carthage. Their enemies from Missouri and other places are trying to get them to Carthage to kill them and Smith tells Hyrum that if they go, they will not come back. Smith is shown conferring all of the keys and authorities that he holds on the apostles, including Brigham Young.
On June 24, 1844, Smith, Hyrum, and two others mount their horses and ride through the town on the way out of town. During this review, the music to "Praise to the Man '' is played in the background while the people the riders pass show on their faces that they understand that is the last time they 'll see Smith alive. Meanwhile, Mary and her father have just arrived in Nauvoo and disembarked. They attempt to follow the riders so that they can meet Smith, but they finally give up when the riders pass out of town past the temple under construction. Mary 's father then says, "We did n't need to meet him to know that he is a prophet. ''
The final sequence shows the last days of both Smith and Hyrum 's lives. Smith, Hyrum and some others have reported to the jail in Carthage, as requested. They are shown in an upper room of the jail when men with guns begin running up the stairs. The men attempt to force their way into the room, but the occupants hold back the door. A shot is fired through the door which hits Hyrum in the face. Hyrum says his historical last words, "I am a dead man. '' Smith is shown attending to Hyrum when he quickly dies. Smith looks up at one of the windows in the room where the panes of glass are being broken by balls fired from outside. The camera then moves toward the window, following Smith in his last failed attempt to draw off the mob attack. The entire window pane is broken and the camera view pans slightly upward to where the sun is filtering through the clouds (in the right of the frame). Smith 's image is then shown on the left of the frame looking towards where the sun is filtering through the clouds, with the voice of Joseph saying his historical last words, "Oh Lord, my God. '' Then fades to black.
A picture of the Nauvoo Temple is then shown with three sentences praising the work that Smith has done, ending with some of Smith 's words from the book the Doctrine and Covenants "Shall we not go on in so great a cause? '' (128: 22).
The Deseret News reported in 2005 that production on the film "was rushed '' in order to meet the church 's 2005 bicentennial of Smith 's birthday.
The film has been shown at a number of the church 's visitors ' center locations, including at the Mesa Arizona, Laie Hawaii, Idaho Falls Idaho, Los Angeles California, Hamilton New Zealand, Oakland California, St. George Utah, Washington D.C., London England temples, along with the Historic Kirtland, Historic Nauvoo, Hill Cumorah, and Independence Missouri centers. It has also been shown at the Cove Fort, Liberty Jail and San Diego Mormon Battalion historic sites, along with the Joseph Smith Birthplace Memorial, and the Mormon Trail Center at Historic Winter Quarters.
The original film was released on DVD through the church 's Distribution Services on October 1, 2010, as part of the DVD set "Doctrine and Covenants and Church History Visual Resource DVDs ''.
In March 2011, the church released a new version of the film. The revised cut is expected to help those unfamiliar with Smith 's story understand it better than the original did. The revisions to the film included a new narration given by Smith 's mother, Lucy Mack Smith, while 40 percent of the film is new content, and it is also five minutes shorter than the original. Because of the level of new content added, some new filming was required. The revised film is available online, on the church 's YouTube channel -- Mormon Messages -- and is available for download on their radio service website, the Mormon Channel. The revised film was shown in the Legacy Theater and at select church visitors ' centers through early 2015. There are no plans to release the revised edition on DVD since it is available to download.
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who did we go to war with in world war 2 | World War II - wikipedia
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World War II (often abbreviated to WWII or WW2), also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the world 's countries -- including all of the great powers -- eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. In a state of total war, the major participants threw their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources.
World War II was the deadliest conflict in human history, marked by 50 million to 85 million fatalities, most of which were civilians in the Soviet Union and China. It included massacres, the deliberate genocide of the Holocaust, strategic bombing, starvation, disease and the first use of nuclear weapons in history.
The Empire of Japan aimed to dominate Asia and the Pacific and was already at war with the Republic of China in 1937, but the world war is generally said to have begun on 1 September 1939 with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany and subsequent declarations of war on Germany by France and the United Kingdom. Supplied by the Soviet Union, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. The war continued primarily between the European Axis powers and the coalition of the United Kingdom and the British Commonwealth, with campaigns including the North Africa and East Africa campaigns, the aerial Battle of Britain, the Blitz bombing campaign, the Balkan Campaign as well as the long - running Battle of the Atlantic. On 22 June 1941, the European Axis powers launched an invasion of the Soviet Union, opening the largest land theatre of war in history, which trapped the major part of the Axis military forces into a war of attrition. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific.
The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, and Germany and Italy were defeated in North Africa and then, decisively, at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. In 1943, with a series of German defeats on the Eastern Front, the Allied invasion of Sicily and the Allied invasion of Italy which brought about Italian surrender, and Allied victories in the Pacific, the Axis lost the initiative and undertook strategic retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded German - occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy and captured key Western Pacific islands.
The war in Europe concluded with an invasion of Germany by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, culminating in the capture of Berlin by Soviet troops, the suicide of Adolf Hitler and the subsequent German unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945. Following the Potsdam Declaration by the Allies on 26 July 1945 and the refusal of Japan to surrender under its terms, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 August and 9 August respectively. With an invasion of the Japanese archipelago imminent, the possibility of additional atomic bombings and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, Japan formally surrendered on 2 September 1945. Thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies.
World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world. The United Nations (UN) was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers -- China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States -- became the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. The Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Africa and Asia began. Most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities and to create a common identity.
The start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland; Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino - Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931.
Others follow the British historian A.J.P. Taylor, who held that the Sino - Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and the two wars merged in 1941. This article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939.
The exact date of the war 's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945 (V-J Day), rather than the formal surrender of Japan (2 September 1945). A peace treaty with Japan was signed in 1951. A treaty regarding Germany 's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place in 1990 and resolved other post-World War II issues.
World War I had radically altered the political European map, with the defeat of the Central Powers -- including Austria - Hungary, Germany, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire -- and the 1917 Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia, which eventually led to the founding of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the victorious Allies of World War I, such as France, Belgium, Italy, Romania and Greece gained territory, and new nation - states were created out of the collapse of Austria - Hungary and the Ottoman and Russian Empires.
To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was created during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The organisation 's primary goals were to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military and naval disarmament, and settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration.
Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I, its aftermath still caused irredentist and revanchist nationalism in several European states. These sentiments were especially marked in Germany because of the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses incurred by the Treaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 per cent of its home territory and all of its overseas possessions, while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country 's armed forces.
The German Empire was dissolved in the German Revolution of 1918 -- 1919, and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic, was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by Britain and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the Fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian, and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left - wing and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a "New Roman Empire ''.
Adolf Hitler, after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the Chancellor of Germany in 1933. He abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massive rearmament campaign. Meanwhile, France, to secure its alliance, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription.
To contain Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany 's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe, drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect though, the Franco - Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year.
Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition. In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome -- Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, which Italy would join in the following year.
The Kuomintang (KMT) party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party allies and new regional warlords. In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan, which had long sought influence in China as the first step of what its government saw as the country 's right to rule Asia, used the Mukden Incident as a pretext to launch an invasion of Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo.
Too weak to resist Japan, China appealed to the League of Nations for help. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai, Rehe and Hebei, until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria, and Chahar and Suiyuan. After the 1936 Xi'an Incident, the Kuomintang and communist forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan.
The Second Italo -- Abyssinian War was a brief colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy (Regno d'Italia), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea. The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI); in addition it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did nothing when the former clearly violated the League 's Article X. Germany was the only major European nation to support the invasion. Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany 's goal of absorbing Austria.
When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels, led by General Francisco Franco. The Soviet Union supported the existing government, the Spanish Republic. Over 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades, also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the USSR used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during Second World War but generally favoured the Axis. His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front.
In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China. The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China 's prior co-operation with Germany. From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan, as well as engaging the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou and Communist forces in Pingxingguan. Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai, but, after three months of fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push the Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937. After the fall of Nanking, tens of thousands if not hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants were murdered by the Japanese.
In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang but then the city of Xuzhou was taken by Japanese in May. In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River; this manoeuvre bought time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan, but the city was taken by October. Japanese military victories did not bring about the collapse of Chinese resistance that Japan had hoped to achieve; instead the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war.
In the mid-to - late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and the Mongolian People 's Republic. The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin - ron, which emphasised Japan 's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. With the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino - Japanese War and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets, this policy would prove difficult to maintain. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin - ron, promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward, eventually leading to its war with the United States and the Western Allies.
In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria, again provoking little response from other European powers. Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland, an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population; and soon Britain and France followed the counsel of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary and Poland annexed Czechoslovakia 's Zaolzie region.
Although all of Germany 's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war - mongers '' and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build - up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state, the Slovak Republic. Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region.
Greatly alarmed and with Hitler making further demands on the Free City of Danzig, Britain and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence; when Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to Romania and Greece. Shortly after the Franco - British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel. Hitler accused Britain and Poland of trying to "encircle '' Germany and renounced the Anglo - German Naval Agreement and the German -- Polish Non-Aggression Pact.
In August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov -- Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression treaty with a secret protocol. The parties gave each other rights to "spheres of influence '' (western Poland and Lithuania for Germany; eastern Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Bessarabia for the USSR). It also raised the question of continuing Polish independence. The agreement was crucial to Hitler because it assured that Germany would not have to face the prospect of a two - front war, as it had in World War I, after it defeated Poland.
The situation reached a general crisis in late August as German troops continued to mobilise against the Polish border. In a private meeting with the Italian foreign minister, Count Ciano, Hitler asserted that Poland was a "doubtful neutral '' that needed to either yield to his demands or be "liquidated '' to prevent it from drawing off German troops in the future "unavoidable '' war with the Western democracies. He did not believe Britain or France would intervene in the conflict. On 23 August Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that Britain had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it.
In response to British requests for direct negotiations to avoid war, Germany made demands on Poland, which only served as a pretext to worsen relations. On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary immediately travel to Berlin to negotiate the handover of Danzig, and to allow a plebiscite in the Polish Corridor in which the German minority would vote on secession. The Poles refused to comply with the German demands and on the night of 30 -- 31 August in a violent meeting with the British ambassador Neville Henderson, Ribbentrop declared that Germany considered its claims rejected.
On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland under the false pretext that the Poles had carried out a series of sabotage operations against German targets near the border. Two days later, on 3 September, after a British ultimatum to Germany to cease military operations was ignored, Britain and France, followed by the fully independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth -- Australia (3 September), Canada (10 September), New Zealand (3 September), and South Africa (6 September) -- declared war on Germany. However, initially the alliance provided limited direct military support to Poland, consisting of a cautious, half - hearted French probe into the Saarland. The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country 's economy and war effort. Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which was to later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic.
On 17 September 1939, after signing a cease - fire with Japan, the Soviets invaded Poland from the east. The Polish army was defeated and Warsaw surrendered to the Germans on 27 September with final pockets of resistance surrendering on 6 October. Poland 's territory was divided between Germany and the Soviet Union, with Lithuania and Slovakia also receiving small shares. After the defeat of Poland 's armed forces, the Polish resistance established an Underground State and a partisan Home Army. About 100,000 Polish military personnel were evacuated to Romania and the Baltic countries; many of these soldiers later fought against the Germans in other theatres of the war. Poland 's Enigma codebreakers were also evacuated to France.
On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to Britain and France, but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. Chamberlain rejected this on 12 October, saying "Past experience has shown that no reliance can be placed upon the promises of the present German Government. '' After this rejection Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, but bad weather forced repeated postponements until the spring of 1940.
After signing the German -- Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Demarcation, the Soviet Union forced the Baltic countries -- Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania -- to allow it to station Soviet troops in their countries under pacts of "mutual assistance ''. Finland rejected territorial demands, prompting a Soviet invasion in November 1939. The resulting Winter War ended in March 1940 with Finnish concessions. Britain and France, treating the Soviet attack on Finland as tantamount to its entering the war on the side of the Germans, responded to the Soviet invasion by supporting the USSR 's expulsion from the League of Nations.
In June 1940, the Soviet Union forcibly annexed Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, and the disputed Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina and Hertza. Meanwhile, Nazi - Soviet political rapprochement and economic co-operation gradually stalled, and both states began preparations for war.
In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden, which the Allies were attempting to cut off by unilaterally mining neutral Norwegian waters. Denmark capitulated after a few hours, and despite Allied support, during which the important harbour of Narvik temporarily was recaptured from the Germans, Norway was conquered within two months. British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the replacement of the British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, with Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940.
Germany launched an offensive against France and, adhering to the Manstein Plan also attacked the neutral nations of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg on 10 May 1940. That same day British forces landed in Iceland and the Faroes to preempt a possible German invasion of the islands. The U.S., in close co-operation with the Danish envoy to Washington D.C., agreed to protect Greenland, laying the political framework for the formal establishment of bases in April 1941. The Netherlands and Belgium were overrun using blitzkrieg tactics in a few days and weeks, respectively. The French - fortified Maginot Line and the main body of the Allied forces which had moved into Belgium were circumvented by a flanking movement through the thickly wooded Ardennes region, mistakenly perceived by Allied planners as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. As a result, the bulk of the Allied armies found themselves trapped in an encirclement and were beaten. The majority were taken prisoner, whilst over 300,000, mostly British and French, were evacuated from the continent at Dunkirk by early June, although abandoning almost all of their equipment.
On 10 June, Italy invaded France, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. Paris fell to the Germans on 14 June and eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany and was soon divided into German and Italian occupation zones, and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime, which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet but the British feared the Germans would seize it, so on 3 July, the British attacked it.
The Battle of Britain began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours. On 19 July, Hitler again publicly offered to end the war, saying he had no desire to destroy the British Empire. The United Kingdom rejected this ultimatum. The main German air superiority campaign started in August but failed to defeat RAF Fighter Command, and a proposed invasion was postponed indefinitely on 17 September. The German strategic bombing offensive intensified as night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz, but largely failed to disrupt the British war effort.
Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy, using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic. The British scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck. Perhaps most importantly, during the Battle of Britain the Royal Air Force had successfully resisted the Luftwaffe 's assault, and the German bombing campaign largely ended in May 1941.
Throughout this period, the neutral United States took measures to assist China and the Western Allies. In November 1939, the American Neutrality Act was amended to allow "cash and carry '' purchases by the Allies. In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased. In September, the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases. Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention into the conflict well into 1941.
Although Roosevelt had promised to keep the United States out of the war, he nevertheless took concrete steps to prepare for war. In December 1940 he accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out negotiations as useless, calling for the US to become an "arsenal of democracy '' and promoted the passage of Lend - Lease aid to support the British war effort. In January 1941 secret high level staff talks with the British began for the purposes of determining how to defeat Germany should the US enter the war. They decided on a number of offensive policies, including an air offensive, the "early elimination '' of Italy, raids, support of resistance groups, and the capture of positions to launch an offensive against Germany.
At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact united Japan, Italy and Germany to formalise the Axis Powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country, with the exception of the Soviet Union, not in the war which attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary, Slovakia and Romania joined the Tripartite Pact. Romania would make a major contribution (as did Hungary) to the Axis war against the USSR, partially to recapture territory ceded to the USSR, partially to pursue its leader Ion Antonescu 's desire to combat communism.
Italy began operations in the Mediterranean, initiating a siege of Malta in June, conquering British Somaliland in August, and making an incursion into British - held Egypt in September 1940. In October 1940, Italy started the Greco - Italian War because of Mussolini 's jealousy of Hitler 's success but within days was repulsed with few territorial gains and a stalemate soon occurred. The United Kingdom responded to Greek requests for assistance by sending troops to Crete and providing air support to Greece. Hitler decided that when the weather improved he would take action against Greece to assist the Italians and prevent the British from gaining a foothold in the Balkans, to strike against the British naval dominance of the Mediterranean, and to secure his hold on Romanian oil.
In December 1940, British Commonwealth forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa. The offensive in North Africa was highly successful and by early February 1941 Italy had lost control of eastern Libya and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission by a carrier attack at Taranto, and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan.
The Germans soon intervened to assist Italy. Hitler sent German forces to Libya in February, and by the end of March the Axis had launched an offensive which drove back the Commonwealth forces which had been weakened to support Greece. In under a month, Commonwealth forces were pushed back into Egypt with the exception of the besieged port of Tobruk that fell later. The Commonwealth attempted to dislodge Axis forces in May and again in June, but failed on both occasions.
By late March 1941, following Bulgaria 's signing of the Tripartite Pact, the Germans were in position to intervene in Greece. Plans were changed, however, because of developments in neighbouring Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav government had signed the Tripartite Pact on 25 March, only to be overthrown two days later by a British - encouraged coup. Hitler viewed the new regime as hostile and immediately decided to eliminate it. On 6 April Germany simultaneously invaded both Yugoslavia and Greece, making rapid progress and forcing both nations to surrender within the month. The British were driven from the Balkans after Germany conquered the Greek island of Crete by the end of May. Although the Axis victory was swift, bitter partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia, which continued until the end of the war.
The Allies did have some successes during this time. In the Middle East, Commonwealth forces first quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy - controlled Syria, then, with the assistance of the Free French, invaded Syria and Lebanon to prevent further such occurrences.
With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource - rich European possessions in Southeast Asia, the two powers signed the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border.
Hitler believed that Britain 's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany sooner or later. He therefore decided to try to strengthen Germany 's relations with the Soviets, or failing that, to attack and eliminate them as a factor. In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the Tripartite Pact. The Soviets showed some interest, but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union.
On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them. They were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary. The primary targets of this surprise offensive were the Baltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk - Astrakhan line, from the Caspian to the White Seas. Hitler 's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate Communism, generate Lebensraum ("living space '') by dispossessing the native population and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany 's remaining rivals.
Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt a strategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel. By the middle of August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre, and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further advance into Crimea and industrially developed Eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov).
The diversion of three quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front prompted Britain to reconsider its grand strategy. In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany The British and Soviets invaded neutral Iran to secure the Persian Corridor and Iran 's oil fields. In August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter.
By October Axis operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region were achieved, with only the sieges of Leningrad and Sevastopol continuing. A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops were forced to suspend their offensive. Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended.
By early December, freshly mobilised reserves allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army, allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100 -- 250 kilometres (62 -- 155 mi) west.
In 1939, the United States had renounced its trade treaty with Japan; and, beginning with an aviation gasoline ban in July 1940, Japan became subject to increasing economic pressure. During this time, Japan launched its first attack against Changsha, a strategically important Chinese city, but was repulsed by late September. Despite several offensives by both sides, the war between China and Japan was stalemated by 1940. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina. Afterwards, the United States embargoed iron, steel and mechanical parts against Japan. Other sanctions soon followed.
Chinese nationalist forces launched a large - scale counter-offensive in early 1940. In August, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan instituted harsh measures in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists. Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation. In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during Battle of Shanggao. In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces.
German successes in Europe encouraged Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan some oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies, but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, United Kingdom and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo. At the same time, Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East, intending to capitalize off the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions.
Since early 1941 the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. During these negotiations Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. At the same time the US, Britain, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the US would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries ''.
Frustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American - British - Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. On 20 November a new government under Hideki Tojo presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina. The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force; the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war.
Japan planned to rapidly seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific; the Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near - simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific. These included an attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, the Philippines, landings in Thailand and Malaya and the battle of Hong Kong.
These attacks led the United States, Britain, China, Australia and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large - scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt.
On 1 January 1942, the Allied Big Four -- the Soviet Union, China, Britain and the United States -- and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations, thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter, and agreeing to not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers.
During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large - scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets were also demanding a second front. The British, on the other hand, argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolster resistance forces. Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour without using large - scale armies. Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa.
At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration by the United Nations, and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland and to invade France in 1944.
By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost fully conquered Burma, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, Singapore, and Rabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces, the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in the South China Sea, Java Sea and Indian Ocean, and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha. These easy victories over unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, as well as overextended.
In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea. Japan 's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid, was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang - Jiangxi Campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups. In early June, Japan put its operations into action but the Americans, having broken Japanese naval codes in late May, were fully aware of plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy.
With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan chose to focus on a belated attempt to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua. The Americans planned a counter-attack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands, primarily Guadalcanal, as a first step towards capturing Rabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia.
Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna - Gona. Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops. In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first, an offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942, went disastrously, forcing a retreat back to India by May 1943. The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese front - lines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results.
Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. In May the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov, and then launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia in June 1942, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy Kuban steppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south - east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga.
By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting when the Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of German forces at Stalingrad and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously. By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been forced to surrender, and the front - line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov, creating a salient in their front line around the Russian city of Kursk.
Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast. By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive, Operation Crusader, in North Africa, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. In North Africa, the Germans launched an offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala Line by early February, followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. Concerns the Japanese might use bases in Vichy - held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein. On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the disastrous Dieppe Raid, demonstrated the Western Allies ' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security.
In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta. A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo - American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies. Hitler responded to the French colony 's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France; although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. The now pincered Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia, which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943.
In early 1943 the British and Americans began the Combined Bomber Offensive, a strategic bombing campaign against Germany. The goals were to disrupt the German war economy, reduce German morale, and "de-house '' the civilian population.
After the Guadalcanal Campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and U.S. forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians. Soon after, the U.S., with support from Australian and New Zealand forces, began major operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands. By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives, and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands. In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea. In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia. On 4 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets ' deeply echeloned and well - constructed defences and, for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled the operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies ' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month. Also, in July 1943 the British firebombed Hamburg killing over 40,000 people.
On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives, thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther -- Wotan line, but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and by the Lower Dnieper Offensives.
On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland, following Italy 's armistice with the Allies. Germany with the help of fascists responded by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas, and creating a series of defensive lines. German special forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German - occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic, causing an Italian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November.
German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai - shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran. The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory and the military planning for the Burma Campaign, while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany 's defeat.
From November 1943, during the seven - week Battle of Changde, the Chinese forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition, while awaiting Allied relief. In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio. By the end of January, a major Soviet offensive expelled German forces from the Leningrad region, ending the longest and most lethal siege in history.
The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea, largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and made incursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis troops. The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, on 4 June, Rome was captured.
The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against British positions in Assam, India, and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima. In May 1944, British forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma, and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina. The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China 's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese - held territory and capture Allied airfields. By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha in the Hunan province.
On 6 June 1944 (known as D - Day), after three years of Soviet pressure, the Western Allies invaded northern France. After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France. These landings were successful, and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France. Paris was liberated by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces, both led by General Charles de Gaulle, on 25 August and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Ruhr river in a large offensive. In Italy, Allied advance also slowed due to the last major German defensive line.
On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus ("Operation Bagration '') that destroyed the German Army Group Centre almost completely. Soon after that another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet advance prompted resistance forces in Poland to initiate several uprisings against the German occupation. However, the largest of these in Warsaw, where German soldiers massacred 200,000 civilians, and a national uprising in Slovakia, did not receive Soviet support and were subsequently suppressed by the Germans. The Red Army 's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria, followed by those countries ' shift to the Allied side.
In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece, Albania and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. By this point, the Communist - led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito, who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia, the Red Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German - occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet - Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, although Finland was forced to fight their former allies.
By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam, pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese force captured the Mount Song to reopen the Burma Road. In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December.
In the Pacific, US forces continued to press back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands, and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history.
On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along the French -- German border to split the Western Allies, encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and capture their primary supply port at Antwerp to prompt a political settlement. By January, the offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Soviets and Poles attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia. On 4 February, Soviet, British and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan.
In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania, while Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr, encircling the German Army Group B, while the Soviets advanced to Vienna. In early April, the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg, while Soviet and Polish forces stormed Berlin in late April. American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April. On 30 April 1945, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany.
Several changes in leadership occurred during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry S. Truman. Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. Two days later, Hitler committed suicide, and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz.
German forces surrendered in Italy on 29 April. Total and unconditional surrender was signed on 7 May, to be effective by the end of 8 May. German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May.
In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines, clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March following a battle which reduced the city to ruins. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao, and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war. Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) were destroying strategic and populated cities and towns in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. On the night of 9 -- 10 March, USAAF B - 29 bombers struck Tokyo with thousands of incendiary bombs, which killed 100,000 civilians and destroyed 16 square miles (41 km) within a few hours. Over the next five months, the USAAF firebombed a total of 67 Japanese cities, killing 393,000 civilians and destroying 65 % of built - up areas.
In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo, overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. Chinese forces started to counterattack in Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. At the same time, American submarines cut off Japanese imports, drastically reducing Japan 's ability to supply its overseas forces.
On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany. They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, and reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of all Japanese forces by Japan, specifically stating that "the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction ''. During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election, and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister.
The Allies called for unconditional Japanese surrender in the Potsdam Declaration of 27 July, but the Japanese government rejected the call. In early August, the USAAF dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The Allies justified the atomic bombings as a military necessity to avoid invading the Japanese home islands which would cost the lives of between 250,000 and 500,000 Allied servicemen and millions of Japanese troops and civilians. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, invaded Japanese - held Manchuria, and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force. The Red Army also captured Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands. On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered, with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war.
The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany. The former became a neutral state, non-aligned with any political bloc. The latter was divided into western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the USSR, accordingly. A denazification programme in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society.
Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia, Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, East Prussia was divided between Poland and the USSR, followed by the expulsion of the 9 million Germans from these provinces, as well as the expulsion of 3 million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia to Germany. By the 1950s, every fifth West German was a refugee from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon line, from which 2 million Poles were expelled; north - east Romania, parts of eastern Finland, and the three Baltic states were also incorporated into the USSR.
In an effort to maintain world peace, the Allies formed the United Nations, which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, as a common standard for all member nations. The great powers that were the victors of the war -- France, China, Britain, the Soviet Union and the United States -- became the permanent members of the UN 's Security Council. The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People 's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state, the Russian Federation, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over.
Germany had been de facto divided, and two independent states, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic were created within the borders of Allied and Soviet occupation zones, accordingly. The rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence. Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist - led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Albania became Soviet satellite states. Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy, causing tension with the USSR.
Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States - led NATO and the Soviet - led Warsaw Pact; the long period of political tensions and military competition between them, the Cold War, would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and proxy wars.
In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administrated Japan 's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. Korea, formerly under Japanese rule, was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the US in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War.
In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People 's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab -- Israeli conflict. While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation.
The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The US emerged much richer than any other nation; it had a baby boom and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers and it dominated the world economy. The UK and US pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany in the years 1945 -- 1948. Because of international trade interdependencies this led to European economic stagnation and delayed European recovery for several years.
Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the Marshall Plan (1948 -- 1951) both directly and indirectly caused. The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle. Italy also experienced an economic boom and the French economy rebounded. By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, and although it received a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, continued relative economic decline for decades.
The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era. Japan experienced incredibly rapid economic growth, becoming one of the most powerful economies in the world by the 1980s. China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952.
Estimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded. Most suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about 20 million military personnel and 40 million civilians. Many of the civilians died because of deliberate genocide, massacres, mass - bombings, disease, and starvation.
The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people during the war, including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths. The largest portion of military dead were 5.7 million ethnic Russians, followed by 1.3 million ethnic Ukrainians. A quarter of the people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed. Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany.
Of the total number of deaths in World War II, approximately 85 per cent -- mostly Soviet and Chinese -- were on the Allied side and 15 per cent were on the Axis side. Many of these deaths were caused by war crimes committed by German and Japanese forces in occupied territories. An estimated 11 to 17 million civilians died either as a direct or as an indirect result of Nazi racist policies, including the Holocaust of around 6 million Jews, half of whom were Polish citizens, along with a further minimum 1.9 million ethnic Poles. Millions of other Slavs (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), Roma, homosexuals, and other ethnic and minority groups were also killed. Hundreds of thousands (varying estimates) of ethnic Serbs, along with gypsies and Jews, were murdered by the Axis - aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia, and retribution - related killings were committed just after the war ended.
In Asia and the Pacific, between 3 million and more than 10 million civilians, mostly Chinese (estimated at 7.5 million), were killed by the Japanese occupation forces. The best - known Japanese atrocity was the Nanking Massacre, in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered. Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during the Sankō Sakusen. General Yasuji Okamura implemented the policy in Heipei and Shantung.
Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons. The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China (see Unit 731) and in early conflicts against the Soviets. Both the Germans and Japanese tested such weapons against civilians and, sometimes on prisoners of war.
The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers, and the imprisonment or execution of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD, in the Baltic states, and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army.
The mass - bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime. However, no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II.
The German government led by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party was responsible for the Holocaust, the killing of approximately 6 million Jews, as well as 2.7 million ethnic Poles, and 4 million others who were deemed "unworthy of life '' (including the disabled and mentally ill, Soviet prisoners of war, homosexuals, Freemasons, Jehovah 's Witnesses, and Romani) as part of a programme of deliberate extermination. About 12 million, most of whom were Eastern Europeans, were employed in the German war economy as forced labourers.
In addition to Nazi concentration camps, the Soviet gulags (labour camps) led to the death of citizens of occupied countries such as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia, as well as German prisoners of war (POWs) and even Soviet citizens who had been or were thought to be supporters of the Nazis. Sixty per cent of Soviet POWs of the Germans died during the war. Richard Overy gives the number of 5.7 million Soviet POWs. Of those, 57 per cent died or were killed, a total of 3.6 million. Soviet ex-POWs and repatriated civilians were treated with great suspicion as potential Nazi collaborators, and some of them were sent to the Gulag upon being checked by the NKVD.
Japanese prisoner - of - war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27.1 per cent (for American POWs, 37 per cent), seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians. While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan, the number of Chinese released was only 56.
According to historian Zhifen Ju, at least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board, or Kōain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million. The US Library of Congress estimates that in Java, between 4 and 10 million rōmusha (Japanese: "manual labourers ''), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese - held areas in South East Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java.
On 19 February 1942, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, interning about 100,000 Japanese living on the West Coast. Canada had a similar programme. In addition, 14,000 German and Italian citizens who had been assessed as being security risks were also interned.
In accordance with the Allied agreement made at the Yalta Conference millions of POWs and civilians were used as forced labour by the Soviet Union. In Hungary 's case, Hungarians were forced to work for the Soviet Union until 1955.
In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichmarks (27.8 billion US Dollars) by the end of the war, this figure does not include the sizeable plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 per cent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 per cent of total German income as the war went on.
In the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front - lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the "inferior people '' of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass executions. Although resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the East or the West until late 1943.
In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. Although Japanese forces were originally welcomed as liberators from European domination in some territories, their excessive brutality turned local public opinion against them within weeks. During Japan 's initial conquest it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m) of oil (~ 5.5 × 10 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces, and by 1943 was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (~ 6.8 × 10 ^ t), 76 per cent of its 1940 output rate.
In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and British Dominions) had a 30 per cent larger population and a 30 per cent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); if colonies are included, it then gives the Allies more than a 5: 1 advantage in population and nearly 2: 1 advantage in GDP. In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan, but only an 89 per cent higher GDP; this is reduced to three times the population and only a 38 per cent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included.
The United States provided about two - thirds of all the ordnance used by the Allies in terms of warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition. Though the Allies ' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies, as the war largely settled into one of attrition. While the Allies ' ability to out - produce the Axis is often attributed to the Allies having more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan 's reluctance to employ women in the labour force, Allied strategic bombing, and Germany 's late shift to a war economy contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and were not equipped to do so. To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers; Germany used about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe, while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia.
Aircraft were used for reconnaissance, as fighters, bombers, and ground - support, and each role was advanced considerably. Innovation included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high - priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); and of strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy 's ability to wage war). Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface - to - air artillery, such as the German 88 mm gun. The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and, though late introduction meant it had little impact, it led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide.
Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare, most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines. Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto, Pearl Harbor, and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship in place of the battleship.
In the Atlantic, escort carriers proved to be a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap. Carriers were also more economical than battleships because of the relatively low cost of aircraft and their not requiring to be as heavily armoured. Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War, were anticipated by all sides to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh light, hedgehog, squid, and homing torpedoes proved victorious.
Land warfare changed from the static front lines of World War I to increased mobility and combined arms. The tank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower.
At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank - versus - tank combat. This, along with Germany 's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. Many means of destroying tanks, including indirect artillery, anti-tank guns (both towed and self - propelled), mines, short - ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were utilised. Even with large - scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.
The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG34, and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. The assault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard postwar infantry weapon for most armed forces.
Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well known being the German Enigma machine. Development of SIGINT (signals intelligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes and British Ultra, a pioneering method for decoding Enigma benefiting from information given to Britain by the Polish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. Another aspect of military intelligence was the use of deception, which the Allies used to great effect, such as in operations Mincemeat and Bodyguard. Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world 's first programmable computers (Z3, Colossus, and ENIAC), guided missiles and modern rockets, the Manhattan Project 's development of nuclear weapons, operations research and the development of artificial harbours and oil pipelines under the English Channel.
Gilbert, Martin (2001). "Final Solution ''. In Dear, Ian; Foot, Richard D. The Oxford Companion to World War II. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 285 -- 292. ISBN 0 - 19 - 280670 - X.
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lyrics to we are walking in the light of god | Siyahamba - wikipedia
Siyahamba (Written by Andries Van Tonder) is a South African hymn that became popular in North American churches in the 1990s. The title means "We Are Marching '' or "We are Walking '' in the Zulu language.
"Siyahamba '' originated in South Africa, probably as a Zulu folk song. It was rewritten as a Christian hymn by Andries Van Tonder, an elder of the Judith Church, and was passed on to his great grandsons, Andrew and Zachariah O ' Tonder, from Ireland. It was written in 1952, 3 years before Andries Van Tonder died.
In 1978, the Swedish choral group Fjedur toured South Africa at the invitation of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of South Africa. It was during this tour that Fjedur 's musical director, Anders Nyberg (sv), heard and recorded "Siyahamba '' at a girls ' school in Appelsbosch, Natal. Subsequently, this song has been used around the world by schools in their prayers.
In 1984, Nyberg arranged "Siyahamba '' for a four - voice setting and published it in a songbook and recording called Freedom is Coming: Songs of Protest and Praise from South Africa. In 1994, GIA Publications included the song (under the title "We Are Marching in the Light of God '') in Gather Comprehensive, a hymnal widely used in American Catholic parishes. A year later, the United Church of Christ included the song, under the same title, in The New Century Hymnal. The Unitarian Universalist Association included the song in its 2005 supplemental hymnbook, Singing the Journey.
Today, "Siyahamba '' is often performed by children 's groups in both sacred and secular environments. Occasionally, the translated lyrics are modified for a secular performance: for example, the English translation "We are marching in the light of God '' becomes "We are standing in the light of peace. ''
The structure of the song is cyclic, rather than sequential: the lyrics consist of one phrase, repeated with permutations. Hawn notes that cyclical forms tend to emphasize a spirit of community and allow for physical response during the performance. This cyclical form, along with the meaning of the lyrics, may explain the song 's popularity as a processional and offertory as well as a protest or marching song.
Ons marsjeer nou in die lig van God,
Ons marsjeer nou in die lig van God.
Ons marsjeer nou in die lig van God,
Ons marsjeer nou in die lig van God. (in die lig van God)
Ons marsjeer nou... ooh (Ons marsjeer nou, marsjeer nou, ons marsjeer nou, marsjeer nou,)
Ons marsjeer nou in die lig van God. (in die lig van God)
Ons marsjeer nou... ooh (Ons marsjeer nou, marsjeer nou, ons marsjeer nou, marsjeer nou,)
Ons marsjeer nou in die lig van God.
(Alternative versions of the lyrics may alternate marsjeer with different verbs such as wandel.)
Siyahamb ' ekukhanyeni kwenkos, Siyahamba ekukhanyeni kwenkos '.
Siyahamb ' ekukhanyeni kwenkos ', Siyahamba ekukhanyeni kwenkos '.
(ekukhanyeni kwenkos ')
Siyahamba... ooh
(Siyahamba, hamba, Siyahamba, hamba)
Siyahamba ekukhanyeni kwenkos '.
(ekukhanyeni kwenkos ')
Siyahamba... ooh
(Siyahamba, hamba, Siyahamba, hamba)
Siyahamba ekukhanyeni kwenkos '.
Twatembea nuruni mwake,
twatembea nuruni mwake.
Twatembea nuruni mwake,
twatembea nuruni mwake. (nuruni mwake)
Twatembea... ooh (Twatembea, tembea, twatembea, tembea,)
Twatembea nuruni mwake. (nuruni mwake)
Twatembea... ooh (Twatembea, tembea, twatembea, tembea,)
Twatembea nuruni mwake.
Leader: We are marching in the light of God
Choir: We are marching in the light of God.
Leader: We are marching in the light of God,
Choir: We are marching in the light of God. (in the light of God)
We are marching... ooh (We are marching, marching, we are marching, marching,)
We are marching in the light of God. (the light of God)
We are marching... ooh (We are marching, marching, we are marching, marching,)
We are marching in the light of God.
(Alternative versions of the lyrics may alternate marching with different verbs such as walking, dancing, singing, living, or praying, holding up, or the word "God '' for love in a less religious gathering.)
Wir marschieren im Lichte Gottes
Wir marschieren im Lichte Gottes.
Wir marschieren im Lichte Gottes,
Wir marschieren im Lichte Gottes. (im Lichte Gottes)
Wir marschieren... ooh (Wir marschieren, marschieren, wir marschieren, marschieren,)
Wir marschieren im Lichte Gottes. (im Lichte Gottes)
Wir marschieren... ooh (Wir marschieren, marschieren, wir marschieren, marschieren,)
Wir marschieren im Lichte Gottes.
(Wobei marschieren hier nicht im Sinne von einem militärischen Marsch verstanden werden soll, sondern die Bedeutung geht hier mehr in Richtung wandern.)
Nous marchons dans la lumière de Dieu,
Nous marchons dans la lumière de Dieu.
Nous marchons dans la lumière de Dieu,
Nous marchons dans la lumière de Dieu. (dans la lumière de Dieu)
Nous marchons... ooh (Nous marchons, marchons, nous marchons, marchons,)
Nous marchons dans la lumière de Dieu. (dans la lumière de Dieu)
Nous marchons... ooh (Nous marchons, marchons, nous marchons, marchons,)
Nous marchons dans la lumière de Dieu.
Caminamos en la luz de Dios,
Caminamos en la luz de Dios.
Caminamos en la luz de Dios,
Caminamos en la luz de Dios. (en la luz de Dios)
Caminando... ooh (Caminando, vamos caminando, vamos)
Caminando en la luz de Dios. (en la luz de Dios)
Caminando... ooh (Caminando, vamos caminando, vamos)
Caminando en la luz de Dios.
Caminhando, na luz do Senhor,
Caminhando, na luz do Senhor
Caminhando, na luz do Senhor,
Caminhando, na luz do Senhor. (com a luz do Senhor)
Caminhando... ooh (Caminhando, eu vou caminhando, eu vou)
Caminhando, na luz do Senhor. (com a luz do Senhor)
Caminhando... ooh (Caminhando, eu vou caminhando, eu vou)
Caminhando, na luz do Senhor.
Við göngum í ljósi Guðs
já, við göngum í ljósi Guðs
Við göngum í ljósi Guðs
já, við göngum í ljósi Guðs
Við göngum,
já við göngum
Úww, já, við göngum í ljósi Guðs
Við göngum,
já við göngum
Úww, já, við göngum í ljósi Guðs
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who were the superpowers during the cold war | Superpower - wikipedia
Superpower is a term used to describe a state with a dominant position, which is characterised by its extensive ability to exert influence or project power on a global scale. This is done through the combined - means of economic, military, technological and cultural strength, as well as diplomatic and soft power influence. Traditionally, superpowers are preeminent among the great powers.
The term was first applied post World War II to the British Empire, the United States and the Soviet Union. However, after the end of World War II and the Suez Crisis in 1956, the United Kingdom 's status as a superpower was greatly diminished, leaving just the United States and Soviet Union as superpowers. For the duration of the Cold War the United States and the Soviet Union came to be generally regarded as the two remaining superpowers, dominating world affairs. At the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, only the United States appeared to fulfill the criteria of being a world superpower.
Alice Lyman Miller defines a superpower as "a country that has the capacity to project dominating power and influence anywhere in the world, and sometimes, in more than one region of the globe at a time, and so may plausibly attain the status of global hegemony. ''
No agreed definition of what is a ' superpower ' exists, and may differ between sources. However, a fundamental characteristic that is consistent with all definitions of a superpower is a nation or state that has mastered the seven dimensions of state power: geography, population, economy, resources, military, diplomacy and national identity.
The term was first used to describe nations with greater than great power status as early as 1944, but only gained its specific meaning with regard to the United States, the United Kingdom and its empire and the Soviet Union after World War II. This was because the United Kingdom, the United States and the Soviet Union had proved themselves to be capable of casting great influence in global politics and military dominance. The term in its current political meaning was coined by Dutch - American geostrategist Nicholas Spykman in a series of lectures in 1943 about the potential shape of a new post-war world order. This formed the foundation for the book The Geography of the Peace, which referred primarily to the unmatched maritime global supremacy of the British Empire and United States as essential for peace and prosperity in the world.
A year later, in 1944, William T.R. Fox, an American foreign policy professor, elaborated on the concept in the book The Superpowers: The United States, Britain and the Soviet Union -- Their Responsibility for Peace, which spoke of the global reach of a super-empowered nation. Fox used the word Superpower to identify a new category of power able to occupy the highest status in a world in which, as the war then raging demonstrated, states could challenge and fight each other on a global scale. According to him, there were (at that moment) three states that were superpowers: the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Soviet Union. The British Empire was the most extensive empire in world history and considered the foremost great power, holding sway over 25 % of the world 's population and controlling about 25 % of the Earth 's total land area, while the United States and the Soviet Union grew in power before and during World War II.
According to Lyman Miller, "The basic components of superpower stature may be measured along four axes of power: military, economic, political, and cultural (or what political scientist Joseph Nye has termed "soft power '').
In the opinion of Kim Richard Nossal of Queen 's University in Canada, "generally this term was used to signify a political community that occupied a continental - sized landmass, had a sizable population (relative at least to other major powers); a superordinate economic capacity, including ample indigenous supplies of food and natural resources; enjoyed a high degree of non-dependence on international intercourse; and, most importantly, had a well - developed nuclear capacity (eventually normally defined as second strike capability). ''
In the opinion of Professor Paul Dukes, "a superpower must be able to conduct a global strategy including the possibility of destroying the world; to command vast economic potential and influence; and to present a universal ideology ''. Although, "many modifications may be made to this basic definition ''. According to Professor June Teufel Dreyer, "A superpower must be able to project its power, soft and hard, globally. '' In his book, Superpower: Three Choices for America 's Role in the World, Dr. Ian Bremmer, president of the Eurasia Group, argues that a superpower is "a country that can exert enough military, political, and economic power to persuade nations in every region of the world to take important actions they would not otherwise take. ''
There have been many attempts by historians to apply the term superpower retrospectively, and sometimes very loosely, to a variety of entities in the past. Recognition by historians of these older states as superpowers may focus on various superlative traits exhibited by them. Examples of these ancient or historical superpowers include the British Empire, Ancient Egypt, the Hittite Empire, the Achaemenid Empire, the Hellenistic Empire of Alexander the Great, the Roman Empire, the Maurya Empire, the Mughal Empire, the Han Empire, the Tang Empire, the Umayyad Caliphate, the Mongol Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the Spanish Empire, and the First French Empire of Napoleon.
According to historical statistics and research from the OECD, until the early modern period, Western Europe, China, and India accounted for roughly 2⁄3 of the world 's GDP.
The 1956 Suez Crisis suggested that Britain, financially weakened by two world wars, could not then pursue its foreign policy objectives on an equal footing with the new superpowers without sacrificing convertibility of its reserve currency as a central goal of policy. As the majority of World War II had been fought far from its national boundaries, the United States had not suffered the industrial destruction nor massive civilian casualties that marked the wartime situation of the countries in Europe or Asia. The war had reinforced the position of the United States as the world 's largest long - term creditor nation and its principal supplier of goods; moreover it had built up a strong industrial and technological infrastructure that had greatly advanced its military strength into a primary position on the global stage. Despite attempts to create multinational coalitions or legislative bodies (such as the United Nations), it became increasingly clear that the superpowers had very different visions about what the post-war world ought to look like, and after the withdrawal of British aid to Greece in 1947, the United States took the lead in containing Soviet expansion in the Cold War.
The two countries opposed each other ideologically, politically, militarily, and economically. The Soviet Union promoted the ideology of communism: planned economy and a one - party state, whilst the United States promoted the ideologies of liberal democracy and the free market. This was reflected in the Warsaw Pact and NATO military alliances, respectively, as most of Europe became aligned with either the United States or the Soviet Union. These alliances implied that these two nations were part of an emerging bipolar world, in contrast with a previously multipolar world.
The idea that the Cold War period revolved around only two blocs, or even only two nations, has been challenged by some scholars in the post -- Cold War era, who have noted that the bipolar world only exists if one ignores all of the various movements and conflicts that occurred without influence from either of the two superpowers. Additionally, much of the conflict between the superpowers was fought in "proxy wars '', which more often than not involved issues more complex than the standard Cold War oppositions.
After the Soviet Union disintegrated in the early 1990s, the term hyperpower began to be applied to the United States, as the sole remaining superpower of the Cold War era. This term, popularized by French foreign minister Hubert Védrine in the late 1990s, is controversial and the validity of classifying the United States in this way is disputed. One notable opponent to this theory, Samuel P. Huntington, rejects this theory in favor of a multipolar balance of power. Other international relations theorists, such as Henry Kissinger, theorize that because the threat of the Soviet Union no longer exists to formerly American - dominated regions such as Western Europe and Japan, American influence is only declining since the end of the Cold War, because such regions no longer need protection or have necessarily similar foreign policies as the United States.
The Soviet Union and the United States fulfilled the superpower criteria in the following ways:
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 which ended the Cold War, the post -- Cold War world has in the past been considered by some to be a unipolar world, with the United States as the world 's sole remaining superpower. In 1999, Samuel P. Huntington wrote, "The United States, of course, is the sole state with preeminence in every domain of power -- economic, military, diplomatic, ideological, technological, and cultural -- with the reach and capabilities to promote its interests in virtually every part of the world. '' However, he rejected the claim that the world was unipolar: "There is now only one superpower. But that does not mean that the world is unipolar, '' describing it instead as "a strange hybrid, a uni-multipolar system with one superpower and several major powers. '' He further wrote that "Washington is blind to the fact that it no longer enjoys the dominance it had at the end of the Cold War. It must relearn the game of international politics as a major power, not a superpower, and make compromises. ''
Experts argue that this older assessment of global politics is too simplified, in part because of the difficulty in classifying the European Union at its current stage of development. Others argue that the notion of a superpower is outdated, considering complex global economic interdependencies, and propose that the world is multipolar.
A 2012 report by the National Intelligence Council said that America 's superpower status will have eroded to merely being first among equals by 2030, but that the US would remain highest among the world 's most powerful countries because of its influence in many different fields and global connections that the great regional powers of the time would not match. Additionally, some experts have suggested the possibility of the United States losing its superpower status completely in the future. Citing speculation of the United States relative decline in power to the rest of the world, economic hardships, a declining dollar, Cold War allies becoming less dependent on the United States and the emergence of future powers around the world.
Some people doubt the existence of superpowers in the post -- Cold War era altogether, stating that today 's complex global marketplace and the rising interdependency between the world 's nations has made the concept of a superpower an idea of the past and that the world is now multipolar. However, while the military dominance of the United States remains unquestioned for now and its international influence has made it an eminent world power, countries such as China, India, Brazil and Russia are inventing new ways to counter US military supremacy (namely space) and are making great strides in science, literature, soft power, and diplomacy.
The term ' potential superpowers ' has been applied by scholars and other qualified commentators to the possibility of several states achieving superpower status in the 21st century. Due to their large markets, growing military strength, economic potential, and influence in international affairs, China, the European Union, India, and Russia are among the political entities most cited as having the potential of achieving superpower status in the 21st century. Many historians, writers, and critics have expressed doubts, however, whether any of these countries would ever emerge as a new superpower. Some political scientists and other commentators have even suggested that such countries might simply be emerging powers, as opposed to potential superpowers.
Besides those mentioned above, a limited number of observers have also discussed, though ultimately dismissed, Brazil having the potential to emerge as a superpower.
The record of such predictions has admittedly not been perfect. For example, in the 1980s, some commentators thought Japan would become a superpower, due to its large GDP and high economic growth at the time. However, Japan 's economy crashed in 1991, creating a long period of economic slump in the country which has become known as The Lost Years. As of August 2012, Japan had yet to fully recover from the 1991 crash.
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when did 10 downing street became the prime minister's residence | 10 Downing Street - wikipedia
gov.uk
10 Downing Street, colloquially known in the United Kingdom as Number 10, is the headquarters of the Government of the United Kingdom and the official residence and office of the First Lord of the Treasury, a post which, for much of the 18th and 19th centuries and invariably since 1905, has been held by the Prime Minister.
Situated in Downing Street in the City of Westminster, London, Number 10 is over 300 years old and contains approximately 100 rooms. A private residence occupies the third floor and there is a kitchen in the basement. The other floors contain offices and conference, reception, sitting and dining rooms where the Prime Minister works, and where government ministers, national leaders and foreign dignitaries are met and entertained. At the rear is an interior courtyard and a terrace overlooking a garden of 0.5 acres (2,000 m). Adjacent to St James 's Park, Number 10 is near Buckingham Palace, the London residence of the British monarch, and the Palace of Westminster, the meeting place of both houses of parliament.
Originally three houses, Number 10 was offered to Sir Robert Walpole by King George II in 1732. Walpole accepted on the condition that the gift was to the office of First Lord of the Treasury rather than to him personally. Walpole commissioned William Kent to join the three houses and it is this larger house that is known as Number 10 Downing Street.
The arrangement was not an immediate success. Despite its size and convenient location near to Parliament, few early Prime Ministers lived there. Costly to maintain, neglected, and run - down, Number 10 was close to being demolished several times but the property survived and became linked with many statesmen and events in British history. In 1985 Margaret Thatcher said Number 10 had become "one of the most precious jewels in the national heritage ''.
The current tenants of 10 Downing Street are:
It currently houses the UK cabinet room in which cabinet meetings in the UK take place, chaired by 10 Downing Street resident Prime Minister Theresa May. It also houses the Prime Minister 's Office which deals with logistics and diplomacy concerning the government of the United Kingdom
Number 10 Downing Street was originally three properties: a mansion overlooking St James 's Park called "the House at the Back '', a town house behind it and a cottage. The town house, from which the modern building gets its name, was one of several built by Sir George Downing between 1682 and 1684.
Downing, a notorious spy for Oliver Cromwell and later Charles II, invested in property and acquired considerable wealth. In 1654, he purchased the lease on land south of St James 's Park, adjacent to the House at the Back within walking distance of parliament. Downing planned to build a row of town houses "for persons of good quality to inhabit in... '' The street on which he built them now bears his name, and the largest became part of Number 10 Downing Street.
Straightforward as the investment seemed, it proved otherwise. The Hampden family had a lease on the land that they refused to relinquish. Downing fought their claim, but failed and had to wait thirty years before he could build. When the Hampden lease expired, Downing received permission to build on land further west to take advantage of more recent property developments. The new warrant issued in 1682 reads: "Sir George Downing... (is authorised) to build new and more houses... subject to the proviso that it be not built any nearer than 14 feet of the wall of the said Park at the West end thereof ''. Between 1682 and 1684, Downing built a cul - de-sac of two - storey town houses with coach - houses, stables and views of St James 's Park. Over the years, the addresses changed several times. In 1787 Number 5 became "Number 10 ''.
Downing employed Sir Christopher Wren to design the houses. Although large, they were put up quickly and cheaply on soft soil with shallow foundations. The fronts were façades with lines painted on the surface imitating brick mortar. Winston Churchill wrote that Number 10 was "shaky and lightly built by the profiteering contractor whose name they bear ''.
The upper end of the Downing Street cul - de-sac closed off the access to St James 's Park, making the street quiet and private. An advertisement in 1720 described it as: "... a pretty open Place, especially at the upper end, where are four or five very large and well - built Houses, fit for Persons of Honour and Quality; each House having a pleasant Prospect into St James 's Park, with a Tarras Walk ''. The cul - de-sac had several distinguished residents: the Countess of Yarmouth lived at Number 10 between 1688 and 1689, Lord Lansdowne from 1692 to 1696 and the Earl of Grantham from 1699 to 1703.
Downing did not live in Downing Street. In 1675 he retired to Cambridge, where he died in 1684, a few months after building was completed. Downing 's portrait hangs in the entrance foyer of Number 10.
The "House at the Back '', the largest of the three houses that were combined to make Number 10, was a mansion constructed around 1530 next to Whitehall Palace. Rebuilt, expanded, and renovated many times since, it was originally one of several buildings that made up the "Cockpit Lodgings '', so - called because they were attached to an octagonal structure used for cock - fighting. Early in the 17th century, the Cockpit was converted to a concert hall and theatre; after the Glorious Revolution, some of the first cabinet meetings were secretly held there.
For many years, the "House at the Back '' was the home of the Keeper of Whitehall Palace, Thomas Knevett, famous for capturing Guy Fawkes in 1605 and foiling his plot to assassinate James VI and I. The previous year, Knevett moved into a house next door, approximately where Number 10 is today.
From this time, the "House at the Back '' was usually occupied by members of the royal family or the government. Princess Elizabeth lived there from 1604 until 1613 when she married Frederick V, Elector Palatine and moved to Heidelberg. She was the grandmother of George, the Elector of Hanover, who became King of Great Britain in 1714, and the great - grandmother of George II, who presented the house to Walpole in 1732.
George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle, the general responsible for the restoration of the monarchy, lived there from 1660 until his death in 1671. As head of the Great Treasury Commission of 1667 -- 1672, Albemarle transformed accounting methods and allowed the Crown greater control over expenses. His secretary, Sir George Downing, who built Downing Street, is thought to have created these changes. Albemarle is the first treasury minister to live in what became the home of the First Lord of the Treasury and Prime Minister.
In 1671, George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, took possession when he joined the Cabal Ministry. (The "B '' in the acronym CABAL refers to Buckingham.) At considerable expense, Buckingham rebuilt the house. The result was a spacious mansion, lying parallel to Whitehall Palace with a view of St James Park from its garden.
After Buckingham retired in 1676, Lady Charlotte Fitzroy, Charles II 's daughter, moved in when she married Edward Lee, 1st Earl of Lichfield. The Crown authorised extensive rebuilding that included adding a storey, giving it three main floors, an attic and basement. This structure can be seen today as the rear section of Number 10. (See Plan of the Premises Granted to the Earl and Countess of Lichfield in 1677) The likely reason that repair was required is that the house had settled in the swampy ground near the Thames, causing structural damage. Like Downing Street, it rested on a shallow foundation, a design error that caused problems until 1960 when the modern Number 10 was rebuilt on deep pilings.
The Lichfields followed James II into exile after the Glorious Revolution. In 1690, William III and Mary II gave the "House at the Back '' to Hendrik van Nassau - Ouwerkerk, a Dutch general who had assisted in securing the Crown for the Prince of Orange. Nassau, who Anglicised his name to "Overkirk '', lived there until his death in 1708.
The "House at the Back '' reverted to the Crown when Lady Overkirk died in 1720. The Treasury issued an order "for repairing and fitting it up in the best and most substantial manner '' at a cost of £ 2,522. The work included: "The Back passage into Downing street to be repaired and a new door; a New Necessary House to be made; To take down the Useless passage formerly made for the Maids of Honour to go into Downing Street, when the Queen lived at the Cockpit; To New Cast a great Lead Cistern & pipes and to lay the Water into the house & a new frame for ye Cistern ''. (See Buildings on the Site of the Cockpit and Number 10 Downing Street c1720)
The name of the "House at the Back '' changed with the occupant, from Lichfield House to Overkirk House in 1690 to Bothmar House in 1720.
Johann Caspar von Bothmer, Count Bothmer, Premier minister of the kingdom of Hanover, head of the German Chancery and adviser to George I and II, took up residency in 1720. Although Bothmer complained about "the ruinous Condition of the Premises '', he lived there until his death in 1732. Even though Count von Bothmer was not British he was the first politician and head of a government who resided in Downing Street No. 10.
When Count Bothmar died, ownership of the "House at the Back '' reverted to the Crown. George II took this opportunity to offer it to Sir Robert Walpole, often called the first Prime Minister, as a gift for his services to the nation: stabilising its finances, keeping it at peace and securing the Hanoverian succession. Coincidentally, the King had obtained the leases on two Downing Street properties, including Number 10, and added these to his proposed gift.
Walpole did not accept the gift for himself. He proposed -- and the King agreed -- that the Crown give the properties to the Office of First Lord of the Treasury. Walpole would live there as the incumbent First Lord, but would vacate it for the next one.
To enlarge the new house, Walpole persuaded Mr Chicken, the tenant of a cottage next door, to move to another house in Downing Street. This small house and the mansion at the back were then incorporated into Number 10. Walpole commissioned William Kent to convert them into one building. Kent joined the larger houses by building a two - storey structure between them, consisting of one long room on the ground floor and several above. The remaining interior space was converted into a courtyard. He connected the Downing Street houses with a corridor.
Having united the structures, Kent gutted and rebuilt the interior. He then surmounted the third storey of the house at the back with a pediment. To allow Walpole quicker access to Parliament, Kent closed the north side entrance from St James 's Park, and made the door in Downing Street the main entrance.
The rebuilding took three years. On 23 September 1735, the London Daily Post announced that: "Yesterday the Right Hon. Sir Robert Walpole, with his Lady and Family, removed from their House in St James 's Square, to his new House, adjoining to the Treasury in St James 's Park ''. The cost of conversion is unknown. Originally estimated at £ 8,000, the final cost probably exceeded £ 20,000.
Walpole did not enter through the now - famous door; that would not be installed until forty years later. Kent 's door was modest, belying the spacious elegance beyond. The First Lord 's new, albeit temporary, home had sixty rooms, with hardwood and marble floors, crown moulding, elegant pillars and marble mantelpieces; those on the west side with beautiful views of St James 's Park. One of the largest rooms was a study measuring forty feet by twenty with enormous windows overlooking St James 's Park. "My Lord 's Study '' (as Kent labelled it in his drawings) would later become the Cabinet Room where Prime Ministers meet with the Cabinet ministers.
Shortly after moving in, Walpole ordered that a portion of the land outside his study be converted into a terrace and garden. Letters patent issued in April 1736 state that: "... a piece of garden ground situated in his Majesty 's park of St James 's, and belonging and adjoining to the house now inhabited by the Right Honourable the Chancellor of His Majesty 's Exchequer, hath been lately made and fitted up at the Charge... of the Crown ''.
The same document confirmed that Number 10 Downing Street was: "meant to be annexed and united to the Office of his Majesty 's Treasury and to be and to remain for the Use and Habitation of the first Commissioner of his Majesty 's Treasury for the time being ''.
Walpole lived in Number 10 until 1742. Although he had accepted it on behalf of future First Lords of the Treasury, it would be 21 years before any of his successors chose to live there; the five who followed Walpole preferred their own homes. This was the pattern until the beginning of the 20th century. Of the 31 First Lords from 1735 to 1902, only 16 (including Walpole) lived in Number 10.
One reason many First Lords chose not to live in Number 10 was that most were peers who owned homes superior in size and quality. To them, Number 10 was unimpressive. Their possession of the house, albeit temporary, was a perk they could use as a political reward. Most lent it to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, others to lesser officials, and still others to friends or relatives.
Another reason was that Number 10 was a hazardous place to live. Prone to sinking because it was built on soft soil and a shallow foundation, floors buckled, walls and chimneys cracked; it became unsafe and frequently required repairs. In 1766, for example, Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, pointed out that the house was in a dilapidated condition. His architect 's letter to the Treasury read: "... we have caused the House in Downing Street belonging to the Treasury to be surveyed, & find the Walls of the old part of the said House next the street to be much decayed, the Floors & Chimneys much sunk from the level ''. Townsend ordered extensive repairs, but they were still incomplete eight years later. A note from Lord North to the Office of Works, dated September 1774, asks that the work on the front of the house, "which was begun by a Warrant from the Treasury dated 9 August 1766 '', should be finished. (See Kent 's Treasury and No. 10, Downing Street, circa 1754.)
Treasury officials complained that the building cost too much to maintain; some suggested that it be razed and a new house constructed on the site or elsewhere. In 1782, the Board of Works, reporting on "the dangerous state of the old part of the House '', stated that "no time be lost in taking down said building ''. In 1783, the Duke of Portland moved out because it was once again in need of repair. A committee found that the money spent so far was insufficient. This time the Board of Works declared that "the Repairs, Alterations & Additions at the Chancellor of the Exchequer 's House will amount to the sum of £ 5,580, exclusive of the sum for which they already have His Majesty 's Warrant. And praying a Warrant for the said sum of £ 5,580 -- and also praying an Imprest of that sum to enable them to pay the Workmen ''. This proved to be a gross underestimate; the final bill was over £ 11,000. The Morning Herald fumed about the expense: "£ 500 pounds p.a. preceding the Great Repair, and £ 11,000 the Great Repair itself! So much has this extraordinary edifice cost the country -- For one moiety (one half) of the sum a much better dwelling might have been purchased! '' (See Plan of the Design for Number 10 c1781.)
A few enjoyed living in Number 10. Lord North, who conducted the war against the American Revolution, lived there happily with his family from 1767 to 1782. William Pitt the Younger, who made it his home for twenty years -- longer than any First Lord before or since -- from 1783 to 1801 and from 1804 to 1806, referred to it as "My vast, awkward house ''. While there, Pitt reduced the national debt, formed the Triple Alliance against France, and won passage of the Act of Union that created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Fredrick Robinson, Lord Goderich took a special liking to the house in the late 1820s; he spent state funds lavishly remodelling the interior.
Nevertheless, for 70 years following Pitt 's death in 1806, Number 10 was rarely used as the First Lord 's residence. From 1834 to 1877, it was either vacant or used only for offices and meetings.
Downing Street declined at the turn of the 19th century, becoming surrounded with run - down buildings, dark alleys, crime and prostitution. Earlier, the government had taken over the other Downing Street houses: the Colonial Office occupied Number 14 in 1798; the Foreign Office was at Number 16 and the houses on either side; the West India Department was in Number 18; and the Tithe Commissioners in Number 20. The houses deteriorated from neglect, became unsafe, and one by one were torn down. By 1857, Downing Street 's townhouses were all gone except for Number 10, Number 11 (customarily the Chancellor of the Exchequer 's residence), and Number 12 (used as offices for Government Whips). In 1879, a fire destroyed the upper floors of Number 12; it was renovated but only as a single - storey structure. (See Numbers 10, 11, and 12 Downing Street First Floor Plan and Ground Floor Plan.)
When Lord Salisbury retired in 1902, his nephew, Arthur James Balfour, became Prime Minister. It was an easy transition: he was already First Lord of the Treasury and Leader of the House of Commons, and he was already living in Number 10. Balfour revived the custom that Number 10 is the First Lord and Prime Minister 's official residence. It has remained the custom since. However, there have been numerous times when prime ministers have unofficially lived elsewhere out of necessity or preference. Winston Churchill for example had a great affection for Number 10, but he grudgingly slept in the bunkered Annex of Number 10 for his safety during World War II. He rarely slept in his underground bedroom in the Cabinet War Rooms. To reassure the people that his government was functioning normally, he insisted on being seen entering and leaving Number 10 occasionally. Harold Wilson, during his second ministry from 1974 to 1976, lived in his home in Lord North Street because Mary Wilson wanted "a proper home ''. However, recognising the symbolic importance of Number 10, he worked and held meetings there and entertained guests in the State Dining Room.
For most of his premiership, Tony Blair lived in the more spacious residence above Number 11 to accommodate his large family. In May 2010, it was reported that David Cameron would also take up actual residence above Number 11, and his Chancellor, George Osborne, above Number 10.
Despite these exceptions, Number 10 has been known as the Prime Minister 's official home for over one hundred years. By the turn of the 20th century, photography and the penny press had linked Number 10 in the public mind with the premiership. The introduction of films and television would strengthen this association. Pictures of prime ministers with distinguished guests at the door became commonplace. With or without the Prime Minister present, visitors had their picture taken. Suffragettes posed in front of the door when they petitioned H.H. Asquith for women 's rights in 1913, a picture that became famous and was circulated around the world. In 1931, Mohandas Gandhi, wearing the traditional homespun dhoti, posed leaving Number 10 after meeting with Ramsay MacDonald to discuss India 's independence. This picture, too, became famous especially in India. The freedom fighters could see their leader had been received in the Prime Minister 's home. Couse 's elegant, understated door -- stark black, framed in cream white with a bold white "10 '' clearly visible -- was the perfect backdrop to record such events. Prime Ministers made historic announcements from the front step. Waving the Anglo - German Agreement of Friendship, Neville Chamberlain proclaimed "Peace with honour '' in 1938 from Number 10 after his meeting with Adolf Hitler in Munich. During World War II, Churchill was photographed many times emerging confidently from Number 10 holding up two fingers in the sign for "Victory ''.
The symbol of British government, Number 10 became a gathering place for protesters. Emmeline Pankhurst and other suffragette leaders stormed Downing Street in 1908; anti -- Vietnam War protestors marched there in the 1960s, as did anti-Iraq and Afghanistan War protestors in the 2000s. Number 10 became an obligatory stop in every tourist 's sightseeing trip to London. Ordinary people, not only British but foreign tourists, posed smiling and laughing in front of its famous door.
By the middle of the 20th century, Number 10 was falling apart again. The deterioration had been obvious for some time. The number of people allowed in the upper floors was limited for fear the bearing walls would collapse. The staircase had sunk several inches; some steps were buckled and the balustrade was out of alignment. Dry rot was widespread throughout. The interior wood in the Cabinet Room 's double columns was like sawdust. Skirting boards, doors, sills and other woodwork were riddled and weakened with disease. After reconstruction had begun, miners dug down into the foundations and found that the huge wooden beams supporting the house had decayed.
In 1958, a committee under the chairmanship of the Earl of Crawford and Balcarres was appointed by Harold Macmillan to investigate the condition of the house and make recommendations. In the committee 's report there was some discussion of tearing down the building and constructing an entirely new residence. But because the Prime Minister 's home had become an icon of British architecture like Windsor Castle, Buckingham Palace and the Houses of Parliament, the committee recommended that Number 10 (and Numbers 11 and 12) should be rebuilt using as much of the original materials as possible. The interior would be photographed, measured, disassembled, and restored. A new foundation with deep pilings would be laid and the original buildings reassembled on top of it, allowing for much needed expansion and modernisation. Any original materials that were beyond repair -- such as the pair of double columns in the Cabinet Room -- would be replicated in detail. This was a formidable undertaking: the three buildings contained over 200 rooms spread out over five floors. The architect Raymond Erith carried out the design for this painstaking work and the contractor that undertook it was John Mowlem & Co. The Times reported initially that the cost for the project would be £ 400,000. After more careful studies were completed, it was concluded that the "total cost was likely to be £ 1,250,000 '' and would take two years to complete. In the end, the cost was close to £ 3,000,000 and took almost three years due in large part to 14 labour strikes. There were also delays when archaeological excavations uncovered important artefacts dating from Roman, Saxon and medieval times. Macmillan lived in Admiralty House during the reconstruction.
The new foundation was made of steel - reinforced concrete with pilings sunk 6 feet (1.8 m) to 18 feet (5.5 m). The "new '' Number 10 consisted of about 60 % new materials; the remaining 40 % was either restored or replicas of originals. Many rooms and sections of the new building were reconstructed exactly as they were in the old Number 10. These included: the garden floor, the door and entrance foyer, the stairway, the hallway to the Cabinet Room, the Cabinet Room, the garden and terrace, the Small and Large State Rooms and the three reception rooms. The staircase, however, was rebuilt and simplified. Steel was hidden inside the columns in the Pillared Drawing Room to support the floor above. The upper floors were modernised and the 3rd floor extended over Numbers 11 and 12 to allow more living space. As many as 40 coats of paint were stripped from the elaborate cornices in the main rooms revealing details unseen for almost 200 years in some cases.
When builders examined the exterior façade, they discovered that the black colour visible even in photographs from the mid-19th century was misleading; the bricks were actually yellow. The black appearance was the product of two centuries of pollution. To preserve the ' traditional ' look of recent times, the newly cleaned yellow bricks were painted black to resemble their well - known appearance. The thin tuckpointing mortar between the bricks is not painted, and so contrasts with the bricks.
Although the reconstruction was generally considered an architectural triumph, Erith was disappointed. He complained openly during and after the project that the government had altered his design to save money. Erith described the numbers on the front, intended to be based on historical models, as ' a mess ' and ' completely wrong ' to a fellow historian. "I am heart broken '', he said, "by the result... the whole project has been a frightful waste of money because it just has not been done properly. The Ministry of Works has insisted on economy after economy. I am bitterly disappointed with what has happened ''.
Erith 's concerns proved justified. Within a few years, dry rot was discovered, especially in the main rooms due to inadequate waterproofing and a broken water pipe. Extensive reconstruction again had to be undertaken in the late 1960s to resolve these problems. Further extensive repairs and remodelling, commissioned by Margaret Thatcher, were completed in the 1980s under the direction of Erith 's associate, Quinlan Terry.
The work done by Erith and Terry in the 1960s and 1980s represent the most extensive remodelling of Number 10 in recent times. Since 1990 when the Terry reconstruction was completed, repairing, redecorating, remodelling, and updating the house has been ongoing as needed. The IRA mortar attack in February 1991 led to extensive work being done to repair the damage (mostly to the garden and exterior walls) and to improve security. In the summer of 1993 windows were rebuilt and in 1995 computer cables installed. In 1997, the building was remodelled to provide extra space for the Prime Minister 's greatly increased staff. To accommodate their large families, both Tony Blair and David Cameron chose to live in the private residence above Number 11 rather than the smaller one above Number 10. In 2010, the Camerons completely modernised the 50 - year - old private kitchen in Number 11.
Most of the modern exterior shape and features of Number 10 were created by Kent when he combined the house at the back with the Downing Street townhouses in 1735. Its outside appearance is basically the same today as it was when he completed his work. An exception is the now famous front door entrance.
Number 10 's door is the product of the renovations Townsend ordered in 1766; it was probably not completed until 1772. Executed in the Georgian style by the architect Kenton Couse, it is unassuming and narrow, consisting of a single white stone step leading to a modest brick front. The small, six - panelled door, originally made of black oak, is surrounded by cream - coloured casing and adorned with a semicircular fanlight window. Painted in white, between the top and middle sets of panels, is the number "10 ''. The zero of the number "10 '' is painted in a very eccentric style, in a 37 ° angle anticlockwise. One theory is that this is in fact a capital ' O ' as found in the Roman 's Trajan alphabet that was used by the Ministry of Works at the time. A black iron knocker in the shape of a lion 's head is between the two middle panels; below the knocker is a brass letter box with the inscription "First Lord of the Treasury ''. The doorbell is inscribed with "PUSH '' although is rarely used in practice. A black ironwork fence with spiked newel posts runs along the front of the house and up each side of the step to the door. The fence rises above the step into a double - swirled archway, supporting an iron gas lamp surmounted by a crown. (See The Entrance Door c1930: As seen from the outside)
After the IRA mortar attack in 1991, the original black oak door was replaced by a blast - proof steel one. Regularly removed for refurbishment and replaced with a replica, it is so heavy that it takes eight men to lift it. The brass letterbox still bears the legend "First Lord of the Treasury ''. The original door was put on display in the Churchill Museum at the Cabinet War Rooms.
The door can not be opened from the outside; there is always someone inside to unlock the door.
Beyond the door, Couse installed black and white marble tiles in the entrance hall that are still in use. A guard 's chair designed by Chippendale sits in one corner. Once used when policemen sat on watch outside in the street, it has an unusual "hood '' designed to protect them from the wind and cold and a drawer underneath where hot coals were placed to provide warmth. Scratches on the right arm were caused by their pistols rubbing up against the leather.
No. 10 Downing Street has a lift.
Couse also added a bow front to the small cottage -- formerly Mr. Chicken 's house -- incorporated into Number 10 in Walpole 's time. (See The Entrance Door c1930: As seen from inside showing the black and white marble floor and the door providing access to Number 11)
When William Kent rebuilt the interior between 1732 and 1734, his craftsmen created a stone triple staircase. The main section had no visible supports. With a wrought iron balustrade, embellished with a scroll design, and mahogany handrail, it rises from the garden floor to the third floor. Kent 's staircase is the first architectural feature visitors see as they enter Number 10. Black and white engravings and photographs of all the past Prime Ministers decorate the wall. They are rearranged slightly to make room for a photograph of each new Prime Minister. There is one exception. Winston Churchill is represented in two photographs. At the bottom of the staircase are group photographs of Prime Ministers with their Cabinet ministers and representatives to imperial conferences. (See The Main Stairway c1930 General view showing portraits of the Prime Ministers and Detail of the Wrought Iron Balustrade) (See also Simon Schama 's Tour of Downing Street. Pt4: The Staircase)
In Kent 's design for the enlarged Number 10, the Cabinet Room was a simple rectangular space with enormous windows. As part of the renovations begun in 1783, it was extended, giving the space its modern appearance. Probably not completed until 1796, this alteration was achieved by removing the east wall and rebuilding it several feet inside the adjoining secretaries ' room. At the entrance, a screen of two pairs of Corinthian columns was erected (to carry the extra span of the ceiling) supporting a moulded entablature that wraps around the room. Robert Taylor, the architect who executed this concept, was knighted on its completion. The resulting small space, framed by the pillars, serves as an anteroom to the larger area. Hendrick Danckerts ' painting "The Palace of Whitehall '' (shown at the beginning of this article) usually hangs in the ante - room. It also contains two large bookcases that house the Prime Minister 's Library; Cabinet members traditionally donate to the collection on leaving office a tradition that began with Ramsay MacDonald in 1931.
Although Kent intended the First Lord to use this space as his study, it has rarely served that purpose; it has almost always been the Cabinet room. There have been a few exceptions. Stanley Baldwin used the Cabinet Room as his office. A few Prime Ministers, such as Tony Blair, occasionally worked at the Cabinet Room table. Painted off - white with large floor to ceiling windows along one of the long walls, the room is light and airy. Three brass chandeliers hang from the high ceiling. The Cabinet table, purchased during the Gladstone era, dominates the room. The modern boat - shaped top, introduced by Harold Macmillan in the late 1950s, is supported by huge original oak legs. The table is surrounded by carved, solid mahogany chairs that also date from the Gladstone era. The Prime Minister 's chair, the only one with arms, is situated midway along one side in front of the marble fireplace, facing the windows; when not in use, it is positioned at an angle for easy access. The only picture in the room is a copy of a portrait of Sir Robert Walpole by Jean - Baptiste van Loo hanging over the fireplace. Each Cabinet member is allocated a chair based on order of seniority. Blotters inscribed with their titles mark their places.
The First Lord has no designated office space in Number 10; each has chosen one of the adjoining rooms as his or her private office.
Number 10 has three inter-linked State Drawing rooms: the Pillared Drawing Room, the Terracotta Drawing Room and the White Drawing Room. (See the three state drawing rooms.)
The largest is the Pillared Room thought to have been created in 1796 by Taylor. Measuring 37 feet (11 m) long by 28 feet (8.5 m) wide, it takes its name from the twin Ionic pilasters with straight pediments at one end. Today, there is a portrait of Queen Elizabeth I over the fireplace; during the Thatcher Ministry (1979 -- 1990), a portrait of William Pitt by Romney was hung there.
A Persian carpet covers almost the entire floor. A copy of a 16th - century original now kept in the Victoria and Albert Museum, there is an inscription woven into it that reads: "I have no refuge in the world other than thy threshold. My head has no protection other than this porchway. The work of a slave of the holy place, Maqsud of Kashan in the year 926 '' (the Islamic year corresponding to 1520).
In the restoration conducted in the late 1980s, Quinlan Terry restored the fireplace. Executed in the Kentian style, the small Ionic pilasters in the over-mantel are miniature duplicates of the large Ionic pillars in the room. The Ionic motif is also found in the door surrounds and panelling.
Sparsely furnished with a few chairs and sofas around the walls, the Pillared Room is usually used to receive guests before they go into the State Dining Room. However, it is sometimes used for other purposes that require a large open space. International agreements have been signed in this room. Tony Blair entertained the England Rugby Union team in the Pillared Room after they won the World Cup in 2003. John Logie Baird gave Ramsay MacDonald a demonstration of his invention, the television, in this room. (See The Pillared Drawing Room c1927)
The Terracotta Room is the middle of the three drawing rooms. It was used as the dining room when Sir Robert Walpole was Prime Minister. The name changes according to the colour it is painted. When Margaret Thatcher came to power it was the Blue Room; she had it re-decorated and renamed the Green Room. It is now painted terracotta.
In the renovation of the 1980s Quinlan Terry introduced large Doric order columns to this room in the door surrounds and designed a very large Palladian overmantel for the fireplace with small double Doric columns on each side with the royal arms above. Terry also added an ornate gilded ceiling to give the rooms a more stately look. Carved into the plasterwork above the door leading to the Pillared Room is a tribute to Margaret Thatcher: a straw - carrying ' thatcher '.
The White State Drawing room was, until the 1940s, used by Prime Ministers and their partners for their private use. It was here that Edward Heath kept his grand piano. It is often used as the backdrop for television interviews and is in regular use as a meeting room for Downing Street staff. The room links through to the Terracotta Room next door. In the reconstruction during the late 1980s, Quinlan Terry used Corinthian columns and added ornate Baroque - style central ceiling mouldings and corner mouldings of the four national flowers of the United Kingdom: rose (England), thistle (Scotland), daffodil (Wales) and shamrock (Northern Ireland).
When Frederick Robinson (later Lord Goderich), became Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1823, he decided to leave a personal legacy to the nation. To this end, he employed Sir John Soane, the distinguished architect who had designed the Bank of England and many other famous buildings, to build a State Dining Room for Number 10. Begun in 1825 and completed in 1826 at a cost of £ 2,000, the result is a spacious room with oak panelling and reeded mouldings. Accessed through the first floor, its vaulted, arched ceiling rises up through the next so that it actually occupies two floors. Measuring 42 feet (13 m) by 26 feet (7.9 m), it is the largest room in Number 10. Soane was the guest of honour when the dining room was first used on 4 April 1826.
The room is usually furnished with a table surrounded by 20 reproduction Adam style chairs originally made for the British Embassy in Rio de Janeiro. For larger gatherings, a horseshoe - shaped table is brought in that will accommodate up to 65 guests. On these occasions, the table is set with the Silver Trust Silver set given to Downing Street in the 1990s. (See the State Dining room with the Silver Trust Silver in use for a luncheon) Above the fireplace, overlooking the room, is a massive portrait by John Shackleton of George II, the king who originally gave the building to the First Lord of the Treasury in 1732. Celebrity chefs such as Nigella Lawson have cooked for Prime Ministers ' guests using the small kitchen next door. Entering through the Small Dining Room, Blair used this room for his monthly press conferences. (See Simon Schama 's Tour of Downing Street. Pt 3: The Dining Room (See The State Dining Room c1930: View toward the entrance and View from the entrance and also a more modern view)
The great kitchen located in the basement was another part of the renovations begun in 1783, probably also under the direction of Robert Taylor. Seldom seen by anyone other than staff, the space is two storeys high with a huge arched window and vaulted ceiling. Traditionally, it has always had a chopping block work table in the centre that is 14 feet (4.3 m) long, 3 feet (0.91 m) wide and 5 inches (130 mm) thick.
Above Taylor 's vaulted kitchen, between the Pillared Room and the State Dining room, Soane created a Smaller Dining Room (sometimes called the Breakfast Room) that still exists. To build it, Soane removed the chimney from the kitchen to put a door in the room. He then moved the chimney to the east side, running a Y - shaped split flue inside the walls up either side of one of the windows above. The room therefore has a unique architectural feature: over the fireplace there is a window instead of the usual chimney breast.
With its flat unadorned ceiling, simple mouldings and deep window seats, the Small Dining Room is intimate and comfortable. Usually furnished with a mahogany table seating only eight, Prime Ministers have often used this room when dining with family or when entertaining special guests on more personal state occasions. (See the Small Dining or Breakfast Room c1927. The double doors behind the table lead to the State Dining Room.)
The terrace and garden were constructed in 1736 shortly after Walpole moved into Number 10. The terrace, extending across the back, provides a full view of St James 's Park. The garden is dominated by an open lawn of 0.5 acres (2,000 m) that wraps around Numbers 10 and 11 in an L - shape. No longer "fitted with variety Walle fruit and diverse fruit trees '' as it was in the 17th century, there is now a centrally located flower bed around a holly tree surrounded by seats. Tubs of flowers line the steps from the terrace; around the walls are rose beds with flowering and evergreen shrubs. (See North elevation of Number 10 with steps leading to the garden) The terrace and garden have provided a casual setting for many gatherings of First Lords with foreign dignitaries, Cabinet ministers, guests, and staff. Prime Minister Tony Blair, for example, hosted a farewell reception in 2007 for his staff on the terrace. John Major announced his 1995 resignation as leader of the Conservative Party in the garden. Churchill called his secretaries the "garden girls '' because their offices overlook the garden. It was also the location of the first press conference announcing the Coalition Government between David Cameron 's Conservatives and Nick Clegg 's Liberal Democrats.
Number 10 is filled with fine paintings, sculptures, busts and furniture. Only a few are permanent features. Most are on loan. About half belong to the Government Art Collection. The remainder are on loan from private collectors and from public galleries such as the National Portrait Gallery, the Tate Gallery, the Victoria and Albert Museum and the National Gallery. (See works from the Government Art Collection currently on display at Number 10)
About a dozen paintings are changed annually. More extensive changes occur when a new Prime Minister takes office and redecorates. These redecorations may reflect both individual taste as well as make a political statement. Edward Heath borrowed French paintings from the National Gallery and was loaned two Renoirs from a private collector. When Margaret Thatcher arrived in 1979 she insisted that the artwork had to be British and that it celebrate "British achievers ''. As a former chemist, she took pleasure in devoting the Small Dining Room to a collection of portraits of British scientists, such as Joseph Priestley and Humphry Davy. During the 1990s John Major converted the first floor anteroom into a small gallery of modern art, mostly British. He also introduced several paintings by John Constable and J.M.W. Turner, Britain 's two best known 19th century artists, and cricketing paintings by Archibald Stuart - Wortley including a portrait of one of England 's most celebrated batsmen W.G. Grace.
In addition to outstanding artwork, Number 10 contains many exceptional pieces of furniture either owned by the house or on loan. One of the most striking and unusual is the Chippendale hooded guard 's chair already mentioned that sits in a corner of the entrance hall. To its left is a long case clock by Benson of Whitehaven. A similar clock by Samuel Whichcote of London stands in the Cabinet anteroom. The White State Drawing Room contains elegant Adams furniture. The Green State Drawing Room contains mostly Chippendale furniture including a card table that belonged to Clive of India and a mahogany desk that is thought to have belonged to William Pitt the Younger and used by him during the Napoleonic Wars. In addition to the large carpet previously described, the Pillared State Drawing Room also contains a marble - topped table by Kent. The State Dining Room contains an elegant mahogany sideboard by Adam.
In 1985, Number 10 was 250 years old. To celebrate, Thatcher hosted a grand dinner in the State Dining Room for her living predecessors -- Harold Macmillan, Alec Douglas - Home, Harold Wilson, Edward Heath, and James Callaghan. Also in attendance were Elizabeth II and representatives of the families of every 20th century Prime Minister since Asquith, including Lady Olwen Carey Evans (daughter of Lloyd George), Lady Leonora Howard (daughter of Stanley Baldwin), and Clarissa Avon (widow of Anthony Eden and niece of Winston Churchill).
That same year, the Leisure Circle published Christopher Jones ' book No. 10 Downing Street, The Story of a House. In the foreword, Thatcher described her feelings for Number 10: "How much I wish that the public... could share with me the feeling of Britain 's historic greatness which pervades every nook and cranny of this complicated and meandering old building... All Prime Ministers are intensely aware that, as tenants and stewards of No. 10 Downing Street, they have in their charge one of the most precious jewels in the nation 's heritage ''.
For most of its history, Number 10 was accessible to the public. Early security consisted of two police officers. One stood guard outside the door. The other was stationed inside to open it. Since the door had no keyhole, the inside officer depended upon the lone outside officer.
During Thatcher 's premiership, terrorist threats led to the implementation of a second level of security. Guarded gates were added at both ends of the street. Visitors could then be screened before approaching the door.
Despite the added measure, on 7 February 1991 the Provisional IRA used a van they parked in Whitehall to launch a mortar shell at Number 10. It exploded in the back garden, while then prime minister John Major was holding a Cabinet meeting. Major moved to Admiralty House while repairs were completed. This led to the addition of guardhouses at the street ends as well as other less visible measures. Each guardhouse is staffed by several armed police officers. The Metropolitan Police Service 's Diplomatic Protection Group (DPG) provides overall protection and acts on intelligence from MI5.
The Prime Minister 's Office, for which the terms Downing Street and Number 10 are synonymous, lies within the 10 Downing Street building and is part of the Cabinet Office. It is staffed by a mix of career Civil Servants and Special Advisers. The highest ranking Civil Servant position is the Principal Private Secretary to the Prime Minister, currently Peter Hill; the most senior Special Adviser post is the Downing Street Chief of Staff, currently held by Gavin Barwell. Though Number 10 is formally part of the Cabinet Office, it reports directly to the Cabinet Secretary, who is currently Sir Jeremy Heywood.
List of current Civil Servant and Special Adviser positions appointed by the current Prime Minister Theresa May:
The office was reorganised in 2001 into 3 directorates:
Changes were intended to strengthen the PM 's office. However, some commentators have suggested that Blair 's reforms have created something similar to a ' Prime Ministers ' department. The reorganisation brought about the fusion of the old Prime Minister 's Office and other Cabinet Office teams, with a number of units (including the Prime Minister 's Strategy Unit) now reporting directly into the Prime Minister 's Office. Since 2005, Number 10s Direct Communication Unit has not used its staff 's real names on signed correspondence to MPs and members of the public; this is for security reasons.
However, the Institute for Government has written that the Cabinet Office (of which the Prime Minister 's Office is a component) "is a long way from becoming a fully fledged premier 's department '', primarily based on the fact that the Prime Minister "largely lacks the direct policy responsibilities, either in statute or by convention under the Royal Prerogative, possessed by secretaries of state, who have substantial budgets voted to them by Parliament. ''
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where is num lock on a dell keyboard | Num Lock - Wikipedia
Num Lock or Numeric Lock (⇭) is a key on the numeric keypad of most computer keyboards. It is a lock key, like Caps Lock and Scroll Lock. Its state (on or off) affects the function of the numeric keypad commonly located to the right of the main keyboard, and is commonly displayed by an LED built into the keyboard.
The Num Lock key exists because earlier 84 - key IBM PC keyboards did not have cursor control or arrows separate from the numeric keypad. Most earlier computer keyboards had separate number keys and cursor control keys; however, to reduce cost, IBM chose to combine the two in their early PC keyboards. Num Lock would be used to choose between the two functions. On some laptop computers, the Num Lock key is used to convert part of the main keyboard to act as a (slightly skewed) numeric keypad rather than letters. On some laptop computers, the Num Lock key is absent and replaced by the use of a key combination.
Since most modern desktop computers have a full - size keyboard with both a numeric pad and separate arrow keys, Num Lock is rarely used (always on) for its original purpose, and ends up confusing the user if it has for some reason been turned off without the user being aware of this. This can be more of an issue on most laptop computers, since activating the Num Lock function typically requires use of the Fn key and if a user accidentally switches it on they may have no idea how to switch it off. If a full - size keyboard is plugged into a laptop, then the Num Lock function is normally on (as expected) for the external keyboard, and the user would not have to activate the Num Lock function to use the numeric keypad for numeric entry. Since Apple keyboards never had a combination of arrow keys and numeric keypad (but some lacked arrow keys, function keys and a numeric keypad altogether), Apple has keyboards with a separate numeric keypad but no functional Num Lock key. Instead, these keyboards include a Clear key.
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where did the first post office open in india | India Post - Wikipedia
Ananta Narayan Nanda, IPoS, Secretary, Department of Posts & Chairperson, Postal Services Board
The Department of Posts (DoP), trading as India Post, is a government - operated postal system in India. Generally referred to within India as "the post office '', it is the most widely distributed postal system in the world. The postal service is under the Department of Posts, which is part of the Ministry of Communications of the Government of India.
It is involved in delivering mails, accepting deposits under Small Savings Schemes, providing life insurance cover under Postal Life Insurance (PLI) and Rural Postal Life Insurance (RPLI) and providing retail services like bill collection, sale of forms, etc. The DoP also acts as an agent for Government of India in discharging other services for citizens such as Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) wage disbursement and old age pension payments. With 155,015 Post Offices, the DoP has the most widely distributed postal network in the world.
The country has been divided into 23 postal circles, each circle headed by a Chief Postmaster General. Each circle is divided into regions, headed by a Postmaster General and comprising field units known as Divisions. These divisions are further divided into subdivisions. In addition to the 23 circles, there is a base circle to provide postal services to the Armed Forces of India headed by a Director General. One of the highest post offices in the world is in Hikkim, Himachal Pradesh operated by India Post at a height of 15,500 ft (4,700 m).
The British Raj was instituted in 1858, when the rule of the East India Company was transferred to the Crown. By 1861, there were 889 post offices handling nearly 43 million letters and over 4.5 million newspapers annually. The first superintendent of the post office was appointed in 1870 and based in Allahabad and in 1876, British India became the first non-founding member of the General Postal Union.
A number of acts were passed during the British Raj to expand and regulate Posts and Telegraphs service:
The world 's first official airmail flight took place in India on 18 February 1911, a journey of 18 kilometres (11 mi) lasting 27 minutes. Henri Pequet, a French pilot, carried about 15 kilograms (33 lb) of mail (approximately 6,000 letters and cards) across the Ganges from Allahabad to Naini; included in the airmail was a letter to King George V of the United Kingdom. India Post inaugurated a floating post office in August 2011 at Dal Lake in Srinagar, Kashmir. Telegraphy and telephony made their appearance as part of the postal service before becoming separate departments. The Posts and Telegraphs Departments merged in 1914, dividing on 1 January 1985.
Since Indian independence in 1947, the postal service continues to function on a nationwide basis, providing a variety of services. The structure of the organization has the directorate at its apex; below it are circle offices, regional offices, the superintendent 's offices, head post offices, sub-post offices and branch offices. In April 1959, the Indian Postal Department adopted the motto "Service before help ''; it revised its logo in September 2008.
The first adhesive postage stamps in Asia were issued in the Indian district of Scinde in July 1852 by Bartle Frere, chief commissioner of the region. Frere was an admirer of Rowland Hill, the English postal reformer who had introduced the Penny Post. The Scinde stamps became known as "Scinde Dawks ''; "Dawk '' is the Anglicised spelling of the Hindustani word Dak or ("post ''). These stamps, with a value of ⁄ - anna, were in use until June 1866. The first all - India stamps were issued on 1 October 1854.
The volume of mail moved by the postal system increased significantly, doubling between 1854 and 1866 and doubling again by 1871. The Post Office Act XIV introduced reforms by 1 May 1866 to correct some of the more obvious postal - system deficiencies and abuses. Postal - service efficiencies were also introduced. In 1863, lower rates were set for "steamer '' mail to Europe at (six annas, eight pies for a ⁄ - ounce letter). Lower rates were also introduced for inland mail. New regulations removed special postal privileges enjoyed by officials of the East India Company. Stamps for official use were prepared and carefully accounted for, to combat abuses by officials. In 1854 Spain had printed special stamps for official communications, but in 1866 India was the first country to adopt the expedient of overprinting "Service '' on postage stamps and "Service Postage '' on revenue stamps. This innovation was later widely adopted by other countries. Shortages developed, so stamps also had to be improvised. Some "Service Postage '' overprinted rarities resulted from abrupt changes in postal regulations. New designs for the four - anna and six - anna - eight - pie stamps were issued in 1866. Nevertheless, there was a shortage of stamps to meet the new rates. Provisional six - anna stamps were improvised by cutting the top and bottom from a current foreign - bill revenue stamp and overprinting "Postage ''. India was the first country in the Commonwealth to issue airmail stamps.
India attained independence on 15 August 1947. Thereafter, the Indian Posts and Telegraph Department embarked on a broad - based policy for the issuance of stamps. The first new stamp was issued by independent India on 21 November 1947. It depicts the Indian flag with the patriots ' slogan, Jai Hind ("long live India ''), at the top right - hand corner. The stamp was valued at three and one - half annas. A memorial to Mahatma Gandhi was issued 15 August 1948 on the first anniversary of independence. One year later a definitive series appeared, depicting India 's broad cultural heritage (primarily Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim, Sikh and Jain temples, sculptures, monuments and fortresses). A subsequent issue commemorated the beginning of the Republic of India on 26 January 1950. Definitives included a technology - and - development theme in 1955, a series depicting a map of India in 1957 (denominated in naya paisa -- decimal currency) and a 1965 series with a wide variety of images. The old inscription "India Postage '' was replaced in 1962 with "भारत INDIA '', although three stamps (issued from December 1962 to January 1963) carried the earlier inscription.
India has printed stamps and postal stationery for other countries, mostly neighbours. Countries which have had stamps printed in India include Burma (before independence), Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Portugal and Ethiopia. The country has issued definitive and commemorative stamps. Six definitive series on India 's heritage and progress in a number of fields have been issued. The seventh series, with a theme of science and technology, began in 1986. Between independence and 1983, 770 stamps were issued.
The following table shows income generated by the postal department.
The Postal Index Number (PIN, or PIN code) is a six - digit code of post-office numbering introduced on 15 August 1972. There are nine PIN regions in the country; the first eight are geographical regions, and the ninth is reserved for the Army Postal Service (APS).
The India Posts PIN code system is organized in the following way:
The PIN for an address may be found on the Postal Service website. There are total of 19,101 PIN codes covering 154,725 Post Offices in India, with the exception of the Army Postal Service as of 2014.
Project Arrow was launched in April 2008. The project plans to upgrade post offices in urban and rural areas, improving service and appearance into a vibrant and responsive organization and to make a visible and positive difference. The project aims to create an effective, friendly environment for staff and customers, providing secure IT services and improving mail delivery, remittances (electronic and manual) and postal - savings plans. Core areas for improvement are branding, information technology, human resources and infrastructure. The project to improve service has been implemented in more than 23,500 post offices, and ' Look & Feel ' improvements have been made in 2,940 post offices. The Department of Posts received the Prime Minister 's Award for Excellence in Public Administration during 2008 -- 09 for "Project Arrow -- Transforming India Post '' on 21 April 2010.
Multipurpose counter machines with computers were introduced in post offices in 1991 to improve customer service and increase staff productivity. 25,000 departmental post offices out of 25,464 were computerized between as of 2011 -- 2012. In 2012, a plan costing ₹ 1,877.2 crore (US $280 million) was formulated to computerize rural post offices. A ₹ 4,909 crore (US $730 million) project for computerization and networking of 1.55 lakh post offices across the country is being currently implemented by the government. Telecom Minister Ravi Shankar Prasad said the project involves a central server enabled integrated, modular and scalable solution for all operations of the Department of Posts including Core banking and Insurance solutions in all departmental post offices.
The first philatelic Society in India was founded in Calcutta on 6 March 1897 to service postage - stamp collections. Function include design, printing and distribution of special or commemorative postage stamps, definitive postage stamps and items of postal stationery, promotion of philately, conduct of philatelic examinations at the national level, participation in international exhibitions and monitoring exhibitions at the state, regional and district levels and maintenance of the National Philatelic Museum. Philatelic bureaus were established in head post offices located at circle headquarters and at district - capital head post offices (as necessary). There are 68 philately bureaus and 1111 philatelic counters, including all head post offices (Mukhya Dak Ghars) in the country as of 31 March 2011. A domestic philatelic deposit - account system was introduced on 1 August 1965 at all philatelic bureaus. Customers are given priority in purchasing commemorative or special - issue stamps, first - day covers and information sheets soon after their issue by opening a deposit account at any philatelic bureau. The number of philately deposit - accountholders grew from 23,905 in 1999 -- 2000 to 168,282 in 2006 -- 2007 and 183,202 in 2008 -- 2009. Four philatelic Bureaus -- the Bombay, Madras, Calcutta and Parliament Street, New Delhi GPOs are authorized to sell United Nations stamps. A quarterly philatelic magazine, Philapost, was launched in 2008.
The Department of Post has also developed software for philatelic inventory management, known as "Philsim ''. It is used for all activities relating to philately, including forecasting, indenting, invoicing, monitoring supply and demand and recording sales and revenue for commemorative stamps and other philatelic products at philately bureaus and counters (and definitive stamps and stationery at circle stamp depots and head post offices).
The National Philatelic Museum of India was inaugurated on 6 July 1968 in New Delhi. It had its beginnings at a meeting of the Philatelic Advisory Committee on 18 September 1962. Besides a large collection of India Postage stamps designed, printed and issued, it has a large collection of Indian states (confederate and feudatory), early essays, proofs and colour trials, a collection of Indian stamps used abroad, early Indian postcards, postal stationery and thematic collections. The museum was renovated in 2009 with more exhibits, a philatelic bureau and postal objects (such as Victorian post boxes). The Department of Posts inaugurated the National Philatelic Museum on 11 July 2011. It exhibits rare postage stamps from around the world and provides a venue for philatelists to exhibit their collections.
The Army Postal Service (APS), functions as a government - operated military mail system in India. A primary feature of Army Postal Service systems is that normally they are subsidized to ensure that military mail posted between duty stations abroad and the home country (or vice versa) does not cost the sender any more than normal domestic mail traffic. In some cases, Indian military personnel in a combat zone may post letters and / or packages to the home country for free, while in others, senders located in a specific overseas area may send military mail to another military recipient, also located in the same overseas area, without charge.
The Electronic Indian Postal Order (e-IPO) was introduced on 22 March 2013, initially only for citizens living abroad. The postal orders can be used for online payment of fees for access to information under the RTI Act of 2005. The service was expanded to include all Indian citizens on 14 February 2014.
Postal Life Insurance (PLI) was introduced on 1 February 1884 with the express approval of the Secretary of State (for India) to Her Majesty, the Queen Empress of India. It was essentially a welfare scheme for the benefit of Postal employees in 1884 and later extended to the employees of Telegraph Department in 1888. In 1894, PLI extended insurance cover to female employees of P & T Department at a time when no other insurance company covered female lives. It is the oldest life insurer in this country. There was over 6.4 million policies active as on 31 March 2015 with a sum assured of ₹ 130,745 crore (US $19 billion). Premium income of PLI for the year 2014 - 15 was ₹ 6,053.2 crore (US $900 million). It covers employees of Central and State Governments, Central and State Public Sector Undertakings, Universities, Government aided Educational Institutions, Nationalized Banks, Local bodies, autonomous bodies, joint ventures having a minimum of 10 % Govt. / PSU stake, credit co-operative societies etc. and staff of the Defence services and Para-Military forces. Apart from single insurance policies, Postal Life Insurance also manages a Group Insurance scheme for the Extra Departmental Employees (Gramin Dak Sevaks) of the Department of Posts. It was extended to all rural residents on 24 March 1995.
Policies for government employees include Santhosh (endowment assurance), Suraksha (whole - life assurance), Suvidha (convertible whole - life assurance), Sumangal (anticipated endowment policy) and Yugal Suraksha (joint life endowment assurance). India Post started Rural Postal Life Insurance (RPLI) for rural public in 1995. RPLI include Gram Santosh (endowment assurance), Gram Suraksha (whole - life assurance), Gram Suvidha (convertible whole - life assurance), Gram Sumangal (anticipated endowment assurance) and Gram Priya.
The post office offers a number of savings plans, including Recurring Deposit Account, Sukanya Samriddhi Account (SSA), National Savings Certificates (NSC), Kisan Vikas Patra (KVP), the Public Provident Fund, savings - bank accounts, monthly - income plans, senior - citizens ' savings plans and time - deposit accounts.
As on 31st March 2015, Post Office savings bank had a customer base of 330.3 million. Its vast network has been used to disburse payments under National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA).
In 2013 it was revealed that the Indian postal service had formulated plans to enter the banking industry after RBI guidelines for the issuance of new banking licenses were released. Eventually they are planning to open a Post Bank of India, an independent banking service.
In August 2015, the Reserve Bank of India had granted in - principle approval to 11 applicants to set up payments banks, including India Post. As of 29 February 2016, 18,231 post offices are utilizing Core Banking Solutions (CBS) in 9583 Post Offices. ATMs are installed at 576 Post office locations and Debit Cards issued to Post Office Savings Bank customers. Core Insurance Solution (CIS) for Postal Life Insurance (PLI) is rolled out in 808 Head Post Offices and corresponding 24000 + Sub Post Offices. In September 2017, it was announced that by 2018 all of the 1.55 lakh post offices and every postman and grameen dak sevak will be equipped with a device which will provide full range of payment options that the India Post Payments Bank (IPPB) plans to provide.
The postal department is focused on riding the e-commerce boom across the country from creating dedicated corridors for delivery to training postmen to handle big volumes. There is a concerted effort to become more connected digitally.
A collaboration between the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) and the Department of Posts has enabled the computation of consumer - price indices for rural areas. These statistics were previously unobtainable, due to problems of remoteness and scale. The agreement authorises the postal service to collect data on prices paid for selected consumer goods. In February 2011, MoSPI published its first Consumer Price Index (CPI) and All - India Consumer Price Index. The information has since been published monthly, based on data available from 1,181 villages across the country.
The boom in e-commerce and the surging number of cash - on - delivery consignments has led India Post to partner with major e-commerce portals for delivering pre-paid as well as Cash On Delivery (COD) parcels. The deliveries are primarily directed at tier - II towns, and parts of the rural heartland, where India Post has unparalleled reach. It has also set up 57 delivery centers to handle the e-commerce traffic. The postal department 's revenues by ways of COD consignments from e-commerce majors have more than doubled in the first nine months of fiscal year 2015 - 16 at ₹ 10 billion (US $150 million), up from ₹ 5 billion (US $75 million) during the whole of 2014 - 15, and just ₹ 1 billion (US $15 million) in 2013 - 14. According to the Minister for Communications and Information Technology, Ravi Shankar Prasad, revenue of India Post from such deliveries would go up to ₹ 15 billion (US $220 million) in the year 2015 - 16.
Other services include:
India Post was embroiled in controversy when a Right to Information query by Satendra Singh of Enabling Unit revealed that a majority of post offices in India 's capital city are inaccessible to persons with disabilities.
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how many cognitive functions are included in the mbti formula | Template: mbti cognitive functions - wikipedia
Drawing upon Jungian theory, Isabel Myers proposed that for each personality type, the cognitive functions (sensing, intuition, thinking, and feeling) form a hierarchy. This hierarchy represents the person 's default pattern of behavior.
The Dominant function is the personality type 's preferred role, the one they feel most comfortable with. The secondary Auxiliary function serves to support and expand on the Dominant function. If the Dominant is an information gathering function (sensing or intuition), the Auxiliary is a decision making function (thinking or feeling), and vice versa. The Tertiary function is less developed than the Dominant and Auxiliary, but it matures over time, rounding out the person 's abilities. The Inferior function is the personality type 's fatal weakness. This is the function they are least comfortable with. Like the Tertiary, the Inferior function strengthens with maturity.
Jung and Myers considered the attitude of the Auxiliary, Tertiary, and Inferior functions to be the opposite of the Dominant. In this interpretation, if the Dominant function is extraverted, then the other three are introverted, and vice versa. However, many modern practitioners hold that the attitude of the Tertiary function is the same as the Dominant.
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what are the two basic goals of e-procurement | E-procurement - wikipedia
E-procurement (electronic procurement, sometimes also known as supplier exchange) is the business - to - business or business - to - consumer or business - to - government purchase and sale of supplies, work, and services through the Internet as well as other information and networking systems, such as electronic data interchange and enterprise resource planning.
The e-procurement value chain consists of indent management, e-Informing, e-Tendering, e-Auctioning, vendor management, catalogue management, Purchase Order Integration, Order Status, Ship Notice, e-invoicing, e-payment, and contract management. Indent management is the workflow involved in the preparation of tenders. This part of the value chain is optional, with individual procuring departments defining their indenting process. In works procurement, administrative approval and technical sanction are obtained in electronic format. In goods procurement, indent generation activity is done online. The end result of the stage is taken as inputs for issuing the NIT.
Elements of e-procurement include request for information, request for proposal, request for quotation, RFx (the previous three together), and eRFx (software for managing RFx projects).
E-procurement in the public sector is emerging internationally. Hence, initiatives have been implemented in Ukraine, India, Singapore, Estonia, United Kingdom, United States, Malaysia, Indonesia, Australia, European Union, Rwanda added by TOMMY Youn.
E-procurement projects are often part of the country 's larger e-Government efforts to better serve its citizens and businesses in the digital economy. For example, Singapore 's GeBIZ was implemented as one of the programmes under its e-Government masterplan. The Procurement G6 leads the use of e-procurement instruments in Public procurement.
One more example of successful incredible reform is shown by Ukraine Prozorro. It is a result of collaboration between Ukrainian government, business sector, and civil society. This system was developed by reputable international anti-corruption organization Transparency International Ukraine with a help of volunteers, NGOs, business community and state bodies of Ukraine, the WNISEF fund, the EBRD and other partners.
This field is populated by two types of vendors: big enterprise resource planning (ERP) providers which offer e-procurement as one of their services, and the more affordable services focused specifically of e-procurement.
Implementing an e Procurement system benefits all levels of an organisation. E Procurement systems offer improved spend visibility and control and help finance officers match purchases with purchase orders, receipts and job tickets. An e-procurement system also manages tenders through a web site. This can be accessed anywhere globally and has greatly improved the accessibility of tenders. An example is the System for Acquisition Management (SAM), which on July 30, 2013 combined information from the former Central Contractor Registration and Online Representations and Certifications Application (ORCA), in the United States.
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united nations high commissioner for human rights address | Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights - wikipedia
The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (commonly known as the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)) is a United Nations agency that works to promote and protect the human rights that are guaranteed under international law and stipulated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948. The office was established by the UN General Assembly on 20 December 1993 in the wake of the 1993 World Conference on Human Rights.
The office is headed by the High Commissioner for Human Rights, who co-ordinates human rights activities throughout the UN System and supervises the Human Rights Council in Geneva, Switzerland. As of 1 September 2014, the current High Commissioner is Prince Zeid bin Ra'ad. The General Assembly approved on 16 June 2014 his appointment by the United Nations Secretary - General. He is the seventh individual to lead the OHCHR and the first Asian, Muslim, Arab, and prince to do so.
In 2012 -- 2013, the agency had a budget of US $ 177.3 million and approximately 1,000 employees based in Geneva. It is an ex officio member of the Committee of the United Nations Development Group.
The mandate of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights derives from Articles 1, 13 and 55 of the Charter of the United Nations, the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action and General Assembly resolution 48 / 141 of 20 December 1993, by which the Assembly established the post of United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. In connection with the programme for reform of the United Nations (A / 51 / 950, para. 79), the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and the Centre for Human Rights were consolidated into a single Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on 15 September 1997.
The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights:
The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights is divided into organizational units, as described below. The Office is headed by a High Commissioner with the rank of Under - Secretary - General.
The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights is accountable to the Secretary - General.
The High Commissioner is responsible for all the activities of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, as well as for its administration, and carries out the functions specifically assigned to him or her by the General Assembly in its resolution 48 / 141 of 20 December 1993 and subsequent resolutions of policy - making bodies; advises the Secretary - General on the policies of the United Nations in the area of human rights; ensures that substantive and administrative support is given to the projects, activities, organs and bodies of the human rights program; represents the Secretary - General at meetings of human rights organs and at other human rights events; and carries out special assignments as decided by the Secretary - General. As well as those human rights are currently included in legally binding treaties, the High Commissioner also promotes human rights yet to be recognized in international law (such as the adoption of economic, social and cultural rights as a strategic priority, which are not all currently recognized in international legal instruments).
The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, in the performance of his or her activities, is assisted by a Deputy High Commissioner who acts as Officer - in - Charge during the absence of the High Commissioner. In addition, the Deputy High Commissioner carries out specific substantive and administrative assignments as decided by the High Commissioner. The Deputy is accountable to the High Commissioner.
The current Deputy High Commissioner for Human Rights is the Australian national Kate Gilmore.
The Assistant Secretary - General for Human Rights (not to be confused with the Deputy High Commissioner, who is also an Assistant Secretary - General) based in New York heads the New York Office of the High Commissioner. He represents the High Commissioner in New York and promotes the integration of human rights in policy processes and activities undertaken by inter-governmental and inter-agency bodies at the United Nations headquarters.
The current Assistant Secretary - General for Human Rights is Ivan Šimonović from Croatia.
The Staff Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights is headed by a Chief who is accountable to the High Commissioner. The core functions of the Staff Office are as follows:
The Administrative Section is headed by a Chief, Kyle F. Ward, who is accountable to the Deputy High Commissioner. The core functions of the Administrative Section, in addition to those set out in section 7 of Secretary - General 's bulletin ST / SGB / 1997 / 5, are as follows:
The New York Office is headed by an Assistant Secretary - General who is accountable to the High Commissioner. The core functions of the New York Office are as follows:
The Research and Right to Development Branch is headed by a Chief who is accountable to the High Commissioner. The core functions of the Research and Right to Development Branch are as follows:
The Treaties and Commission Branch (formerly Support Services Branch) is headed by a Chief who is accountable to the High Commissioner. The core functions of the Treaties and Commission Branch are as follows:
The Capacity Building Branch (formerly Activities and Programmes Branch) is headed by a Chief who is accountable to the High Commissioner. The core functions of the Capacity Building Branch are as follows:
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all of the amazing world of gumball characters | List of the Amazing World of Gumball characters - wikipedia
The animated comedy television series The Amazing World of Gumball features a wide array of primary and supporting characters, all of whom reside in the fictional American city of Elmore. The series primarily revolves around the daily life of Gumball Watterson (Logan Grove, seasons 1 -- 2 and season 3 episode: "The Kids ''; Jacob Hopkins, rest of season 3 to season 5 episode "The Copycats '', Nicolas Cantu, rest of season 5 onward), a cat, and his family -- adoptive brother and best friend Darwin (Kwesi Boakye, seasons 1 -- 2 and season 3 episode: "The Kids ''; Terrell Ransom, Jr., rest of season 3 to season 5 episode "The Copycats '', Donielle T. Hansley Jr., rest of season 5 to season 6 episode "The Cage '', Christian J. Simon, season 6 episode "The Faith '' onward), sister Anais (Kyla Rae Kowalewski), and parents Nicole and Richard (Teresa Gallagher and Dan Russell, respectively). Gumball 's fellow Elmore Junior High students also have frequent recurring roles throughout the series. Creator Ben Bocquelet conceived The Amazing World of Gumball in 2007 while working as a development artist for Cartoon Network Development Studio Europe, and based several of its characters on previous sketches characters he had created for commercials.
Gumball (formerly Zach) Tristopher Watterson (voiced by Logan Grove) is a 12 - year - old mostly mischievous light blue cat who lives with his family in the fictional California city of Elmore. He attends Elmore Junior High in the seventh grade with his brother Darwin, who is 10 years old. Often finding himself and Darwin in various antics which end up getting them into trouble, episodes in the series ' first season characterized Gumball as well - meaning in his actions, but with naive tendencies; throughout the show 's progression, he has since established himself as a more serious character capable of logical thinking and prone to sarcasm.
Despite his rambunctious behavior and occasional lapses in judgement, he is a loyal, straightforward, and good - natured person at heart. A recurring theme throughout the series is his crush on his classmate Penny Fitzgerald, who in turn shares the same feelings for him. They initially struggle to properly express their feelings for each other until the episode "The Shell '', where he finally works up the nerve to express his feelings to her after she reveals her true form, and they begin dating. In the premiere of season 3 it is revealed that Gumball and Darwin are part of a small fraction of people who do n't age past a certain point, which by the end of the episode causes them to regress to a point slightly before puberty. His middle name was supposed to be Christopher, but Richard confused it for Tristopher and it stuck. Gumball is a very imaginative person. Despite his mediocre academic performance, he can be surprisingly brilliant when it comes to formulating all sorts of mischievous schemes. This side of him can be seen in episodes such as "The Plan, '' in which he quickly formulates a basic outline to he and his siblings plan to "save '' their mother, and in "The Scam, '' in which he forms a crafty scheme that will allow him to cleanly heist the town 's candy effortlessly. Such a side may also suggest Gumball is smarter than he lets on, as hinted by his expansive vocabulary, cooking skills, and ukulele skills as well.
Gumball is also an optimist. Despite his cynicism towards society itself, as seen in episodes such as "The Bumpkin '' and "The Money, '' he is fairly positive in what to expect out of people (though there are exceptions). When his family is financially suffering in "The Money, '' he is quick to tell them of the joys of family and pushes them to be more optimistic. In "The Others, '' he 's quick to reject Clare 's notion of "no happy ending, '' only wanting to see her have a happy ending (no matter how forced it was). He is also happy to help others, as seen in "The Void, '' "The Upgrade, '' and "The Slide, '' in which in all three he went great lengths to assist Molly, Bobert, and Rocky, respectively.
In general, Gumball is very protective of his loved ones. On multiple occasions, he goes into a sort of "over-protective '' mode whenever anybody tries to hurt his siblings, Darwin and Anais, as seen in "The Parasite, '' in which he tried to nearly poison Jodie when he thought she was hurting Anais, or in "The Rerun, '' in which he aimlessly tried to attack Rob out of rage when Darwin died.
Despite being a good and positive person on the inside, Gumball is very snarky and sarcastic towards people who are not his family or his girlfriend, Penny (and even then, he can be a smart alec towards his siblings at times). He is quick to diffuse all sorts of quips towards others, ranging from harmless to sometimes blunt and rude. As demonstrated in episodes such as "The Stories '' and "The Test, '' these snarky comments are impulsive and sometimes, he can not help it.
Gumball also has a fairly massive ego, which seems to be a fault of his. When not tamed properly, his ego can drive him to do some pretty jerky things. Darwin tapping into his musical talents in "The Triangle '' caused Gumball to have short - lived jealousy towards him before he realized he was wrong. His ego also explains his relationship with Alan; the fact that Alan is so effortlessly loved drives Gumball to expose him for being scummier than he lets on (which later turns out to be accurate). This ego also makes him sensitive, as seen in "The Meddler, '' in which he is an emotional wreck when he was told his cheerleading performance was terrible.
Darwin Raglan Caspian Ahab Poseidon Nicodemius Watterson, III (voiced by Kwesi Boakye) is a 10 year old orange goldfish, and Gumball 's best friend and adoptive brother. Initially given to Gumball as a pet, Darwin later sprouted legs and subsequently became a full member of the Watterson family. The series ' first season depicted Darwin with a tendency to be more naive and gullible than others, due to his sudden introduction into the world; subsequent seasons established his more serious side, including the ability to think logically and, in "The Words '', speak his mind freely. Although Gumball can sometimes be a negative influence on him, Darwin is extremely loyal to Gumball and often helps him out of sticky situations. He is sometimes shown to not exhibit normal behaviour, such as calling his adoptive parents Mr. Dad and Mrs. Mom.
Anais Rosie Watterson (voiced by Kyla Rae Kowalewski), a pink rabbit, is Gumball and Darwin 's precocious 3 - year - old sister. She is one grade above her brothers, as revealed in "The Others ''. Gumball resents the fact that she is always telling him what to do, but nonetheless loves her and acknowledges her good intentions. Although impatient with her brother, she often tags along with him on his misadventures as a voice of reason, usually having to help Gumball out of situations caused by these misadventures. She has, however, been shown to not be above manipulating her family to get what she wants. Despite her intellectualism, she still shows typical childlike behavior, including an obsession with the children 's television character Daisy the Donkey, and has tried to fit in with Gumball and Darwin on numerous occasions. She attends eighth grade at Elmore Junior High, which Gumball and Darwin are unaware of due to them "filtering '' out anyone or anything that is n't part of their lives.
Doctor Nicole Watterson (née Senicourt) (voiced by Teresa Gallagher) is a 43 year old blue cat and the mother of Gumball, Darwin, and Anais. A workaholic, she is often over-stressed and possesses a bad temper. She acts as a guide to her sons, Gumball and Darwin when they get in a tough spot with their misadventures. Competitive by nature, Nicole is a master martial artist, and is very agile and flexible. Despite her overstressed and bad - tempered personality, she is sweet and shows much affection for her family, keeping them safe (and alive) as much as she can. She is also very protective of her family, as seen in "The Ape. '' Since she is the only truly responsible member of the family, Nicole does most of, if not, all the household chores, and in addition, she works long hours at the Rainbow Factory just to put food on the table. Often, when she competes against the rest of the family, it is for the family, such as when she wanted to watch Win or Do n't Win to win a new microwave in "The Remote. ''
Unfortunately, Nicole also suffers from a tremendous amount of emotional stress because of her many duties, and as such, is quite strict and demanding whenever upset. In fact, on one occasion, Gumball decides it would be easier to face Tina than an angry Nicole. Despite all that, Nicole is still a good mother and person, and she still loves her family very much, especially her son, Gumball. Much of her issues stem from her hard pushing parents who gave her the first name Doctor in the hopes that she will become one later on in life.
Nicole is also occasionally vindictive, as was shown in the episode "The Ape, '' after Miss Simian called her and her family "losers. '' On top of this, she is also very resourceful and inventive, a trait she most likely passed on to her daughter Anais, who has demonstrated similar talents -- in this case, strategically setting a mine - like trap in a paintball arena / forest, merely using environmental supplies, and whatever she took with her. Winning seems to be a necessity for her at times, most likely due to her mother 's ambition for her to succeed in her youth. Though, despite her somewhat ruthless faults, she can accept defeat, acknowledge her mistakes, and even find humor in them.
Apparently, Nicole also does not like losing, as shown in "The Game, '' but still does not prefer to fight those who had a close relationship with her, such as Yuki, unless they threaten her family or her job.
Richard Buckley Watterson (voiced by Dan Russell) is a 43 year old anthropomorphic pink rabbit. He is the father of Gumball, Darwin and Anais. Being a stay - at - home dad, he spends most of his time sleeping, watching TV and playing video games. As revealed in the episode "The Lady '' Richard also dresses up as a woman (Samantha) and spends the day with his girlfriends (the golden girls) it is later revealed that all of them are men who could n't seem to make friends with other men (except Marie, who actually is an old lady) and decide to continue their friendship as sassy old women. He has been "the laziest person in Elmore '' for 13 years and has a large appetite and is a voracious eater. Richard often serves as a third - wheel to his sons ' misadventures and cares deeply for his family despite his lethargic nature. He can be very naive at some times and may be called "dumb '' or similar words by other characters throughout the series. In the episode "The Job '' it appears that Richard ca n't hold a job or else the universe will be destroyed which is why he must remain unemployed.
Richard is the father figure in the Watterson family but does n't seem to possess any responsibility or common sense. He is very childlike and lazy and is not a good role model for his children either. However, Richard genuinely loves his family, and has good intentions, despite his severe lack of intelligence and maturity as seen especially in "The Prank '' and "The Authority. ''
He also greatly enjoys eating, and as a result, he is overweight. His obsession with food can sometimes be his undoing, such as when he was supposed to help his wife in "The Spoon, '' but he ends up licking a sausage on the floor instead. He can also sense when there is toast nearby, as seen in "The Recipe. '' Due to his continuous hunger, he gained an instinctive - like nature, as seen in "The Game '' and many other episodes, where he runs toward any food he sees.
Richard is very childish and has been seen exhibiting childish behaviors in several episodes, which include believing in ghosts, joining in some of Gumball 's misadventures, believing in Santa Claus, and many others. He also has a very hypocritical sense of humor. He enjoys pulling pranks and laughing at people, but hates it when others prank or laugh at him, saying that "it 's only funny when it happens to someone else. ''
The motive for Richard 's personality was shown in "The Authority, '' where it was revealed that Granny Jojo sheltered Richard his entire life, leading him to grow up as an unintelligent and lazy person. In "The Man, '' it was revealed that Richard 's father walked out on him when he was young, claiming he was going out to buy some milk. Richard still believed it out of denial, even into his adult life.
Despite his incompetency and childishness, Richard can occasionally spout out some good advice. In "The Gift, '' he was the one telling his sons to give Masami friendship (which they later did), and he manages to tell Nicole some very good, philosophical advice about life. It is also possible that Richard has a sufficiently sized brain, just he neglects to use it. As seen in "The Fuss '' when he tried to think, a large cramping mass grew rapidly in size and made his veins stand out on his head.
According to Ben Bocquelet, his height is 6'2 '' (1.88 m).
Penny Fitzgerald (voiced by Teresa Gallagher) is a living peanut with antlers growing out of her head and, following the events of the episode "The Shell '', Gumball 's girlfriend. Their mutual affection and incapability of expressing their feelings for one another was a running theme in the series until "The Shell '', where Gumball finally directly reveals his feelings for her and they have their first kiss in the woods. In the same episode, it is revealed that underneath Penny 's shell lies a yellow, fairy - like inner alien self which shape - shifts based on her emotional state. Penny 's father Patrick, the head of a local construction company, is extremely overprotective of his daughter, and does not trust Gumball until he saves her from getting run over by his own car in the episode "The Knights '' and "The Shell '' for helping his daughter through her emotions. She is a member of the Elmore Junior High cheerleading and synchronized swimming teams.
Tobias Wilson (voiced by Rupert Degas, season 1; Hugo Harrison, season 2 onward) is a multicolored, cloud - shaped humanoid who is heavily interested in sports and possesses an overbearing self - confidence. He thinks of himself as a heavily built jock, despite actually being rather weak, and appears to be quite wealthy. He makes his debut appearance in "The Third '', where Gumball and Darwin pay him twenty dollars to become their friend. In "The Knights '', Tobias holds a mock medieval battle with Gumball for the affection of Penny. Despite this, he has been seen hanging out with Gumball and Darwin on several occasions, including having a starring role in one of the duo 's home movies. He has an older sister, Rachel (voiced by Jessica McDonald), who considers herself of higher status than Tobias and his "dweeb loser baby friends ''.
Carolyn "Carrie '' Krueger (voiced by Jessica McDonald) is an emo ghost who lives in a malevolent mansion and "enjoys being depressed ''. She has the abilities to teleport and possess living bodies, and in "The Ghost '' she uses the latter ability on Gumball in order to feel the satisfaction of being able to eat again. In "Halloween '', she turns the Watterson siblings into ghosts so they can attend a ghost - exclusive Halloween party at her mansion, and in the process almost gets them trapped in the Underworld. Carrie is the daughter of a mortal man who formed a romantic relationship with a female ghost and, as a result of using a forbidden spell, was cursed to live a lonely existence inside mirrors and subsequently rechristened "The Snatcher '' -- until, that is, his soul is set free by his daughter in "The Mirror '' and they are happily reunited. In "The Matchmaker '', she and Darwin become a couple.
Joseph '' Banana Joe '' Banana (voiced by Mic Graves) is a hyperactive banana and the class clown of Gumball 's Elmore Junior High class, with the tendency to crack a joke whenever possible. His jokes often serve as a source of irritation to others, with Gumball describing him as a "one - trick pony '' in his debut appearance. While he is often classified as the class clown, he can mostly be a bully in a mean way, usually to Gumball and Darwin. He is killed by Rob in "the Rerun '' but this event was erased from the timeline by a reformed Rob.
Tina Rex (voiced by Dan Russell, season 1; Stefan Ashton Frank, season 2 onward) is a Tyrannosaurus who lives in the Elmore city junkyard, and who is Elmore Junior High 's most notorious bully. She often picks on her fellow schoolmates, especially Gumball, and has her own gang of bullies which includes Jamie and, to his reluctance, Anton. As a dinosaur, she is the strongest person in school, contributing to her fearsome and aggressive reputation. Despite this, she also has a softer side not only in general, but also for Gumball; in the episode "The Fight '' she reveals that she considers him to be a friend. Her Cartoon Network biography suggests that she might have animosity toward others because she is "angry at the world for not noticing her femininity ''.
Hector Jotunheim (voiced by Kerry Shale) is a massive but gentle giant who is the largest student in Elmore Junior High, to the point that only his legs and feet are seen on - screen. Hector is the subject of the episode "The Colossus '', where his mother -- a witch who works as a cleaning lady -- reveals that he can be dangerous if he expresses too much emotion, such as anger, sadness or excitement. In the same episode, he goes on a rampage around Elmore after Gumball and Darwin, unaware of Hector 's need to control his emotions, describe him as being too boring. His surname is a reference to Jötunheimr, the homeland of giants in Norse mythology.
Masami Yoshida (voiced by Jessica McDonald) is a living cloud who is the wealthy daughter of the Rainbow Factory 's owner. Spoiled by her parents, she is tantrum - prone and has apparently threatened to have her classmates ' parents fired if she does n't have her way; in "The Gift '', several of her classmates panic about getting her a perfect birthday gift out of fear of such a scenario, though it is later indicated that this has never actually happened and she admits that she simply wants be a treated like a normal person. When angry, she has the ability to develop into a full storm cloud capable of causing massive amounts of damage. The episode "The Storm '' reveals her unrequited crush on Alan, and she manipulates Gumball into getting the two together, albeit temporarily.
Sarah G. Lato (voiced by Jessica McDonald) is a yellow ice cream cone who debuted in "The Banana '' as a transferee to Elmore Junior High from nearby Richwood High and makes her first major role in "The Sweaters '', where she attempts to defend Gumball and Darwin from two uptight human students, only to lead them into more trouble. In "The Fan '', she is depicted as an obsessive fan of Gumball and Darwin.
Bobert (voiced by Kerry Shale) is a robot who is one of the smartest students at Elmore Junior High but constantly struggles to understand emotion and develop a social life. He is the primary focus of the episode "The Robot '', where Darwin and Gumball 's efforts to help him fit in ultimately end with him stealing Gumball 's identity. Multiple times in the series, he has showcased his ability to transform into a much larger form by triggering his "defense mode ''. In the episode "The Bet '', he is forced to become Gumball 's personal slave for a day after losing a bet. Bobert is also the primary focus of the episode "The Upgrade '', where he has an update with his software that Gumball and Darwin struggle getting used to and go to the Bobert Store to get a downgrade. The manager gave them a new Bobert and sent old Bobert on a plane with a bunch of random old junk. Gumball and Darwin use new Bobert to fly up to the plane to get old Bobert back. They open the hatch in the back of the plane and everything falls out including Bobert. While falling Gumball finds Bobert 's original os disc and installs it. At the last minute before impact Bobert boots ups up and saves them from smashing in to the ground.
Carmen (voiced by Teresa Gallagher, season 1; Alix Wilton Regan, season 2 onward) is a small green cactus who is considered to be a leader among her female classmates. She is in a relationship with her balloon classmate Alan, though the danger of her spikes bursting him is a constant hindrance. Their relationship in the cafeteria annoys their classmates, who are frequently annoyed by their romantic gestures and deem them "too perfect '' and Alan interrupts and yells at Gumball. In "The Storm '', Carmen and Alan are baby talking in the lunch room when everyone comments they are "too perfect ''. Later Gumball and Darwin see Carmen crying and she says it 's because her and Alan 's relationship is too boring so she gets Gumball to flirt with her then kiss her. Alan gets jealous but wo n't say or do anything. Alan ends up saying he loves her so. Much that he wants her to be happy even if it is n't with him. Gumball tells him he needs to get back into dating to show Carmen he 's moved on. Alan reluctantly agrees and ends up dating Masami. Masami had given Gumball the plan that Carmen would get jealous and try to get him back but really only wanted to date Alan. Gumball tries to tell Masami her plan did n't work when she informed him it worked perfectly cause now her and Alan were dating. Gumball is gon na go tell everyone of her plan but Masami turns into a huge storm and rampages through the school taking Alan with her. Everyone chases them and then Alan bravely confronts Masami and states his feelings for Carmen. In "The Best, '' it is shown that Carmen was once a trouble making student at her old school, so much so that she ended up on the news. Carmen is also one of the cheerleaders for her school. She is best friends with Penny Fitzgerald, Sarah, and Molly.
Alan Keane (voiced by Kerry Shale, season 1; Hugo Harrison, season 2 onward) is a teal - colored balloon who, despite their physical incompatibility, is in a romantic relationship with Carmen and sits at lunch with her. He is overly nice and even - tempered, never showing anger or raising his voice even when the subject of insults or physical attacks, much to the annoyance of his classmates. Being filled with helium, Alan regularly speaks in a high - pitched voice. In "The Photo '', Gumball envies him for having a beautiful face. Alan rebuffs this, but Gumball replies: "Dude, even your mole looks better than me ''. In "the Vision '' it is revealed Alan secretly plans to take over the world and rule it as a dictator, brainwashing people to eradicate sadness. After discovering this, Gumball and Darwin attempt to assassinate Alan, which they succeed in after many failed attempts - though he reappears in subsequent episodes without any explanation. It was shown in an episode the world goes through chaos if Alan stops his kindness.
Leslie (voiced by Kerry Shale) is an effeminate, friendly daisy who plays flute in the school band and can often be found hanging around the girls. He is Penny 's cousin, and Gumball 's mistaken assumption that he is her boyfriend is his major source of jealousy in the episode "The Flower ''.
Teri (voiced by Teresa Gallagher) is a hypochondriac paper bear usually found in the nurse 's office. Although somewhat self - absorbed and paranoid, she is very nice and is one of the school 's cheerleaders. Her mother works as a doctor and maintains a website discussing the dangers of germs.
Idaho (voiced by Kerry Shale, season 1; Hugo Harrison, season 2 onward) is a free - spirited potato from the rural countryside with old - fashioned beliefs, and is one of the less popular students of Elmore Junior High. In "The Bumpkin '', Gumball, disillusioned with his suburban lifestyle, seeks Idaho 's help in teaching his family how to live a simple lifestyle. However, Gumball eventually finds himself unable to resist his modern lifestyle, and one night Idaho walks in on him indulging in video games and junk food. Gumball talks him into trying out his modern lifestyle and eventually sends him into severe culture shock, which his rural family cure by burying him in soil.
Anton (voiced by Lewis MacLeod in "The Dress '' Anthony Hull in every other appearance) is a simple - minded piece of toast who was forcibly drafted into Tina 's gang despite his unwillingness to do so, and only appeases them to avoid their anger. He is prone to being killed in various freak accidents, only to be resurrected by his parents after each occasion with a toaster which creates a new copy of him.
Juke (voiced by Hugo Harrison, music by Beatbox Hobbit) is a native of the continent of Boomboxemburg who moved to Elmore, and is, as described by Gumball, a "boombox head '' who speaks entirely in beatboxing. In "The Boombox '', he spoke it. As a result, nobody in Elmore Junior High can understand him. He is able to speak comprehensible English if he is switched from "Music Mode '' to "Voice Mode '' through a button on the back of his head, but his arms are too short to reach the button and his attempts to communicate this fact to others end in failure.
Sussie (Pronounced s - uh - ss - ee, face by Aurelie Charbonnier, voiced by Fergus Craig Season 3 until end of Season 4, voiced by Charbonnier Season 5 onwards and Season 1, Ben Bocquelet voiced her screaming, yelling, and laughing Season 2 onward) is an upside - down chin with googly eyes and puppet - like characteristics. She is talkative, odd, and obnoxious, and as a result is generally avoided by the rest of her classmates. She was the main problem for Darwin in "The Words ''.
Clayton (voiced by Rupert Degas, in "The Party '' Kwesi Boakye in "The Dress ''; Max Cazier, season 2 onward) is a red ball of clay who is a compulsive liar, with a tendency of making up absurd stories about himself. In the episode "The Skull '', Clayton begins an on - and - off friendship with Gumball and Darwin, and displays his ability to transform into different people and objects. At the end of the episode, he tells Principal Brown the truth for the first time. In "The Move '' he reveals that he lies because he is insecure and feels like a loser, though Gumball and Darwin help him and presumably cure his lying habit.
Rachel Wilson (voiced by Jessica McDonald) is Tobias ' older sister, who disgusts his "dweeb loser baby friends. '' In "The Party '', however, after her friends do n't show up to the party Tobias invited all of Elmore Junior High to, Darwin helps her feel better and fixes the trashed house, so she kisses Darwin. The directing staff did not like the character, so Rachel made a handful of cameos in the second season before being dropped from the show. Rachel does make a brief cameo in a flashback in "The Matchmaker ''.
Harry "Ocho '' Tootmorsel (voiced by Max Cazier) is a Space Invaders character - like 8 - bit spider and a generally friendly person, but often overreacts to what people say about him in a negative manner, such as to Darwin and Gumball after the latter accidentally sends him an insulting text message. In the show 's first season, he spoke solely in video game blips; since the second season, however, he has started speaking in comprehensible, albeit distorted, English. In season five, his real name is revealed to be Harry Tootmorsel, a name that he only tells to his most trusted friends.
Colin and Felix (voiced by Kerry Shale and Rupert Degas, season 1; Kerry Shale and Hugo Harrison, season 2 onward) are a pair of egg brothers who are two of the most intelligent students and bullies at Elmore Junior High, speaking in English accents and considering themselves to be much smarter than their classmates. They are not very popular, and as such are members of the "Reject Club '' with Bobert and Ocho.
Jamie Russo (voiced by Jessica McDonald, seasons 1 -- 2; Maria Teresa Creasey, season 3 onward) is a "half - cow, half - troglodyte '' creature who is a bully of Elmore Junior High and member of Tina 's gang. As a result of Miss Simian holding her back a year, she has grown resentful of her new classmates and of authority in general. Her mother is Elmore Junior High 's gym coach, whom she listens to and respects despite her disapproval towards Jamie 's bullying.
William (internal monologue narrated by Mic Graves) is a flying eyeball who is Miss Simian 's personal spy and only talks when reporting information to her. The episode "The Voice '' reveals that he has psychic abilities, which he uses to wreak havoc on Gumball and Darwin after they accidentally block him on the social networking site Elmore Plus. The same episode shows that he actually expresses a desire to interact with his classmates, which is hindered by his lack of a mouth; his inner thoughts are narrated to the viewers.
Molly Collins (voiced by Jessica McDonald) is a shy sauropod who is a member of the cheerleading team and, as shown in "The Pressure '', the owner of a treehouse where she and the other girls hang out in. She made several appearances in the show 's first season, but was absent for the entire second season; no reason was given for her disappearance until the third - season episode "The Void '', where Gumball, Darwin, and Mr. Small realize that all traces of Molly have vanished and nobody else seems to have any memory of her. Investigating further, they eventually open up a portal at the former location of Molly 's home and are sucked into a void containing "all the mistakes the world has ever made '', where they find and rescue her.
Rob (voiced by Hugo Harrison and David Warner) was one of the less prominent Elmore Junior High students, and later on in the series, Rob is the main antagonist and Gumball 's sworn enemy. Rob is formerly a tall blue cyclops, and is later a disfigured polygon white cyclops. He tries to have some friendly conversation with Gumball and Darwin in "The Pony '', only to discover -- much to his annoyance -- that the two do not even know his name. He is later seen in the void of all the world 's mistakes in the episode "The Void ''. However, in "The Nobody '', he manages to escape the void, gets disfigured as a result and takes residence in the Wattersons ' basement. As a result, he remembers that Gumball and Darwin left him and swears revenge on them for not noticing him. In "The Bus '', he attempts to blow up everybody and the hijacked bus up as well, but his plans were foiled thanks to Gumball and Richard. In "The Ex '', it is seen that Banana Joe was his new nemesis. But toward the end he resumes his hatred with Gumball.
Hot Dog Guy (voiced by Alex Jordan) is a guy who, when in contact, is awkward with Gumball. He made periodic appearances prior to the episode "The Hug '', when Gumball hugs him several times to prove he is not predictable to Darwin. In "The Awkwardness, '' Gumball wants to buy ketchup for a hot dog before running into the Hot Dog Guy many other times in the episode. In "The Nest '' he is seemingly eaten by the carnivorous baby turtles, but came back. His butt exploded in "The Castle ''.
An emo girl who is a human. She hates Gumball and Darwin, but is friends with Penny and Anais.
A bomb - headed humanoid with anger issues whose head explodes when he feels disgust (usually from seeing Sussie 's ugly face) or anger (due to him hating Ocho). He hates Ocho.
Principal Nigel Brown (voiced by Steve Furst) is a 68 year old furry slug who is Elmore Junior High 's principal and Miss Lucy Simian 's love interest. He likes to lick Lucy 's hair, and likes to sing while being held by Lucy. He teaches music, judges cheerleader tryouts, leads the school 's band, and is a substitute sports teacher. He used to, along with Steve and Lucy, teach gym until Russo got her job. His Cartoon Network biography states that their romance has been detrimental to his profession, leaving him incapable of properly running Elmore Junior High. In "The Fraud '', it is revealed that Principal Brown has worked as a principal for 20 years with a fake diploma.
Ms. Lucy Simian (voiced by Lewis MacLeod, season 1; Hugo Harrison, season 2 onward) is a 2,000,000 year old baboon and the sadistic teacher of Gumball and Darwin 's class as well as a major antagonist. She takes great pleasure in giving her students pop quizzes and being generally unpleasant, and as such is widely reviled by the entire school body, save for Principal Brown, her love interest. She has a generally antagonistic relationship with Gumball, often suspecting him of being nothing but a troublemaker, but once faked friendship with the Wattersons in order to win a teacher 's appreciation award, and offered a genuine apology to Gumball and Darwin for her rash judgement against them in "The Apology ''. Her face intentionally resembles that of the Grim Reaper.
Mr. Steve Small (voiced by Adam Long) is the Elmore Junior High guidance counselor, a 45 year old cloud man who is interested in New Age culture and possesses hippie - like qualities in terms of appearance and behavior. Mr. Small 's eccentric and unconventional teaching methods are usually more confusing to the children than helpful, and despite his good intentions they often leave his office confused and not any better, if not worse from the time they entered. It is revealed in the episode "The Fraud '' that he is not a U.S. citizen, though it is unclear if he was merely born elsewhere or renounced his citizenship. He also mentions he lost his love Janice, which in the episode "The Void, '' is revealed to be a purple van that runs on "good vibes. '' His mannerisms are similar to those of Mr. Van Driessen from Beavis and Butt - head.
Rockwell "Rocky '' Robinson (voiced by Lewis McLeod in season 1, Hugo Harold - Harrison in season 2, and Simon Lipkin in season 3, 4, 5, and 6) is an orange, fuzzy 31 year old Muppet - like character who performs various odd jobs around Elmore Junior High, mostly as the janitor, but also as a cafeteria worker, a school bus driver, and, in "The Curse '', the clerk at the lost and found office. He is the son of Mr. Robinson and Margaret Robinson, the Wattersons ' next - door neighbors, and is generally good - natured and gets along with the children well.
The Elmore Junior High gym teacher Coach Russo (voiced by Dan Russell) is a large, pink 3 - dimensional cube who is Jamie 's mother. The newest member of the faculty, she works to ensure that all of the students are fit like her daughter. She makes her debut appearance in "The Coach '' and speaks in a consistently deadpan tone, never showing emotion facially or in her speech.
Mr. Moonchild Corneille (voiced by Simon Lipkin) is a 44 year old frog and the 8th grade teacher of geography at Elmore Junior High. He always pretends to be sophisticated, but is a fake personality. As of "The Cage '', he is in a relationship with Joan Markham, the school 's nurse. He also has his picture on all of his history books.
Joan Markham (voiced by Teresa Gallagher) is Elmore Junior High 's nurse. She is in a relationship with Moonchild, starting in "The Cage ''. She hates her job because Gumball and Darwin try lame excuses to get sick notes and get out of gym class, Teri comes to her office every day, Lucy is a jerk to her, and she does n't know how to help the students because most of them have biologies she has no clue how to work with. She is always sarcastic because of this, and sometimes tries to do the least work possible to help her students. She is also a paramedic, doctor, and nurse at a hospital, even though she hates her jobs. She has long blonde hair under her hat.
Frankie Watterson (voiced by Rich Fulcher) is a 67 year old conman rat and the ex-husband of Granny Jojo and the father of Richard who abandoned them a long time ago. In "The Signature '', after his apartment was re-possessed due to his overdue rent, he returns to the Watterson household, and he reunited with Richard, only to scam him of taking over the house. The Wattersons stop him, while Frankie looks back to the day he left his son. He then decides to reunite the whole Watterson family. In "The Outside '', Frankie comes for a visit, but gets treated like a prisoner, because of a misunderstanding.
Granny Jojo (voiced by Sandra Dickinson) is the Watterson children 's grandmother and also Richard 's mother. She is a 68 year old pink rabbit who speaks in a New York accent. In the season 1 episode "The Kiss '', she is depicted as a general annoyance to the family, doing nothing but watching police dramas on television, and with Nicole and Richard always leaving the house whenever she makes a visit. She was previously married to a traveling conman named Frankie Watterson, who abandoned her and a young Richard under the pretense of going out to buy milk; she later remarries to Louie, a local Elmore senior citizen, in "The Signature '', despite Richard 's initial disapproval.
Louie Watterson (voiced by Shane Rimmer) is a 72 year old black mouse and a former member of a close - knit crew of Elmore senior citizens which includes Betty, Donald, and Marvin Finkleheimer. In "The Man '' it is revealed that he was dating Joanna Watterson, whom he marries in "The Signature '', making him Richard 's stepfather and Gumball, Darwin, and Anais ' stepgrandfather.
Gaylord and Margaret Robinson (Gaylord voiced by Stefan Ashton Frank and Margaret voiced by Teresa Gallagher) are the Wattersons ' stuck - up, grouchy next door neighbors, and Rocky 's parents. They are grey 69 year old Muppet - like characters and hate their neighbors with a passion. Gaylord deeply despises Gumball and Darwin in Season 1 and "The Sale '' for annoying him all the time; the boys, however, look up to him as their idol. Their constant bickering is a focal point of their relationship, and they actually enjoy doing so. Gaylord owns a prized 1970 Cadillac Coupe de Ville Convertible which often ends up getting damaged by the Wattersons as a running gag, much to his annoyance.
Gary Hedges (voiced by Dan Russel) The other side neighbor of Gumball. He is a 79 year old purple moose with large antlers. Even is commonly seen wearing a pale brown hat, green sweater with blue slacks. Also known as "this guy '' by Gumball. The neighbor they forget the name, often.
Larry Needlemeyer (voiced by Kerry Shale) is a 26 year old rock man who works at almost every establishment in Elmore, including the grocery store, the gas station convenience store, several fast food restaurants, and the DVD rental shop amongst other places. He had previously been known as "Lazy Larry '', the laziest person in Elmore, until he lost his title to Richard 13 years prior to the start of the series and subsequently morphed into a hard worker. Larry was generally distrusting of the Wattersons, as they often get him into trouble at his various occupations until "The Pizza ''. It was revealed that he works everywhere just to pay the damages the Wattersons created that involves him. He has a girlfriend named Karen, who the Wattersons damage his relationship with as a running gag, but they may not be together anymore, as in "The Boredom '' Karen says she has a daughter who may be with a different guy, and in "The Love '', Melted Cheese Guy almost asks her out. The son may have been with Larry or before she met Larry, and Melted Cheese Guy could simply not have known she was dating Larry.
Marvin Finkleheimer (voiced by Dan Russell) is an 81 year old red jellybean who lives at a house and likes to beat kids with his cane on the skull if they help him across the street. In the episode "The Watch '', he feuds with Gumball and Darwin over possession of a gold watch, an heirloom which the Wattersons and Finkleheimers have feuded over for several generations. Towards the end of the episode, the two sides chase each other to claim the watch and cash it in for its $700 value. Marvin is eaten by the Evil Turtles in "the Nest '', but he somehow escaped her stomach and, as Kip said, made a full recovery. In Season 1, he was originally going to be named Bert, when he is called that by the yellow old man, Donald, and Louie but that was changed / retconned by the writers.
Doughnut Sheriff (voiced by Dan Russell) is a 58 year old pink - frosted doughnut who, as his name suggests, is an officer in Elmore 's police force. He is rather oblivious and has displayed incompetency on the job, often finding himself involved in the Watterson 's antics. He was a main character in the episode "The Law '' where he tried to run over men, women, children, senior citizens, and babies and Gumball and Darwin cheered him on.
Sal Left Thumb (voiced by Kerry Shale) is one of Elmore 's most wanted criminals, a 44 year old walking fingerprint whose weapon of choice is a rusty spoon. He is often seen robbing the local convenience store, and in "The Spoon '' Gumball and Darwin become unwitting accomplices in one of his crimes. He was killed in "The Bumpkin '', but came back.
Felicity Parham is an orange background character on the show along with her blue son William Geoffrey "Billy '' Fitzgerald Kitchener Parham, III (as shown in "The Extras). Billy appears to be an intelligent boy who usually just asks his mother random questions about life. After Season 3, he gained more of an active role and was rejected from Anais Watterson 's heart. So, he then became a big mouthed, smart aleck - like individual. Billy 's dad is also mentioned.
Mr. Rex is Tina Rex 's father. He loves to eat invaders at home. He fought with Nicole when she tried to speak with him about the fight that Tina had with Gumball. His true appearance was originally written to be shown in the episode "The Rex '' where it might have been shown how he came back to life, but this episode was ultimately cancelled and not produced, but later his true appearance is revealed in "The Routine '', where he fought Richard while getting mayonnaise. He gained a scar after "The Fight '' possibly due to Nicole 's fight with him.
A grayish - brown monstrous blob creature created by Gumball mixing disgusting things into a jar and Richard accidentally microwaving it. He made his debut in "The Microwave '' and reappears in "The Finale '' and in Gumball 's subconscious in "The Name ''.
Two teenage human boys from Richwood High that first appeared in "The Sweaters '', where they taunted Gumball and Darwin. Carlton later appears in "The Society '' in a mascot costume and was kidnapped by Gumball.
Carlton and Troy 's coach.
Harold is the father of Tobias Wilson. He seems to have been making fun of Richard Watterson ever since he played a prank on him in high school, as seen in "The Cycle. ''
Penny 's parents.
Anais ' imaginary friend.
Anton 's clones who were killed in "The Recipe ''.
A teddy bear and Larry 's boss.
Gumball 's evil alter - ego.
Various background characters, including:
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who is in the australian rugby league team | Australia national Rugby League team - Wikipedia
New Zealand 49 -- 25 Australia (Brisbane Cricket Ground, Brisbane, Australia; 28 July 1952)
The Australian national rugby league team (or the Kangaroos) have represented Australia in senior men 's rugby league football competition since the establishment of the ' Northern Union game ' in Australia in 1908. Administered by the Australian Rugby League, the Kangaroos are ranked first in the RLIF World Rankings. The team is the most successful in Rugby League World Cup history, having contested all 15 and winning 11 of them, failing to reach the final only once, in the inaugural tournament in 1954. Only four nations have beaten Australia in test matches, and Australia have an overall win percentage of 67 %.
Dating back to 1908, Australia are the fourth oldest national side after England, New Zealand and Wales. The team was first assembled in 1908 for a tour of Great Britain. The majority of the Kangaroos ' games since then have been played against Great Britain and New Zealand. In the first half of the 20th century, Australia 's international competition came from alternating tours to Great Britain and New Zealand, with Australia playing host to these teams in non-tour years. Great Britain dominated in the early years, and Australia did not win a Test against the Lions until 11 November 1911 under captain Chris McKivat. Australia did not win a series at home against Great Britain until 1920 or abroad until 1958.
Since 1908, the team has been nicknamed the Kangaroos. Initially only used when touring Great Britain, and later France, this has been the official nickname of the team since 7 July 1994. In 1997 Australia was also represented by a Super League Australia team, drawing on players from that year 's Super League competition. While in the past players for the side had been selected from clubs in various leagues around the country, in recent years the side has consisted exclusively of players from clubs of the National Rugby League.
Rugby football has been played in Australia since the 1860s. In 1863 Sydney University became the first rugby club to be formed in Sydney, and played games amongst themselves or against the crews of visiting British ships. The Sydney Football Club (1865) and the Wallaroos (1870) followed, and inter-club competition commenced. By 1880, there were 100 clubs across the country, and rugby quickly became the dominant winter sport for Sydney.
In 1888 an English team visited Australasia, playing rugby rules in Queensland, New South Wales and New Zealand, and Australian rules football in Victoria and South Australia. In 1899, an Australian team was formed for the first time using players from Queensland and New South Wales. They played a series of Tests against a British team.
By 1907, Sydney club rugby games were attracting up to 20,000 people, with all profits going to the Southern Rugby Football Union, as the sport at the time was officially an amateur one. This caused discontent among players, and in 1908 the New South Wales Rugby Football League and Queensland Rugby League were formed.
An Australian national rugby league team was first formed during the first season of rugby league in Australia, the 1908 NSWRFL Premiership season. The team, which was made of players from the NSWRFL with a few Queensland rugby rebels added, first played against the "professional All Blacks '' on the return leg of their tour of Australia and Great Britain.
Later that year the Australian team arranged to go on a tour of its own. The first Kangaroos arrived in England on 27 September 1908, and played their first ever test against the Northern Union in December in London. It finished 22 all in front of a crowd of 2,000. The second test in Newcastle in January 1909 attracted a crowd of 22,000, and the Northern Union won 15 -- 5. The third test was played at Villa Park, Birmingham, the Northern Union winning again 6 -- 5 before a crowd of 9,000. The Australians suggested that the series should be named ' The Ashes ' after the cricket series of the same name.
In 1909, when the new "Northern Union '' code was still in its infancy in Australia, a match between the Kangaroos and the Wallabies was played before a crowd of around 20,000, with the Rugby League side winning 29 -- 26.
The first British tour of the Southern Hemisphere began on 4 June 1910, when the Northern Union played New South Wales in front of 33,000 spectators in Sydney, losing 28 -- 14. But they won the first test in Sydney against Australia 27 -- 20 in front of 42,000. They then won the second test in Brisbane 22 -- 17. In Auckland, on 30 July, they defeated New Zealand 52 -- 20. The 1910 Great Britain Lions tour of Australia and New Zealand was the first ever, and Australia were beaten for the Ashes in two tests, faring slightly better as "Australasia '' with two Kiwis added to their squad. The 1911 -- 12 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain was undertaken by an ' Australasian ' squad which included four New Zealanders. They won the Ashes for the first time and for the next half a century no other touring team did do so on British soil.
The 1914 Great Britain Lions tour of Australia and New Zealand was the second time the British toured down under. The Australians, captained by Sid Deane for all three tests, got one victory but lost the series in the famous decider, the "Rorke 's Drift Test ''. Australia also went on a tour of New Zealand in 1919.
The 1920 Great Britain Lions tour saw Australia win the Ashes for the first time on home soil. The 1921 -- 22 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain also included a New Zealander and was ostensibly an Australasian side. In January 1922, an "England '' side defeated Australia 6 -- 0 at The Willows, Salford, to win back the Ashes that had been lost in 1920. They did not lose again until 1950.
The Australian national team first wore green and gold in a hooped design, on Saturday 23 June 1928, when they met Great Britain in the first Test at the Brisbane Exhibition Ground. Britain led 10 -- 2 after 25 minutes, 13 -- 7 at half time and, after a nervous second half, eventually claimed the Test 15 -- 12. The England team won both the 1928 series in Australia and New Zealand by two tests to one. They were presented with the Ashes Trophy by the Australians, which the two countries have competed for ever since.
The 1929 -- 30 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain was the fourth Kangaroo tour, and took the Australian team all around England and also into Wales. The tour also featured the ninth Ashes series which comprised four Test matches and was won by Great Britain.
The first test of the 1932 Ashes series between Australia and Great Britain drew a world record international rugby league attendance of 70,204 to the Sydney Cricket Ground. This attendance stood as the world record until the 1992 World Cup Final played at Wembley Stadium, and as of 2013 remains the record attendance for a rugby league test played in Australia. The Jim Sullivan led Lions triumphed over the Herb Steinohrt led Australians 8 -- 6.
On the 1933 -- 34 tour New South Wales winger Dave Brown played in 32 matches, including all 3 Tests, scoring 285 points, at the time the greatest number ever attained by an Australian player on tour.
An exhibition match between Australia and Great Britain at Paris ' Stade Pershing in December 1933 inspired the beginnings of rugby league in France.
Albert Johnston was a national selector in 1946 and coach of the national side for the 1946 first post-WWII Anglo - Australian series. Australia 's 1948 - 49 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain and France was their seventh tour to the UK. They played the Ashes series against a side officially called Great Britain.
During the 1951 French rugby league tour of Australia and New Zealand, Australia lost the three - Test series to the powerful French team inspired by their freakish goal kicking fullback Puig Aubert.
The 1954 Rugby League World Cup was the first such tournament held in either rugby code. Australia failed to reach the final.
For the 1956 -- 57 Kangaroo tour a record eleven Queenslanders were selected in the touring squad. Great Britain defeated Australia 19 -- 0 at Station Road, Swinton, to take the Ashes series 2 -- 1.
Australia hosted and won the 1957 World Cup.
For the 1959 -- 60 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain, the home nation retained the Ashes by winning the Test series 2 -- 1 by the following results.
This was the last British Ashes win on home soil.
For the 1960 World Cup no final was held, but the last game, which was between the previously undefeated Great Britain and Australia sides, made it the tournament decider. Great Britain won 10 -- 3.
Harry Bath was selected manager, coach and as the sole selector for the Australian national team 's 1962 Ashes series.
After ten previous tours of Britain, the 1963 -- 64 Kangaroo tour saw Australia 's first ever Ashes victory on British soil. The Arthur Summons coached Kangaroos won the first test at Wembley Stadium before rampaging to a famous 50 -- 12 win in the second test at Station Road in Swinton. Although they lost the third test at Headingley, legendary winger Ken Irvine became the first Australian player to score a try in each test of an Ashes series. The Kangaroos have not lost a series in Britain since.
Harry Bath coached the national side to World Cup glory in the 1968 World Cup. He also coached the team on a tour of New Zealand in 1969.
The last time that Great Britain won the Ashes was in 1970. They won the series 2 -- 1 in Australia. Out of 24 games played Great Britain won 22, drew one and lost one -- making them the most successful British tourists so far. The 1970 Lions contained a galaxy of stars including captain Frank Myler, Roger Millward, Cliff Watson and Mal Reilly. Future Kangaroo Tour captain and later coach Bob Fulton made his test debut in the 1970 Ashes series (Fulton had actually played 3 games for Australia in the 1968 World Cup but at the time tests and World Cup games were classed differently). Harry Bath again coached Australia to victory in the 1970 World Cup Final in a brutal game that became known as the "Battle of Headingley ''. Bath also coached the team on a tour of New Zealand in 1971. On that tour Geoff Starling became the youngest player to ever represent Australia. He was 18 years and 181 days old when playing a tour match against a New Zealand XIII at Huntly.
Australia lost the 1972 World Cup Final to Great Britain in controversial circumstances. Australian captain Graeme Langlands was denied what seemed a fair try by being ruled offside by the French referee after catching a kick put up by halfback Dennis Ward. Television footage of the try showed Langlands was approximately a metre behind Ward when he kicked the ball. The French referee Georges Jameau 's alleged reason for not awarding the try was that he did not believe anyone could have scored it from an onside position. The World Cup final was tied at 10 -- 10 after full - time and was still locked after extra time. Great Britain were awarded the victory due to a higher points table placing after the pool rounds of the competition. The Final was also highlighted by an 80 - metre try to Lions captain, winger Clive Sullivan.
On the 1978 Kangaroo tour, Great Britain defeated Australia in the second test at Bradford, 18 -- 14, before a crowd of 26,447. It took ten years, and fifteen consecutive test defeats before Britain were able to defeat the Kangaroos again, starting with Australia 's 3 -- 0 whitewash of the Lions during their 1979 Australasian tour. The Kangaroos had already won the first test 15 -- 9 at Wigan and wrapped up the series with a 23 -- 6 win in the third test at Headingley. However, the Australians were surprisingly defeated by the French team in both tests played at the end of the 1978 tour. This was the last defeat of the Kangaroos in a series until 2005.
The 1980s was the decade in which Australia began to truly dominate world rugby league. Along with the emergence of State of Origin football came a new crop of superstar players who led Australia throughout the 1980s. Players such as Peter Sterling, Mal Meninga, Wayne Pearce, Brett Kenny, Eric Grothe and Wally Lewis came to prominence on the 1982 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain and France. Australia 's performance was taken into a new dimension by the tourists, also known as ' the Invincibles ', when they became the first team to win every game of the tour (fifteen games) including the first test by 40 -- 4 at Hull in front of 26,771 spectators. After the extremely poor showing during their 1979 Australasian tour, the Kangaroos rammed home just how far behind British football had fallen at Boothferry Park. The score was only 10 -- 4 at half time, but after the break Australia 's superior fitness showed and they ran in six unanswered tries to leave the crowd and British football stunned.
In 1983, Arthur Beetson became the first Aboriginal to coach the Australian team after Frank Stanton had stood down following the Kangaroo Tour. Although Australia won the first test against New Zealand at Carlaw Park in Auckland, the Kiwis shocked by winning the return match 19 -- 12 at Lang Park.
When the Lions toured in 1984, The Kangaroos again swept The Ashes series 3 -- 0 under new team captain Wally Lewis, the first Queenslander to captain Australia since Arthur Beetson in 1974. Beetson was replaced as coach in 1984 by a returning Frank Stanton.
In 1985, Australia made a six - match tour of New Zealand under the coaching of Terry Fearnley who prior to the tour had coached NSW to its first ever Origin series win over Qld (the tour actually took place between games 2 and 3 of the Origin series). The Kangaroos won five of those matches, and the Test series 2 -- 1. Australia won the first Test in Brisbane 26 -- 20. On Sunday 30 June 1985, Australia met New Zealand in the second Test at Carlaw Park, Auckland. The Test was a 20,000 sell - out, with all tickets accounted for weeks before the match. The Kiwis dominated long periods of the game but ninety seconds from time the Kiwis lost possession close to half way. John Ribot scored a try and Australia won 10 -- 6. The tour ended in acrimony as tensions between coach Fearley and the Qld players, led by team captain Wally Lewis, reached boiling point with Lewis publicly stating that he had caught Fearnley and team vice-captain Wayne Pearce going over team selections in Fearnley 's hotel room, though both Fearnley and Pearce denied the allegations. After the second test win Fearnley made 4 changes to the test team for the third and final test at Carlaw Park with all four players who were omitted being Queenslanders. The changes proved disastrous and NZ ran out easy 18 -- 0 winners.
Following the tour, the Australian Rugby League decided that from then on the Kangaroos coach could not also double as the incumbent coach of either NSW or Qld.
Former Kangaroo Don Furner became Australian coach in 1986 and immediately formed a good working relationship with Wally Lewis and the players. The now harmonious Australians swept New Zealand 3 -- 0 in a mid-season test series played in Australia.
During the 1986 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain and France a then record northern hemisphere crowd of 50,383 attended the first test of the Ashes series at Old Trafford with the Walle Lewis led Australians winning 38 -- 16. On 16 December 1986 the Kangaroos set a new record for largest - ever winning margin in a Test match at 52 -- 0 against France. In their two Tests against France, the Australians ran in 96 points and conceded just a single penalty goal. After suffering such heavy losses, France decided to call off their proposed 1987 tour of Australia. This became the second consecutive tour of Europe in which Australia had won all their games. By the end of the tour, Terry Lamb had become the first player to appear in every match on a Kangaroo Tour. For this tour Wally Lewis, Greg Dowling, Bob Lindner, Gene Miles (Wynnum Manly) and Bryan Neibling (Redcliffe) became the last players selected to tour from the Brisbane Rugby League competition. By being named as tour captain, Wally Lewis became the first Queenslander to captain a Kangaroo Tour since Tom Gorman in 1929 / 30.
Australia crashed to a defeat on Tuesday 21 July 1987, when the Kangaroo dominance of the international game suffered a setback. New Zealand were their opponents in a match at Lang Park which had been arranged to fill the gap created by the non-appearance of France. New Zealand won the game 13 -- 6. The next four internationals between Australia and New Zealand were all staged in New Zealand, and all were won by the Kangaroos.
During the 1988 Great Britain Lions tour the Ashes were successfully retained by Australia by winning the first two Tests, however Great Britain won the third test 26 -- 12 at the Sydney Football Stadium, ending a 15 - game winning streak between the two teams that stretched back to the third Ashes test of 1978. Later that month, Australia 's 62 - point win over Papua New Guinea in the NSW country town of Wagga Wagga set a new record for largest winning margin in international rugby league. Australian dual international winger Michael O'Connor also set a new record for most points scored by an individual in international rugby league (30 points -- 4 tries, 7 goals). Also in 1988, as part of the bicentenary celebrations, Australia played a one off test match against Rest Of The World at the Sydney Football Stadium, winning the one off test 22 - 10. The 1985 -- 1988 Rugby League World Cup culminated in the World Cup Final against New Zealand at Auckland 's Eden Park ground (the home of NZ rugby union). Australia won a brutal World Cup Final 25 -- 12 in front of 47,363. Captain Wally Lewis broke his arm during the game.
In 1989 the Kangaroos toured New Zealand, taking a record - breaking twelve Queenslanders in the 20 man squad after Queensland 's second straight 3 - 0 State of Origin series win over New South Wales. Don Furner had retired from coaching after the 1988 World Cup Final with Manly - Warringah 1987 Sydney Rugby League premiership winning coach and 1978 Kangaroo tour captain Bob Fulton taking over from 1989. Fulton 's first series in charge of the Australian team saw them sweep New Zealand 3 -- 0 during their 1989 tour.
The Bob Fulton coached Kangaroos played two mid-season tests in 1990. They defeated France 34 -- 2 on a freezing cold night in Parkes with Mal Meninga taking over the captaincy from Wally Lewis who was unavailable with a broken arm. They then played a single test against New Zealand in Wellington, winning 24 -- 6.
With Wally Lewis controversially ruled unfit for the 1990 Kangaroo tour, his Queensland teammate Mal Meninga, making his 3rd Kangaroo Tour, retained the Australian captaincy. The Ashes got off to a bad start for the Kangaroos when Great Britain shocked Australia to win the first test 19 -- 12 at Wembley Stadium in front of a new record home crowd of 54,567. The second test at Old Trafford in Manchester was a tight, thrilling affair that saw two of the most famous tries scored in test match football. Debutante 5 / 8 Cliff Lyons second half try came after the Kangaroos kept the ball alive through 13 sets of hands before winger Andrew Ettingshausen raced down the wing and centre kicked for Lyons to score. With the scores tied at 10 - all going into injury time and the Kangaroos pinned just 15 metres from their line, Ricky Stuart set off on a 75 - metre run before passing to Meninga for the winning try only seconds from full - time to give Australia a 14 -- 10 win. The Kangaroos then wrapped up The Ashes with a comprehensive 14 -- 0 win in the third test at Elland Road in Leeds. Meninga as captain became just the third Australian (after Ken Irvine in 1962 and 1963 -- 64, and Sam Backo in 1988) to score a try in each test of an Ashes series.
Australia faced New Zealand in a three - game mid-season Test series in 1991. The first test, played at the Olympic Park Stadium in Melbourne (the first rugby league test played in Australia outside of NSW or Qld) saw the Kiwis again defeat Australia after a successful Kangaroo tour. NZ won the first test 24 -- 8 in Melbourne in front of 26,900 fans, however a new look Australian side came back to win the second test 44 -- 0 in Sydney and the third test 40 -- 12 in Brisbane. At the end of the 1991 NSWRL season, the Kangaroos embarked on their first (and as of 2017 only) tour of Papua New Guinea, winning all five games on tour including easily both tests against the Papua New Guinea Kumuls.
During the 1992 Great Britain Lions tour of Australasia, the British lost the first test 22 -- 6 in Sydney before stunning the Australians when they easily won the 2nd Ashes test 33 -- 10 at Princes Park in Melbourne, but lost the 3rd test 16 -- 10 in Brisbane. The 1992 Rugby League World Cup final at Wembley Stadium set a then international attendance record for a rugby league international of 73,631. The Bob Fulton coached, Mal Meninga captained Australians defeat Great Britain 10 -- 6 to win their 7th Rugby League World Cup title. The WCF was a tight game with the Lions leading 6 -- 4 with less than 20 minutes remaining before an on debut Steve Renouf crossed for the only try of the game and along with Meninga 's sideline conversion gave the Kangaroos a famous victory.
Australia again played a mid-season test series against New Zealand in 1993. The first test at the Mt Smart Stadium in Auckland ended in a 14 - all draw thanks to a late Laurie Daley field goal. Daley had captained Australia for the first time in the match following a two - game suspension to Mal Meninga. The Kangaroos then won the second test 16 -- 8 at the very wet Palmerston North Showgrounds before wrapping up the series with a 16 -- 4 win at Lang Park in Brisbane.
On 4 July 1994, Australia defeated France 58 -- 0 at the Parramatta Stadium in Sydney, their only test on home soil for the year. The 1994 Kangaroo Tour was the last time the Australian national team played matches against British provincial teams, in addition to the Tests. Australia continued its dominance, winning both Test series against Great Britain and France, suffering only one loss (again, against Great Britain in the First Test at Wembley), and remained undefeated against British club outfits in a streak stretching back to 1978. Australia adopted the name ' Kangaroos ' for the July test against France, since then the team has been officially known by this name. The 1994 Kangaroo tour was also the first (and only) time that the traditional Australian test kit was only worn during test matches. For the tour games, including the friendly against Wales in Cardiff (the first time Australia had played Wales in 12 years), the Kangaroos wore jumpers that had increasing thckness gold hoops underneath the twin gold chevrons.
The Australian team that contested and won the 1995 Rugby League World Cup consisted only of players from clubs that remained loyal to the Australian Rugby League during the Super League war. This meant several players from Super League - aligned clubs that were already well - established internationals were not selected for the World Cup squad. During 1995, the Kangaroos defeated New Zealand 3 -- 0 in the Trans - Tasman Test series played in Australia. As they were for the World Cup, only ARL loyal players were selected for Australia which saw a number of players, including Steve Menzies, Mark Coyne, Terry Hill, Gary Larson, Trevor Gillmeister and Jason Smith make their test debuts during the New Zealand series. Despite having what many described as a second string side without players such as Laurie Daley, Allan Langer, Andrew Ettingshausen, Brett Mullins, Glenn Lazarus, Bradley Clyde, Ian Roberts, Ricky Stuart and Steve Walters, Bob Fulton 's Kangaroos won their 8th World Cup (and 5th in a row) when they defeated England 16 -- 8 in the World Cup Final in front of 66,540 fans at Wembley. The star of the day for Australia was halfback / hooker Andrew Johns.
In 1997 also, due to the Super League war, Australian rugby league was split down the middle by two competitions: the ARL 's Optus Cup and Super League 's Telstra Cup. As a result, that season there were also two Australian sides:
Australian Rugby League
Australia v Rest of the World 11 July 1997 Suncorp Stadium, Brisbane
Fullback: Tim Brasher Wingers: Mark Coyne, Robbie O'Davis Centres: Paul McGregor, Terry Hill Five - eighth: Brad Fittler (c) Halfback: Geoff Toovey Props: Paul Harragon, Mark Carroll Hooker: Andrew Johns Second - rowers: Steve Menzies, Gary Larson Lock: Billy Moore Reserves: Matt Sing, John Simon, Nik Kosef, Dean Pay Coach: Bob Fulton
Super League
Australia v Great Britain (1st SL Test) 1 November 1997 Wembley Stadium, London
Fullback: Darren Lockyer Wingers: Brett Mullins, Wendell Sailor Centres: Andrew Ettingshausen, Ryan Girdler Five - eighth: Laurie Daley (c) Halfback: Craig Gower Props: Jason Stevens, Brad Thorn Hooker: Steve Walters Second - rowers: Matt Adamson, Gorden Tallis Lock: Darren Smith Reserves: Robbie Kearns, Craig Greenhill, Ken Nagas, Brett Kimmorley Coach: John Lang
Great Britain played a home three - Test series against the Australian Super League Test team in 1997 and lost 2 -- 1. The three matches played have been given test status by the UK 's Rugby Football League. The Australian Rugby League has decided not to recognise the matches of its rival as tests since the Super League war ended and does not consider the series to be a genuine Ashes contest. Super League 's Anzac Test concept, which is an early season one - off test match against New Zealand was retained and has been played annual ever since.
The 1998 Kangaroo Tour was cancelled because of the Super League war. With the Super League war finally over in 1998, Great Britain travelled to the Southern Hemisphere for the first Rugby League Tri-Nations tournament with Australia and New Zealand in 1999.
Chris Anderson took over from Wayne Bennett as coach of the team in March 1999.
The new millennium started with the 2000 World Cup which Australia won.
In 2001 the Australians arrived in Britain for the first Ashes series since 1994. Great Britain surprised everyone by winning the first test, but lost the next two.
In July 2002, Australia handed Great Britain their worst ever test defeat by defeating them 64 -- 10 in a Sydney test match.
In 2003 the New Zealand Rugby League counted its 100th international match against Australia, because they take World Cup matches and Super League tests into account.
In November 2003, Great Britain lost an Ashes series 0 -- 3 on home soil. The margin was extremely small in each game, 22 -- 18 in game 1, 23 -- 20 in game 2 and 18 -- 12 in game 3 and it was known as Brett Kimmorley 's greatest series as he orchestrated Australia 's last minute victories. However, the dominance of the Australian team over the last generation has begun to slip since 2003.
In 2003 and 2005 New Zealand won the Bill Kelly Memorial Trophy from Australia. Australia won the first two Rugby League Tri-Nations competitions in 1999 and 2004, before being defeated by New Zealand in the final of the 2005 competition on 26 November 2005. Prior to that defeat Australia had not lost a Test series since December 1978, when they were defeated by France in both Test matches. On 4 November 2006, Australia lost to Great Britain 23 -- 12 (1). It was a huge upset, and the first time since 1988 that the Kangaroos had been beaten by Great Britain in Sydney. The match was Australia 's 3rd match of the 2006 Tri-Nations series, having already secured a place in the final with two wins against New Zealand earlier in the tournament 30 -- 18 and 20 -- 15. The Australian side reclaimed the title of Tri-Nations champions on 25 November with a victory over the New Zealand side in the final by 16 -- 12 with a try in the second period of extra time by captain Darren Lockyer.
In 2007 Australia played two test matches, both against New Zealand and both emphatic victories. The first 30 -- 6 and the second 58 -- 0.
Australia hosted the 2008 World Cup and did not have to qualify. They did not lose a match until the final, which they lost to New Zealand, who became world champions for the first time. Following this loss, Ricky Stuart was replaced as coach by Tim Sheens, then the most experienced NRL coach.
Tim Sheens ' first match as Australian coach was against New Zealand in 2009 Anzac Test. In this match Sheen 's side included a record - equalling ten Queensland representatives, including an all maroon backline and front row, reflecting the state 's dominance in the annual State of Origin series. All of the points were also scored by Queenslanders in the 38 -- 10 victory. Later that year Australia traveled up to play in the inaugural Four Nations tournament. The Kangaroos advanced to the final after a draw against New Zealand, and wins over co-hosts England and France. Australia took on the English in the final and despite at one point trailing 14 -- 16, a dominant last quarter of the game saw Australia win the inaugural Four Nations tournament. Captain Darren Lockyer also reached a milestone in this match after becoming the first Australian to make 50 appearances for his country.
Australia began 2010 with a 4 - point win in the Anzac Test that symbolised the opening of the new stadium in Melbourne: AAMI Park. At the conclusion of the 2010 domestic season the major international tournament was the 2010 Four Nations held in Australia and New Zealand. In Australia 's opening match against Papua New Guinea, captain Darren Lockyer surpassed Ken Irvine 's record for most test tries for Australia, scoring his 34th. Australia won all of their matches comfortably to advance to the final to have a 2008 World Cup final re-match against New Zealand at Suncorp Stadium. The Kiwis won the game, and 2010 Four Nations title, after a try in the final seconds of the match.
Australia gained revenge over the Kiwis after another Anzac Test win, retaining the Bill Kelly Memorial Trophy in the process with a 10 - point win on the Gold Coast. Later in that year Australia played a test - match against New Zealand, 12 days before the 2011 Four Nations kicked off, at the newly reconstructed Ausgrid Stadium in Newcastle. Australia thrashed the Kiwis by 36 points in front of a record crowd. In the match Darren Lockyer became the most capped International player of all - time after surpassing New Zealand international Ruben Wiki 's record of 55 appearances for his country. Australia took on New Zealand again in the opening game of the Four Nations, held in England and Wales. The Australians yet again beat their trans - tasman rivals. They then went on to beat England at Wembley and were surprised in their final round - robin fixture after Wales were leading 8 -- 0 after 13 minutes and were behind Australia by only 10 points at the break. But Sheens ' men went on to thrash the Welsh to easily advance to another final meeting with England. After being tied with the English at one point in the second half, Australia went on to win the game by 22 points.
In 2012, the Anzac Test was held in New Zealand for the first time since 1998, which was the Kiwis last win in the fixture. Home advantage made no difference for the Kiwis as Sheens ' Kangaroos won the match by eight points. The Kangaroos took on the Kiwis one more time later in the year, this time in Townsville. In front of a sold - out crowd, the Kangaroos won the test - match with another eight point victory. There was no tournament this year due to the fact that there was a World Cup next year for the teams to prepare for.
Australia began the 2013 International season by retaining the Bill Kelly Memorial Trophy after another Anzac Test win. At the end of the year, Australia traveled up to play in the 2013 World Cup co-hosted by England and Wales. In their opening game against England, the Kangaroos were surprisingly facing a 0 -- 10 scoreline after twenty minutes. But Australia went on to regain the control and go on to win the match by eight points. The England match was Australia 's only ' scare ' in the tournament as the Kangaroos went on to win and dominate all of their remaining matches, recording a 244 -- 4 total aggregate score. They went on to earn revenge for their defeat to New Zealand five years ago in the World Cup final to beat them this time around at the same stage. The final was watched in front of a record International rugby league attendance of 74,468 and in the match, five - eighth, Johnathan Thurston broke Mick Cronin 's 31 - year record of top point scorer after a conversion took him past the previous record of 309 points. This was the Kangaroos ' tenth World Cup title. After the England game, Australia recorded five successive games without conceding a try in the tournament. This feat was one game off equaling the 1981 -- 82 Australian team 's record.
Australia were n't able to equal that feat despite another Anzac Test win in 2014. Later that year, Australia co-hosted the 2014 Four Nations with New Zealand. They took on the Kiwis in the second of the double - header clashes at Suncorp Stadium. However Australia 's record against the Kiwis at the venue continued to be a negative one after another defeat made it three defeats in the past four meetings at the ' Cauldron '. This meant Australia were facing England in a must win game at AAMI Park in Melbourne. With many regulars missing, Sheens had to make decisions like naming an 18 - year old in the team, who 'd become the youngest player to play for Australia. Sione Mata'utia, aged 18 years and 129 days, eclipsed the previous record held by Israel Folau, since 2007, by 65 days when he played on debut for Australia against the ' Poms '. The match was headlined with controversy. In the last minute of the game, England put a grubber kick in the in - goal area, since they were desperate for a try as they were trailing by just four points. Australian fullback Greg Inglis had to force the ball dead due to incoming England attack but the video referees wanted to have another look and see whether or not it was Inglis or the incoming English winger Ryan Hall got the last touch on the ball. On the slow - motion replays it showed that Ryan Hall 's right hand 's little finger had put some downward pressure on the ball however in normal speed it was deemed ' inconclusive ' by Australian officiating rules and therefore a NO TRY was given to the frustration of the English players and supporters but respect from Sheens and his Australian players. Had the try been awarded and England converted, it would have been Australia 's first defeat to England since 1995, the first time they suffered back - to - back home defeats since 1970 and the first time they failed to qualify for a tournament final since 1954. In their final round - robin fixture they dominated proceedings against the Samoans, who had been causing trouble for England and New Zealand in the tournament, to advance to the final which was held in New Zealand. However they could n't get revenge for their defeat earlier in the tournament as Australia lost 18 -- 22.
The 2015 Anzac Test was held in Suncorp Stadium. The Australian team 's horrible record in Brisbane against the Kiwis continued as they suffered another defeat and records continued to be made for the New Zealand team. This was the first time they beat Australia for three consecutive test - matches since 1953 and the first time they won the Anzac Test since 1998. Australia did not play another test - match that year. After the match Sheens was facing scrutiny from the media after many believed it was time for the old players he fielded to move on since the much younger Kiwis side had beaten them on the past three occasions. Australia also dropped down to number 2 on the RLIF World Rankings, which added further scrutiny. At the end of the year, Sheens was unable to cope with the pressure of the media, despite wanting to coach the team at the 2017 World Cup. He took up an advisory role with English domestic club Salford Red Devils and therefore resigned as coach of the Australian national team.
In December 2015, successful Queensland Maroons coach Mal Meninga announced he 'd leave his role as the coach of the Queensland representative side to coach the Australian national team. Before his appointment Mal announced his ambitions that he wanted the International game to become the pinnacle of rugby league like it was in his playing days.
Mal Meninga 's first game in charge as Australian coach was the 2016 Anzac Test. Prior to the test, Meninga stirred controversy around the rugby league world after selecting Fijian born player Semi Radradra, who is eligible due to living in Australia for three years, in his team over other ' homegrown ' Australian players. Radradra, who represented Fiji at the 2013 World Cup, still had a Fijian passport at that time and this brought up the question of changing eligibility rules in International rugby league. Meninga 's selection questioned the ambition he raised of wanting to make the International game the pinnacle of the sport. Australia won the test - match 16 -- 0 and in the process ended their losing - run against the Kiwis. They also held New Zealand scoreless in a test - match for the first time since 2007. But despite the result Australia suffered criticism with commentator Phil Gould saying the Australian team is ' too old ' and are ' kidding themselves if they think they 'll win the World Cup next year '. He believes Australia should 've put much more points on a ' weakened ' New Zealand team missing many regular players through various reasons. Meninga hit back saying ' That was a real test - match. That 's what test footy is. People who have never played it do n't know what it is. ' At the conclusion of the 2016 domestic season, Australia took on New Zealand in Perth in what was the first ever test - match in Western Australia. Meninga 's men then began their 2016 Four Nations campaign with comfortable 42 - point win over Scotland, in the first ever meeting between the two countries. After a tough encounter with New Zealand, and a convincing win over England, Australia met their Trans - Tasman rivals once again in the final. Meninga 's Roos made the final tournament match look easy, as the Kangaroos dominated their opponents with a 26 - point victory, claiming their third tournament title in the process.
In the last ever scheduled Anzac Test, captain Cameron Smith became just the second player to play 50 tests for Australia, behind former captain, and record cap holder, Darren Lockyer. He became the first Australian to wear the gold chevron on his shoulder after a new initiative created by Meninga last year. Other players are also honoured, with players that have earned 20 + caps wearing a white chevron, 30 + wearing a bronze chevron, and 40 + wearing a silver chevron on their shoulder. If a player beats Lockyer 's record for the most appearances, they will wear a ' special purple ' commemorative jersey. Australia won the final Anzac test - match by a convincing scoreline of 30 -- 12. Later in the year, countries were preparing for the grandest stage in the international game, the World Cup. However, the biggest talking point was n't about whether Australia would defend their title. It was around Tonga, after many players of Tongan heritage, had quit the opportunity to represent the New Zealand squad in order to play for Tonga. Regular Australian prop forward, Andrew Fifita, also followed suit, after initially being announced in Meninga 's squad, to the disapproval of Australian halfback Cooper Cronk. Meninga, however, also voiced his opinion saying he had no issue with Fifita 's decision, as it was great for Tonga, and the international game. After conceding early, Australia went on to grit out a tough victory over England. The Kangaroos then went on to beat a spirited French team, in a game which saw Wade Graham became the seventh player to equal the record of four tries in a World Cup game, and only the second Australian forward to score four tries in a single game, since Gorden Tallis in 2000. Australia finished off their pool stage games, with a comprehensive victory over a gallant Lebanense outfit. Australia then advanced past Samoa to the semi-finals with ease, thanks to a record - breaking five tries in a single World Cup match from Valentine Holmes. Holmes then remarkably beat his own record a week later, in the semi-finals against Fiji. With the six tries, he surpassed former Kangaroo, Wendell Sailor 's, record for most tries in a single World Cup tournament, held since 2000. In the final, Australia took on England for the first time in 22 years, after facing New Zealand for three consecutive editions. The Kangaroos went on to retain the World Cup at Lang Park, the venue, at which they lost the World Cup final, when the tournament was last held in Australia. Australia also became the first team to win 11 World Cup crowns. The final score of 6 -- 0, made this the lowest scoring World Cup final in the history of the tournament. This was also the first time that a country had won the competition on home soil in 40 years.
For their first twenty odd years of international competition, the Kangaroos ' jersey was in a state of flux. When playing in Australia the team wore sky - blue or maroon, depending on whether they were playing in New South Wales or Queensland. On tours, Australia wore either the sky blue of New South Wales (as the New South Wales Rugby League organised the tours) or a maroon and sky blue hooped design.
In 1924 the decision was taken to change the national jersey 's colours to green and gold. A green jersey with gold bands was used for Australia 's next Test series in 1928, making the 1928 Kangaroos the first Australian representative rugby league team to adopt these colours. This design was revived for 25 July 2003 Test against New Zealand. In 1929 the current design, which is green with two gold chevrons, was adopted and first used.
In 1997 during the Super League war, the Super League only Australian team wore a green shirt with a blue and yellow chevron for the Anzac Test against New Zealand and the Super League Test series against Great Britain. In their only game that year, the ARL Australian team wore the traditional kit for their one - game against a Rest of the World team made up of international players with ARL contracts.
The original blue and maroon broken striped design was revived in 1963 when Australia hosted a touring South African rugby league team who also wore a predominantly green jumper with gold trim, and again in the Centenary Test against New Zealand at the Sydney Cricket Ground on 9 May 2008. It was again used in the 2014 Four Nations against England in Melbourne on 2 November 2014 to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the "Rorke 's Drift Test ''.
Since 2013, Australia 's kits have been supplied by Canterbury of New Zealand. They replaced Classic who lasted between late 1999 to 2012. Canterbury had also supplied the kits during the mid-1990s while Classic had supplied the kits from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s. Other suppliers were Adidas (1978 - 1982), Classic Sportswear (1983 - 1991, 1993 - 1997), Umbro (1992) and Nike (1997 - SL).
The 1994 Kangaroo tour saw the introduction of a special ' tour games only ' jersey, leaving the traditional kit for test matches. The jersey was essentially the same though gold hoops of increasing thickness were added to the jumper below the traditional gold chevrons. The 1994 tour was the only time this jersey was used. This had followed on from the idea of using a different jersey for non-test games on a tour that was started in 1992 when Australia was in England for the World Cup Final. The Kangaroos played three warm up games against Huddersfield, Sheffield and Cumbria wearing a predominantly white jersey with large green and gold diamonds in the shape of kit supplier Umbro.
The Australia national team squad for the 2018 October Test matches against New Zealand and Tonga.
As Australian rugby league celebrated its first centenary in 2008, an Australian team of the century was named which comprises one player for each of the thirteen positions plus four interchange players: Winger Brian Bevan is the only player in the team who never represented Australia in a test match, while coach Jack Gibson never coached the Australian test team.
Below is table of the official representative rugby league matches played by Australia at test level up until 3 December 2017:
A red box around the year indicates tournaments played within Australia
The indigenous contribution to the Kangaroos is unmatched in Australian national sporting teams.
By way of example, Lionel Morgan was the first indigenous player in any Australian national sporting team in 1960, while Arthur Beetson was the first indigenous captain of any Australian national sporting team in 1973 when he captained the team in the final game of the 1973 Kangaroo tour, the second test against France at the Stade des Minimes in Toulouse on 16 December. Australia won the game 14 -- 3.
Remarkably given the 2 % indigenous rate of population in Australia, the Kangaroos fielded a run - on team against New Zealand in the 2015 Anzac Test with 7 of the 13 players having indigenous heritage (a staggering 54 %). This contrasts markedly to nearly every other Australian national sporting team as at 2015.
From 1908 to 1967, the Australian team performed a war cry before Tests played in Great Britain and France. The war cry was first performed when the Kangaroos arrived at Tilbury Docks near London. It was developed after war cries had been performed on tours of Britain by the New Zealand All Blacks in 1905, the South African Springboks in 1906 and the New Zealand All Golds in 1907. It is believed that the war cry is derived from an indigenous chant on Stradbroke Island, Queensland, Australia.
The war cry was performed for the first time in over 40 years before the Rugby League World Cup exhibition game between the Indigenous Dreamtime Team vs. the New Zealand Maōris in 2008. The war cry had not been performed by the Kangaroos since December 1967 in France.
Each year a Kangaroos reunion function is held at the SCG Members Pavilion on the Saturday before the Grand Final. Former players from all eras travel from around the country to attend the renowned event.
The main supporter group of the Australian national team is The Roo Crew.
The current coach of the Australian team is former team captain and Immortal Mal Meninga, who was appointed coach in late 2015 after the resignation of Tim Sheens who coached the team from 2009 -- 2015.
Bob Fulton has coached the most matches with 40 starting in 1989 and finishing in 1998. Jack Gibson, despite never having coached at international level, was named coach of the Australian rugby league team of the century (1908 -- 2008).
Some of the television commentators who have called Kangaroos games include Alan Marks, Norman May (ABC), Rex Mossop (Seven / Ten), Arthur Summons, Darrell Eastlake, Ian Maurice, Jack Gibson, Ray Warren, Peter Sterling, Phil Gould, Brad Fittler, Darren Lockyer (Nine), Wally Lewis (Ten / Seven / Fox / Nine), Graeme Hughes (Ten / Seven), Paul Vautin (Seven / Nine), David Morrow (Ten), Warren Boland (ABC), John Harker (Seven), Pat Welsh (Seven), Graham Lowe (Ten) and Andrew Voss (Nine / Seven).
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the continuous circulation of earth's water is known as the | Water cycle - wikipedia
The water cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle or the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, saline water and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables. The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, surface runoff, and subsurface flow. In doing so, the water goes through different forms: liquid, solid (ice) and vapor.
The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes. For instance, when water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the environment. When it condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment. These heat exchanges influence climate.
The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with freshwater. The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe. It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth, through processes including erosion and sedimentation. The water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet.
The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in oceans and seas. Water evaporates as water vapor into the air. Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapour. Evapotranspiration is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. The water vapour molecule H 2O has less density compared to the major components of the atmosphere, nitrogen and oxygen, N 2 and O 2. Due to the significant difference in molecular mass, water vapor in gas form gains height in open air as a result of buoyancy. However, as altitude increases, air pressure decreases and the temperature drops (see Gas laws). The lowered temperature causes water vapour to condense into a tiny liquid water droplet which is heavier than the air, such that it falls unless supported by an updraft. A huge concentration of these droplets over a large space up in the atmosphere become visible as cloud. Fog is formed if the water vapour condenses near ground level, as a result of moist air and cool air collision or an abrupt reduction in air pressure. Air currents move water vapour around the globe, cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the upper atmospheric layers as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow or hail, sleet, and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years. Most water falls back into the oceans or onto land as rain, where the water flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with streamflow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff and water emerging from the ground (groundwater) may be stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers, much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers, which can store freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface - water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge. Some groundwater finds openings in the land surface and comes out as freshwater springs. In river valleys and floodplains, there is often continuous water exchange between surface water and ground water in the hyporheic zone. Over time, the water returns to the ocean, to continue the water cycle.
Water cycle thus involves many of the intermediate processes.
The residence time of a reservoir within the hydrologic cycle is the average time a water molecule will spend in that reservoir (see adjacent table). It is a measure of the average age of the water in that reservoir.
Groundwater can spend over 10,000 years beneath Earth 's surface before leaving. Particularly old groundwater is called fossil water. Water stored in the soil remains there very briefly, because it is spread thinly across the Earth, and is readily lost by evaporation, transpiration, stream flow, or groundwater recharge. After evaporating, the residence time in the atmosphere is about 9 days before condensing and falling to the Earth as precipitation.
The major ice sheets - Antarctica and Greenland - store ice for very long periods. Ice from Antarctica has been reliably dated to 800,000 years before present, though the average residence time is shorter.
In hydrology, residence times can be estimated in two ways. The more common method relies on the principle of conservation of mass and assumes the amount of water in a given reservoir is roughly constant. With this method, residence times are estimated by dividing the volume of the reservoir by the rate by which water either enters or exits the reservoir. Conceptually, this is equivalent to timing how long it would take the reservoir to become filled from empty if no water were to leave (or how long it would take the reservoir to empty from full if no water were to enter).
An alternative method to estimate residence times, which is gaining in popularity for dating groundwater, is the use of isotopic techniques. This is done in the subfield of isotope hydrology.
The water cycle describes the processes that drive the movement of water throughout the hydrosphere. However, much more water is "in storage '' for long periods of time than is actually moving through the cycle. The storehouses for the vast majority of all water on Earth are the oceans. It is estimated that of the 332,500,000 mi (1,386,000,000 km) of the world 's water supply, about 321,000,000 mi (1,338,000,000 km) is stored in oceans, or about 97 %. It is also estimated that the oceans supply about 90 % of the evaporated water that goes into the water cycle.
During colder climatic periods more ice caps and glaciers form, and enough of the global water supply accumulates as ice to lessen the amounts in other parts of the water cycle. The reverse is true during warm periods. During the last ice age glaciers covered almost one - third of Earth 's land mass, with the result being that the oceans were about 122 m (400 ft) lower than today. During the last global "warm spell, '' about 125,000 years ago, the seas were about 5.5 m (18 ft) higher than they are now. About three million years ago the oceans could have been up to 50 m (165 ft) higher.
The scientific consensus expressed in the 2007 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Summary for Policymakers is for the water cycle to continue to intensify throughout the 21st century, though this does not mean that precipitation will increase in all regions. In subtropical land areas -- places that are already relatively dry -- precipitation is projected to decrease during the 21st century, increasing the probability of drought. The drying is projected to be strongest near the poleward margins of the subtropics (for example, the Mediterranean Basin, South Africa, southern Australia, and the Southwestern United States). Annual precipitation amounts are expected to increase in near - equatorial regions that tend to be wet in the present climate, and also at high latitudes. These large - scale patterns are present in nearly all of the climate model simulations conducted at several international research centers as part of the 4th Assessment of the IPCC. There is now ample evidence that increased hydrologic variability and change in climate has and will continue to have a profound impact on the water sector through the hydrologic cycle, water availability, water demand, and water allocation at the global, regional, basin, and local levels. Research published in 2012 in Science based on surface ocean salinity over the period 1950 to 2000 confirm this projection of an intensified global water cycle with salty areas becoming more saline and fresher areas becoming more fresh over the period:
Fundamental thermodynamics and climate models suggest that dry regions will become drier and wet regions will become wetter in response to warming. Efforts to detect this long - term response in sparse surface observations of rainfall and evaporation remain ambiguous. We show that ocean salinity patterns express an identifiable fingerprint of an intensifying water cycle. Our 50 - year observed global surface salinity changes, combined with changes from global climate models, present robust evidence of an intensified global water cycle at a rate of 8 ± 5 % per degree of surface warming. This rate is double the response projected by current - generation climate models and suggests that a substantial (16 to 24 %) intensification of the global water cycle will occur in a future 2 ° to 3 ° warmer world.
An instrument carried by the SAC - D satellite launched in June, 2011 measures global sea surface salinity but data collection began only in June, 2011.
Glacial retreat is also an example of a changing water cycle, where the supply of water to glaciers from precipitation can not keep up with the loss of water from melting and sublimation. Glacial retreat since 1850 has been extensive.
Human activities that alter the water cycle include:
The water cycle is powered from solar energy. 86 % of the global evaporation occurs from the oceans, reducing their temperature by evaporative cooling. Without the cooling, the effect of evaporation on the greenhouse effect would lead to a much higher surface temperature of 67 ° C (153 ° F), and a warmer planet.
Aquifer drawdown or overdrafting and the pumping of fossil water increases the total amount of water in the hydrosphere, and has been postulated to be a contributor to sea - level rise.
While the water cycle is itself a biogeochemical cycle, flow of water over and beneath the Earth is a key component of the cycling of other biogeochemicals. Runoff is responsible for almost all of the transport of eroded sediment and phosphorus from land to waterbodies. The salinity of the oceans is derived from erosion and transport of dissolved salts from the land. Cultural eutrophication of lakes is primarily due to phosphorus, applied in excess to agricultural fields in fertilizers, and then transported overland and down rivers. Both runoff and groundwater flow play significant roles in transporting nitrogen from the land to waterbodies. The dead zone at the outlet of the Mississippi River is a consequence of nitrates from fertilizer being carried off agricultural fields and funnelled down the river system to the Gulf of Mexico. Runoff also plays a part in the carbon cycle, again through the transport of eroded rock and soil.
The hydrodynamic wind within the upper portion of a planet 's atmosphere allows light chemical elements such as Hydrogen to move up to the exobase, the lower limit of the exosphere, where the gases can then reach escape velocity, entering outer space without impacting other particles of gas. This type of gas loss from a planet into space is known as planetary wind. Planets with hot lower atmospheres could result in humid upper atmospheres that accelerate the loss of hydrogen.
In ancient times, it was widely thought that the land mass floated on a body of water, and that most of the water in rivers has its origin under the earth. Examples of this belief can be found in the works of Homer (circa 800 BCE).
In the ancient near east, Hebrew scholars observed that even though the rivers ran into the sea, the sea never became full (Ecclesiastes 1: 7). Some scholars conclude that the water cycle was described completely during this time in this passage: "The wind goeth toward the south, and turneth about unto the north; it whirleth about continually, and the wind returneth again according to its circuits. All the rivers run into the sea, yet the sea is not full; unto the place from whence the rivers come, thither they return again '' (Ecclesiastes 1: 6 - 7, KJV). Scholars are not in agreement as to the date of Ecclesiastes, though most scholars point to a date during the time of Solomon, the son of David and Bathsheba, "three thousand years ago, there is some agreement that the time period is 962 - 922 BCE. Furthermore, it was also observed that when the clouds were full, they emptied rain on the earth (Ecclesiastes 11: 3). In addition, during 793 - 740 BC a Hebrew prophet, Amos, stated that water comes from the sea and is poured out on the earth (Amos 5: 8, 9: 6).
In the Adityahridayam (a devotional hymn to the Sun God) of Ramayana, a Hindu epic dated to the 4th century BC, it is mentioned in the 22nd verse that the Sun heats up water and sends it down as rain. By roughly 500 BCE, Greek scholars were speculating that much of the water in rivers can be attributed to rain. The origin of rain was also known by then. These scholars maintained the belief, however, that water rising up through the earth contributed a great deal to rivers. Examples of this thinking included Anaximander (570 BCE) (who also speculated about the evolution of land animals from fish) and Xenophanes of Colophon (530 BCE). Chinese scholars such as Chi Ni Tzu (320 BC) and Lu Shih Ch'un Ch'iu (239 BCE) had similar thoughts. The idea that the water cycle is a closed cycle can be found in the works of Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (460 BCE) and Diogenes of Apollonia (460 BCE). Both Plato (390 BCE) and Aristotle (350 BCE) speculated about percolation as part of the water cycle.
In the Biblical Book of Job, dated between 7th and 2nd centuries BCE, there is a description of precipitation in the hydrologic cycle, "For he maketh small the drops of water: they pour down rain according to the vapour thereof; Which the clouds do drop and distil upon man abundantly '' (Job 36: 27 - 28, KJV).
Up to the time of the Renaissance, it was thought that precipitation alone was insufficient to feed rivers, for a complete water cycle, and that underground water pushing upwards from the oceans were the main contributors to river water. Bartholomew of England held this view (1240 CE), as did Leonardo da Vinci (1500 CE) and Athanasius Kircher (1644 CE).
The first published thinker to assert that rainfall alone was sufficient for the maintenance of rivers was Bernard Palissy (1580 CE), who is often credited as the "discoverer '' of the modern theory of the water cycle. Palissy 's theories were not tested scientifically until 1674, in a study commonly attributed to Pierre Perrault. Even then, these beliefs were not accepted in mainstream science until the early nineteenth century.
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where do center cut pork chops come from | Pork chop - wikipedia
A pork chop, like other meat chops, is a loin cut taken perpendicularly to the spine of the pig and usually containing a rib or part of a vertebra. This loin meat is then cut down into pork chops and their variations. Pork chops are not processed and are leaner than other cuts of pork. It is commonly served as an individual portion. The average cooking time is approximately 9 minutes.
Pork is one of the most commonly consumed meats in the world. Pork chops are the most commonly consumed meat cut from the pork loin. In the United States, pork chops account for 10 % of total pork consumption.
The center cut or pork loin chop includes a large T - shaped bone, and is structurally similar to the beef T - bone steak. Rib chops come from the rib portion of the loin, and are similar to rib eye steaks. Blade or shoulder chops come from the spine, and tend to contain much connective tissue. The sirloin chop is taken from the (rear) leg end and also contains much connective tissue. The shoulder end produces chops that are considerably fattier than the chops taken from the loin end.
The so - called "Iowa Chop '' is a thick center cut; the term was coined in 1976 by the Iowa Pork Producers Association. A "Bacon Chop '' is cut from the shoulder end and leaves the pork belly meat attached. Pork chops are sometimes sold marinated to add flavor; marinades such as a chili sauce or a barbecue sauce are common. As pork is often cooked more thoroughly than beef, thus running the risk of drying out the meat, pork chops can be brined to maintain moistness. One could also wrap their pork chops in bacon to add further moistness during the cooking process.
Pork chops are suitable for roasting, grilling, or frying, but there are also stuffed pork chop recipes. They can be used boneless or bone - in. Pork chops are usually cut between 1 / 2 inch and 2 inches thick. Improved breeding techniques for hogs have made it possible to cook pork to a lower temperature, helping the meat to remain juicy, while still being safe to eat. Guidelines have recently been refined to recommend the safe internal pork cooking temperature for pork chops to 145 ° F. In order to ensure the chop is properly cooked, a digital thermometer should be used to measure the chop at its thickest part avoiding the bone. Once the chop reaches the recommended internal temperature, it can be removed from the heat to rest for approximately three minutes.
A recommended serving size for a pork chop is three ounces (the approximate size of a deck of cards).
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data flow diagram for system analysis and design | Data flow diagram - Wikipedia
A data flow diagram (DFD) is a graphical representation of the "flow '' of data through an information system, modelling its process aspects. A DFD is often used as a preliminary step to create an overview of the system without going into great detail, which can later be elaborated. DFDs can also be used for the visualization of data processing (structured design).
A DFD shows what kind of information will be input to and output from the system, how the data will advance through the system, and where the data will be stored. It does not show information about process timing or whether processes will operate in sequence or in parallel, unlike a traditional structured flowchart which focuses on control flow, or a UML activity workflow diagram, which presents both control and data flows as a unified model.
In the 1970s, Larry Constantine, the original developer of structured design, proposed data flow diagrams as a practical technique based on Martin and Estrin 's "Data Flow Graph '' model of computation.
Data flow diagrams (DFD) quickly became a popular way to visualize the major steps and data involved in software system processes. DFDs were usually used to show data flow in a computer system, although they could in theory be applied to business process modeling. DFDs were useful to document the major data flows or to explore a new high - level design in terms of data flow.
Data flow diagrams are also known as bubble charts. DFD is a designing tool used in the top - down approach to Systems Design. This context - level DFD is next "exploded '', to produce a Level 1 DFD that shows some of the detail of the system being modeled. The Level 1 DFD shows how the system is divided into sub-systems (processes), each of which deals with one or more of the data flows to or from an external agent, and which together provide all of the functionality of the system as a whole. It also identifies internal data stores that must be present in order for the system to do its job, and shows the flow of data between the various parts of the system.
Data flow diagrams are one of the three essential perspectives of the structured - systems analysis and design method SSADM. The sponsor of a project and the end users will need to be briefed and consulted throughout all stages of a system 's evolution. With a data flow diagram, users are able to visualize how the system will operate, what the system will accomplish, and how the system will be implemented. The old system 's data flow diagrams can be drawn up and compared with the new system 's data flow diagrams to draw comparisons to implement a more efficient system. Data flow diagrams can be used to provide the end user with a physical idea of where the data they input ultimately has an effect upon the structure of the whole system from order to dispatch to report. How any system is developed can be determined through a data flow diagram model.
In the course of developing a set of levelled data flow diagrams the analyst / designer is forced to address how the system may be decomposed into component sub-systems, and to identify the transaction data in the data model.
Data flow diagrams can be used in both the Analysis and Design phases of the SDLC.
There are different notations to draw data flow diagrams (Yourdon & Coad and Gane & Sarson), defining different visual representations for processes, data stores, data flow, and external entities.
A logical DFD captures the data flows that are necessary for a system to operate. It describes the processes that are undertaken, the data required and produced by each process, and the stores needed to hold the data. On the other hand, a physical DFD shows how the system is actually implemented, either at the moment (Current Physical DFD), or how the designer intends it to be in the future (Required Physical DFD). Thus, a Physical DFD may be used to describe the set of data items that appear on each piece of paper that move around an office, and the fact that a particular set of pieces of paper are stored together in a filing cabinet. It is quite possible that a Physical DFD will include references to data that are duplicated, or redundant, and that the data stores, if implemented as a set of database tables, would constitute an un-normalised (or de-normalised) relational database. In contrast, a Logical DFD attempts to capture the data flow aspects of a system in a form that has neither redundancy nor duplication.
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what does the internal rate of return tell you | Internal rate of return - wikipedia
The internal rate of return (IRR) is a method of calculating rate of return. The term internal refers to the fact that its calculation does not involve external factors, such as inflation or the cost of capital.
It is also called the discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFROR).
In the context of savings and loans, the IRR is also called the effective interest rate.
The internal rate of return on an investment or project is the "annualized effective compounded return rate '' or rate of return that sets the net present value of all cash flows (both positive and negative) from the investment equal to zero. Equivalently, it is the discount rate at which the net present value of future cash flows is equal to the initial investment, and it is also the discount rate at which the total present value of costs (negative cash flows) equals the total present value of the benefits (positive cash flows).
Speaking intuitively, IRR is designed to account for the time preference of money and investments. A given return on investment received at a given time is worth more than the same return received at a later time, so the latter would yield a lower IRR than the former, if all other factors are equal. A fixed income investment in which money is deposited once, interest on this deposit is paid to the investor at a specified interest rate every time period, and the original deposit neither increases nor decreases, would have an IRR equal to the specified interest rate. An investment which has the same total returns as the preceding investment, but delays returns for one or more time periods, would have a lower IRR. This lower IRR would indicate the interest rate of a fixed income investment that would have the same overall value as the delayed investment.
Corporations use IRR in capital budgeting to compare the profitability of capital projects in terms of the rate of return. For example, a corporation will compare an investment in a new plant versus an extension of an existing plant based on the IRR of each project. To maximize returns, the higher a project 's IRR, the more desirable it is to undertake the project. If all projects require the same amount of up - front investment, the project with the highest IRR would be considered the best and undertaken first.
The internal rate of return is an indicator of the profitability, efficiency, quality, or yield of an investment. This is in contrast with the net present value, which is an indicator of the net value or magnitude added by making an investment.
Applying the internal rate of return method to maximize the value of the firm, any investment would be accepted, if its profitability, as measured by the internal rate of return, is greater than a minimum acceptable rate of return. The appropriate minimum rate to maximize the value added to the firm is the cost of capital, i.e. the internal rate of return of a new capital project needs to be higher than the company 's cost of capital. This is because an investment with an internal rate of return which exceeds the cost of capital has a positive net present value.
However, the selection of investments may be subject to budget constraints, or they may be mutually exclusive competing projects, such as a choice between or the capacity or ability to manage more projects may be practically limited. In the example cited above, of a corporation comparing an investment in a new plant versus an extension of an existing plant, there may be reasons the company would not engage in both projects.
IRR is also used to calculate yield to maturity and yield to call.
Both the internal rate of return and the net present value can be applied to liabilities as well as investments. For a liability, a lower internal rate of return is preferable to a higher one.
Corporations use internal rate of return to evaluate share issues and stock buyback programs. A share repurchase proceeds if returning capital to shareholders has a higher internal rate of return than candidate capital investment projects or acquisition projects at current market prices. Funding new projects by raising new debt may also involve measuring the cost of the new debt in terms of the yield to maturity (internal rate of return).
IRR is also used for private equity, from the limited partners ' perspective, as a measure of the general partner 's performance as investment manager. This is because it is the general partner who controls the cash flows, including the limited partners ' draw - downs of committed capital.
Given a collection of pairs (time, cash flow) involved in a project, the internal rate of return follows from the net present value as a function of the rate of return. A rate of return for which this function being zero is the internal rate of return.
Given the (period, cash flow) pairs (n (\ displaystyle n), C n (\ displaystyle C_ (n))) where n (\ displaystyle n) is a non-negative integer, the total number of periods N (\ displaystyle N), and the N P V (\ displaystyle \ mathrm (NPV)), (net present value); the IRR is given by r (\ displaystyle r) in:
Note that in this formula, C 0 (\ displaystyle C_ (0)) (≤ 0) is the initial investment at the start of the project. The period n (\ displaystyle n) is usually given in years, but the calculation may be made simpler if r (\ displaystyle r) is calculated using the period in which the majority of the problem is defined (e.g., using months if most of the cash flows occur at monthly intervals) and converted to a yearly period thereafter.
Any fixed time can be used in place of the present (e.g., the end of one interval of an annuity); the value obtained is zero if and only if the NPV is zero.
In the case that the cash flows are random variables, such as in the case of a life annuity, the expected values are put into the above formula.
Often, the value of r (\ displaystyle r) that satisfies the above equation can not be found analytically. In this case, numerical methods or graphical methods must be used.
If an investment may be given by the sequence of cash flows
then the IRR r (\ displaystyle r) is given by
In this case, the answer is 5.96 % (in the calculation, that is, r =. 0596).
Since the above is a manifestation of the general problem of finding the roots of the equation N P V (r) = 0 (\ displaystyle \ mathrm (NPV) (r) = 0), there are many numerical methods that can be used to estimate r (\ displaystyle r). For example, using the secant method, r (\ displaystyle r) is given by
where r n (\ displaystyle r_ (n)) is considered the n (\ displaystyle n) approximation of the IRR.
This r (\ displaystyle r) can be found to an arbitrary degree of accuracy. Different accounting packages may provide functions for different accuracy levels.
The convergence behaviour of by the following:
Having r 1 > r 0 (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (r_ (1) > r_ (0))) when N P V 0 > 0 (\ displaystyle \ mathrm (NPV) _ (0) > 0) or r 1 < r 0 (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (r_ (1) < r_ (0))) when N P V 0 < 0 (\ displaystyle \ mathrm (NPV) _ (0) < 0) may speed up convergence of r n (\ displaystyle r_ (n)) to r (\ displaystyle r).
Of particular interest is the case where the stream of payments consists of a single outflow, followed by multiple inflows occurring at equal periods. In the above notation, this corresponds to:
In this case the NPV of the payment stream is a convex, strictly decreasing function of interest rate. There is always a single unique solution for IRR.
Given two estimates r 1 (\ displaystyle r_ (1)) and r 2 (\ displaystyle r_ (2)) for IRR, the secant method equation (see above) with n = 2 (\ displaystyle n = 2) always produces an improved estimate r 3 (\ displaystyle r_ (3)). This is sometimes referred to as the Hit and Trial (or Trial and Error) method. More accurate interpolation formulas can also be obtained: for instance the secant formula with correction
(which is most accurate when 0 > N P V n > N P V n − 1 (\ displaystyle 0 > \ mathrm (NPV) _ (n) > \ mathrm (NPV) _ (n - 1))) has been shown to be almost 10 times more accurate than the secant formula for a wide range of interest rates and initial guesses. For example, using the stream of payments (− 4000, 1200, 1410, 1875, 1050) and initial guesses r 1 = 0.25 (\ displaystyle r_ (1) = 0.25) and r 2 = 0.2 (\ displaystyle r_ (2) = 0.2) the secant formula with correction gives an IRR estimate of 14.2 % (0.7 % error) as compared to IRR = 13.2 % (7 % error) from the secant method.
If applied iteratively, either the secant method or the improved formula always converges to the correct solution.
Both the secant method and the improved formula rely on initial guesses for IRR. The following initial guesses may be used:
where
Here, N P V 1, i n (\ displaystyle \ mathrm (NPV) _ (1, in)) refers to the NPV of the inflows only (that is, set C 0 = 0 (\ displaystyle \ mathrm (C_ (0) = 0)) and compute NPV).
A cash flow C (\ displaystyle C) may occur at any time t (\ displaystyle t) years after the beginning of the project. t (\ displaystyle t) may not be a whole number. The cash flow should still be discounted by a factor 1 (1 + r) t (\ displaystyle (\ frac (1) ((1 + r) ^ (t)))).
As a tool applied to making an investment decision, to decide whether a project adds value or not, comparing the IRR of a single project with the required rate of return, in isolation from any other projects, is equivalent to the NPV method. If the appropriate IRR (if such can be found correctly) is greater than the required rate of return, then using the required rate of return to discount cash flows to their present value, the NPV of that project will be positive, and vice versa. However, using IRR to sort projects in order of preference does not result in the same order as using NPV.
One possible investment objective is to maximize the total net present value of projects.
When the objective is to maximize total value, the calculated IRR should not be used to choose between mutually exclusive projects.
In cases where one project has a higher initial investment than a second mutually exclusive project, the first project may have a lower IRR (expected return), but a higher NPV (increase in shareholders ' wealth) and should thus be accepted over the second project (assuming no capital constraints).
When the objective is to maximize total value, IRR should not be used to compare projects of different duration. For example, the net present value added by a project with longer duration but lower IRR could be greater than that of a project of similar size, in terms of total net cash flows, but with shorter duration and higher IRR.
Despite a strong academic preference for NPV, surveys indicate that executives prefer IRR over NPV. Apparently, managers find it easier to compare investments of different sizes in terms of percentage rates of return than by dollars of NPV. However, NPV remains the "more accurate '' reflection of value to the business. IRR, as a measure of investment efficiency may give better insights in capital constrained situations. However, when comparing mutually exclusive projects, NPV is the appropriate measure.
Maximizing total value is not the only conceivable possible investment objective. An alternative objective would for example be to maximize long - term return. Such an objective would rationally lead to accepting first those new projects within the capital budget which have the highest IRR, because adding such projects would tend to maximize overall long - term return.
To see this, consider two investors, Max Value and Max Return. Max Value wishes her net worth to grow as large as possible, and will invest every last cent available to achieve this, whereas Max Return wants to maximize his rate of return over the long term, and would prefer to choose projects with smaller capital outlay but higher returns. Max Value and Max Return can each raise up to 100,000 US dollars from their bank at an annual interest rate of 10 percent paid at the end of the year.
Investors Max Value and Max Return are presented with two possible projects to invest in, called Big - Is - Best and Small - Is - Beautiful. Big - Is - Best requires a capital investment of 100,000 US dollars today, and the lucky investor will be repaid 132,000 US dollars in a year 's time. Small - Is - Beautiful only requires 10,000 US dollars capital to be invested today, and will repay the investor 13,750 US dollars in a year 's time.
The cost of capital for both investors is 10 percent.
Both Big - Is - Best and Small - Is - Beautiful have positive NPVs:
and the IRR of each is (of course) greater than the cost of capital:
so the IRR of Big - Is - Best is 32 percent, and
so the IRR of Small - Is - Beautiful is 37.5 percent.
Both investments would be acceptable to both investors, but the twist in the tale is that these are mutually exclusive projects for both investors, because their capital budget is limited to 100,000 US dollars. How will the investors choose rationally between the two?
The happy outcome is that Max Value chooses Big - Is - Best, which has the higher NPV of 20,000 US dollars, over Small - Is - Beautiful, which only has a modest NPV of 2,500, whereas Max Return chooses Small - Is - Beautiful, for its superior 37.5 percent return, over the attractive (but not as attractive) return of 32 percent offered on Big - Is - Best. So there is no squabbling of who gets which project, they are each happy to choose different projects.
How can this be rational for both investors? The answer lies in the fact that the investors do not have to invest the full 100,000 US dollars. Max Return is content to invest only 10,000 US dollars for now. After all, Max Return may rationalize the outcome by thinking that maybe tomorrow there will be new opportunities available to invest the remaining 90,000 US dollars the bank is willing to lend Max Return, at even higher IRRs. Even if only seven more projects come along which are identical to Small - Is - Beautiful, Max Return would be able to match the NPV of Big - Is - Best, on a total investment of only 80,000 US dollars, with 20,000 US dollars left in the budget to spare for truly unmissable opportunities. Max Value is also happy, because she has filled her capital budget straight away, and decides she can take the rest of the year off investing.
When the sign of the cash flows changes more than once, for example when positive cash flows are followed by negative ones and then by positive ones (+ + − − − +), the IRR may have multiple real values. In a series of cash flows like (− 10, 21, − 11), one initially invests money, so a high rate of return is best, but then receives more than one possesses, so then one owes money, so now a low rate of return is best. In this case, it is not even clear whether a high or a low IRR is better.
There may even be multiple real IRRs for a single project, like in the example 0 % as well as 10 %. Examples of this type of project are strip mines and nuclear power plants, where there is usually a large cash outflow at the end of the project.
The IRR satisfies a polynomial equation. Sturm 's theorem can be used to determine if that equation has a unique real solution. In general the IRR equation can not be solved analytically but only by iteration.
With multiple internal rates of return, the IRR approach can still be interpreted in a way that is consistent with the present value approach if the underlying investment stream is correctly identified as net investment or net borrowing.
See for a way of identifying the relevant IRR from a set of multiple IRR solutions.
Modified Internal Rate of Return (MIRR) considers cost of capital, and is intended to provide a better indication of a project 's probable return. It applies a discount rate for borrowing cash, and the IRR is calculated for the investment cash flows. This applies in real life for example when a customer makes a deposit before a specific machine is built.
When a project has multiple IRRs it may be more convenient to compute the IRR of the project with the benefits reinvested. Accordingly, MIRR is used, which has an assumed reinvestment rate, usually equal to the project 's cost of capital.
Magni (2010) introduced a new approach, named AIRR approach, based on the intuitive notion of mean, that solves the problems of the IRR. However, the above - mentioned difficulties are only some of the many flaws incurred by the IRR. Magni (2013) provided a detailed list of 18 flaws of the IRR and showed how the AIRR approach does not incur the IRR problems.
Magni used a NCF data (Magni, 2010, Table 1: - 10, 30, - 25) to illustrate the AIRR criterion. The data indicate that the project is not profitable (net loss of - 5; capital loss of 50 %, before discount). Magni reported an AIRR of - 27.27 % as real rate that is not correct when the capital loss is 50 % (IRR must be around - 50 %).
Mathematically, the value of the investment is assumed to undergo exponential growth or decay according to some rate of return (any value greater than − 100 %), with discontinuities for cash flows, and the IRR of a series of cash flows is defined as any rate of return that results in a net present value of zero (or equivalently, a rate of return that results in the correct value of zero after the last cash flow).
Thus, internal rate (s) of return follow from the net present value as a function of the rate of return. This function is continuous. Towards a rate of return of − 100 % the net present value approaches infinity with the sign of the last cash flow, and towards a rate of return of positive infinity the net present value approaches the first cash flow (the one at the present). Therefore, if the first and last cash flow have a different sign there exists an internal rate of return. Examples of time series without an IRR:
In the case of a series of exclusively negative cash flows followed by a series of exclusively positive ones, the resulting function of the rate of return is continuous and monotonically decreasing from positive infinity (when the rate of return approaches - 100 %) to the value of the first cash flow (when the rate of return approaches infinity), so there is a unique rate of return for which it is zero. Hence, the IRR is also unique (and equal). Although the NPV - function itself is not necessarily monotonically decreasing on its whole domain, it is at the IRR.
Similarly, in the case of a series of exclusively positive cash flows followed by a series of exclusively negative ones the IRR is also unique.
Finally, by Descartes ' rule of signs, the number of internal rates of return can never be more than the number of changes in sign of cash flow.
It is often stated that IRR assumes reinvestment of all cash flows until the very end of the project. This assertion has been a matter of debate in the literature.
Sources stating that there is such a hidden assumption include those cited below. Sources arguing that there is no IRR reinvestment assumption include
The IRR method measures return in the presence of external cash flows. The assumptions of users of the method are independent of the IRR method itself. When comparing investments, making a naive implicit assumption that cash flows are reinvested at the same IRR, would tend to lead to false conclusions. If cash flows received are not reinvested at the same rate as the IRR, a project with a relatively short duration and a high IRR does not necessarily add more value over a longer time span than another project with a longer duration and a lower IRR. The Modified Internal Rate of Return (MIRR) addresses this issue by including a second investment at a potentially different rate of return, to calculate a portfolio return without external cash flows over the life of the project. However, for capital budgeting, when the objective is to maximize value, finance theory holds that NPV using the firm 's cost of capital is a superior metric.
The IRR can be used to measure the money - weighted performance of financial investments such as an individual investor 's brokerage account. For this scenario, an equivalent, more intuitive definition of the IRR is, "The IRR is the annual interest rate of the fixed rate account (like a somewhat idealized savings account) which, when subjected to the same deposits and withdrawals as the actual investment, has the same ending balance as the actual investment. '' This fixed rate account is also called the replicating fixed rate account for the investment. There are examples where the replicating fixed rate account encounters negative balances despite the fact that the actual investment did not. In those cases, the IRR calculation assumes that the same interest rate that is paid on positive balances is charged on negative balances. It has been shown that this way of charging interest is the root cause of the IRR 's multiple solutions problem. If the model is modified so that, as is the case in real life, an externally supplied cost of borrowing (possibly varying over time) is charged on negative balances, the multiple solutions issue disappears. The resulting rate is called the fixed rate equivalent (FREQ).
In the context of investment performance measurement, there is sometimes ambiguity in terminology between the periodic rate of return, such as the internal rate of return as defined above, and a holding period return. The term internal rate of return or IRR or Since Inception Internal Rate of Return (SI - IRR) is in some contexts used to refer to the unannualized return over the period, particularly for periods of less than a year.
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where is the glory be prayer in the bible | Gloria Patri - wikipedia
Gloria Patri, also known as the Gloria, Glory Be to the Father or, colloquially, the Glory Be, is a doxology, a short hymn of praise to God in various Christian liturgies. It is also referred to as the Minor Doxology (Doxologia Minor) or Lesser Doxology, to distinguish it from the Greater Doxology, the Gloria in Excelsis Deo.
The earliest Christian doxologies are addressed to God the Father alone, or to Him "through '' (διὰ) the Son, or to the Father and the Holy Spirit with (μετά) the Son, or to the Son with (σύν) the Father and the Holy Spirit.
The Trinitarian doxology addressed in parallel fashion to all three Divine Persons of the Trinity, joined by and (καί), as in the form of baptism, Matthew 28: 19, became universal in Nicaean Christianity, which became dominant with the Edict of Thessalonica of 380.
The Greek wording is as follows:
Glory be to the Father
The second part is occasionally slightly modified and other verses are sometimes introduced between the two halves.
According to Worship Music: A Concise Dictionary, the lesser doxology is of Syrian origin.
There is an alternate version which the Syriac Catholic Church and the Syriac Orthodox Church use in their Liturgies
In Orthodoxy, Arabic is one of the official liturgical languages of the Church of Jerusalem and the Church of Antioch, both autocephalous Orthodox Churches and two of the four ancient Patriarchates of the Pentarchy.
The Arabic wording of this doxology is as follows:
This differs from the Greek version because of the insertion of "Sicut erat in principio '', which is now taken to mean "As it (glory) was in the beginning '', but which seems originally to have meant "As he (the Son) was in the beginning '', and echo of the opening words of the Gospel according to John: "In the beginning was the Word ''.
In 529 the Second Synod of Vasio in Gaul said in its fifth canon that the second part of the doxology, with the words Sicut erat in principio, was used in Rome, the East, and Africa, and ordered it to be said likewise in Gaul. Writing in the 1909 Catholic Encyclopedia, Adrian Fortescue, while remarking that what the synod said of the East was false, took the synod 's decree to mean that the form originally used in the West was the same as the Greek form. From about the 7th century the present Roman Rite version became almost universal throughout the West.
The similarity between this version used in the then extreme west of the church and the Syriac version used in the extreme east is noteworthy.
The following traditional form is the most common in Anglican usage and in older Lutheran liturgical books:
The translations of semper as "ever shall be '', and in sæcula sæculorum as "world without end '' date at least from Cranmer 's Book of Common Prayer.
The Catholic Church uses the same English form, but today replaces "Holy Ghost '' with "Holy Spirit '', as in The Divine Office the edition of the Liturgy of the Hours used in most English - speaking countries outside the United States. Divine Worship: The Missal, published by the Holy See in 2015 for use under the Apostolic Constitution Anglicanorum Coetibus allows "Holy Spirit '' and "Holy Ghost '' to be used interchangeably.
In 1971, the International Consultation on English Texts (ICET) used since 1971:
This was adopted in the publication, Liturgy of the Hours (Catholic Book Publishing Company), but has not come into popular use by lay Catholics. It is found also in some Anglican and Lutheran publications.
A variant found in Common Worship has "will '' instead of "shall '':
Especially in Anglican circles, there are various alternative forms of the Gloria designed to avoid masculine language. The form included in Celebrating Common Prayer is:
The doxology in the use of the English - speaking Orthodox and Greek - Catholic Churches, follows the Greek form, of which one English translation is:
The translation of the Greek form used by the Melkite Greek Catholic Church in the United States is:
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodoxy, the Church of the East, and the Eastern Catholic Churches, the Lesser Doxology is frequently used at diverse points in services and private prayers. Among other instances, it is said three times by the reader during the usual beginning of every service, and as part of the dismissal at the end. When it is used in a series of hymns it is chanted either before the last hymn or before the penultimate hymn. In the latter case, it is divided in half, the "Glory... '' being chanted before the penultimate hymn, and "Both now... '' being chanted before the final hymn (which is usually a Theotokion).
In the Roman Rite, the Gloria Patri is frequently chanted or recited in the Liturgy of the Hours or Divine Office principally at the end of psalms and canticles and in the responsories. It also figures in the Introit of the pre-1970 form of Mass in the Roman Rite. It is restored to the Introit in the form of the Roman Rite published in Divine Worship: The Missal. The prayer also figures prominently in non-liturgical devotions, notably the rosary, where it is recited on the large beads (where also an "Our Father '' is prayed) that separate the five sets of ten smaller beads, called decades, upon each of which a Hail Mary is prayed.
Amongst Anglicans, the Gloria Patri is mainly used at the Daily Offices of Morning and Evening Prayer, to introduce and conclude the singing or recitation of psalms, and to conclude the canticles that lack their own concluding doxologies.
Lutherans have historically added the Gloria Patri both after the chanting of the Responsorial Psalm and following the Nunc Dimittis during their Divine Service, as well as during Matins and Vespers in the Canonical hours. In Methodism, the Gloria Patri (usually in the traditional English form above) is frequently sung to conclude the "responsive reading '' that takes the place of the Office Psalmody. The prayer is also frequently used in evangelical Presbyterian churches.
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names of super gurus of super dancer 2 | Super Dancer - Wikipedia
Super Dancer is an Indian Hindi kids dance reality television series, which airs on Sony Entertainment Television and Sony Entertainment Television Asia. The winner of season 1 of this series is Ditya Bhande and Bishal Sharma is the winner of Super Dancer Chapter 2. The series is produced by Ranjeet Thakur and Hemant Ruprell for their production house Frames Production.
The show Super Dancer - Dance Ka Kal aims to find a kid prodigy who has the potential to be the future of dance. The kids are aged between 4 and 13 years of age. They are not only required to have 3Ds of dancing - Desire, Discipline and Determination - but also should be a keen learner, adaptable to all dance styles and circumstances and should be a passionate dancer with a unique personality. This show is an ideal opportunity for every kid to hone their talent and dancing skills.
After the initial auditions and mega auditions, 12 Super Dancers are selected to be competing for the title of Dance Ka Kal (future of dance). They are each paired with one choreographer (Super Guru) who has a unique style similar to theirs. These Super Gurus train them, choreograph acts for them and also perform with them. The Super Dancers perform on Saturdays and along with their choreographers on Sunday. The performances are voted by the audience every week on the website or the SonyLiv App. On the basis of the number of votes, one kid is being eliminated every week.
Eliminated on 23 October 2016
Power Card entry on 30 October 2016
Power Card entry on 30 October 2016
Eliminated on 26 November 2016
Five contestants - Laxman Kumbhar, Siddhanth Damedhar (both of whom were eliminated from the show earlier), Lakshay Sinha (who could n't perform earlier in the competition due to his injury), Tiyash Saha & Harsh Dhara (both standby contestants) were called back on 30 October 2016 to gain a Power Card Entry into the competition. The judges chose Laxman Kumbhar & Siddhanth Damedhar and they Re-entered the competition.
Winner
Ditya Sagar Bhande from Mumbai won the first season of Super dancer. Her choreographer was Ruel Dausan.
Palden Lama Mawroh
Power card entry on 26 November 2017
Eliminated on 12 November 2017
Three contestants, Vaishnavi Prajapati from Panipat with her Super Guru Manan, Akash Mitra from Patna with his Super Guru Rishikesh Jogdand and Mishti Sinha from Ahmednagar with her Super Guru Palden Lama Mowroh took a return on Power Card Entry. With top 9, voting started. For almost 6 weeks at a stretch, there was not a single elimination on the show. Firstly, Arushi Saxena (known as all rounder of the show) had to leave the show by normal elimination and provided the show Super 8. Mishti Sinha had to bid goodbye to the show due to an injury in her leg. Doctors suggested her to have respite and show got Super 7.
Muskan Sharma termed as "robotic girl '' of the show had set a trend of perfect indomitable robotics. She pursued such a different and tough dance form making many persons her fan. She performed robotics with contemporary and salsa which gave her a distinct look. Appreciated, she was said as trendsetter by shilpa shetty as the incredible girl invigorated and emboldened many other girls to chase robotics. Her Super Guru Paul always tried to present a message in her dance in which they were invincible. But voted less till super 7, she was eliminated.
Akash Mitra is an amazing child on the show. He is super cute and seems to be Anurag Basu 's favorite. He is always indifferent to all the situations and is termed as "God Ka Favourite Bachcha ''. With his Super Guru Rishikesh, this 5 year old showcase his talent in many styles. He is majorly seen in feud with his friend Vaishnavi. he later got eliminated just before top 5.
Vaishnavi is a 5 year old talented girl on the show who gets tickled easily. Judges were shocked when they come to know about her handicapped but willing mentor. She and her Super Guru Manan does simple but effective acts on the stage without getting encumbered.
Moved by the plight of one of the contestants Ritik Diwaker, bollywood actor Varun Dhawan decides to sponsor the 11 - year - old boy 's education.
In the day of grand finale, Ritik danced on a medley of songs, including "Bulleya '', "Dil Diyan Gallan '' and the title track of Dangal, and Varun was impressed. He 's seen some of his earlier acts too and was bowled over by his happy feet. When he learnt that Ritik 's father, Gaurishankar Diwaker, is unable to work as his left hand is nonfunctional, Varun decided to help the child as he did n't want his studies to suffer.
Super Dancer Season 2: Winner Name 2018
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which one of the following is not a lake created by human beings | Lake - wikipedia
A lake is an area filled with water, localized in a basin, that is surrounded by land, apart from any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake. Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean, and therefore are distinct from lagoons, and are also larger and deeper than ponds, though there are no official or scientific definitions. Lakes can be contrasted with rivers or streams, which are usually flowing. Most lakes are fed and drained by rivers and streams.
Natural lakes are generally found in mountainous areas, rift zones, and areas with ongoing glaciation. Other lakes are found in endorheic basins or along the courses of mature rivers. In some parts of the world there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left over from the last Ice Age. All lakes are temporary over geologic time scales, as they will slowly fill in with sediments or spill out of the basin containing them.
Many lakes are artificial and are constructed for industrial or agricultural use, for hydro - electric power generation or domestic water supply, or for aesthetic or recreational purposes or even for other activities.
The word lake comes from Middle English lake ("lake, pond, waterway ''), from Old English lacu ("pond, pool, stream ''), from Proto - Germanic * lakō ("pond, ditch, slow moving stream ''), from the Proto - Indo - European root * leǵ - ("to leak, drain ''). Cognates include Dutch laak ("lake, pond, ditch ''), Middle Low German lāke ("water pooled in a riverbed, puddle '') as in: de: Moorlake, de: Wolfslake, de: Butterlake, German Lache ("pool, puddle ''), and Icelandic lækur ("slow flowing stream ''). Also related are the English words leak and leach.
There is considerable uncertainty about defining the difference between lakes and ponds, and no current internationally accepted definition of either term across scientific disciplines or political boundaries exists. For example, limnologists have defined lakes as water bodies which are simply a larger version of a pond, which can have wave action on the shoreline or where wind - induced turbulence plays a major role in mixing the water column. None of these definitions completely excludes ponds and all are difficult to measure. For this reason, simple size - based definitions are increasingly used to separate ponds and lakes. One definition of lake is a body of water of 2 hectares (5 acres) or more in area; however, others have defined lakes as waterbodies of 5 hectares (12 acres) and above, or 8 hectares (20 acres) and above (see also the definition of "pond ''). Charles Elton, one of the founders of ecology, regarded lakes as waterbodies of 40 hectares (99 acres) or more. The term lake is also used to describe a feature such as Lake Eyre, which is a dry basin most of the time but may become filled under seasonal conditions of heavy rainfall. In common usage, many lakes bear names ending with the word pond, and a lesser number of names ending with lake are in quasi-technical fact, ponds. One textbook illustrates this point with the following: "In Newfoundland, for example, almost every lake is called a pond, whereas in Wisconsin, almost every pond is called a lake. ''
One hydrology book proposes to define the term "lake '' as a body of water with the following five characteristics:
With the exception of the seawater intrusion criterion, the others have been accepted or elaborated upon by other hydrology publications.
The majority of lakes on Earth are fresh water, and most lie in the Northern Hemisphere at higher latitudes. Canada, with a deranged drainage system has an estimated 31,752 lakes larger than 3 square kilometres (1.2 sq mi) and an unknown total number of lakes, but is estimated to be at least 2 million. Finland has 187,888 lakes 500 square metres (5,400 sq ft) or larger, of which 56,000 are large (10,000 square metres (110,000 sq ft) or larger).
Most lakes have at least one natural outflow in the form of a river or stream, which maintain a lake 's average level by allowing the drainage of excess water. Some lakes do not have a natural outflow and lose water solely by evaporation or underground seepage or both. They are termed endorheic lakes.
Many lakes are artificial and are constructed for hydro - electric power generation, aesthetic purposes, recreational purposes, industrial use, agricultural use or domestic water supply.
Evidence of extraterrestrial lakes exists; "definitive evidence of lakes filled with methane '' was announced by NASA as returned by the Cassini Probe observing the moon Titan, which orbits the planet Saturn.
Globally, lakes are greatly outnumbered by ponds: of an estimated 304 million standing water bodies worldwide, 91 % are 1 hectare (2.5 acres) or less in area (see definition of ponds). Small lakes are also much more numerous than large lakes: in terms of area, one - third of the world 's standing water is represented by lakes and ponds of 10 hectares (25 acres) or less. However, large lakes account for much of the area of standing water with 122 large lakes of 1,000 square kilometres (390 sq mi, 100,000 ha, 247,000 acres) or more representing about 29 % of the total global area of standing inland water.
Hutchinson in 1957 published a monograph that is regarded as a landmark discussion and classification of all major lake types, their origin, morphometric characteristics, and distribution. As summarized and discussed by these researchers, Hutchinson presented in it a comprehensive analysis of the origin of lakes and proposed what is a widely accepted classification of lakes according to their origin. This classification recognizes 11 major lake types that are divided into 76 subtypes. The 11 major lake types are tectonic lakes, volcanic lakes, landslide lakes, glacial lakes, solution lakes, fluvial lakes, aeolian lakes, shoreline lakes, organic lakes, anthropomorphic lakes, and meteorite (extraterrestrial impact) lakes.
Tectonic lakes are lakes formed by the deformation and resulting lateral and vertical movements of the Earth 's crust. These movements include faulting, tilting, folding, and warping. Some of the well - known and largest lakes on Earth are rift lakes occupying rift valleys, e.g. Central African Rift lakes and Lake Baikal. Other well - known tectonic lakes, Caspian Sea, the Sea of Aral, and other lakes from the Pontocaspian occupy basins that have been separated from the sea by the tectonic uplift of the sea floor above sea level.
Often, the tectonic action of crustal extension has created an alternating series of parallel grabens and horsts that form elongate basins alternating with mountain ranges. Not only does this promote the creation of lakes by the disruption of preexisting drainage networks, it also creates within arid regions endorheic basins that containing salt lakes (also called saline lakes). They form where there is no natural outlet, a high evaporation rate and the drainage surface of the water table has a higher - than - normal salt content. Examples of these salt lakes include Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea. another type of tectonic lake caused by faulting is sag ponds.
Volcanic lakes are lakes that occupy either local depressions, e.g. craters and maars or larger basins, e.g. calderas, created by volcanism. Crater lakes are formed in volcanic craters and calderas, which fill up with precipitation more rapidly than they empty via either evaporation, groundwater discharge, or combination of both. Sometimes the latter are called caldera lakes, although often no distinction is made. An example is Crater Lake in Oregon, in the caldera of Mount Mazama. The caldera was created in a massive volcanic eruption that led to the subsidence of Mount Mazama around 4860 BC. Other volcanic lakes are created when either rivers or streams are dammed by lava flows or volcanic lahars. The basin within which Malheur Lake, Oregon was created when a lava flow dammed the Malheur River.
Glacial lakes are lakes created by the direct action of glaciers and continental ice sheets. A wide variety of glacial processes create enclosed basins. As a result, there are a wide variety of different types of glacial lakes and it is often difficult to define clear - cut distinctions between different types of glacial lakes and lakes influenced by other activities. The general types of glacial lakes that have recognized are lakes in direct contact with ice; glacially carved rock basins and depressions; morainic and outwash lakes; and glacial drift basins. Glacial lakes are the numerous lakes in the world. Most the lakes in northern Europe and North America have been either influenced or created by the latest, but not last, glaciation, to have covered the region. Glacial lakes include proglacial lakes, subglacial lakes, finger lakes, and epishelf lakes. Epishelf lakes are highly stratified lakes in which a layer of freshwater, derived from ice and snow melt, is dammed behind an ice shelf that is attached to the coastline. They are mostly found in Antarctica.
Fluvial (or riverine) lakes are lakes produced by running water. These lakes include plunge pool lakes, fluviatile dams and meander lakes.
The most common type of fluvial lake is a crescent - shaped lake called an oxbow lake due to the distinctive curved shape. They can form in river valleys as a result of meandering. The slow - moving river forms a sinuous shape as the outer side of bends are eroded away more rapidly than the inner side. Eventually a horseshoe bend is formed and the river cuts through the narrow neck. This new passage then forms the main passage for the river and the ends of the bend become silted up, thus forming a bow - shaped lake.
These form where sediment from a tributary blocks the main river.
These form where sediment from the main river blocks a tributary, usually in the form of a levee.
A solution lake is a lake occupying a basin formed by surface dissolution of bedrock. In areas underlain by soluble bedrock, its solution by precipitation and percolating water commonly produce cavities. These cavities frequently collapse to form sinkholes that form part of the local karst topography. Where groundwater lies near the grounds surface, a sinkhole will be filled water as a solution lake. If such a lake consists of a large area of standing water that occupies an extensive closed depression in limestone, it is also called a karst lake. Smaller solution lakes that consist of a body of standing water in a closed depression within a karst region are known as karst ponds. Limestone caves often contain pools of standing water, which are known as underground lakes. Classic examples of solution lakes are abundant in the karst regions at the Dalmatian coast of Croatia and within large parts of Florida.
Landslide lakes are lakes created by the blockage of a valley by either mudflows, rockslides, or screes. Such lakes are common in mountainous regions. Although landslide lakes may be large and quite deep, they are typically short - lived. An example of a landslide lake is Quake Lake, which formed as a result of the 1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake.
Aeolian lakes are lakes produced by wind action. They are found mainly in arid environments although some aeolian lakes are relict landforms indicative of arid paleoclimates. Aeolian lakes consist of lake basins dammed by wind - blown sand; interdunal lakes that lies between well - oriented sand dunes; and deflation basins formed by wind action under previously arid paleoenvironments. Moses Lake, Washington, is an example of a lake basins dammed by wind - blown sand.
Shoreline lakes are generally lakes created by blockage of estuaries or by the uneven accretion of beach ridges by longshore and other currents. They include maritime coastal lakes, ordinarily in drowned estuaries; lakes enclosed by two tombolos or spits connecting an island to the mainland; lakes cut off from larger lakes by a bar; or lakes divided by the meeting of two spits.
Organic lakes are lakes created by the actions of plants and animals. On the whole they are relatively rare in occurrence and quite small in size. In addition, they typically ephemeral features relative to the other types of lakes. The basins in which organic lakes occur are associated with beaver dams, coral lakes, or dams formed by vegetation.
Peat lakes are a form of organic lake. They form where a buildup of partly decomposed plant material in a wet environment leaves the vegetated surface below the water table for a sustained period of time. They are often low in nutrients and mildly acidic, with bottom waters low in dissolved oxygen.
Anthropogenic lakes are artificially created lakes formed by human activity. They can be the result of intentional damming of rivers and streams or subsequent filling of abandon excavations by either ground water, precipitation, or a combination of both.
Meteorite lakes, which are also known as crater lakes, are lakes created by catastrophic extraterrestrial impacts by either meteorites or asteroids. Examples of meteorite lakes are Lonar crater lake, India, Lake Elgygytgyn, and Pingualuit crater lake, Quebec, Canada, As in case of Lake El'gygytgyn and Pingualuit crater lake, meteorite (extraterrestrial impact / crater) lakes can contain unique and scientifically valuable sedimentary deposits associated with long records of paleoclimatic changes.
In addition to mode of origin, lakes have been named and classified in various other ways according to their thermal stratification, salinity, relative seasonal permanence, degree of outflow, and other factors. Also, different cultures and regional of the world have their popular nomenclature
In addition to their origin, there are various other ways of either naming or defining types of lakes. One major way of classification lakes in on the basis of thermal stratification because it is a major control on animal and plant life inhabiting a lake and the fate and distribution of dissolved and suspended material in a lake. For example, the thermal stratification and the degree and frequency of mixing exerts a strong control on the distribution of oxygen within it. In addition, lake can be classified according important factors such as seasonal variations in lake volume and level, oxygen saturation, and salinity of its water mass. Finally, the names of types of lakes that are used by the lay public and in the scientific for different types of lakes are often informally derived from either from their morphology of other aspects or their physical characteristics.
F.A. Forel, who is also referred to as the father of limnology, was the first scientist to classify lakes according to their thermal stratification. His system of classification was later modified and improved upon by Hutchinson and Laffler. Because the density of water varies with temperature, with a maximum at + 4 DC, thermal stratification is an important physical characteristic of lakes that controls the fauna and flora, sedimentation, chemistry, and other aspects of individual lakes. First, the colder, heavier water typically forms a layer near the bottom, which called the hypolimnion. Second, normally overlying it is a transition zone known as the metalimnion. Finally, overlying the metalimnion is a surface layer of a warmer, lighter water is called the epilimnion. However, this typical stratification sequence can vary widely depending either on the specific lake, the time of season, or combination of both.
Based upon thermal stratification, lakes are classified as either holomictic lakes or meromictic lakes. A meromictic lake is a lake which has layers of water which do not intermix. The deepest layer of water in such a lake does not contain any dissolved oxygen. In addition, the layers of sediment at the bottom of a meromictic lake remain relatively undisturbed because there are no living aerobic organisms. The lack of disturbance allows for the development of lacustrine varves. A Holomictic lake is a lake that has a uniform temperature and density from top to bottom at a specific time during the year. This uniformity temperature and density in allows the lake waters to completely mix. Holomictic lakes are non-meromictic lakes. Based upon thermal stratification and frequency of turnover, holomictic lakes are divided into amictic lakes, cold monomictic lakes, dimictic lakes, warm monomictic lakes, polymictic lakes, and oligomictic lakes. The classification of lakes by thermal stratification presupposes lakes with sufficient depth to form a hypolimnion. As a results, very shallow lakes are excluded this classification system.
The stratification in a lake is not always the result of variation to density because of thermal gradients. Stratification within a lake can also be the result of differences in density resulting from gradients in salinity. In case of a difference in salinity, the hypolimnion and epilimnion are separated not by a thermocline but by a halocline, which is sometimes referred to as a chemocline.
Lakes are informally classified and named according to the seasonal variation in their lake level and volume. Some of the names include:
Lakes are also informally classified and named according to the general chemistry of their water mass. Some of the types of lakes include:
A paleolake, also spelt palaeolake, is a lake that existed in the past when hydrological conditions were different. Quaternary paleolakes can often be identified on the basis of relict lacustrine landforms such as relict lake plains and coastal landforms that form recognizable relict shorelines, which are called paleoshorelines. Paleolakes can also be recognized by characteristic sedimentary deposits that accumulated in them and any fossils that these sediments might contain. The paleoshorelines and sedimentary deposits of paleolakes provide evidence for prehistoric hydrological changes during the times that they existed.
Types of paleolakes include:
Paleolakes are of scientific and economic importance. For example, Quaternary paleolakes in semidesert basins are important for two reasons. First, they played an extremely significant, if transient, role in shaping the floors and piedmonts of many basins. Finally, their sediments contain enormous quantities of geologic and paleontologic information concerning past environments. In addition, the organic - rich deposits of pre-Quaternary paleolakes are important either for the thick deposits of oil shale and shale gas that they contain or as source rocks of petroleum and natural gas. Although of significantly less economic importance, strata deposited along the shore of paleolakes sometimes contain coal seams.
Lakes have numerous features in addition to lake type, such as drainage basin (also known as catchment area), inflow and outflow, nutrient content, dissolved oxygen, pollutants, pH, and sedimentation.
Changes in the level of a lake are controlled by the difference between the input and output compared to the total volume of the lake. Significant input sources are precipitation onto the lake, runoff carried by streams and channels from the lake 's catchment area, groundwater channels and aquifers, and artificial sources from outside the catchment area. Output sources are evaporation from the lake, surface and groundwater flows, and any extraction of lake water by humans. As climate conditions and human water requirements vary, these will create fluctuations in the lake level.
Lakes can be also categorized on the basis of their richness in nutrients, which typically affect plant growth. Nutrient - poor lakes are said to be oligotrophic and are generally clear, having a low concentration of plant life. Mesotrophic lakes have good clarity and an average level of nutrients. Eutrophic lakes are enriched with nutrients, resulting in good plant growth and possible algal blooms. Hypertrophic lakes are bodies of water that have been excessively enriched with nutrients. These lakes typically have poor clarity and are subject to devastating algal blooms. Lakes typically reach this condition due to human activities, such as heavy use of fertilizers in the lake catchment area. Such lakes are of little use to humans and have a poor ecosystem due to decreased dissolved oxygen.
Due to the unusual relationship between water 's temperature and its density, lakes form layers called thermoclines, layers of drastically varying temperature relative to depth. Fresh water is most dense at about 4 degrees Celsius (39.2 ° F) at sea level. When the temperature of the water at the surface of a lake reaches the same temperature as deeper water, as it does during the cooler months in temperate climates, the water in the lake can mix, bringing oxygen - starved water up from the depths and bringing oxygen down to decomposing sediments. Deep temperate lakes can maintain a reservoir of cold water year - round, which allows some cities to tap that reservoir for deep lake water cooling.
Since the surface water of deep tropical lakes never reaches the temperature of maximum density, there is no process that makes the water mix. The deeper layer becomes oxygen starved and can become saturated with carbon dioxide, or other gases such as sulfur dioxide if there is even a trace of volcanic activity. Exceptional events, such as earthquakes or landslides, can cause mixing which rapidly brings the deep layers up to the surface and release a vast cloud of gas which lay trapped in solution in the colder water at the bottom of the lake. This is called a limnic eruption. An example is the disaster at Lake Nyos in Cameroon. The amount of gas that can be dissolved in water is directly related to pressure. As deep water surfaces, the pressure drops and a vast amount of gas comes out of solution. Under these circumstances carbon dioxide is hazardous because it is heavier than air and displaces it, so it may flow down a river valley to human settlements and cause mass asphyxiation.
The material at the bottom of a lake, or lake bed, may be composed of a wide variety of inorganics, such as silt or sand, and organic material, such as decaying plant or animal matter. The composition of the lake bed has a significant impact on the flora and fauna found within the lake 's environs by contributing to the amounts and the types of nutrients available.
A paired (black and white) layer of the varved lake sediments correspond to a year. During winter, when organisms die, carbon is deposited down, resulting to a black layer. At the same year, during summer, only few organic materials are deposited, resulting to a white layer at the lake bed. These are commonly used to track past paleontological events.
Natural lakes provide a microcosm of living and nonliving elements that are relatively independent of their surrounding environments. Therefore, lake organisms can often be studied in isolation from the lake 's surroundings.
Limnology is the study of inland bodies of water and related ecosystems. Limnology divides lakes into three zones: the littoral zone, a sloped area close to land; the photic or open - water zone, where sunlight is abundant; and the deep - water profundal or benthic zone, where little sunlight can reach. The depth to which light can reach in lakes depends on turbidity, determined by the density and size of suspended particles. A particle is in suspension if its weight is less than the random turbidity forces acting upon it. These particles can be sedimentary or biological in origin and are responsible for the color of the water. Decaying plant matter, for instance, may be responsible for a yellow or brown color, while algae may cause greenish water. In very shallow water bodies, iron oxides make water reddish brown. Biological particles include algae and detritus. Bottom - dwelling detritivorous fish can be responsible for turbid waters, because they stir the mud in search of food. Piscivorous fish contribute to turbidity by eating plant - eating (planktonivorous) fish, thus increasing the amount of algae (see aquatic trophic cascade). The light depth or transparency is measured by using a Secchi disk, a 20 - cm (8 in) disk with alternating white and black quadrants. The depth at which the disk is no longer visible is the Secchi depth, a measure of transparency. The Secchi disk is commonly used to test for eutrophication. For a detailed look at these processes, see lentic ecosystems.
A lake moderates the surrounding region 's temperature and climate because water has a very high specific heat capacity (4,186 J kg K). In the daytime a lake can cool the land beside it with local winds, resulting in a sea breeze; in the night it can warm it with a land breeze.
The lake may be infilled with deposited sediment and gradually become a wetland such as a swamp or marsh. Large water plants, typically reeds, accelerate this closing process significantly because they partially decompose to form peat soils that fill the shallows. Conversely, peat soils in a marsh can naturally burn and reverse this process to recreate a shallow lake resulting in a dynamic equilibrium between marsh and lake. This is significant since wildfire has been largely suppressed in the developed world over the past century. This has artificially converted many shallow lakes into emergent marshes. Turbid lakes and lakes with many plant - eating fish tend to disappear more slowly. A "disappearing '' lake (barely noticeable on a human timescale) typically has extensive plant mats at the water 's edge. These become a new habitat for other plants, like peat moss when conditions are right, and animals, many of which are very rare. Gradually the lake closes and young peat may form, forming a fen. In lowland river valleys where a river can meander, the presence of peat is explained by the infilling of historical oxbow lakes. In the very last stages of succession, trees can grow in, eventually turning the wetland into a forest.
Some lakes can disappear seasonally. These are called intermittent lakes, ephemeral lakes, or seasonal lakes and can be found in karstic terrain. A prime example of an intermittent lake is Lake Cerknica in Slovenia or Lag Prau Pulte in Graubünden. Other intermittent lakes are only the result of above - average precipitation in a closed, or endorheic basin, usually filling dry lake beds. This can occur in some of the driest places on earth, like Death Valley. This occurred in the spring of 2005, after unusually heavy rains. The lake did not last into the summer, and was quickly evaporated (see photos to right). A more commonly filled lake of this type is Sevier Lake of west - central Utah.
Sometimes a lake will disappear quickly. On 3 June 2005, in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia, a lake called Lake Beloye vanished in a matter of minutes. News sources reported that government officials theorized that this strange phenomenon may have been caused by a shift in the soil underneath the lake that allowed its water to drain through channels leading to the Oka River.
The presence of ground permafrost is important to the persistence of some lakes. According to research published in the journal Science ("Disappearing Arctic Lakes '', June 2005), thawing permafrost may explain the shrinking or disappearance of hundreds of large Arctic lakes across western Siberia. The idea here is that rising air and soil temperatures thaw permafrost, allowing the lakes to drain away into the ground.
Some lakes disappear because of human development factors. The shrinking Aral Sea is described as being "murdered '' by the diversion for irrigation of the rivers feeding it.
Only one world other than Earth is known to harbor large lakes, Saturn 's largest moon, Titan. Photographs and spectroscopic analysis by the Cassini -- Huygens spacecraft show liquid ethane on the surface, which is thought to be mixed with liquid methane. The largest Titanean lake, Kraken Mare at 400,000 km, is three - times the size of any lake on Earth, and even the second, Ligeia Mare, is estimated to be slightly larger than Earth 's Lake Michigan -- Huron.
Jupiter 's large moon Io is volcanically active, and as a result sulfur deposits have accumulated on the surface. Some photographs taken during the Galileo mission appear to show lakes of liquid sulfur in volcanic caldera, though these are more analogous to lake of lava than of water on Earth.
The planet Mars is too cold and has too little atmospheric pressure to permit the pooling of liquid water. Geologic evidence appears to confirm, however, that ancient lakes once formed on the surface. It is also possible that volcanic activity on Mars will occasionally melt subsurface ice, creating large temporary lakes. This water would quickly freeze and then sublimate, unless insulated in some manner, such as by a coating of volcanic ash.
There are dark basaltic plains on the Moon, similar to lunar maria but smaller, that are called lacus (singular lacus, Latin for "lake '') because they were thought by early astronomers to be lakes of water.
The largest lakes (surface area) by continent are:
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how many times india won world cup hockey | Hockey World Cup - wikipedia
The Hockey World Cup is an international field hockey competition organised by the International Hockey Federation (FIH). The tournament was started in 1971. It is held every four years, bridging the four years between the Summer Olympics.
There is also a Women 's Hockey World Cup, which has been held since 1974 and was organised by the International Federation of Women 's Hockey Associations (IFWHA) until 1981, when the governing bodies merged into the current International Hockey Federation in 1982.
Five countries have dominated the event 's history. Pakistan is the most successful team, having won the tournament four times. The Netherlands and Australia have won three titles, and Germany has each won two titles. India won the tournament once.
The 2014 tournament was held in The Hague, Netherlands from June 2 to 14. Australia defeated Netherlands 6 -- 1 in the final, to win their third World Cup title. The 2018 tournament will be held in Bhubaneswar, India from 28 November to 16 December. The World Cup will expand to 16 teams in 2018, and FIH will evaluate the possibility of increasing it to 24 in 2022.
The Hockey World Cup was first conceived by Pakistan 's Air Marshal Nur Khan. He proposed his idea to the FIH through Patrick Rowley, the first editor of World Hockey magazine. Their idea was approved on October 26, 1969, and adopted by the FIH Council at a meeting in Brussels on April 12, 1970. The FIH decided that the inaugural World Cup would be held in October 1971, in Pakistan.
However, political issues would prevent that first competition from being played in Pakistan. The FIH had inadvertently scheduled the first World Cup to be played in Pakistan during the Bangladesh Liberation War. Furthermore, Pakistan and India had been at war with each other only six years earlier. When Pakistan invited India to compete in the tournament, a crisis arose. Pakistanis, led by cricketer Abdul Hafeez Kardar, protested against India 's participation in the Hockey World Cup.
Given the intense political climate between Pakistan and India, the FIH decided to move the tournament elsewhere. In March 1971, coincidentally in the same month Bangladesh declared independence from Pakistan, the FIH decided to move the first Hockey World Cup to the Real Club de Polo grounds in Barcelona, Spain, which was considered a neutral and peaceful European site.
The FIH has set no requirements or limitations on the size of the competition. The 1971 Cup included only ten nations, the smallest World Cup to date. The 1978 Cup featured fourteen nations. The 2002 Cup featured sixteen nations, the largest World Cup to date. The remaining 9 World Cups have featured 12 nations.
The first three tournaments were held every two years. The 1978 cup was the only tournament held three years from the previous one. It was halfway between the Summer Olympics hockey competition and has continued that way. In other words, the tournament has been held every four years ever since.
The Hockey World Cup trophy was designed by the Bashir Moojid and created by the Pakistani Army. On March 27, 1971, in Brussels, the trophy was formally handed to FIH President Rene Frank by Mr H.E Masood, the Pakistani Ambassador to Belgium. The trophy consists of a silver cup with an intricate floral design, surmounted by a globe of the world in silver and gold, placed on a high blade base inlaid with ivory. At its peak is a model hockey stick and ball. Without its base, the trophy stands 120.85 mm (4.758 in) high. Including the base, the trophy stands 650 mm (26 in). It weighs 11,560 g (408 oz), including 895 g (31.6 oz) of gold, 6,815 g (240.4 oz) of silver, 350 g (12 oz) of ivory and 3,500 g (120 oz) of teak.
The Hockey World Cup consists of a qualification stage and a final tournament stage. The format for each stage is the same.
The qualification stage has been a part of the Hockey World Cup since 1977. All participating teams play in the qualification round. The teams divide into two or more pools and compete for a berth in the final tournament. The top two teams are automatically qualified and the rest of the berths are decided in playoffs.
The final tournament features the continental champions and other qualified teams. Sometimes it also features the winners of the Summer Olympics ' hockey competition or the continental runners - up. The teams divide into pools once more and play a round robin tournament. The composition of the pools is determined using the current world rankings. The top two teams in each pool play in the semifinals for a place in the final. The bottom two teams in the semifinals have a third place playoff. The rest of the teams have playoffs to determine their final positions. If they are third or fourth in their pool, they play for fifth place; if they are fifth or sixth in their pool, they play for ninth place.
Twenty - four teams have qualified for a Hockey World Cup. Of these, eleven teams have made it to the semifinals. Seven teams have made it through to the finals. To date, Pakistan has been the most successful team in the World Cup, with four titles from six appearances in the final. The Netherlands have also been successful, with three titles from six appearances in the final.
Australia have been the most successful team in the World Cup in recent years. They won the tournament in 2010 and 2014, and now have three titles from five appearances in the final. Australia took the mantle from Germany who won in 2002 and 2006. India won their lone title in 1975.
Below is a list of teams that have finished in the top four positions in the tournament:
Nine nations have hosted the Hockey World Cup. Only the Netherlands (1973 and 1998) and Germany (2006) have won the tournament as hosts. Spain, England, and Pakistan emerged as host runners - up in the 1971, 1986 and 1990 tournaments. Australia placed third when it hosted the 1994 tournament in Sydney.
To date, the finals of the Hockey World Cup have been contested by Asian, European and Oceania continental teams. Asian and European teams are tied with five titles each. Australia is the only team from Oceania to win the tournament. Neither the Americas nor Africa have ever won the title.
Germany, India, the Netherlands and Spain are the only teams to have competed at each World Cup; 24 teams have competed in at least one World Cup.
Total number of teams which have participated in the World Cups through 2014 is 25, using FIH 's view on successor teams ^ Germany is a successor of West Germany and not a separate team. # Belarus was a part of Soviet Union but not Successor, Hence Belarus is a new separate entity...
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one tree hill season 7 episode 18 cast | One Tree Hill (season 7) - wikipedia
The seventh season of One Tree Hill premiered on September 14, 2009. This is the first season not to include the show 's original cast members Chad Michael Murray and Hilarie Burton. After successful ratings for the first three episodes, The CW gave the series a full - season order of 22 episodes.
The season premiere was seen by 2.55 million viewers and achieved a 1.2 rating in Adults 18 -- 49. Episode 7 achieved season highs with 2.67 million viewers and a 1.3 rating in Adults 18 -- 49. The season averaged 2.3 million viewers and a 1.1 rating placing it at # 118 in the 2009 -- 10 season.
The seventh season takes place fourteen months after the season six finale, marking the series ' second time jump in three years. A year has passed since Lucas and Peyton left Tree Hill to go traveling. A scandal threatens Nathan 's career in the NBA; Haley goes back on the road, but suffers a family tragedy that causes her to battle a period of depression. Rachel and Dan return to Tree Hill and Brooke hires a new model (Alex) for "Clothes Over Bros '' that in turn threatens her relationship with Julian, and Mouth and Millicent 's (who become a model, but suffers serious self - image and a drug problem). Newcomers Clay and Quinn settle in Tree Hill and soon fall for one another, only to have their own dramas from psycho Katie. While old romances, Mia and Chase seem to struggle, new ones form, Miranda and Grubbs, give in and begin a relationship, while Victoria and Alexander decide to take their professional relationship to the next level.
Nathan learns of a shocking accusation that could threaten his career, much to the chagrin of his sports agent Clay. Brooke prepares to launch a new fashion line, and Julian decides to produce a big movie. Haley 's sister Quinn makes a surprise visit. Mouth wants Skills to move out, though Skills refuses which leads to a naked standoff. Meanwhile, Jamie celebrates his 7th birthday.
While in the process of recording her new album, Haley battles to protect Red Bedroom Records with the help of Mia. Brooke casts the new face of her clothing line, though her personality turns out to be what Brooke had n't expected. Clay defends Nathan against a growing scandal. Julian and Brooke decide to move in together. Julian 's father visits. Meanwhile, Dan unveils his new bride, Rachel Gatina.
Clay and Nathan disagree on how to handle an ever - worsening scandal. Quinn and Brooke organize a photo shoot, and Mouth ups the stakes in his battle with Skills. Meanwhile, Alex makes Julian an interesting proposition.
Nathan 's scandal becomes public. Brooke 's fashion show brings an unexpected responsibility for Millicent, and Haley convinces Quinn to talk to her estranged husband David. Meanwhile, Mouth makes a decision that could threaten his career. At Brooke 's fashion show, Clay gets into a fist fight with Quinn 's husband.
Haley is thrust into the spotlight and storm of Nathan 's growing scandal. Against her better judgment, Brooke allows Julian to continue working with Alex. Millicent gets a new job, which may cause trouble for Mouth. Meanwhile, Clay and Quinn grow closer.
While Haley begins to wonder if Renee 's accusations have merit, Nathan 's scandal threatens his endorsement deals and so Haley considers taking matters into her own hands. Julian gives Alex another chance, and a jealous Brooke reconnects with Chase. Millicent questions whether she has what it takes to be a model. Meanwhile, Clay lets Quinn in on a big secret.
Nathan and Haley are dealing with the fact that Dan has invited Renee onto his show, where she will undoubtedly air out the young Scott 's dirty laundry. Quinn contemplates where her marriage with David went wrong, while Brooke has to admit to Julian what her future plans and dreams are. Clay must deal with his past when Sara comes to town.
Julian agrees to a weekend camping trip but struggles to fit in with Nathan and the guys. Back in Tree Hill, Brooke and Haley spend Girl 's Night doing a little bonding of their own, and Quinn helps Clay come to terms with a tragic loss. Meanwhile, Dan and Rachel 's past catches up to them.
Haley returns to the stage and Brooke receives life - changing news. Meanwhile, Dan Scott returns to Tree Hill much to the chagrin of Nathan, who is about to sign a new NBA contract with the help of his agent Clay. Quinn and Clay grow closer.
Nathan reaches the breaking point with Clay, causing a rift between Haley and Quinn. Brooke comes clean with Julian about her worries regarding his growing connection to Alex. Meanwhile, Skills pursues a new career in LA and Millicent 's drug problem worsens.
Nathan and Haley 's careers bring about a tough decision for the family, and Julian divulges a secret to Alex that leads to a confrontation with Brooke. Meanwhile, Clay tries to resuscitate his career as an agent, and Jamie learns the truth about Skills ' new job. And a fresh - from - jail Millie finds an unlikely supporter in Victoria. After a shocking conversation with Julian, Alex leaves her suicide note on his voice mail.
Quinn helps Clay form a plan to convince Nathan to rehire him, but they may be too late as Nathan and Haley prepare to leave Tree Hill behind in their move to Barcelona. Brooke struggles to accept Julian 's reaction when Alex undergoes another crisis. Meanwhile, Millie 's downward spiral threatens her relationship with Mouth, and Dan makes an announcement that shocks Rachel and his studio audience.
Taylor (Haley and Quinn 's sister) returns, and she brings a familiar face with her. Millie goes in front of the judge for her DUI. Scenes from Haley 's concerts are also featured.
Nathan tries to keep Haley calm after Taylor shows up at their house with Quinn 's ex-husband in town. Julian sticks up for Alex on the set of their movie, and Brooke leans on Alexander to ease her heartache. Meanwhile, Clay gets a chance to prove his commitment to Quinn by helping her through a dinner with her sister and David.
In the chaos surrounding an ' 80s alumni dance at the high school, Haley 's birthday is forgotten, Jamie is left home alone, and Nathan and Clay are stranded 200 miles from Tree Hill. Meanwhile, Brooke 's appearance at the dance with Alexander forces Julian to relive his dorky adolescence in an episode dedicated to the memory of John Hughes.
Haley, Quinn and Taylor receive life - changing news when their mom Lydia shows up to town. Brooke and Julian try to find a balance between their personal lives and work as the movie shoot begins. Alex sets her sights on Alexander, and Millicent finds herself struggling with temptation.
Nathan tries to help Haley and Jamie confront Lydia 's seemingly hopeless situation, while Brooke and Julian navigate their volatile relationship in the midst of a hectic movie shoot. Meanwhile, Clay and Quinn spend some time apart, and Miranda tries to prove to Grubbs that she 's the right person to produce his album. Owen returns to help Millicent with a recent problem.
As Brooke angrily deals with Alex 's tryst with Julian, Lydia 's condition worsens, prompting Quinn and Haley to try to reconnect with Taylor. Clay is forced to deal with Katie 's unsettling advances, and Nathan helps Jamie come to terms with Lydia 's impending death.
On the eve of Quinn 's big gallery opening, an uninvited guest ambushes Clay. Nathan spends the day with Jamie, while Haley struggles with life after her mother 's death. Brooke and Julian each receive a shocking surprise. Meanwhile, Skills learns the truth about Lauren and Mouth.
Nathan and Haley struggle with the aftermath of her mother 's death, while Brooke deals with the fallout of Alexander 's tryst with Victoria. Alex discovers a secret about her leading man, Josh, that could derail Julian 's film, and Clay is confronted by an unhinged Katie.
Nathan struggles to reach an increasingly depressed Haley, while Quinn leads Jamie on a Tree Hill treasure hunt. Julian shows his finished film to Brooke, and Clay is forced to deal with Katie.
Haley tries to overcome her depression by joining Nathan, Jamie and the rest of the Tree Hill gang on a trip to Utah for the premiere of Julian 's film. Julian 's film is a huge hit, Haley discovers some good news, Julian takes a huge step in his relationship with Brooke, and Katie returns hurting both Clay and Quinn!
On February 25, 2009, The CW renewed One Tree Hill for a seventh season. On May 12, 2009, it was confirmed that both Chad Michael Murray and Hilarie Burton would not be returning for the seventh season. On June 8, 2009, it was announced that the seventh season will occur fourteen months into the future from the sixth season finale.
On September 29, 2009 The CW ordered a full season, set to total at 22 episodes.
This season includes three new characters portrayed by Robert Buckley, Shantel VanSanten, and Jana Kramer. Buckley is featured as Clayton, Nathan 's agent and friend. VanSanten is featured as Haley 's sister Quinn James. Kramer is featured as Alex, a model for Brooke fashion line, "Clothes Over Bros ''.
Returning are both Austin Nichols who plays Julian Baker a character introduced in the sixth season. This season also saw the return of Danneel Harris who had previously portrayed bad girl Rachel Gatina. Nichols has been promoted to a series regular while Harris will be recurring for at least seven episodes, beginning with the second episode of the seventh season. In an interview with new cast member Shantel VanSanten, she had noted the return of Lindsey McKeon as Taylor James, the sister of Haley and Quinn, midway through the season.
While speaking on the return of Taylor, VanSanten also revealed that her character 's mother, played by Bess Armstrong will also return.
The season averaged 2.28 million viewers and a 1.1 average Adults 18 -- 49 rating placing it at # 118 in the 2009 -- 10 season.
The DVD release of season seven was released after the season has completed broadcast on television. It has been released in Region 1 and Region 2 and Region 4. As well as every episode from the season, the DVD release features bonus material such as audio commentaries on some episodes from the creator and cast, deleted scenes, gag reels and behind - the - scenes featurettes.
http://www.onetreehillweb.net/
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temperature of the core of the sun in celsius | Sun - wikipedia
The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is a nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma, with internal convective motion that generates a magnetic field via a dynamo process. It is by far the most important source of energy for life on Earth. Its diameter is about 1.39 million kilometers, i.e. 109 times that of Earth, and its mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth, accounting for about 99.86 % of the total mass of the Solar System. About three quarters of the Sun 's mass consists of hydrogen (~ 73 %); the rest is mostly helium (~ 25 %), with much smaller quantities of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon, and iron.
The Sun is a G - type main - sequence star (G2V) based on its spectral class. As such, it is informally referred to as a yellow dwarf. It formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of matter within a region of a large molecular cloud. Most of this matter gathered in the center, whereas the rest flattened into an orbiting disk that became the Solar System. The central mass became so hot and dense that it eventually initiated nuclear fusion in its core. It is thought that almost all stars form by this process.
The Sun is roughly middle - aged; it has not changed dramatically for more than four billion years, and will remain fairly stable for more than another five billion years. After hydrogen fusion in its core has diminished to the point at which it is no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium, the core of the Sun will experience a marked increase in density and temperature while its outer layers expand to eventually become a red giant. It is calculated that the Sun will become sufficiently large to engulf the current orbits of Mercury and Venus, and render Earth uninhabitable.
The enormous effect of the Sun on Earth has been recognized since prehistoric times, and the Sun has been regarded by some cultures as a deity. The synodic rotation of Earth and its orbit around the Sun are the basis of solar calendars, one of which is the predominant calendar in use today.
The English proper name Sun developed from Old English sunne and may be related to south. Cognates to English sun appear in other Germanic languages, including Old Frisian sunne, sonne, Old Saxon sunna, Middle Dutch sonne, modern Dutch zon, Old High German sunna, modern German Sonne, Old Norse sunna, and Gothic sunnō. All Germanic terms for the Sun stem from Proto - Germanic * sunnōn.
The English weekday name Sunday stems from Old English (Sunnandæg; "Sun 's day '', from before 700) and is ultimately a result of a Germanic interpretation of Latin dies solis, itself a translation of the Greek ἡμέρα ἡλίου (hēméra hēlíou). The Latin name for the Sun, Sol, is not common in general English language use; the adjectival form is the related word solar. The term sol is also used by planetary astronomers to refer to the duration of a solar day on another planet, such as Mars. A mean Earth solar day is approximately 24 hours, whereas a mean Martian ' sol ' is 24 hours, 39 minutes, and 35.244 seconds.
Solar deities play a major role in many world religions and mythologies. The ancient Sumerians believed that the sun was Utu, the god of justice and twin brother of Inanna, the Queen of Heaven, who was identified as the planet Venus. Later, Utu was identified with the East Semitic god Shamash. Utu was regarded as a helper - deity, who aided those in distress, and, in iconography, he is usually portrayed with a long beard and clutching a saw, which represented his role as the dispenser of justice.
From at least the 4th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt, the Sun was worshipped as the god Ra, portrayed as a falcon - headed divinity surmounted by the solar disk, and surrounded by a serpent. In the New Empire period, the Sun became identified with the dung beetle, whose spherical ball of dung was identified with the Sun. In the form of the Sun disc Aten, the Sun had a brief resurgence during the Amarna Period when it again became the preeminent, if not only, divinity for the Pharaoh Akhenaton.
In Proto - Indo - European religion, the sun was personified as the goddess * Seh ul. Derivatives of this goddess in Indo - European languages include the Old Norse Sól, Sanskrit Surya, Gaulish Sulis, Lithuanian Saulė, and Slavic Solntse. In ancient Greek religion, the sun deity was the male god Helios, but traces of an earlier female solar deity are preserved in Helen of Troy. In later times, Helios was syncretized with Apollo.
In the Bible, Malachi 4: 2 mentions the "Sun of Righteousness '' (sometimes translated as the "Sun of Justice ''), which some Christians have interpreted as a reference to the Messiah (Christ). In ancient Roman culture, Sunday was the day of the Sun god. It was adopted as the Sabbath day by Christians who did not have a Jewish background. The symbol of light was a pagan device adopted by Christians, and perhaps the most important one that did not come from Jewish traditions. In paganism, the Sun was a source of life, giving warmth and illumination to mankind. It was the center of a popular cult among Romans, who would stand at dawn to catch the first rays of sunshine as they prayed. The celebration of the winter solstice (which influenced Christmas) was part of the Roman cult of the unconquered Sun (Sol Invictus). Christian churches were built with an orientation so that the congregation faced toward the sunrise in the East.
Tonatiuh, the Aztec god of the sun, was usually depicted holding arrows and a shield and was closely associated with the practice of human sacrifice. The sun goddess Amaterasu is the most important deity in the Shinto religion, and she is believed to be the direct ancestor of all Japanese emperors.
The Sun is a G - type main - sequence star that comprises about 99.86 % of the mass of the Solar System. The Sun has an absolute magnitude of + 4.83, estimated to be brighter than about 85 % of the stars in the Milky Way, most of which are red dwarfs. The Sun is a Population I, or heavy - element - rich, star. The formation of the Sun may have been triggered by shockwaves from one or more nearby supernovae. This is suggested by a high abundance of heavy elements in the Solar System, such as gold and uranium, relative to the abundances of these elements in so - called Population II, heavy - element - poor, stars. The heavy elements could most plausibly have been produced by endothermic nuclear reactions during a supernova, or by transmutation through neutron absorption within a massive second - generation star.
The Sun is by far the brightest object in the Earth 's sky, with an apparent magnitude of − 26.74. This is about 13 billion times brighter than the next brightest star, Sirius, which has an apparent magnitude of − 1.46. The mean distance of the Sun 's center to Earth 's center is approximately 1 astronomical unit (about 150,000,000 km; 93,000,000 mi), though the distance varies as Earth moves from perihelion in January to aphelion in July. At this average distance, light travels from the Sun 's horizon to Earth 's horizon in about 8 minutes and 19 seconds, while light from the closest points of the Sun and Earth takes about two seconds less. The energy of this sunlight supports almost all life on Earth by photosynthesis, and drives Earth 's climate and weather.
The Sun does not have a definite boundary, but its density decreases exponentially with increasing height above the photosphere. For the purpose of measurement, however, the Sun 's radius is considered to be the distance from its center to the edge of the photosphere, the apparent visible surface of the Sun. By this measure, the Sun is a near - perfect sphere with an oblateness estimated at about 9 millionths, which means that its polar diameter differs from its equatorial diameter by only 10 kilometres (6.2 mi). The tidal effect of the planets is weak and does not significantly affect the shape of the Sun. The Sun rotates faster at its equator than at its poles. This differential rotation is caused by convective motion due to heat transport and the Coriolis force due to the Sun 's rotation. In a frame of reference defined by the stars, the rotational period is approximately 25.6 days at the equator and 33.5 days at the poles. Viewed from Earth as it orbits the Sun, the apparent rotational period of the Sun at its equator is about 28 days.
The solar constant is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar constant is equal to approximately 7003136800000000000 ♠ 1,368 W / m (watts per square meter) at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun (that is, on or near Earth). Sunlight on the surface of Earth is attenuated by Earth 's atmosphere, so that less power arrives at the surface (closer to 7003100000000000000 ♠ 1,000 W / m) in clear conditions when the Sun is near the zenith. Sunlight at the top of Earth 's atmosphere is composed (by total energy) of about 50 % infrared light, 40 % visible light, and 10 % ultraviolet light. The atmosphere in particular filters out over 70 % of solar ultraviolet, especially at the shorter wavelengths. Solar ultraviolet radiation ionizes Earth 's dayside upper atmosphere, creating the electrically conducting ionosphere.
The Sun 's color is white, with a CIE color - space index near (0.3, 0.3), when viewed from space or when the Sun is high in the sky. When measuring all the photons emitted, the Sun is actually emitting more photons in the green portion of the spectrum than any other. When the Sun is low in the sky, atmospheric scattering renders the Sun yellow, red, orange, or magenta. Despite its typical whiteness, most people mentally picture the Sun as yellow; the reasons for this are the subject of debate. The Sun is a G2V star, with G2 indicating its surface temperature of approximately 5,778 K (5,505 ° C, 9,941 ° F), and V that it, like most stars, is a main - sequence star. The average luminance of the Sun is about 1.88 giga candela per square metre, but as viewed through Earth 's atmosphere, this is lowered to about 1.44 Gcd / m. However, the luminance is not constant across the disk of the Sun (limb darkening).
The Sun is composed primarily of the chemical elements hydrogen and helium; they account for 74.9 % and 23.8 % of the mass of the Sun in the photosphere, respectively. All heavier elements, called metals in astronomy, account for less than 2 % of the mass, with oxygen (roughly 1 % of the Sun 's mass), carbon (0.3 %), neon (0.2 %), and iron (0.2 %) being the most abundant.
The Sun inherited its chemical composition from the interstellar medium out of which it formed. The hydrogen and helium in the Sun were produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis, and the heavier elements were produced by stellar nucleosynthesis in generations of stars that completed their stellar evolution and returned their material to the interstellar medium before the formation of the Sun. The chemical composition of the photosphere is normally considered representative of the composition of the primordial Solar System. However, since the Sun formed, some of the helium and heavy elements have gravitationally settled from the photosphere. Therefore, in today 's photosphere the helium fraction is reduced, and the metallicity is only 84 % of what it was in the protostellar phase (before nuclear fusion in the core started). The protostellar Sun 's composition is believed to have been 71.1 % hydrogen, 27.4 % helium, and 1.5 % heavier elements.
Today, nuclear fusion in the Sun 's core has modified the composition by converting hydrogen into helium, so the innermost portion of the Sun is now roughly 60 % helium, with the abundance of heavier elements unchanged. Because heat is transferred from the Sun 's core by radiation rather than by convection (see Radiative zone below), none of the fusion products from the core have risen to the photosphere.
The reactive core zone of "hydrogen burning '', where hydrogen is converted into helium, is starting to surround an inner core of "helium ash ''. This development will continue and will eventually cause the Sun to leave the main sequence, to become a red giant.
The solar heavy - element abundances described above are typically measured both using spectroscopy of the Sun 's photosphere and by measuring abundances in meteorites that have never been heated to melting temperatures. These meteorites are thought to retain the composition of the protostellar Sun and are thus not affected by settling of heavy elements. The two methods generally agree well.
In the 1970s, much research focused on the abundances of iron - group elements in the Sun. Although significant research was done, until 1978 it was difficult to determine the abundances of some iron - group elements (e.g. cobalt and manganese) via spectrography because of their hyperfine structures.
The first largely complete set of oscillator strengths of singly ionized iron - group elements were made available in the 1960s, and these were subsequently improved. In 1978, the abundances of singly ionized elements of the iron group were derived.
Various authors have considered the existence of a gradient in the isotopic compositions of solar and planetary noble gases, e.g. correlations between isotopic compositions of neon and xenon in the Sun and on the planets.
Prior to 1983, it was thought that the whole Sun has the same composition as the solar atmosphere. In 1983, it was claimed that it was fractionation in the Sun itself that caused the isotopic - composition relationship between the planetary and solar - wind - implanted noble gases.
The core of the Sun extends from the center to about 20 -- 25 % of the solar radius. It has a density of up to 7005150000000000000 ♠ 150 g / cm (about 150 times the density of water) and a temperature of close to 15.7 million kelvins (K). By contrast, the Sun 's surface temperature is approximately 5,800 K. Recent analysis of SOHO mission data favors a faster rotation rate in the core than in the radiative zone above. Through most of the Sun 's life, energy has been produced by nuclear fusion in the core region through a series of steps called the p -- p (proton -- proton) chain; this process converts hydrogen into helium. Only 0.8 % of the energy generated in the Sun comes from the CNO cycle, though this proportion is expected to increase as the Sun becomes older.
The core is the only region in the Sun that produces an appreciable amount of thermal energy through fusion; 99 % of the power is generated within 24 % of the Sun 's radius, and by 30 % of the radius, fusion has stopped nearly entirely. The remainder of the Sun is heated by this energy as it is transferred outwards through many successive layers, finally to the solar photosphere where it escapes into space as sunlight or the kinetic energy of particles.
The proton -- proton chain occurs around 7037919999999999999 ♠ 9.2 × 10 times each second in the core, converting about 3.7 × 10 protons into alpha particles (helium nuclei) every second (out of a total of ~ 8.9 × 10 free protons in the Sun), or about 6.2 × 10 kg / s. Fusing four free protons (hydrogen nuclei) into a single alpha particle (helium nucleus) releases around 0.7 % of the fused mass as energy, so the Sun releases energy at the mass -- energy conversion rate of 4.26 million metric tons per second (which requires 600 metric megatons of hydrogen), for 384.6 yottawatts (7026384600000000000 ♠ 3.846 × 10 W), or 9.192 × 10 megatons of TNT per second. Theoretical models of the Sun 's interior indicate a power density of approximately 276.5 W / m, a value that more nearly approximates that of reptile metabolism or a compost pile than of a thermonuclear bomb.
The fusion rate in the core is in a self - correcting equilibrium: a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core to heat up more and expand slightly against the weight of the outer layers, reducing the density and hence the fusion rate and correcting the perturbation; and a slightly lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly, increasing the density and increasing the fusion rate and again reverting it to its present rate.
From the core out to about 0.7 solar radii, thermal radiation is the primary means of energy transfer. The temperature drops from approximately 7 million to 2 million kelvins with increasing distance from the core. This temperature gradient is less than the value of the adiabatic lapse rate and hence can not drive convection, which explains why the transfer of energy through this zone is by radiation instead of thermal convection. Ions of hydrogen and helium emit photons, which travel only a brief distance before being reabsorbed by other ions. The density drops a hundredfold (from 20 g / cm to 0.2 g / cm) from 0.25 solar radii to the 0.7 radii, the top of the radiative zone.
The radiative zone and the convective zone are separated by a transition layer, the tachocline. This is a region where the sharp regime change between the uniform rotation of the radiative zone and the differential rotation of the convection zone results in a large shear between the two -- a condition where successive horizontal layers slide past one another. Presently, it is hypothesized (see Solar dynamo) that a magnetic dynamo within this layer generates the Sun 's magnetic field.
The Sun 's convection zone extends from 0.7 solar radii (200,000 km) to near the surface. In this layer, the solar plasma is not dense enough or hot enough to transfer the heat energy of the interior outward via radiation. Instead, the density of the plasma is low enough to allow convective currents to develop and move the Sun 's energy outward towards its surface. Material heated at the tachocline picks up heat and expands, thereby reducing its density and allowing it to rise. As a result, an orderly motion of the mass develops into thermal cells that carry the majority of the heat outward to the Sun 's photosphere above. Once the material diffusively and radiatively cools just beneath the photospheric surface, its density increases, and it sinks to the base of the convection zone, where it again picks up heat from the top of the radiative zone and the convective cycle continues. At the photosphere, the temperature has dropped to 5,700 K and the density to only 0.2 g / m (about 1 / 6,000 the density of air at sea level).
The thermal columns of the convection zone form an imprint on the surface of the Sun giving it a granular appearance called the solar granulation at the smallest scale and supergranulation at larger scales. Turbulent convection in this outer part of the solar interior sustains "small - scale '' dynamo action over the near - surface volume of the Sun. The Sun 's thermal columns are Bénard cells and take the shape of hexagonal prisms.
The visible surface of the Sun, the photosphere, is the layer below which the Sun becomes opaque to visible light. Above the photosphere visible sunlight is free to propagate into space, and almost all of its energy escapes the Sun entirely. The change in opacity is due to the decreasing amount of H ions, which absorb visible light easily. Conversely, the visible light we see is produced as electrons react with hydrogen atoms to produce H ions. The photosphere is tens to hundreds of kilometers thick, and is slightly less opaque than air on Earth. Because the upper part of the photosphere is cooler than the lower part, an image of the Sun appears brighter in the center than on the edge or limb of the solar disk, in a phenomenon known as limb darkening. The spectrum of sunlight has approximately the spectrum of a black - body radiating at about 6,000 K, interspersed with atomic absorption lines from the tenuous layers above the photosphere. The photosphere has a particle density of ~ 10 m (about 0.37 % of the particle number per volume of Earth 's atmosphere at sea level). The photosphere is not fully ionized -- the extent of ionization is about 3 %, leaving almost all of the hydrogen in atomic form.
During early studies of the optical spectrum of the photosphere, some absorption lines were found that did not correspond to any chemical elements then known on Earth. In 1868, Norman Lockyer hypothesized that these absorption lines were caused by a new element that he dubbed helium, after the Greek Sun god Helios. Twenty - five years later, helium was isolated on Earth.
During a total solar eclipse, when the disk of the Sun is covered by that of the Moon, parts of the Sun 's surrounding atmosphere can be seen. It is composed of four distinct parts: the chromosphere, the transition region, the corona and the heliosphere.
The coolest layer of the Sun is a temperature minimum region extending to about 7005500000000000000 ♠ 500 km above the photosphere, and has a temperature of about 7003410000000000000 ♠ 4,100 K. This part of the Sun is cool enough to allow the existence of simple molecules such as carbon monoxide and water, which can be detected via their absorption spectra.
The chromosphere, transition region, and corona are much hotter than the surface of the Sun. The reason is not well understood, but evidence suggests that Alfvén waves may have enough energy to heat the corona.
Above the temperature minimum layer is a layer about 7006200000000000000 ♠ 2,000 km thick, dominated by a spectrum of emission and absorption lines. It is called the chromosphere from the Greek root chroma, meaning color, because the chromosphere is visible as a colored flash at the beginning and end of total solar eclipses. The temperature of the chromosphere increases gradually with altitude, ranging up to around 7004200000000000000 ♠ 20,000 K near the top. In the upper part of the chromosphere helium becomes partially ionized.
Above the chromosphere, in a thin (about 200 km) transition region, the temperature rises rapidly from around 20,000 K in the upper chromosphere to coronal temperatures closer to 1,000,000 K. The temperature increase is facilitated by the full ionization of helium in the transition region, which significantly reduces radiative cooling of the plasma. The transition region does not occur at a well - defined altitude. Rather, it forms a kind of nimbus around chromospheric features such as spicules and filaments, and is in constant, chaotic motion. The transition region is not easily visible from Earth 's surface, but is readily observable from space by instruments sensitive to the extreme ultraviolet portion of the spectrum.
The corona is the next layer of the Sun. The low corona, near the surface of the Sun, has a particle density around 10 m to 10 m. The average temperature of the corona and solar wind is about 1,000,000 -- 2,000,000 K; however, in the hottest regions it is 8,000,000 -- 20,000,000 K. Although no complete theory yet exists to account for the temperature of the corona, at least some of its heat is known to be from magnetic reconnection. The corona is the extended atmosphere of the Sun, which has a volume much larger than the volume enclosed by the Sun 's photosphere. A flow of plasma outward from the Sun into interplanetary space is the solar wind.
The heliosphere, the tenuous outermost atmosphere of the Sun, is filled with the solar wind plasma. This outermost layer of the Sun is defined to begin at the distance where the flow of the solar wind becomes superalfvénic -- that is, where the flow becomes faster than the speed of Alfvén waves, at approximately 20 solar radii (0.1 AU). Turbulence and dynamic forces in the heliosphere can not affect the shape of the solar corona within, because the information can only travel at the speed of Alfvén waves. The solar wind travels outward continuously through the heliosphere, forming the solar magnetic field into a spiral shape, until it impacts the heliopause more than 50 AU from the Sun. In December 2004, the Voyager 1 probe passed through a shock front that is thought to be part of the heliopause. In late 2012 Voyager 1 recorded a marked increase in cosmic ray collisions and a sharp drop in lower energy particles from the solar wind, which suggested that the probe had passed through the heliopause and entered the interstellar medium.
High - energy gamma - ray photons initially released with fusion reactions in the core are almost immediately absorbed by the solar plasma of the radiative zone, usually after traveling only a few millimeters. Re-emission happens in a random direction and usually at a slightly lower energy. With this sequence of emissions and absorptions, it takes a long time for radiation to reach the Sun 's surface. Estimates of the photon travel time range between 10,000 and 170,000 years. In contrast, it takes only 2.3 seconds for the neutrinos, which account for about 2 % of the total energy production of the Sun, to reach the surface. Because energy transport in the Sun is a process that involves photons in thermodynamic equilibrium with matter, the time scale of energy transport in the Sun is longer, on the order of 30,000,000 years. This is the time it would take the Sun to return to a stable state, if the rate of energy generation in its core were suddenly changed.
Neutrinos are also released by the fusion reactions in the core, but, unlike photons, they rarely interact with matter, so almost all are able to escape the Sun immediately. For many years measurements of the number of neutrinos produced in the Sun were lower than theories predicted by a factor of 3. This discrepancy was resolved in 2001 through the discovery of the effects of neutrino oscillation: the Sun emits the number of neutrinos predicted by the theory, but neutrino detectors were missing ⁄ of them because the neutrinos had changed flavor by the time they were detected.
The Sun has a magnetic field that varies across the surface of the Sun. Its polar field is 1 -- 2 gauss (0.0001 -- 0.0002 T), whereas the field is typically 3,000 gauss (0.3 T) in features on the Sun called sunspots and 10 -- 100 gauss (0.001 -- 0.01 T) in solar prominences.
The magnetic field also varies in time and location. The quasi-periodic 11 - year solar cycle is the most prominent variation in which the number and size of sunspots waxes and wanes.
Sunspots are visible as dark patches on the Sun 's photosphere, and correspond to concentrations of magnetic field where the convective transport of heat is inhibited from the solar interior to the surface. As a result, sunspots are slightly cooler than the surrounding photosphere, and, so, they appear dark. At a typical solar minimum, few sunspots are visible, and occasionally none can be seen at all. Those that do appear are at high solar latitudes. As the solar cycle progresses towards its maximum, sunspots tend form closer to the solar equator, a phenomenon known as Spörer 's law. The largest sunspots can be tens of thousands of kilometers across.
An 11 - year sunspot cycle is half of a 22 - year Babcock -- Leighton dynamo cycle, which corresponds to an oscillatory exchange of energy between toroidal and poloidal solar magnetic fields. At solar - cycle maximum, the external poloidal dipolar magnetic field is near its dynamo - cycle minimum strength, but an internal toroidal quadrupolar field, generated through differential rotation within the tachocline, is near its maximum strength. At this point in the dynamo cycle, buoyant upwelling within the convective zone forces emergence of toroidal magnetic field through the photosphere, giving rise to pairs of sunspots, roughly aligned east -- west and having footprints with opposite magnetic polarities. The magnetic polarity of sunspot pairs alternates every solar cycle, a phenomenon known as the Hale cycle.
During the solar cycle 's declining phase, energy shifts from the internal toroidal magnetic field to the external poloidal field, and sunspots diminish in number and size. At solar - cycle minimum, the toroidal field is, correspondingly, at minimum strength, sunspots are relatively rare, and the poloidal field is at its maximum strength. With the rise of the next 11 - year sunspot cycle, differential rotation shifts magnetic energy back from the poloidal to the toroidal field, but with a polarity that is opposite to the previous cycle. The process carries on continuously, and in an idealized, simplified scenario, each 11 - year sunspot cycle corresponds to a change, then, in the overall polarity of the Sun 's large - scale magnetic field.
The solar magnetic field extends well beyond the Sun itself. The electrically conducting solar wind plasma carries the Sun 's magnetic field into space, forming what is called the interplanetary magnetic field. In an approximation known as ideal magnetohydrodynamics, plasma particles only move along the magnetic field lines. As a result, the outward - flowing solar wind stretches the interplanetary magnetic field outward, forcing it into a roughly radial structure. For a simple dipolar solar magnetic field, with opposite hemispherical polarities on either side of the solar magnetic equator, a thin current sheet is formed in the solar wind. At great distances, the rotation of the Sun twists the dipolar magnetic field and corresponding current sheet into an Archimedean spiral structure called the Parker spiral. The interplanetary magnetic field is much stronger than the dipole component of the solar magnetic field. The Sun 's dipole magnetic field of 50 -- 400 μT (at the photosphere) reduces with the inverse - cube of the distance to about 0.1 nT at the distance of Earth. However, according to spacecraft observations the interplanetary field at Earth 's location is around 5 nT, about a hundred times greater. The difference is due to magnetic fields generated by electrical currents in the plasma surrounding the Sun.
The Sun 's magnetic field leads to many effects that are collectively called solar activity. Solar flares and coronal - mass ejections tend to occur at sunspot groups. Slowly changing high - speed streams of solar wind are emitted from coronal holes at the photospheric surface. Both coronal - mass ejections and high - speed streams of solar wind carry plasma and interplanetary magnetic field outward into the Solar System. The effects of solar activity on Earth include auroras at moderate to high latitudes and the disruption of radio communications and electric power. Solar activity is thought to have played a large role in the formation and evolution of the Solar System.
With solar - cycle modulation of sunspot number comes a corresponding modulation of space weather conditions, including those surrounding Earth where technological systems can be affected.
Long - term secular change in sunspot number is thought, by some scientists, to be correlated with long - term change in solar irradiance, which, in turn, might influence Earth 's long - term climate. For example, in the 17th century, the solar cycle appeared to have stopped entirely for several decades; few sunspots were observed during a period known as the Maunder minimum. This coincided in time with the era of the Little Ice Age, when Europe experienced unusually cold temperatures. Earlier extended minima have been discovered through analysis of tree rings and appear to have coincided with lower - than - average global temperatures.
A recent theory claims that there are magnetic instabilities in the core of the Sun that cause fluctuations with periods of either 41,000 or 100,000 years. These could provide a better explanation of the ice ages than the Milankovitch cycles.
The Sun today is roughly halfway through the most stable part of its life. It has not changed dramatically for over four billion years, and will remain fairly stable for more than five billion more. However, after hydrogen fusion in its core has stopped, the Sun will undergo severe changes, both internally and externally.
The Sun formed about 4.6 billion years ago from the collapse of part of a giant molecular cloud that consisted mostly of hydrogen and helium and that probably gave birth to many other stars. This age is estimated using computer models of stellar evolution and through nucleocosmochronology. The result is consistent with the radiometric date of the oldest Solar System material, at 4.567 billion years ago. Studies of ancient meteorites reveal traces of stable daughter nuclei of short - lived isotopes, such as iron - 60, that form only in exploding, short - lived stars. This indicates that one or more supernovae must have occurred near the location where the Sun formed. A shock wave from a nearby supernova would have triggered the formation of the Sun by compressing the matter within the molecular cloud and causing certain regions to collapse under their own gravity. As one fragment of the cloud collapsed it also began to rotate because of conservation of angular momentum and heat up with the increasing pressure. Much of the mass became concentrated in the center, whereas the rest flattened out into a disk that would become the planets and other Solar System bodies. Gravity and pressure within the core of the cloud generated a lot of heat as it accreted more matter from the surrounding disk, eventually triggering nuclear fusion. Thus, the Sun was born.
The Sun is about halfway through its main - sequence stage, during which nuclear fusion reactions in its core fuse hydrogen into helium. Each second, more than four million tonnes of matter are converted into energy within the Sun 's core, producing neutrinos and solar radiation. At this rate, the Sun has so far converted around 100 times the mass of Earth into energy, about 0.03 % of the total mass of the Sun. The Sun will spend a total of approximately 10 billion years as a main - sequence star. The Sun is gradually becoming hotter during its time on the main sequence, because the helium atoms in the core occupy less volume than the hydrogen atoms that were fused. The core is therefore shrinking, allowing the outer layers of the Sun to move closer to the centre and experience a stronger gravitational force, according to the inverse - square law. This stronger force increases the pressure on the core, which is resisted by a gradual increase in the rate at which fusion occurs. This process speeds up as the core gradually becomes denser. It is estimated that the Sun has become 30 % brighter in the last 4.5 billion years. At present, it is increasing in brightness by about 1 % every 100 million years.
The Sun does not have enough mass to explode as a supernova. Instead it will exit the main sequence in approximately 5 billion years and start to turn into a red giant. As a red giant, the Sun will grow so large that it will engulf Mercury, Venus, and probably Earth.
Even before it becomes a red giant, the luminosity of the Sun will have nearly doubled, and Earth will receive as much sunlight as Venus receives today. Once the core hydrogen is exhausted in 5.4 billion years, the Sun will expand into a subgiant phase and slowly double in size over about half a billion years. It will then expand more rapidly over about half a billion years until it is over two hundred times larger than today and a couple of thousand times more luminous. This then starts the red - giant - branch phase where the Sun will spend around a billion years and lose around a third of its mass.
After the red - giant branch the Sun has approximately 120 million years of active life left, but much happens. First, the core, full of degenerate helium ignites violently in the helium flash, where it is estimated that 6 % of the core, itself 40 % of the Sun 's mass, will be converted into carbon within a matter of minutes through the triple - alpha process. The Sun then shrinks to around 10 times its current size and 50 times the luminosity, with a temperature a little lower than today. It will then have reached the red clump or horizontal branch, but a star of the Sun 's mass does not evolve blueward along the horizontal branch. Instead, it just becomes moderately larger and more luminous over about 100 million years as it continues to burn helium in the core.
When the helium is exhausted, the Sun will repeat the expansion it followed when the hydrogen in the core was exhausted, except that this time it all happens faster, and the Sun becomes larger and more luminous. This is the asymptotic - giant - branch phase, and the Sun is alternately burning hydrogen in a shell or helium in a deeper shell. After about 20 million years on the early asymptotic giant branch, the Sun becomes increasingly unstable, with rapid mass loss and thermal pulses that increase the size and luminosity for a few hundred years every 100,000 years or so. The thermal pulses become larger each time, with the later pulses pushing the luminosity to as much as 5,000 times the current level and the radius to over 1 AU. According to a 2008 model, Earth 's orbit is shrinking due to tidal forces (and, eventually, drag from the lower chromosphere), so that it will be engulfed by the Sun near the tip of the red giant branch phase, 1 and 3.8 million years after Mercury and Venus have respectively suffered the same fate. Models vary depending on the rate and timing of mass loss. Models that have higher mass loss on the red - giant branch produce smaller, less luminous stars at the tip of the asymptotic giant branch, perhaps only 2,000 times the luminosity and less than 200 times the radius. For the Sun, four thermal pulses are predicted before it completely loses its outer envelope and starts to make a planetary nebula. By the end of that phase -- lasting approximately 500,000 years -- the Sun will only have about half of its current mass.
The post-asymptotic - giant - branch evolution is even faster. The luminosity stays approximately constant as the temperature increases, with the ejected half of the Sun 's mass becoming ionised into a planetary nebula as the exposed core reaches 30,000 K. The final naked core, a white dwarf, will have a temperature of over 100,000 K, and contain an estimated 54.05 % of the Sun 's present day mass. The planetary nebula will disperse in about 10,000 years, but the white dwarf will survive for trillions of years before fading to a hypothetical black dwarf.
The Sun lies close to the inner rim of the Milky Way 's Orion Arm, in the Local Interstellar Cloud or the Gould Belt, at a distance of 7.5 -- 8.5 kpc (25,000 -- 28,000 light - years) from the Galactic Center. The Sun is contained within the Local Bubble, a space of rarefied hot gas, possibly produced by the supernova remnant Geminga. The distance between the local arm and the next arm out, the Perseus Arm, is about 6,500 light - years. The Sun, and thus the Solar System, is found in what scientists call the galactic habitable zone. The Apex of the Sun 's Way, or the solar apex, is the direction that the Sun travels relative to other nearby stars. This motion is towards a point in the constellation Hercules, near the star Vega. Of the 50 nearest stellar systems within 17 light - years from Earth (the closest being the red dwarf Proxima Centauri at approximately 4.2 light - years), the Sun ranks fourth in mass.
The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way, and it is presently moving in the direction of the constellation of Cygnus. The Sun 's orbit around the Milky Way is roughly elliptical with orbital perturbations due to the non-uniform mass distribution in Milky Way, such as that in and between the galactic spiral arms. In addition, the Sun oscillates up and down relative to the galactic plane approximately 2.7 times per orbit. It has been argued that the Sun 's passage through the higher density spiral arms often coincides with mass extinctions on Earth, perhaps due to increased impact events. It takes the Solar System about 225 -- 250 million years to complete one orbit through the Milky Way (a galactic year), so it is thought to have completed 20 -- 25 orbits during the lifetime of the Sun. The orbital speed of the Solar System about the center of the Milky Way is approximately 251 km / s (156 mi / s). At this speed, it takes around 1,190 years for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1 light - year, or 7 days to travel 1 AU.
The Milky Way is moving with respect to the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) in the direction of the constellation Hydra with a speed of 550 km / s, and the Sun 's resultant velocity with respect to the CMB is about 370 km / s in the direction of Crater or Leo.
The temperature of the photosphere is approximately 6,000 K, whereas the temperature of the corona reaches 1,000,000 -- 2,000,000 K. The high temperature of the corona shows that it is heated by something other than direct heat conduction from the photosphere.
It is thought that the energy necessary to heat the corona is provided by turbulent motion in the convection zone below the photosphere, and two main mechanisms have been proposed to explain coronal heating. The first is wave heating, in which sound, gravitational or magnetohydrodynamic waves are produced by turbulence in the convection zone. These waves travel upward and dissipate in the corona, depositing their energy in the ambient matter in the form of heat. The other is magnetic heating, in which magnetic energy is continuously built up by photospheric motion and released through magnetic reconnection in the form of large solar flares and myriad similar but smaller events -- nanoflares.
Currently, it is unclear whether waves are an efficient heating mechanism. All waves except Alfvén waves have been found to dissipate or refract before reaching the corona. In addition, Alfvén waves do not easily dissipate in the corona. Current research focus has therefore shifted towards flare heating mechanisms.
Theoretical models of the Sun 's development suggest that 3.8 to 2.5 billion years ago, during the Archean eon, the Sun was only about 75 % as bright as it is today. Such a weak star would not have been able to sustain liquid water on Earth 's surface, and thus life should not have been able to develop. However, the geological record demonstrates that Earth has remained at a fairly constant temperature throughout its history, and that the young Earth was somewhat warmer than it is today. One theory among scientists is that the atmosphere of the young Earth contained much larger quantities of greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide, methane) than are present today, which trapped enough heat to compensate for the smaller amount of solar energy reaching it.
However, examination of Archaean sediments appears inconsistent with the hypothesis of high greenhouse concentrations. Instead, the moderate temperature range may be explained by a lower surface albedo brought about by less continental area and the "lack of biologically induced cloud condensation nuclei ''. This would have led to increased absorption of solar energy, thereby compensating for the lower solar output.
The enormous effect of the Sun on Earth has been recognized since prehistoric times, and the Sun has been regarded by some cultures as a deity.
The Sun has been an object of veneration in many cultures throughout human history. Humanity 's most fundamental understanding of the Sun is as the luminous disk in the sky, whose presence above the horizon creates day and whose absence causes night. In many prehistoric and ancient cultures, the Sun was thought to be a solar deity or other supernatural entity. Worship of the Sun was central to civilizations such as the ancient Egyptians, the Inca of South America and the Aztecs of what is now Mexico. In religions such as Hinduism, the Sun is still considered a god. Many ancient monuments were constructed with solar phenomena in mind; for example, stone megaliths accurately mark the summer or winter solstice (some of the most prominent megaliths are located in Nabta Playa, Egypt; Mnajdra, Malta and at Stonehenge, England); Newgrange, a prehistoric human - built mount in Ireland, was designed to detect the winter solstice; the pyramid of El Castillo at Chichén Itzá in Mexico is designed to cast shadows in the shape of serpents climbing the pyramid at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes.
The Egyptians portrayed the god Ra as being carried across the sky in a solar barque, accompanied by lesser gods, and to the Greeks, he was Helios, carried by a chariot drawn by fiery horses. From the reign of Elagabalus in the late Roman Empire the Sun 's birthday was a holiday celebrated as Sol Invictus (literally "Unconquered Sun '') soon after the winter solstice, which may have been an antecedent to Christmas. Regarding the fixed stars, the Sun appears from Earth to revolve once a year along the ecliptic through the zodiac, and so Greek astronomers categorized it as one of the seven planets (Greek planetes, "wanderer ''); the naming of the days of the weeks after the seven planets dates to the Roman era.
In the early first millennium BC, Babylonian astronomers observed that the Sun 's motion along the ecliptic is not uniform, though they did not know why; it is today known that this is due to the movement of Earth in an elliptic orbit around the Sun, with Earth moving faster when it is nearer to the Sun at perihelion and moving slower when it is farther away at aphelion.
One of the first people to offer a scientific or philosophical explanation for the Sun was the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras. He reasoned that it was not the chariot of Helios, but instead a giant flaming ball of metal even larger than the land of the Peloponnesus and that the Moon reflected the light of the Sun. For teaching this heresy, he was imprisoned by the authorities and sentenced to death, though he was later released through the intervention of Pericles. Eratosthenes estimated the distance between Earth and the Sun in the 3rd century BC as "of stadia myriads 400 and 80000 '', the translation of which is ambiguous, implying either 4,080,000 stadia (755,000 km) or 804,000,000 stadia (148 to 153 million kilometers or 0.99 to 1.02 AU); the latter value is correct to within a few percent. In the 1st century AD, Ptolemy estimated the distance as 1,210 times the radius of Earth, approximately 7.71 million kilometers (0.0515 AU).
The theory that the Sun is the center around which the planets orbit was first proposed by the ancient Greek Aristarchus of Samos in the 3rd century BC, and later adopted by Seleucus of Seleucia (see Heliocentrism). This view was developed in a more detailed mathematical model of a heliocentric system in the 16th century by Nicolaus Copernicus.
Observations of sunspots were recorded during the Han Dynasty (206 BC -- AD 220) by Chinese astronomers, who maintained records of these observations for centuries. Averroes also provided a description of sunspots in the 12th century. The invention of the telescope in the early 17th century permitted detailed observations of sunspots by Thomas Harriot, Galileo Galilei and other astronomers. Galileo posited that sunspots were on the surface of the Sun rather than small objects passing between Earth and the Sun.
Arabic astronomical contributions include Albatenius ' discovery that the direction of the Sun 's apogee (the place in the Sun 's orbit against the fixed stars where it seems to be moving slowest) is changing. (In modern heliocentric terms, this is caused by a gradual motion of the aphelion of the Earth 's orbit). Ibn Yunus observed more than 10,000 entries for the Sun 's position for many years using a large astrolabe.
From an observation of a transit of Venus in 1032, the Persian astronomer and polymath Avicenna concluded that Venus is closer to Earth than the Sun. In 1672 Giovanni Cassini and Jean Richer determined the distance to Mars and were thereby able to calculate the distance to the Sun.
In 1666, Isaac Newton observed the Sun 's light using a prism, and showed that it is made up of light of many colors. In 1800, William Herschel discovered infrared radiation beyond the red part of the solar spectrum. The 19th century saw advancement in spectroscopic studies of the Sun; Joseph von Fraunhofer recorded more than 600 absorption lines in the spectrum, the strongest of which are still often referred to as Fraunhofer lines. In the early years of the modern scientific era, the source of the Sun 's energy was a significant puzzle. Lord Kelvin suggested that the Sun is a gradually cooling liquid body that is radiating an internal store of heat. Kelvin and Hermann von Helmholtz then proposed a gravitational contraction mechanism to explain the energy output, but the resulting age estimate was only 20 million years, well short of the time span of at least 300 million years suggested by some geological discoveries of that time. In 1890 Joseph Lockyer, who discovered helium in the solar spectrum, proposed a meteoritic hypothesis for the formation and evolution of the Sun.
Not until 1904 was a documented solution offered. Ernest Rutherford suggested that the Sun 's output could be maintained by an internal source of heat, and suggested radioactive decay as the source. However, it would be Albert Einstein who would provide the essential clue to the source of the Sun 's energy output with his mass - energy equivalence relation E = mc. In 1920, Sir Arthur Eddington proposed that the pressures and temperatures at the core of the Sun could produce a nuclear fusion reaction that merged hydrogen (protons) into helium nuclei, resulting in a production of energy from the net change in mass. The preponderance of hydrogen in the Sun was confirmed in 1925 by Cecilia Payne using the ionization theory developed by Meghnad Saha, an Indian physicist. The theoretical concept of fusion was developed in the 1930s by the astrophysicists Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar and Hans Bethe. Hans Bethe calculated the details of the two main energy - producing nuclear reactions that power the Sun. In 1957, Margaret Burbidge, Geoffrey Burbidge, William Fowler and Fred Hoyle showed that most of the elements in the universe have been synthesized by nuclear reactions inside stars, some like the Sun.
The first satellites designed to observe the Sun were NASA 's Pioneers 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9, which were launched between 1959 and 1968. These probes orbited the Sun at a distance similar to that of Earth, and made the first detailed measurements of the solar wind and the solar magnetic field. Pioneer 9 operated for a particularly long time, transmitting data until May 1983.
In the 1970s, two Helios spacecraft and the Skylab Apollo Telescope Mount provided scientists with significant new data on solar wind and the solar corona. The Helios 1 and 2 probes were U.S. -- German collaborations that studied the solar wind from an orbit carrying the spacecraft inside Mercury 's orbit at perihelion. The Skylab space station, launched by NASA in 1973, included a solar observatory module called the Apollo Telescope Mount that was operated by astronauts resident on the station. Skylab made the first time - resolved observations of the solar transition region and of ultraviolet emissions from the solar corona. Discoveries included the first observations of coronal mass ejections, then called "coronal transients '', and of coronal holes, now known to be intimately associated with the solar wind.
In 1980, the Solar Maximum Mission was launched by NASA. This spacecraft was designed to observe gamma rays, X-rays and UV radiation from solar flares during a time of high solar activity and solar luminosity. Just a few months after launch, however, an electronics failure caused the probe to go into standby mode, and it spent the next three years in this inactive state. In 1984 Space Shuttle Challenger mission STS - 41C retrieved the satellite and repaired its electronics before re-releasing it into orbit. The Solar Maximum Mission subsequently acquired thousands of images of the solar corona before re-entering Earth 's atmosphere in June 1989.
Launched in 1991, Japan 's Yohkoh (Sunbeam) satellite observed solar flares at X-ray wavelengths. Mission data allowed scientists to identify several different types of flares, and demonstrated that the corona away from regions of peak activity was much more dynamic and active than had previously been supposed. Yohkoh observed an entire solar cycle but went into standby mode when an annular eclipse in 2001 caused it to lose its lock on the Sun. It was destroyed by atmospheric re-entry in 2005.
One of the most important solar missions to date has been the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, jointly built by the European Space Agency and NASA and launched on 2 December 1995. Originally intended to serve a two - year mission, a mission extension through 2012 was approved in October 2009. It has proven so useful that a follow - on mission, the Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO), was launched in February 2010. Situated at the Lagrangian point between Earth and the Sun (at which the gravitational pull from both is equal), SOHO has provided a constant view of the Sun at many wavelengths since its launch. Besides its direct solar observation, SOHO has enabled the discovery of a large number of comets, mostly tiny sungrazing comets that incinerate as they pass the Sun.
All these satellites have observed the Sun from the plane of the ecliptic, and so have only observed its equatorial regions in detail. The Ulysses probe was launched in 1990 to study the Sun 's polar regions. It first travelled to Jupiter, to "slingshot '' into an orbit that would take it far above the plane of the ecliptic. Once Ulysses was in its scheduled orbit, it began observing the solar wind and magnetic field strength at high solar latitudes, finding that the solar wind from high latitudes was moving at about 750 km / s, which was slower than expected, and that there were large magnetic waves emerging from high latitudes that scattered galactic cosmic rays.
Elemental abundances in the photosphere are well known from spectroscopic studies, but the composition of the interior of the Sun is more poorly understood. A solar wind sample return mission, Genesis, was designed to allow astronomers to directly measure the composition of solar material.
The Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory (STEREO) mission was launched in October 2006. Two identical spacecraft were launched into orbits that cause them to (respectively) pull further ahead of and fall gradually behind Earth. This enables stereoscopic imaging of the Sun and solar phenomena, such as coronal mass ejections.
The Indian Space Research Organisation has scheduled the launch of a 100 kg satellite named Aditya for 2017 -- 18. Its main instrument will be a coronagraph for studying the dynamics of the Solar corona.
The brightness of the Sun can cause pain from looking at it with the naked eye; however, doing so for brief periods is not hazardous for normal non-dilated eyes. Looking directly at the Sun causes phosphene visual artifacts and temporary partial blindness. It also delivers about 4 milliwatts of sunlight to the retina, slightly heating it and potentially causing damage in eyes that can not respond properly to the brightness. UV exposure gradually yellows the lens of the eye over a period of years, and is thought to contribute to the formation of cataracts, but this depends on general exposure to solar UV, and not whether one looks directly at the Sun. Long - duration viewing of the direct Sun with the naked eye can begin to cause UV - induced, sunburn - like lesions on the retina after about 100 seconds, particularly under conditions where the UV light from the Sun is intense and well focused; conditions are worsened by young eyes or new lens implants (which admit more UV than aging natural eyes), Sun angles near the zenith, and observing locations at high altitude.
Viewing the Sun through light - concentrating optics such as binoculars may result in permanent damage to the retina without an appropriate filter that blocks UV and substantially dims the sunlight. When using an attenuating filter to view the Sun, the viewer is cautioned to use a filter specifically designed for that use. Some improvised filters that pass UV or IR rays, can actually harm the eye at high brightness levels. Herschel wedges, also called Solar Diagonals, are effective and inexpensive for small telescopes. The sunlight that is destined for the eyepiece is reflected from an unsilvered surface of a piece of glass. Only a very small fraction of the incident light is reflected. The rest passes through the glass and leaves the instrument. If the glass breaks because of the heat, no light at all is reflected, making the device fail - safe. Simple filters made of darkened glass allow the full intensity of sunlight to pass through if they break, endangering the observer 's eyesight. Unfiltered binoculars can deliver hundreds of times as much energy as using the naked eye, possibly causing immediate damage. It is claimed that even brief glances at the midday Sun through an unfiltered telescope can cause permanent damage.
Partial solar eclipses are hazardous to view because the eye 's pupil is not adapted to the unusually high visual contrast: the pupil dilates according to the total amount of light in the field of view, not by the brightest object in the field. During partial eclipses most sunlight is blocked by the Moon passing in front of the Sun, but the uncovered parts of the photosphere have the same surface brightness as during a normal day. In the overall gloom, the pupil expands from ~ 2 mm to ~ 6 mm, and each retinal cell exposed to the solar image receives up to ten times more light than it would looking at the non-eclipsed Sun. This can damage or kill those cells, resulting in small permanent blind spots for the viewer. The hazard is insidious for inexperienced observers and for children, because there is no perception of pain: it is not immediately obvious that one 's vision is being destroyed.
During sunrise and sunset, sunlight is attenuated because of Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering from a particularly long passage through Earth 's atmosphere, and the Sun is sometimes faint enough to be viewed comfortably with the naked eye or safely with optics (provided there is no risk of bright sunlight suddenly appearing through a break between clouds). Hazy conditions, atmospheric dust, and high humidity contribute to this atmospheric attenuation.
An optical phenomenon, known as a green flash, can sometimes be seen shortly after sunset or before sunrise. The flash is caused by light from the Sun just below the horizon being bent (usually through a temperature inversion) towards the observer. Light of shorter wavelengths (violet, blue, green) is bent more than that of longer wavelengths (yellow, orange, red) but the violet and blue light is scattered more, leaving light that is perceived as green.
Ultraviolet light from the Sun has antiseptic properties and can be used to sanitize tools and water. It also causes sunburn, and has other biological effects such as the production of vitamin D and sun tanning. Ultraviolet light is strongly attenuated by Earth 's ozone layer, so that the amount of UV varies greatly with latitude and has been partially responsible for many biological adaptations, including variations in human skin color in different regions of the globe.
The Sun has eight known planets. This includes four terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars), two gas giants (Jupiter and Saturn), and two ice giants (Uranus and Neptune). The Solar System also has at least five dwarf planets, an asteroid belt, numerous comets, and a large number of icy bodies which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune.
Solar System → Local Interstellar Cloud → Local Bubble → Gould Belt → Orion Arm → Milky Way → Milky Way subgroup → Local Group → Virgo Supercluster → Laniakea Supercluster → Pisces -- Cetus Supercluster Complex → Observable universe → Universe Each arrow (→) may be read as "within '' or "part of ''.
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who is the education minister of bihar in 2017 | List of education ministers of Bihar - Wikipedia
This is a list of Education Ministers of Bihar, India.
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monuments and literary works information related about the mughal emperors | Mughal architecture - Wikipedia
The Taj Mahal, Agra, is the most recognised structure of Mughal architecture.
Badshahi Masjid, Lahore, Pakistan was the largest mosque in the world for 313 years, and presently is the second largest mosque in Southern Asia.
Jama Masjid, Delhi, the largest masjid in India.
Buland Darwaza, Agra was built by Akbar the Great to commemorate his victory.
Red Fort, Delhi. It was the residence of the Mughal dynasty.
Humayun 's Tomb, Delhi.
Alamgiri Gate in Lahore Fort, Lahore, Pakistan.
Tomb of Jahangir Lahore.
Gardens of Babur in Kabul, Afghanistan.
Lalbagh Fort in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Mughal architecture is the type of Indo - Islamic architecture developed by the Mughals in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries throughout the ever - changing extent of their empire in the Indian subcontinent. It developed the styles of earlier Muslim dynasties in India as an amalgam of Islamic, Persian, Turkic and Indian architecture. Mughal buildings have a uniform pattern of structure and character, including large bulbous domes, slender minarets at the corners, massive halls, large vaulted gateways and delicate ornamentation. Examples of the style can be found in India, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Pakistan.
The Mughal dynasty was established after the victory of Babur at Panipat in 1526. During his five - year reign, Babur took considerable interest in erecting buildings, though few have survived. His grandson Akbar built widely, and the style developed vigorously during his reign. Among his accomplishments were Humayun 's Tomb (for his father), Agra Fort, the fort - city of Fatehpur Sikri, and the Buland Darwaza. Akbar 's son Jahangir commissioned the Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir.
Mughal architecture reached its zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan, who constructed the Jama Masjid, the Red Fort, the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore, his reign corresponded with the decline of Mughal architecture and the Empire itself.
Agra fort is a UNESCO world heritage site in Agra, Uttar Pradesh. The major part of Agra fort was built by Akbar The Great during 1565 AD to 1574 AD. The architecture of the fort clearly indicates the free adoption of the Rajput planning and construction. Some of the important buildings in the fort are Jahangiri Mahal built for Jahangir and his family, the Moti Masjid, and Mena Bazaars. The Jahangir Mahal is an impressive structure and has a courtyard surrounded by double - storeyed halls and rooms.
Akbar 's greatest architectural achievement was the construction of Fatehpur Sikri, his Capital City near Agra on top of a flourishing trade and Jain pilgrimage center. The construction of the walled city was started in 1569 A.D. and completed in 1574 A.D. It contained some of the most beautiful buildings -- both religious and secular which testify to the Emperor 's aim of achieving social, political and religious integration. The religious edifices worth mentioning are the Jama Masjid and Salim Chisti 's Tomb. The tomb, built in 1571 A.D. in the corner of the mosque compound, is a square marble chamber with a verandah. The cenotaph has an exquisitely designed lattice screen around it.
14 years after the death of Humayun, his widow - Hamida Banu Begum built the Humayun 's tomb in Delhi. The mausoleum of Humayun is located in the centre of a square surrounded by typical Mughal garden. It is said to be first mature example of Mughal architecture.
Buland Darwaza, also known as the Gate of Magnificence, was built by Akbar in 1576 A.D. at Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar built the Buland Darwaza to commemorate his victory over Gujarat and the Deccan. It is 40 metres high and 50 metres from the ground. The total height of the Structure is about 54 metres from the ground level.
The Haramsara, the royal seraglio in Fatehpur Sikri was an area where the royal women lived. The opening to the Haramsara is from the Khwabgah side separated by a row of cloiters. According to Abul Fazl, in Ain - i - Akbari, the inside of Harem was guarded by senior and active women, outside the enclosure the eunuchs were placed, and at a proper distance there were faithful Rajput guards.
This is the largest palace in the Fatehpur Sikri seraglio, connected to the minor haramsara (where the less important harem ladies and maids would have resided) quarters. The main entrance is double storied, projecting out of the facade to create a kind of porch leading into a recessed entrance with a balcony. Inside there is a quadrangle surrounded by rooms. The columns of rooms are ornamented with a variety of Hindu sculptural motifs. The glazed tiles on the roofs from Multan have an eye catching shade of turquoise. The mosque was built in honour of Jodha Bai, mother of Jahangir and wife of Akbar. Her Mughal name was Mariyam Zamani Begum and this being the reason that the mosque was built in her honor in Lahore 's walled city. Jahangir built his mother Mariyam Zamani Begum 's mosque and is just 1 km away from the tomb of Akbar near Agra at a place called Sikandra.
Buland Darwaza dominates the landscape. Historian ` Abd al - Qadir Bada'uni writes that it was the highest gateway in Hindustan at that time until today.
A chronogram is inscribed on the central archway composed by Ashraf Khan, one of Akbar 's principal secretaries that reads,
In the reign of King of the world Akbar,
To whom is due the order in the country. The Sheikh - ul - Islam adorned the mosque. Which for its elegance deserves as much reverence as the Ka'ba. The year of the completion of this magnificent edifice. Is found in the words: duplicate of the Masjidi'l - Haram.
The Tomb of Sheikh Salim Chishti is famed as one of the finest examples of Mughal architecture in India, built during the years 1580 and 1581, along with the imperial complex at Situated near Zenana Rauza and facing south towards Buland Darwaza, within the quadrangle of the Jama Masjid which measures 350 ft. by 440 ft. It enshrines the burial place of the Sufi saint, Salim Chisti (1478 -- 1572), a descendant of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, and lived in a cavern on the ridge at Sikri. The mausoleum, constructed by Akbar as a mark of his respect for the Sufi saint, who foretold the birth of his son, who was named Prince Salim after him and later succeeded Akbar to the throne of the Mughal Empire.
The Wazir Khan Mosque in Lahore was commissioned during the reign of Shah Jahan, and is famous for its rich embellishment which covers almost every interior surface.)) Rather than building a huge monuments like his predecessors to demonstrate their power, Shah Jahan built elegant monuments. The force and originality of this previous building style gave way under Shah Jahan to a delicate elegance and refinement of detail, illustrated in the palaces erected during his reign at Agra, Delhi and Lahore. Some examples include the Taj Mahal at Agra, the tomb of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. The Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) in the Lahore Fort and the Jama Masjid at Delhi are imposing buildings of his era, and their position and architecture have been carefully considered so as to produce a pleasing effect and feeling of spacious elegance and well - balanced proportion of parts. Shah Jahan also built sections of the Sheesh Mahal, and Naulakha pavilion, which are all enclosed in the fort. He also built a mosque named after himself in Thatta called Shahjahan Mosque. Shah Jahan also built the Red Fort in his new capital at Shah Jahanabad, now Delhi. The red sandstone Red Fort is noted for its special buildings - Diwan - i - Aam and Diwan - i - Khas. Another mosque was built during his tenure in Lahore called Wazir Khan Mosque, by Shaikh Ilm - ud - din Ansari who was the court physician to the emperor.
The Taj Mahal a World Heritage Site described as the "teardrop on the cheek of time '' by Rabindranath Tagore, was built between 1630 -- 49 by the emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. (Mumtaz died after her 14th delivery). Its construction took 22 years and required 22,000 laborers and 1,000 elephants. Built entirely of white marble at a cost of approximately 32 million rupees, it is one of the New7Wonders of the World. The building 's longest plane of symmetry runs through the entire complex except for the sarcophagus of Shah Jahan, which is placed off centre in the crypt room below the main floor. This symmetry is extended to the building of an entire mirror mosque in red sandstone, to complement the Mecca - facing mosque placed to the west of the main structure. Shah Jahan used "pietra dura '', a method of decoration on a large scale - inlaid work of jewels.
The Wazir Khan Mosque was commissioned during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in 1634 C.E., and completed in 1642. Considered to be the most ornately decorated Mughal - era mosque,. Wazir Khan Mosque is renowned for its intricate faience tile work known as kashi - kari, as well as its interior surfaces that are almost entirely embellished with elaborate Mughal - era frescoes. The mosque has been under extensive restoration since 2009 under the direction of the Aga Khan Trust for Culture and the Government of Punjab.
The Shalimar Gardens (1641 -- 1642) built on the orders of Bahadur Shah in Lahore, Pakistan, is also on the UNESCO world heritage list.
The Shah Jahan Mosque is the central mosque for the city of Thatta, in the Pakistani province of Sindh. The mosque commissioned by Shah Jahan, who bestowed it to the city as a token of gratitude. Its style is heavily influenced by Central Asian Timurid architecture, which was introduced after Shah Jahan 's campaigns near Balkh and Samarkand. The mosque is considered to have the most elaborate display of tile work in South Asia, and is also notable for its geometric brick work - a decorative element that is unusual for Mughal - period mosques.
In Aurangzeb 's reign (1658 -- 1707) squared stone and marble was replaced by brick or rubble with stucco ornament. Srirangapatna and Lucknow have examples of later Indo - Mughal architecture. He made additions to the Lahore Fort and also built one of the thirteen gates which was later named after him (Alamgir).
The Badshahi Mosque in Lahore, Pakistan was commissioned by the sixth Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. Constructed between 1671 and 1673, it was the largest mosque in the world upon construction. It is the third largest mosque in Pakistan and the seventh largest mosque in the world. The mosque is adjacent to the Lahore Fort and is the last in the series of congregational mosques in red sandstone. The red sandstone of the walls contrasts with the white marble of the domes and the subtle intarsia decoration. Aurangzeb 's mosque 's architectural plan is similar to that of his father, Shah Jahan, the Jama Masjid in Delhi; though it is much larger. It also functions as an idgah. The courtyard which spreads over 276,000 square feet, can accommodate one hundred thousand worshippers; ten thousand can be accommodated inside the mosque. The minarets are 196 feet (60 m) tall. The Mosque is one of the most famous Mughal structures, but suffered greatly under the reign of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. In 1993, the Government of Pakistan included the Badshahi Mosque in the tentative list for UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Additional monuments from this period are associated with women from Aurangzeb 's imperial family. The construction of the elegant Zinat al - Masjid in Daryaganj was overseen by Aurangzeb 's second daughter Zinat - al - Nissa. Aurangzeb 's sister Roshan - Ara who died in 1671. The tomb of Roshanara Begum and the garden surrounding it were neglected for a long time and are now in an advanced state of decay. Bibi Ka Maqbara was a mausoleum built by Prince Azam Shah, son of Emperor Aurangzeb, in the late 17th century as a loving tribute to his mother, Dilras Bano Begam in Aurangabad, Maharashtra. The Alamgiri Gate, built in 1673 A.D., is the main entrance to the Lahore Fort in present - day Lahore. It was constructed to face west towards the Badshahi Mosque in the days of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
Another construction of the Mughal era is Lalbagh Fort (also known as "Fort Aurangabad ''), a Mughal palace fortress at the Buriganga River in the southwestern part of Dhaka, Bangladesh, whose construction started in 1678 during the reign of Aurangzeb.
Mughal gardens are gardens built by the Mughals in the Islamic style of architecture. This style was influenced by Persian gardens and Timurid gardens. Significant use of rectilinear layouts are made within the walled enclosures. Some of the typical features include pools, fountains and canals inside the gardens. The famous gardens are the Char Bagh gardens at Taj Mahal, gardens at Humayun 's Tomb Shalimar Gardens of Lahore, Delhi and Kashmir as well as Pinjore Garden in Haryana.
Shahi Bridge, Jaunpur was constructed during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Akbar.
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when was the prince by niccolo machiavelli written | The prince - wikipedia
The Prince (Italian: Il Principe (il ˈprintʃipe)) is a 16th - century political treatise by the Italian diplomat and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli. From correspondence a version appears to have been distributed in 1513, using a Latin title, De Principatibus (Of Principalities). However, the printed version was not published until 1532, five years after Machiavelli 's death. This was done with the permission of the Medici pope Clement VII, but "long before then, in fact since the first appearance of The Prince in manuscript, controversy had swirled about his writings ''.
Although it was written as if it were a traditional work in the mirrors for princes style, it is generally agreed that it was especially innovative. This is only partly because it was written in the vernacular Italian rather than Latin, a practice which had become increasingly popular since the publication of Dante 's Divine Comedy and other works of Renaissance literature.
The Prince is sometimes claimed to be one of the first works of modern philosophy, especially modern political philosophy, in which the effective truth is taken to be more important than any abstract ideal. It was also in direct conflict with the dominant Catholic and scholastic doctrines of the time concerning politics and ethics.
Although it is relatively short, the treatise is the most remembered of Machiavelli 's works and the one most responsible for bringing the word "Machiavellian '' into usage as a pejorative. It even contributed to the modern negative connotations of the words "politics '' and "politician '' in western countries. In terms of subject matter it overlaps with the much longer Discourses on Livy, which was written a few years later. In its use of near - contemporary Italians as examples of people who perpetrated criminal deeds for politics, another lesser - known work by Machiavelli which The Prince has been compared to is the Life of Castruccio Castracani.
The descriptions within The Prince have the general theme of accepting that the aims of princes -- such as glory and survival -- can justify the use of immoral means to achieve those ends:
He who neglects what is done for what ought to be done, sooner effects his ruin than his preservation.
The work has a recognizable structure, for the most part indicated by the author himself, which can be summarized as follows:
The Prince starts by describing the subject matter it will handle. In the first sentence Machiavelli uses the word "state '' (Italian stato which could also mean "status '') in order to neutrally cover "all forms of organization of supreme political power, whether republican or princely ''. The way in which the word state came to acquire this modern type of meaning during the Renaissance has been the subject of many academic discussions, with this sentence and similar ones in the works of Machiavelli being considered particularly important.
Machiavelli said that The Prince would be about princedoms, mentioning that he has written about republics elsewhere (possibly referring to the Discourses on Livy although this is debated), but in fact he mixes discussion of republics into this in many places, effectively treating republics as a type of princedom also, and one with many strengths. More importantly, and less traditionally, he distinguishes new princedoms from hereditary established princedoms. He deals with hereditary princedoms quickly in Chapter 2, saying that they are much easier to rule. For such a prince, "unless extraordinary vices cause him to be hated, it is reasonable to expect that his subjects will be naturally well disposed towards him ''. Gilbert (1938: 19 -- 23), comparing this to traditional presentations of advice for princes, wrote that the novelty in chapters 1 and 2 is the "deliberate purpose of dealing with a new ruler who will need to establish himself in defiance of custom ''. Normally, these types of works were addressed only to hereditary princes. He thinks Machiavelli may have been influenced by Tacitus as well as his own experience, but finds no clear predecessor for this.
This categorization of regime types is also "un-Aristotelian '' and apparently simpler than the traditional one found for example in Aristotle 's Politics, which divides regimes into those ruled by a single monarch, an oligarchy, or by the people, in a democracy. He also ignores the classical distinctions between the good and corrupt forms, for example between monarchy and tyranny.
Xenophon, on the other hand, made exactly the same distinction between types of rulers in the beginning of his Education of Cyrus where he says that, concerning the knowledge of how to rule human beings, Cyrus the Great, his exemplary prince, was very different "from all other kings, both those who have inherited their thrones from their fathers and those who have gained their crowns by their own efforts ''.
Machiavelli divides the subject of new states into two types, "mixed '' cases and purely new states.
New princedoms are either totally new, or they are "mixed '' meaning that they are new parts of an older state, already belonging to that prince.
Machiavelli generalizes that there were several virtuous Roman ways to hold a newly acquired province, using a republic as an example of how new princes can act:
More generally, Machiavelli emphasizes that one should have regard not only for present problems but also for the future ones. One should not "enjoy the benefit of time '' but rather the benefit of one 's virtue and prudence, because time can bring evil as well as good.
In some cases the old king of the conquered kingdom depended on his lords. 16th century France, or in other words France as it was at the time of writing of The Prince, is given by Machiavelli as an example of such a kingdom. These are easy to enter but difficult to hold.
When the kingdom revolves around the king, with everyone else his servant, then it is difficult to enter but easy to hold. The solution is to eliminate the old bloodline of the prince. Machiavelli used the Persian empire of Darius III, conquered by Alexander the Great, to illustrate this point and then noted that the Medici, if they think about it, will find this historical example similar to the "kingdom of the Turk '' (Ottoman Empire) in their time -- making this a potentially easier conquest to hold than France would be.
Gilbert (1938: 34) notes that this chapter is quite atypical of any previous books for princes. Gilbert supposed the need to discuss conquering free republics is linked to Machiavelli 's project to unite Italy, which contained some free republics. As he also notes, the chapter in any case makes it clear that holding such a state is highly difficult for a prince. Machiavelli gives three options:
Princes who rise to power through their own skill and resources (their "virtue '') rather than luck tend to have a hard time rising to the top, but once they reach the top they are very secure in their position. This is because they effectively crush their opponents and earn great respect from everyone else. Because they are strong and more self - sufficient, they have to make fewer compromises with their allies.
Machiavelli writes that reforming an existing order is one of the most dangerous and difficult things a prince can do. Part of the reason is that people are naturally resistant to change and reform. Those who benefited from the old order will resist change very fiercely. By contrast, those who can benefit from the new order will be less fierce in their support, because the new order is unfamiliar and they are not certain it will live up to its promises. Moreover, it is impossible for the prince to satisfy everybody 's expectations. Inevitably, he will disappoint some of his followers. Therefore, a prince must have the means to force his supporters to keep supporting him even when they start having second thoughts, otherwise he will lose his power. Only armed prophets, like Moses, succeed in bringing lasting change. Machiavelli claims that Moses killed uncountable numbers of his own people in order to enforce his will.
Machiavelli was not the first thinker to notice this pattern. Allan Gilbert wrote: "In wishing new laws and yet seeing danger in them Machiavelli was not himself an innovator, '' because this idea was traditional and could be found in Aristotle 's writings. But Machiavelli went much further than any other author in his emphasis on this aim, and Gilbert associates Machiavelli 's emphasis upon such drastic aims with the level of corruption to be found in Italy.
According to Machiavelli, when a prince comes to power through luck or the blessings of powerful figures within the regime, he typically has an easy time gaining power but a hard time keeping it thereafter, because his power is dependent on his benefactors ' goodwill. He does not command the loyalty of the armies and officials that maintain his authority, and these can be withdrawn from him at a whim. Having risen the easy way, it is not even certain such a prince has the skill and strength to stand on his own feet.
This is not necessarily true in every case. Machiavelli cites Cesare Borgia as an example of a lucky prince who escaped this pattern. Through cunning political manoeuvrers, he managed to secure his power base. Cesare was made commander of the papal armies by his father, Pope Alexander VI, but was also heavily dependent on mercenary armies loyal to the Orsini brothers and the support of the French king. Borgia won over the allegiance of the Orsini brothers ' followers with better pay and prestigious government posts. When some of his mercenary captains started to plot against him, he had them imprisoned and executed. When it looked as though the king of France would abandon him, Borgia sought new alliances.
Finally, Machiavelli makes a point that bringing new benefits to a conquered people will not be enough to cancel the memory of old injuries, an idea Allan Gilbert said can be found in Tacitus and Seneca the Younger.
Conquests by "criminal virtue '' are ones in which the new prince secures his power through cruel, immoral deeds, such as the execution of political rivals. Machiavelli advises that a prince should carefully calculate all the wicked deeds he needs to do to secure his power, and then execute them all in one stroke, such that he need not commit any more wickedness for the rest of his reign. In this way, his subjects will slowly forget his cruel deeds and his reputation can recover. Princes who fail to do this, who hesitate in their ruthlessness, find that their problems mushroom over time and they are forced to commit wicked deeds throughout their reign. Thus they continuously mar their reputations and alienate their people.
Machiavelli 's case study is Agathocles of Syracuse. After Agathocles became Praetor of Syracuse, he called a meeting of the city 's elite. At his signal, his soldiers killed all the senators and the wealthiest citizens, completely destroying the old oligarchy. He declared himself ruler with no opposition. So secure was his power that he could afford to absent himself to go off on military campaigns in Africa.
However, Machiavelli then strongly rebukes Agathocles, stating, "Yet one can not call it virtue to kill one 's citizens, betray one 's friends, to be without faith, without mercy, without religion; these modes can enable one to acquire empire, but not glory. (...) Nonetheless, his savage cruelty and inhumanity, together with his infinite crimes, do not permit him to be celebrated among the most excellent men. Thus, one can not attribute to fortune or virtue what he achieved without either. ''
Gilbert (1938: 51 -- 55) remarks that this chapter is even less traditional than those it follows, not only in its treatment of criminal behavior, but also in the advice to take power from people at a stroke, noting that precisely the opposite had been advised by Aristotle in his Politics (5.11. 1315a13). On the other hand, Gilbert shows that another piece of advice in this chapter, to give benefits when it will not appear forced, was traditional.
These "civic principalities '' do not require real virtue, only "fortunate astuteness ''. Machiavelli breaks this case into two basic types, depending upon which section of the populace supports the new prince.
This, according to Machiavelli, is an unstable situation, which must be avoided after the initial coming to power. The great should be made and unmade every day at your convenience. There are two types of great people that might be encountered:
How to win over people depends on circumstances. Machiavelli advises:
The way to judge the strength of a princedom is to see whether it can defend itself, or whether it needs to depend on allies. This does not just mean that the cities should be prepared and the people trained; a prince who is hated is also exposed.
This type of "princedom '' refers for example explicitly to the Catholic church, which is of course not traditionally thought of as a princedom. According to Machiavelli, these are relatively easy to maintain, once founded. They do not need to defend themselves militarily, nor to govern their subjects.
Machiavelli discusses the recent history of the Church as if it were a princedom that was in competition to conquer Italy against other princes. He points to factionalism as a historical weak point in the Church, and points to the recent example of the Borgia family as a better strategy which almost worked. He then explicitly proposes that the Medici are now in a position to try the same thing.
Having discussed the various types of principalities, Machiavelli turns to the ways a state can attack other territories or defend itself. The two most essential foundations for any state, whether old or new, are sound laws and strong military forces. A self - sufficient prince is one who can meet any enemy on the battlefield. He should be "armed '' with his own arms. However, a prince that relies solely on fortifications or on the help of others and stands on the defensive is not self - sufficient. If he can not raise a formidable army, but must rely on defense, he must fortify his city. A well - fortified city is unlikely to be attacked, and if it is, most armies can not endure an extended siege. However, during a siege a virtuous prince will keep the morale of his subjects high while removing all dissenters. Thus, as long as the city is properly defended and has enough supplies, a wise prince can withstand any siege.
Machiavelli stands strongly against the use of mercenaries, and in this he was innovative, and he also had personal experience in Florence. He believes they are useless to a ruler because they are undisciplined, cowardly, and without any loyalty, being motivated only by money. Machiavelli attributes the Italian city states ' weakness to their reliance on mercenary armies.
Machiavelli also warns against using auxiliary forces, troops borrowed from an ally, because if they win, the employer is under their favor and if they lose, he is ruined. Auxiliary forces are more dangerous than mercenary forces because they are united and controlled by capable leaders who may turn against the employer.
The main concern for a prince should be war, or the preparation thereof, not books. Through war a hereditary prince maintains his power or a private citizen rises to power. Machiavelli advises that a prince must frequently hunt in order to keep his body fit and learn the landscape surrounding his kingdom. Through this, he can best learn how to protect his territory and advance upon others. For intellectual strength, he is advised to study great military men so he may imitate their successes and avoid their mistakes. A prince who is diligent in times of peace will be ready in times of adversity. Machiavelli writes, "thus, when fortune turns against him he will be prepared to resist it. ''
Each of the following chapters presents a discussion about a particular virtue or vice that a prince might have, and is therefore structured in a way which appears like traditional advice for a prince. However, the advice is far from traditional.
Machiavelli believes that a prince 's main focus should be on perfecting the art of war. He believes that by taking this profession a ruler will be able to protect his kingdom. He claims that "being disarmed makes you despised. '' He believes that the only way to ensure loyalty from one 's soldiers is to understand military matters. The two activities Machiavelli recommends practicing to prepare for war are physical and mental. Physically, he believes rulers should learn the landscape of their territories. Mentally, he encouraged the study of past military events. He also warns against idleness.
Because, says Machiavelli, he wants to write something useful to those who understand, he thought it more fitting "to go directly to the effectual truth ('' verità effettuale ") of the thing than to the imagination of it ''. This section is one where Machiavelli 's pragmatic ideal can be seen most clearly. The prince should, ideally, be virtuous, but he should be willing and able to abandon those virtues if it becomes necessary. Concerning the behavior of a prince toward his subjects, Machiavelli announces that he will depart from what other writers say, and writes:
Men have imagined republics and principalities that never really existed at all. Yet the way men live is so far removed from the way they ought to live that anyone who abandons what is for what should be pursues his downfall rather than his preservation; for a man who strives after goodness in all his acts is sure to come to ruin, since there are so many men who are not good.
Since there are many possible qualities that a prince can be said to possess, he must not be overly concerned about having all the good ones. Also, a prince may be perceived to be merciful, faithful, humane, frank, and religious, but most important is only to seem to have these qualities. A prince can not truly have these qualities because at times it is necessary to act against them. In fact, he must sometimes deliberately choose evil. Although a bad reputation should be avoided, it is sometimes necessary to have one.
If a prince is overly generous to his subjects, Machiavelli asserts he will not be appreciated, and will only cause greed for more. Additionally, being overly generous is not economical, because eventually all resources will be exhausted. This results in higher taxes, and will bring grief upon the prince. Then, if he decides to discontinue or limit his generosity, he will be labeled as a miser. Thus, Machiavelli summarizes that guarding against the people 's hatred is more important than building up a reputation for generosity. A wise prince should be willing to be more reputed a miser than be hated for trying to be too generous.
On the other hand: "of what is not yours or your subjects ' one can be a bigger giver, as were Cyrus, Caesar, and Alexander, because spending what is someone else 's does not take reputation from you but adds it to you; only spending your own hurts you ''.
In addressing the question of whether it is better to be loved or feared, Machiavelli writes, "The answer is that one would like to be both the one and the other; but because it is difficult to combine them, it is far safer to be feared than loved if you can not be both. '' As Machiavelli asserts, commitments made in peace are not always kept in adversity; however, commitments made in fear are kept out of fear. Yet, a prince must ensure that he is not feared to the point of hatred, which is very possible.
This chapter is possibly the most well - known of the work, and it is important because of the reasoning behind Machiavelli 's famous idea that it is better to be feared than loved -- his justification is purely pragmatic; as he notes, "Men worry less about doing an injury to one who makes himself loved than to one who makes himself feared. '' Fear is simply a means to an end, and that end is security for the prince. The fear instilled should never be excessive, for that could be dangerous to the prince. Above all, Machiavelli argues, a prince should not interfere with the property of their subjects, their women, or the life of somebody without proper justification.
Regarding the troops of the prince, fear is absolutely necessary to keep a large garrison united and a prince should not mind the thought of cruelty in that regard. For a prince who leads his own army, it is imperative for him to observe cruelty because that is the only way he can command his soldiers ' absolute respect. Machiavelli compares two great military leaders: Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. Although Hannibal 's army consisted of men of various races, they were never rebellious because they feared their leader. Machiavelli says this required "inhuman cruelty '' which he refers to as a virtue. Scipio 's men, on the other hand, were known for their mutiny and dissension, due to Scipio 's "excessive mercy '' -- which was however a source of glory because he lived in a republic.
Machiavelli notes that a prince is praised for keeping his word. However, he also notes that a prince is also praised for the illusion of being reliable in keeping his word. A prince, therefore, should only keep his word when it suits his purposes, but do his utmost to maintain the illusion that he does keep his word and that he is reliable in that regard. Therefore, a prince should not break his word unnecessarily.
As Machiavelli notes, "He should appear to be compassionate, faithful to his word, guileless, and devout. And indeed he should be so. But his disposition should be such that, if he needs to be the opposite, he knows how. '' As noted in chapter 15, the prince must appear to be virtuous, and should be virtuous, but he should be able to be otherwise when the time calls for it; that includes being able to lie, though however much he lies he should always keep the appearance of being truthful.
Machiavelli observes that most men are content as long as they are not deprived of their property and women. A prince should command respect through his conduct, because a prince that is highly respected by his people is unlikely to face internal struggles. Additionally, a prince who does not raise the contempt of the nobles and keeps the people satisfied, Machiavelli assures, should have no fear of conspirators. Machiavelli advises monarchs to have both internal and external fears. Internal fears exist inside his kingdom and focus on his subjects, Machiavelli warns to be suspicious of everyone when hostile attitudes emerge. External fears are of foreign powers.
Machiavelli mentions that placing fortresses in conquered territories, although it sometimes works, often fails. Using fortresses can be a good plan, but Machiavelli says he shall "blame anyone who, trusting in fortresses, thinks little of being hated by the people ''. He cited Caterina Sforza, who used a fortress to defend herself but was eventually betrayed by her people.
A prince truly earns honor by completing great feats. King Ferdinand of Spain is cited by Machiavelli as an example of a monarch who gained esteem by showing his ability through great feats and who, in the name of religion, conquered many territories and kept his subjects occupied so that they had no chance to rebel. Regarding two warring states, Machiavelli asserts it is always wiser to choose a side, rather than to be neutral. Machiavelli then provides the following reasons why:
Machiavelli also notes that it is wise for a prince not to ally with a stronger force unless compelled to do so. In conclusion, the most important virtue is having the wisdom to discern what ventures will come with the most reward and then pursuing them courageously.
The selection of good servants is reflected directly upon the prince 's intelligence, so if they are loyal, the prince is considered wise; however, when they are otherwise, the prince is open to adverse criticism. Machiavelli asserts that there are three types of intelligence:
If the prince does not have the first type of intelligence, he should at the very least have the second type. For, as Machiavelli states, "A prince needs to have the discernment to recognize the good or bad in what another says or does even though he has no acumen himself ''.
This chapter displays a low opinion of flatterers; Machiavelli notes that "Men are so happily absorbed in their own affairs and indulge in such self - deception that it is difficult for them not to fall victim to this plague; and some efforts to protect oneself from flatterers involve the risk of becoming despised. '' Flatterers were seen as a great danger to a prince, because their flattery could cause him to avoid wise counsel in favor of rash action, but avoiding all advice, flattery or otherwise, was equally bad; a middle road had to be taken. A prudent prince should have a select group of wise counselors to advise him truthfully on matters all the time. All their opinions should be taken into account. Ultimately, the decision should be made by the counselors and carried out absolutely. If a prince is given to changing his mind, his reputation will suffer. A prince must have the wisdom to recognize good advice from bad. Machiavelli gives a negative example in Emperor Maximilian I; Maximilian, who was secretive, never consulted others, but once he ordered his plans and met dissent, he immediately changed them.
After first mentioning that a new prince can quickly become as respected as a hereditary one, Machiavelli says princes in Italy who had longstanding power and lost it can not blame bad luck, but should blame their own indolence. One "should never fall in the belief that you can find someone to pick you up ''. They all showed a defect of arms (already discussed) and either had a hostile populace or did not know to secure themselves with the great.
As pointed out by Gilbert (1938): 206 it was traditional in the genre of Mirrors of Princes to mention fortune, but "Fortune pervades The Prince as she does no other similar work ''. Machiavelli argues that fortune is only the judge of half of our actions and that we have control over the other half with "sweat '', prudence and virtue. Even more unusual, rather than simply suggesting caution as a prudent way to try to avoid the worst of bad luck, Machiavelli holds that the greatest princes in history tend to be ones who take more risks, and rise to power through their own labour, virtue, prudence, and particularly by their ability to adapt to changing circumstances.
Machiavelli even encourages risk taking as a reaction to risk. In a well - known metaphor, Machiavelli writes that "it is better to be impetuous than cautious, because fortune is a woman; and it is necessary, if one wants to hold her down, to beat her and strike her down. '' Gilbert (p. 217) points out that Machiavelli 's friend the historian and diplomat Francesco Guicciardini expressed similar ideas about fortune.
Machiavelli compares fortune to a torrential river that can not be easily controlled during flooding season. In periods of calm, however, people can erect dams and levees in order to minimize its impact. Fortune, Machiavelli argues, seems to strike at the places where no resistance is offered, as had recently been the case in Italy. As de Alvarez (1999: 125 -- 30) points out that what Machiavelli actually says is that Italians in his time leave things not just to fortune, but to "fortune and God ''. Machiavelli is indicating in this passage, as in some others in his works, that Christianity itself was making Italians helpless and lazy concerning their own politics, as if they would leave dangerous rivers uncontrolled.
Pope Leo X was pope at the time the book was written and a member of the de Medici family. This chapter directly appeals to the Medici to use what has been summarized in order to conquer Italy using Italian armies, following the advice in the book. Gilbert (1938: 222 -- 30) showed that including such exhortation was not unusual in the genre of books full of advice for princes. But it is unusual that the Medici family 's position of Papal power is openly named as something that should be used as a personal power base, as a tool of secular politics. Indeed, one example is the Borgia family 's "recent '' and controversial attempts to use church power in secular politics, often brutally executed. This continues a controversial theme throughout the book.
As shown by his letter of dedication, Machiavelli 's work eventually came to be dedicated to Lorenzo di Piero de ' Medici, grandson of "Lorenzo the Magnificent '', and a member of the ruling Florentine Medici family, whose uncle Giovanni became Pope Leo X in 1513. It is known from his personal correspondence that it was written during 1513, the year after the Medici took control of Florence, and a few months after Machiavelli 's arrest, torture, and banishment by the in - coming Medici regime. It was discussed for a long time with Francesco Vettori -- a friend of Machiavelli -- whom he wanted to pass it and commend it to the Medici. The book had originally been intended for Giuliano di Lorenzo de ' Medici, young Lorenzo 's uncle, who however died in 1516. It is not certain that the work was ever read by any of the Medici before it was printed. Machiavelli describes the contents as being an un-embellished summary of his knowledge about the nature of princes and "the actions of great men '', based not only on reading but also, unusually, on real experience.
The types of political behavior which are discussed with apparent approval by Machiavelli in The Prince were regarded as shocking by contemporaries, and its immorality is still a subject of serious discussion. Although the work advises princes how to tyrannize, Machiavelli is generally thought to have preferred some form of free republic. Some commentators justify his acceptance of immoral and criminal actions by leaders by arguing that he lived during a time of continuous political conflict and instability in Italy, and that his influence has increased the "pleasures, equality and freedom '' of many people, loosening the grip of medieval Catholicism 's "classical teleology '', which "disregarded not only the needs of individuals and the wants of the common man, but stifled innovation, enterprise, and enquiry into cause and effect relationships that now allow us to control nature ''.
On the other hand, Strauss (1958: 11) notes that "even if we were forced to grant that Machiavelli was essentially a patriot or a scientist, we would not be forced to deny that he was a teacher of evil ''. Furthermore, Machiavelli "was too thoughtful not to know what he was doing and too generous not to admit it to his reasonable friends ''.
Machiavelli emphasized the need for realism, as opposed to idealism. Along with this, he stresses the difference between human - beings and animals since "there are two ways of contending, one in accordance with the laws, the other by force; the first of which is proper to men, the second to beast ''. In The Prince he does not explain what he thinks the best ethical or political goals are, except the control of one 's own fortune, as opposed to waiting to see what chance brings. Machiavelli took it for granted that would - be leaders naturally aim at glory or honor. He associated these goals with a need for "virtue '' and "prudence '' in a leader, and saw such virtues as essential to good politics and indeed the common good. That great men should develop and use their virtue and prudence was a traditional theme of advice to Christian princes. And that more virtue meant less reliance on chance was a classically influenced "humanist commonplace '' in Machiavelli 's time, as Fischer (2000: 75) says, even if it was somewhat controversial. However, Machiavelli went far beyond other authors in his time, who in his opinion left things to fortune, and therefore to bad rulers, because of their Christian beliefs. He used the words "virtue '' and "prudence '' to refer to glory - seeking and spirited excellence of character, in strong contrast to the traditional Christian uses of those terms, but more keeping with the original pre-Christian Greek and Roman concepts from which they derived. He encouraged ambition and risk taking. So in another break with tradition, he treated not only stability, but also radical innovation, as possible aims of a prince in a political community. Managing major reforms can show off a Prince 's virtue and give him glory. He clearly felt Italy needed major reform in his time, and this opinion of his time is widely shared.
Machiavelli 's descriptions encourage leaders to attempt to control their fortune gloriously, to the extreme extent that some situations may call for a fresh "founding '' (or re-founding) of the "modes and orders '' that define a community, despite the danger and necessary evil and lawlessness of such a project. Founding a wholly new state, or even a new religion, using injustice and immorality has even been called the chief theme of The Prince. Machiavelli justifies this position by explaining how if "a prince did not win love he may escape hate '' by personifying injustice and immorality; therefore, he will never loosen his grip since "fear is held by the apprehension of punishment '' and never diminishes as time goes by. For a political theorist to do this in public was one of Machiavelli 's clearest breaks not just with medieval scholasticism, but with the classical tradition of political philosophy, especially the favorite philosopher of Catholicism at the time, Aristotle. This is one of Machiavelli 's most lasting influences upon modernity.
Nevertheless, Machiavelli was heavily influenced by classical pre-Christian political philosophy. According to Strauss (1958: 291) Machiavelli refers to Xenophon more than Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero put together. Xenophon wrote one of the classic mirrors of princes, the Education of Cyrus. Gilbert (1938: 236) wrote: "The Cyrus of Xenophon was a hero to many a literary man of the sixteenth century, but for Machiavelli he lived ''. Xenophon also, as Strauss pointed out, wrote a dialogue, Hiero which showed a wise man dealing sympathetically with a tyrant, coming close to what Machiavelli would do in questioning the ideal of "the imagined prince ''. Xenophon however, like Plato and Aristotle, was a follower of Socrates, and his works show approval of a "teleological argument '', while Machiavelli rejected such arguments. On this matter, Strauss (1958: 222 -- 23) gives evidence that Machiavelli may have seen himself as having learned something from Democritus, Epicurus and classical materialism, which was however not associated with political realism, or even any interest in politics.
On the topic of rhetoric Machiavelli, in his introduction, stated that "I have not embellished or crammed this book with rounded periods or big, impressive words, or with any blandishment or superfluous decoration of the kind which many are in the habit of using to describe or adorn what they have produced ''. This has been interpreted as showing a distancing from traditional rhetoric styles, but there are echoes of classical rhetoric in several areas. In Chapter 18, for example, he uses a metaphor of a lion and a fox, examples of cunning and force; according to Zerba (2004: 217), "the Roman author from whom Machiavelli in all likelihood drew the simile of the lion and the fox '' was Cicero. The Rhetorica ad Herennium, a work which was believed during Machiavelli 's time to have been written by Cicero, was used widely to teach rhetoric, and it is likely that Machiavelli was familiar with it. Unlike Cicero 's more widely accepted works however, according to Cox (1997: 1122), "Ad Herennium... offers a model of an ethical system that not only condones the practice of force and deception but appears to regard them as habitual and indeed germane to political activity ''. This makes it an ideal text for Machiavelli to have used.
To quote Bireley (1990: 14):
... there were in circulation approximately fifteen editions of the Prince and nineteen of the Discourses and French translations of each before they were placed on the Index of Paul IV in 1559, a measure which nearly stopped publication in Catholic areas except in France. Three principal writers took the field against Machiavelli between the publication of his works and their condemnation in 1559 and again by the Tridentine Index in 1564. These were the English cardinal Reginald Pole and the Portuguese bishop Jerónimo Osório, both of whom lived for many years in Italy, and the Italian humanist and later bishop, Ambrogio Caterino Politi.
Machiavelli 's ideas on how to accrue honor and power as a leader had a profound impact on political leaders throughout the modern west, helped by the new technology of the printing press. Pole reported that it was spoken of highly by his enemy Thomas Cromwell in England, and had influenced Henry VIII in his turn towards Protestantism, and in his tactics, for example during the Pilgrimage of Grace. A copy was also possessed by the Catholic king and emperor Charles V. In France, after an initially mixed reaction, Machiavelli came to be associated with Catherine de Medici and the St Bartholomew 's Day Massacre. As Bireley (1990: 17) reports, in the 16th century, Catholic writers "associated Machiavelli with the Protestants, whereas Protestant authors saw him as Italian and Catholic ''. In fact, he was apparently influencing both Catholic and Protestant kings.
One of the most important early works dedicated to criticism of Machiavelli, especially The Prince, was that of the Huguenot, Innocent Gentillet, Discourse against Machiavelli, commonly also referred to as Anti Machiavel, published in Geneva in 1576. He accused Machiavelli of being an atheist and accused politicians of his time by saying that they treated his works as the "Koran of the courtiers ''. Another theme of Gentillet was more in the spirit of Machiavelli himself: he questioned the effectiveness of immoral strategies (just as Machiavelli had himself done, despite also explaining how they could sometimes work). This became the theme of much future political discourse in Europe during the 17th century. This includes the Catholic Counter Reformation writers summarised by Bireley: Giovanni Botero, Justus Lipsius, Carlo Scribani, Adam Contzen, Pedro de Ribadeneira, and Diego Saavedra Fajardo. These authors criticized Machiavelli, but also followed him in many ways. They accepted the need for a prince to be concerned with reputation, and even a need for cunning and deceit, but compared to Machiavelli, and like later modernist writers, they emphasized economic progress much more than the riskier ventures of war. These authors tended to cite Tacitus as their source for realist political advice, rather than Machiavelli, and this pretense came to be known as "Tacitism ''.
Modern materialist philosophy developed in the 16th, 17th and 18th century, starting in the generations after Machiavelli. The importance of Machiavelli 's realism was noted by many important figures in this endeavor, for example Jean Bodin, Francis Bacon, Harrington, John Milton, Spinoza, Rousseau, Hume, Edward Gibbon, and Adam Smith. Although he was not always mentioned by name as an inspiration, due to his controversy, he is also thought to have been an influence for other major philosophers, such as Montaigne, Descartes, Hobbes, Locke and Montesquieu.
In literature:
Amongst later political leaders:
20th century Italian - American mobsters were influenced by The Prince. John Gotti and Roy DeMeo would regularly quote The Prince and consider it to be the "Mafia Bible ''.
As discussed by Johnston (1958) many authors have historically argued that "the book is, first and foremost, a satire, so that many of the things we find in it which are morally absurd, specious, and contradictory, are there quite deliberately in order to ridicule... the very notion of tyrannical rule ''. Hence, Johnston says, "the satire has a firm moral purpose -- to expose tyranny and promote republican government. ''
This position was the standard one in Europe during the 18th century, amongst the Enlightenment philosophes. Diderot thought it was a satire. And in his The Social Contract, the French philosopher Jean - Jacques Rousseau said:
Machiavelli was a proper man and a good citizen; but, being attached to the court of the Medici, he could not help veiling his love of liberty in the midst of his country 's oppression. The choice of his detestable hero, Caesar Borgia, clearly enough shows his hidden aim; and the contradiction between the teaching of the Prince and that of the Discourses on Livy and the History of Florence shows that this profound political thinker has so far been studied only by superficial or corrupt readers. The Court of Rome sternly prohibited his book. I can well believe it; for it is that Court it most clearly portrays.
Whether or not the word "satire '' is the best choice, there is more general agreement that despite seeming to be written for someone wanting to be a monarch, and not the leader of a republic, The Prince can be read as deliberately emphasizing the benefits of free republics as opposed to monarchies.
Differences of opinion amongst commentators revolve around whether this sub-text was intended to be understood, let alone understood as deliberately satirical or comic.
One such commentator, Mary Dietz, writes that Machiavelli 's agenda was not to be satirical, as Rousseau had argued, but instead was "offering carefully crafted advice (such as arming the people) designed to undo the ruler if taken seriously and followed. '' By this account, the aim was to reestablish the republic in Florence. She focuses on three categories in which Machiavelli gives paradoxical advice:
According to Dietz the trap never succeeded because Lorenzo -- "a suspicious prince '' -- apparently never read the work of the "former republican. ''
The Italian Marxist philosopher Antonio Gramsci argued that Machiavelli 's audience for this work was not the classes who already rule (or have "hegemony '') over the common people, but the common people themselves, trying to establish a new hegemony, and making Machiavelli the first "Italian Jacobin ''.
Hans Baron is one of the few major commentators who argues that Machiavelli must have changed his mind dramatically in favour of free republics, after having written The Prince.
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which are the two most abundant chemical elements in the earth crust | Abundance of elements in Earth 's crust - wikipedia
The abundance of elements in Earth 's crust is shown in tabulated form with the estimated crustal abundance for each chemical element shown as either percentage or parts per million (ppm) by mass (10,000 ppm = 1 %).
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what is the path of the median nerve | Median nerve - wikipedia
The median nerve is a nerve in humans and other animals in the upper limb. It is one of the five main nerves originating from the brachial plexus.
The median nerve originates from the lateral and medial cords of the brachial plexus, and has contributions from ventral roots of C5 - C6 (lateral cord) and C8 & T1 (medial cord).
The median nerve is the only nerve that passes through the carpal tunnel. Carpal tunnel syndrome is the disability that results from the median nerve being pressed in the carpal tunnel.
The median nerve arises from the branches from lateral and medial cords of the brachial plexus, courses through the anterior part of arm, forearm, and hand and terminates by supplying the muscles of the hand.
After receiving inputs from both the lateral and medial cords of the brachial plexus, the median nerve enters the arm from the axilla at the inferior margin of the teres major muscle. It then passes vertically down and courses lateral to the brachial artery between biceps brachii (above) and brachialis (below). At first it is lateral to the artery and lies anterior to the elbow joint; it then crosses anteriorly to run medial to the artery in the distal arm and into the cubital fossa. Inside the cubital fossa the median nerve passes medial to the brachial artery. The median nerve gives off an articular branch to the elbow joint. A branch to pronator teres muscle arise from the median nerve immediately above the elbow joint.
The median nerve continues in the cubital fossa medial to the brachial artery and passes between the two heads of pronator teres, deep to the bicipital aponeurosis (aponeurosis of biceps) and superficial the brachialis muscle. It crosses the ulnar artery (branch of brachial artery) while being separated by the deep head of the pronator teres. It then travels between flexor digitorum superficialis (above) and flexor digitorum profundus (below). Median nerve is accompanied by median artery (a branch of anterior interosseous artery) during this course. Then, at about 5 cm above the flexor retinaculum (wrist), it emerges between flexor digitorum superficialis (medially) and flexor carpi radialis (laterally) into the hand.
The main trunk of the median nerve innervates the superficial and deep groups of the muscles in the anterior compartment of the forearm with the exception of flexor carpi ulnaris. The median nerve does this by giving off two branches as it courses through the forearm:
The median nerve also gives off sensory and other branches in the forearm. The palmar cutaneous branch of the median nerve arises at the distal part of the forearm. It supplies sensory innervation to the thenar eminece of the palm and the central palm. Articular branches are given to the elbow joint and proximal radioulnar joint. Vascular branches supplies the radial and ulnar arteries. Meanwhile, a communicating branch is given to the ulnar nerve.
The median nerve enters the hand through the carpal tunnel, deep to the flexor retinaculum along with the tendons of flexor digitorum superficialis, flexor digitorum profundus, and flexor pollicis longus. From there it is divided into recurrent muscular branch and digital cutaneous branch:
There are multiple naturally occurring anomalies of the median nerve.
Median nerve is the main nerve of the front of the forearm. It supplies the muscles of the front of the forearm and muscles of the thenar eminence, therefore, controlling the coarse movements of the hand. Therefore, it is also called "labourer 's nerve ''.
The median nerve has no voluntary motor or cutaneous function in the brachium. It gives vascular branches to the wall of the brachial artery. These vascular branches carry sympathetic fibers.
It innervates all of the flexors in the forearm except flexor carpi ulnaris and that part of flexor digitorum profundus that supplies the 4th and 5th digits. The latter two muscles are supplied by the ulnar nerve (specifically the muscular branches of ulnar nerve).
The main portion of the median nerve supplies the following muscles:
Superficial group:
Intermediate group:
The anterior interosseus branch of the median nerve supplies the following muscles:
Deep group:
In the hand, the median nerve supplies motor innervation to the 1st and 2nd lumbrical muscles. It also supplies the muscles of the thenar eminence by a recurrent thenar branch. The rest of the intrinsic muscles of the hand are supplied by the ulnar nerve.
The median nerve innervates the skin of the palmar (volar) side of the index, the thumb and middle finger, half the ring finger, and the nail bed. The radial aspect of the palm is supplied by the palmar cutaneous branch of the median nerve, which leaves the nerve proximal to the wrist creases. This palmar cutaneous branch travels in a separate fascial groove adjacent to the flexor carpi radialis and then superficial to the flexor retinaculum. It is therefore spared in carpal tunnel syndrome.
The muscles of the hand supplied by the median nerve can be remembered using the mnemonic, "LOAF '' for Lumbricals 1 & 2, Opponens pollicis, Abductor pollicis brevis and Flexor pollicis brevis. (NB: OAF are the thenar eminence).
Injury of median nerve at different levels causes different syndromes with varying motor and sensory deficits.
Above the elbow
At the elbow
Within the proximal forearm: Anterior interosseous syndrome
At the wrist
Within the wrist: Carpal tunnel syndrome
Brachium seen anterolaterally, showing nerves and vasculature.
Antebrachium seen anteriorly, showing nerves and vasculature.
Cross-section through the middle of upper arm (left), and middle of the forearm (right).
Transverse section across distal ends of radius and ulna.
Transverse section across the wrist and digits.
The right brachial plexus (infraclavicular portion) in the axillary fossa; viewed from below and in front.
Diagram of segmental distribution of the cutaneous nerves of the right upper extremity.
Superficial palmar nerves.
Deep palmar nerves.
Front of right upper extremity, showing surface markings for bones, arteries, and nerves.
Median nerve
Median nerve
This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 938 of the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
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where did the polar bear live with her family | Polar bear - Wikipedia
Ursus eogroenlandicus Ursus groenlandicus Ursus jenaensis Ursus labradorensis Ursus marinus Ursus polaris Ursus spitzbergensis Ursus ungavensis Thalarctos maritimus
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a carnivorous bear whose native range lies largely within the Arctic Circle, encompassing the Arctic Ocean, its surrounding seas and surrounding land masses. It is a large bear, approximately the same size as the omnivorous Kodiak bear (Ursus arctos middendorffi). A boar (adult male) weighs around 350 -- 700 kg (772 -- 1,543 lb), while a sow (adult female) is about half that size. Although it is the sister species of the brown bear, it has evolved to occupy a narrower ecological niche, with many body characteristics adapted for cold temperatures, for moving across snow, ice and open water, and for hunting seals, which make up most of its diet. Although most polar bears are born on land, they spend most of their time on the sea ice. Their scientific name means "maritime bear '' and derives from this fact. Polar bears hunt their preferred food of seals from the edge of sea ice, often living off fat reserves when no sea ice is present. Because of their dependence on the sea ice, polar bears are classified as marine mammals.
Because of expected habitat loss caused by climate change, the polar bear is classified as a vulnerable species, and at least three of the nineteen polar bear subpopulations are currently in decline. For decades, large - scale hunting raised international concern for the future of the species, but populations rebounded after controls and quotas began to take effect. For thousands of years, the polar bear has been a key figure in the material, spiritual, and cultural life of circumpolar peoples, and polar bears remain important in their cultures. Historically, the polar bear has also been known as the white bear.
Constantine John Phipps was the first to describe the polar bear as a distinct species in 1774. He chose the scientific name Ursus maritimus, the Latin for ' maritime bear ', due to the animal 's native habitat. The Inuit refer to the animal as nanook (transliterated as nanuq in the Inupiat language). The Yupik also refer to the bear as nanuuk in Siberian Yupik. The bear is umka in the Chukchi language. In Russian, it is usually called бе́лый медве́дь (bélyj medvédj, the white bear), though an older word still in use is ошку́й (Oshkúj, which comes from the Komi oski, "bear ''). In Quebec, the polar bear is referred to as ours blanc ("white bear '') or ours polaire ("polar bear ''). In the Norwegian - administered Svalbard archipelago, the polar bear is referred to as Isbjørn ("ice bear '').
The polar bear was previously considered to be in its own genus, Thalarctos. However, evidence of hybrids between polar bears and brown bears, and of the recent evolutionary divergence of the two species, does not support the establishment of this separate genus, and the accepted scientific name is now therefore Ursus maritimus, as Phipps originally proposed.
The bear family, Ursidae, is thought to have split off from other carnivorans about 38 million years ago. The Ursinae subfamily originated approximately 4.2 million years ago. The oldest known polar bear fossil is a 130,000 to 110,000 - year - old jaw bone, found on Prince Charles Foreland in 2004. Fossils show that between 10,000 and 20,000 years ago, the polar bear 's molar teeth changed significantly from those of the brown bear. Polar bears are thought to have diverged from a population of brown bears that became isolated during a period of glaciation in the Pleistocene or from the eastern part of Siberia, (from Kamchatka and the Kolym Peninsula).
The evidence from DNA analysis is more complex. The mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of the polar bear diverged from the brown bear, Ursus arctos, roughly 150,000 years ago. Further, some clades of brown bear, as assessed by their mtDNA, are more closely related to polar bears than to other brown bears, meaning that the polar bear might not be considered a species under some species concepts. The mtDNA of extinct Irish brown bears is particularly close to polar bears. A comparison of the nuclear genome of polar bears with that of brown bears revealed a different pattern, the two forming genetically distinct clades that diverged approximately 603,000 years ago, although the latest research is based on analysis of the complete genomes (rather than just the mitochondria or partial nuclear genomes) of polar and brown bears, and establishes the divergence of polar and brown bears at 400,000 years ago.
However, the two species have mated intermittently for all that time, most likely coming into contact with each other during warming periods, when polar bears were driven onto land and brown bears migrated northward. Most brown bears have about 2 percent genetic material from polar bears, but one population, the ABC Islands bears has between 5 percent and 10 percent polar bear genes, indicating more frequent and recent mating. Polar bears can breed with brown bears to produce fertile grizzly -- polar bear hybrids, rather than indicating that they have only recently diverged, the new evidence suggests more frequent mating has continued over a longer period of time, and thus the two bears remain genetically similar. However, because neither species can survive long in the other 's ecological niche, and because they have different morphology, metabolism, social and feeding behaviours, and other phenotypic characteristics, the two bears are generally classified as separate species.
When the polar bear was originally documented, two subspecies were identified: Ursus maritimus maritimus by Constantine J. Phipps in 1774, and Ursus maritimus marinus by Peter Simon Pallas in 1776. This distinction has since been invalidated. One alleged fossil subspecies has been identified: Ursus maritimus tyrannus became extinct during the Pleistocene. U.m. tyrannus was significantly larger than the living subspecies. However, recent reanalysis of the fossil suggests that it was actually a type of brown bear.
The polar bear is found in the Arctic Circle and adjacent land masses as far south as Newfoundland. Due to the absence of human development in its remote habitat, it retains more of its original range than any other extant carnivore. While they are rare north of 88 °, there is evidence that they range all the way across the Arctic, and as far south as James Bay in Canada. Their southernmost range is near the boundary between the subarctic and humid continental climate zones. They can occasionally drift widely with the sea ice, and there have been anecdotal sightings as far south as Berlevåg on the Norwegian mainland and the Kuril Islands in the Sea of Okhotsk. It is difficult to estimate a global population of polar bears as much of the range has been poorly studied; however, biologists use a working estimate of about 20 -- 25,000 or 22 -- 31,000 polar bears worldwide.
There are 19 generally recognized, discrete subpopulations, though polar bears are thought to exist only in low densities in the area of the Arctic Basin. The subpopulations display seasonal fidelity to particular areas, but DNA studies show that they are not reproductively isolated. The thirteen North American subpopulations range from the Beaufort Sea south to Hudson Bay and east to Baffin Bay in western Greenland and account for about 54 % of the global population.
The range includes the territory of five nations: Denmark (Greenland), Norway (Svalbard), Russia, the United States (Alaska) and Canada. These five nations are the signatories of the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears, which mandates cooperation on research and conservation efforts throughout the polar bear 's range.
Modern methods of tracking polar bear populations have been implemented only since the mid-1980s, and are expensive to perform consistently over a large area. The most accurate counts require flying a helicopter in the Arctic climate to find polar bears, shooting a tranquilizer dart at the bear to sedate it, and then tagging the bear. In Nunavut, some Inuit have reported increases in bear sightings around human settlements in recent years, leading to a belief that populations are increasing. Scientists have responded by noting that hungry bears may be congregating around human settlements, leading to the illusion that populations are higher than they actually are. The Polar Bear Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission takes the position that "estimates of subpopulation size or sustainable harvest levels should not be made solely on the basis of traditional ecological knowledge without supporting scientific studies. ''
Of the 19 recognized polar bear subpopulations, three are declining, six are stable, one is increasing, and nine have insufficient data, as of 2014.
The polar bear is a marine mammal because it spends many months of the year at sea. However, it is the only living marine mammal with powerful, large limbs and feet that allow them to cover miles on foot and run on land. Its preferred habitat is the annual sea ice covering the waters over the continental shelf and the Arctic inter-island archipelagos. These areas, known as the "Arctic ring of life '', have high biological productivity in comparison to the deep waters of the high Arctic. The polar bear tends to frequent areas where sea ice meets water, such as polynyas and leads (temporary stretches of open water in Arctic ice), to hunt the seals that make up most of its diet. Freshwater is limited in these environments because it is either locked up in snow or saline. Polar bears are able to produce water through the metabolism of fats found in seal blubber. Polar bears are therefore found primarily along the perimeter of the polar ice pack, rather than in the Polar Basin close to the North Pole where the density of seals is low.
Annual ice contains areas of water that appear and disappear throughout the year as the weather changes. Seals migrate in response to these changes, and polar bears must follow their prey. In Hudson Bay, James Bay, and some other areas, the ice melts completely each summer (an event often referred to as "ice - floe breakup ''), forcing polar bears to go onto land and wait through the months until the next freeze - up. In the Chukchi and Beaufort seas, polar bears retreat each summer to the ice further north that remains frozen year - round.
The only other bear of a similar size to the polar bear is the Kodiak bear, which is a subspecies of brown bear. Adult male polar bears weigh 350 -- 700 kg (772 -- 1,543 lb) and measure 2.4 -- 3 metres (7 ft 10 in -- 9 ft 10 in) in total length. The Guinness Book of World Records listed the average male as having a body mass of 385 to 410 kg (849 to 904 lb) and a shoulder height of 133 cm (4 ft 4 in), slightly smaller than the average male Kodiak bears. Around the Beaufort Sea, however, mature males reportedly average 450 kg (992 lb). Adult females are roughly half the size of males and normally weigh 150 -- 250 kg (331 -- 551 lb), measuring 1.8 -- 2.4 metres (5 ft 11 in -- 7 ft 10 in) in length. Elsewhere, a slightly larger estimated average weight of 260 kg (573 lb) was claimed for adult females. When pregnant, however, females can weigh as much as 500 kg (1,102 lb). The polar bear is among the most sexually dimorphic of mammals, surpassed only by the pinnipeds such as elephant seals. The largest polar bear on record, reportedly weighing 1,002 kg (2,209 lb), was a male shot at Kotzebue Sound in northwestern Alaska in 1960. This specimen, when mounted, stood 3.39 m (11 ft 1 in) tall on its hindlegs. The shoulder height of an adult polar bear is 122 to 160 cm (4 ft 0 in to 5 ft 3 in). While all bears are short - tailed, the polar bear 's tail is relatively the shortest amongst living bears, ranging from 7 to 13 cm (2.8 to 5.1 in) in length.
Compared with its closest relative, the brown bear, the polar bear has a more elongated body build and a longer skull and nose. As predicted by Allen 's rule for a northerly animal, the legs are stocky and the ears and tail are small. However, the feet are very large to distribute load when walking on snow or thin ice and to provide propulsion when swimming; they may measure 30 cm (12 in) across in an adult. The pads of the paws are covered with small, soft papillae (dermal bumps), which provide traction on the ice. The polar bear 's claws are short and stocky compared to those of the brown bear, perhaps to serve the former 's need to grip heavy prey and ice. The claws are deeply scooped on the underside to assist in digging in the ice of the natural habitat. Research of injury patterns in polar bear forelimbs found injuries to the right forelimb to be more frequent than those to the left, suggesting, perhaps, right - handedness. Unlike the brown bear, polar bears in captivity are rarely overweight or particularly large, possibly as a reaction to the warm conditions of most zoos.
The 42 teeth of a polar bear reflect its highly carnivorous diet. The cheek teeth are smaller and more jagged than in the brown bear, and the canines are larger and sharper. The dental formula is 3.1. 4.2 3.1. 4.3
Polar bears are superbly insulated by up to 10 cm (4 in) of adipose tissue, their hide and their fur; they overheat at temperatures above 10 ° C (50 ° F), and are nearly invisible under infrared photography. Polar bear fur consists of a layer of dense underfur and an outer layer of guard hairs, which appear white to tan but are actually transparent. The guard hair is 5 -- 15 cm (2 -- 6 in) over most of the body. Polar bears gradually moult from May to August, but, unlike other Arctic mammals, they do not shed their coat for a darker shade to provide camouflage in summer conditions. The hollow guard hairs of a polar bear coat were once thought to act as fiber - optic tubes to conduct light to its black skin, where it could be absorbed; however, this hypothesis was disproved by a study in 1998.
The white coat usually yellows with age. When kept in captivity in warm, humid conditions, the fur may turn a pale shade of green due to algae growing inside the guard hairs. Males have significantly longer hairs on their forelegs, which increase in length until the bear reaches 14 years of age. The male 's ornamental foreleg hair is thought to attract females, serving a similar function to the lion 's mane.
The polar bear has an extremely well developed sense of smell, being able to detect seals nearly 1.6 km (1 mi) away and buried under 1 m (3 ft) of snow. Its hearing is about as acute as that of a human, and its vision is also good at long distances.
The polar bear is an excellent swimmer and often will swim for days. One bear swam continuously for 9 days in the frigid Bering Sea for 687 km (400 mi) to reach ice far from land. She then travelled another 1,800 km (1,100 mi). During the swim, the bear lost 22 % of her body mass and her yearling cub died. With its body fat providing buoyancy, the bear swims in a dog paddle fashion using its large forepaws for propulsion. Polar bears can swim 10 km / h (6 mph). When walking, the polar bear tends to have a lumbering gait and maintains an average speed of around 5.6 km / h (3.5 mph). When sprinting, they can reach up to 40 km / h (25 mph).
Unlike brown bears, polar bears are not territorial. Although stereotyped as being voraciously aggressive, they are normally cautious in confrontations, and often choose to escape rather than fight. Satiated polar bears rarely attack humans unless severely provoked. However, due to their lack of prior human interaction, hungry polar bears are extremely unpredictable, fearless towards people and are known to kill and sometimes eat humans. Many attacks by brown bears are the result of surprising the animal, which is not the case with the polar bear. Polar bears are stealth hunters, and the victim is often unaware of the bear 's presence until the attack is underway. Whereas brown bears often maul a person and then leave, polar bear attacks are more likely to be predatory and are almost always fatal. However, due to the very small human population around the Arctic, such attacks are rare. Michio Hoshino, a Japanese wildlife photographer, was once pursued briefly by a hungry male polar bear in northern Alaska. According to Hoshino, the bear started running but Hoshino made it to his truck. The bear was able to reach the truck and tore one of the doors off the truck before Hoshino was able to drive off.
In general, adult polar bears live solitary lives. Yet, they have often been seen playing together for hours at a time and even sleeping in an embrace, and polar bear zoologist Nikita Ovsianikov has described adult males as having "well - developed friendships. '' Cubs are especially playful as well. Among young males in particular, play - fighting may be a means of practicing for serious competition during mating seasons later in life. Polar bears are usually quiet but do communicate with various sounds and vocalizations. Females communicate with their young with moans and chuffs, and the distress calls of both cubs and subadults consists of bleats. Cubs may hum while nursing. When nervous, bears produce huffs, chuffs and snorts while hisses, growls and roars are signs of aggression. Chemical communication can also be important: bears leave behind their scent in their tracks which allow individuals to keep track of one another in the vast Arctic wilderness.
In 1992, a photographer near Churchill took a now widely circulated set of photographs of a polar bear playing with a Canadian Eskimo Dog (Canis lupus familiaris) a tenth of its size. The pair wrestled harmlessly together each afternoon for ten days in a row for no apparent reason, although the bear may have been trying to demonstrate its friendliness in the hope of sharing the kennel 's food. This kind of social interaction is uncommon; it is far more typical for polar bears to behave aggressively towards dogs.
The polar bear is the most carnivorous member of the bear family, and throughout most of its range, its diet primarily consists of ringed (Pusa hispida) and bearded seals (Erignathus barbatus). The Arctic is home to millions of seals, which become prey when they surface in holes in the ice in order to breathe, or when they haul out on the ice to rest. Polar bears hunt primarily at the interface between ice, water, and air; they only rarely catch seals on land or in open water.
The polar bear 's most common hunting method is called still - hunting: The bear uses its excellent sense of smell to locate a seal breathing hole, and crouches nearby in silence for a seal to appear. The bear may lay in wait for several hours. When the seal exhales, the bear smells its breath, reaches into the hole with a forepaw, and drags it out onto the ice. The polar bear kills the seal by biting its head to crush its skull. The polar bear also hunts by stalking seals resting on the ice: Upon spotting a seal, it walks to within 90 m (100 yd), and then crouches. If the seal does not notice, the bear creeps to within 9 to 12 m (30 to 40 ft) of the seal and then suddenly rushes forth to attack. A third hunting method is to raid the birth lairs that female seals create in the snow.
A widespread legend tells that polar bears cover their black noses with their paws when hunting. This behaviour, if it happens, is rare -- although the story exists in the oral history of northern peoples and in accounts by early Arctic explorers, there is no record of an eyewitness account of the behaviour in recent decades.
Mature bears tend to eat only the calorie - rich skin and blubber of the seal, which are highly digestible, whereas younger bears consume the protein - rich red meat. Studies have also photographed polar bears scaling near - vertical cliffs, to eat birds ' chicks and eggs. For subadult bears, which are independent of their mother but have not yet gained enough experience and body size to successfully hunt seals, scavenging the carcasses from other bears ' kills is an important source of nutrition. Subadults may also be forced to accept a half - eaten carcass if they kill a seal but can not defend it from larger polar bears. After feeding, polar bears wash themselves with water or snow.
Although polar bears are extraordinarily powerful, its primary prey species, the ringed seal, is much smaller than itself, and many of the seals hunted are pups rather than adults. Ringed seals are born weighing 5.4 kg (12 lb) and grown to an estimated average weight of only 60 kg (130 lb). They also in places prey heavily upon the harp seal (Pusa groenlandica) or the harbor seal. The bearded seal, on the other hand, can be nearly the same size as the bear itself, averaging 270 kg (600 lb). Adult male bearded seals, at 350 to 500 kg (770 to 1,100 lb) are too large for a female bear to overtake, and so are potential prey only for mature male bears. Large males also occasionally attempt to hunt and kill even larger prey items. It can kill an adult walrus (Odobenus rosmarus), although this is rarely attempted. At up to 2,000 kg (4,400 lb) and a typical adult mass range of 600 to 1,500 kg (1,300 to 3,300 lb), a walrus can be more than twice the bear 's weight, and has up to 1 - metre (3 ft) - long ivory tusks that can be used as formidable weapons. A polar bear may charge a group of walruses, with the goal of separating a young, infirm, or injured walrus from the pod. They will even attack adult walruses when their diving holes have frozen over or intercept them before they can get back to the diving hole in the ice. Yet, polar bears will very seldom attack full - grown adult walruses, with the largest male walrus probably invulnerable unless otherwise injured or incapacitated. Since an attack on a walrus tends to be an extremely protracted and exhausting venture, bears have been known to back down from the attack after making the initial injury to the walrus. Polar bears have also been seen to prey on beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) and narwhals (Monodon monoceros), by swiping at them at breathing holes. The whales are of similar size to the walrus and nearly as difficult for the bear to subdue. Most terrestrial animals in the Arctic can outrun the polar bear on land as polar bears overheat quickly, and most marine animals the bear encounters can outswim it. In some areas, the polar bear 's diet is supplemented by walrus calves and by the carcasses of dead adult walruses or whales, whose blubber is readily devoured even when rotten. Polar bears sometimes swim underwater to catch fish like the Arctic charr or the fourhorn sculpin.
With the exception of pregnant females, polar bears are active year - round, although they have a vestigial hibernation induction trigger in their blood. Unlike brown and black bears, polar bears are capable of fasting for up to several months during late summer and early fall, when they can not hunt for seals because the sea is unfrozen. When sea ice is unavailable during summer and early autumn, some populations live off fat reserves for months at a time, as polar bears do not ' hibernate ' any time of the year.
Being both curious animals and scavengers, polar bears investigate and consume garbage where they come into contact with humans. Polar bears may attempt to consume almost anything they can find, including hazardous substances such as styrofoam, plastic, car batteries, ethylene glycol, hydraulic fluid, and motor oil. The dump in Churchill, Manitoba was closed in 2006 to protect bears, and waste is now recycled or transported to Thompson, Manitoba.
Although seal predation is the primary and an indispensable way of life for most polar bears, when alternatives are present they are quite flexible. Polar bears consume a wide variety of other wild foods, including muskox (Ovibos moschatus), reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), birds, eggs, rodents, crabs, other crustaceans and other polar bears. They may also eat plants, including berries, roots, and kelp; however, none of these have been a significant part of their diet, except for beachcast marine mammal carcasses. Given the change in climate, with ice breaking up in areas such as the Hudson Bay earlier than it used to, polar bears are exploiting food resources such as snow geese and eggs, and plants such as lyme grass in increased quantities. When stalking land animals, such as muskox, reindeer, and even willow ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus), polar bears appear to make use of vegetative cover and wind direction to bring them as close to their prey as possible before attacking. Polar bears have been observed to hunt the small Svalbard reindeer (R. t. platyrhynchus), which weigh only 40 to 60 kg (90 to 130 lb) as adults, as well as the barren - ground caribou (R. t. groenlandicus), which is about twice as heavy as that. Adult muskox, which can weigh 450 kg (1,000 lb) or more, are a more formidable quarry. Although ungulates are not typical prey, the killing of one during the summer months can greatly increase the odds of survival during that lean period. Like the brown bear, most ungulate prey of polar bears is likely to be young, sickly or injured specimens rather than healthy adults. The polar bear 's metabolism is specialized to require large amounts of fat from marine mammals, and it can not derive sufficient caloric intake from terrestrial food.
In their southern range, especially near Hudson Bay and James Bay, Canadian polar bears endure all summer without sea ice to hunt from. Here, their food ecology shows their dietary flexibility. They still manage to consume some seals, but they are food - deprived in summer as only marine mammal carcasses are an important alternative without sea ice, especially carcasses of the beluga whale. These alternatives may reduce the rate of weight loss of bears when on land. One scientist found that 71 % of the Hudson Bay bears had fed on seaweed (marine algae) and that about half were feeding on birds such as the dovekie and sea ducks, especially the long - tailed duck (53 %) and common eider, by swimming underwater to catch them. They were also diving to feed on blue mussels and other underwater food sources like the green sea urchin. 24 % had eaten moss recently, 19 % had consumed grass, 34 % had eaten black crowberry and about half had consumed willows. This study illustrates the polar bear 's dietary flexibility but it does not represent its life history elsewhere. Most polar bears elsewhere will never have access to these alternatives, except for the marine mammal carcasses that are important wherever they occur.
In Svalbard, polar bears were observed to kill white - beaked dolphins during spring, when the dolphins were trapped in the sea ice. The bears then proceeded to cache the carcasses, which remained and were eaten during the ice - free summer and autumn.
Courtship and mating take place on the sea ice in April and May, when polar bears congregate in the best seal hunting areas. A male may follow the tracks of a breeding female for 100 km (60 mi) or more, and after finding her engage in intense fighting with other males over mating rights, fights that often result in scars and broken teeth. Polar bears have a generally polygynous mating system; recent genetic testing of mothers and cubs, however, has uncovered cases of litters in which cubs have different fathers. Partners stay together and mate repeatedly for an entire week; the mating ritual induces ovulation in the female.
After mating, the fertilized egg remains in a suspended state until August or September. During these four months, the pregnant female eats prodigious amounts of food, gaining at least 200 kg (440 lb) and often more than doubling her body weight.
When the ice floes break up in the fall, ending the possibility of hunting, each pregnant female digs a maternity den consisting of a narrow entrance tunnel leading to one to three chambers. Most maternity dens are in snowdrifts, but may also be made underground in permafrost if it is not sufficiently cold yet for snow. In most subpopulations, maternity dens are situated on land a few kilometers from the coast, and the individuals in a subpopulation tend to reuse the same denning areas each year. The polar bears that do not den on land make their dens on the sea ice. In the den, she enters a dormant state similar to hibernation. This hibernation - like state does not consist of continuous sleeping; however, the bear 's heart rate slows from 46 to 27 beats per minute. Her body temperature does not decrease during this period as it would for a typical mammal in hibernation.
Between November and February, cubs are born blind, covered with a light down fur, and weighing less than 0.9 kg (2.0 lb), but in captivity they might be delivered in the earlier months. The earliest recorded birth of polar bears in captivity was on 11 October 2011 in the Toronto Zoo. On average, each litter has two cubs. The family remains in the den until mid-February to mid-April, with the mother maintaining her fast while nursing her cubs on a fat - rich milk. By the time the mother breaks open the entrance to the den, her cubs weigh about 10 to 15 kilograms (22 to 33 lb). For about 12 to 15 days, the family spends time outside the den while remaining in its vicinity, the mother grazing on vegetation while the cubs become used to walking and playing. Then they begin the long walk from the denning area to the sea ice, where the mother can once again catch seals. Depending on the timing of ice - floe breakup in the fall, she may have fasted for up to eight months. During this time, cubs playfully imitate the mother 's hunting methods in preparation for later life.
Female polar bears are noted for both their affection towards their offspring, and their valor in protecting them. Multiple cases of adoption of wild cubs have been confirmed by genetic testing. Adult male bears occasionally kill and eat polar bear cubs. As of 2006, in Alaska, 42 % of cubs were reaching 12 months of age, down from 65 % in 1991. In most areas, cubs are weaned at two and a half years of age, when the mother chases them away or abandons them. The Western Hudson Bay subpopulation is unusual in that its female polar bears sometimes wean their cubs at only one and a half years. This was the case for 40 % of cubs there in the early 1980s; however by the 1990s, fewer than 20 % of cubs were weaned this young. After the mother leaves, sibling cubs sometimes travel and share food together for weeks or months.
Females begin to breed at the age of four years in most areas, and five years in the Beaufort Sea area. Males usually reach sexual maturity at six years; however, as competition for females is fierce, many do not breed until the age of eight or ten. A study in Hudson Bay indicated that both the reproductive success and the maternal weight of females peaked in their mid-teens.
Polar bears appear to be less affected by infectious diseases and parasites than most terrestrial mammals. Polar bears are especially susceptible to Trichinella, a parasitic roundworm they contract through cannibalism, although infections are usually not fatal. Only one case of a polar bear with rabies has been documented, even though polar bears frequently interact with Arctic foxes, which often carry rabies. Bacterial leptospirosis and Morbillivirus have been recorded. Polar bears sometimes have problems with various skin diseases that may be caused by mites or other parasites.
Polar bears rarely live beyond 25 years. The oldest wild bears on record died at age 32, whereas the oldest captive was a female who died in 1991, age 43. The causes of death in wild adult polar bears are poorly understood, as carcasses are rarely found in the species 's frigid habitat. In the wild, old polar bears eventually become too weak to catch food, and gradually starve to death. Polar bears injured in fights or accidents may either die from their injuries or become unable to hunt effectively, leading to starvation.
The polar bear is the apex predator within its range, and is a keystone species for the Arctic. Several animal species, particularly Arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus) and glaucous gulls (Larus hyperboreus), routinely scavenge polar bear kills.
The relationship between ringed seals and polar bears is so close that the abundance of ringed seals in some areas appears to regulate the density of polar bears, while polar bear predation in turn regulates density and reproductive success of ringed seals. The evolutionary pressure of polar bear predation on seals probably accounts for some significant differences between Arctic and Antarctic seals. Compared to the Antarctic, where there is no major surface predator, Arctic seals use more breathing holes per individual, appear more restless when hauled out on the ice, and rarely defecate on the ice. The baby fur of most Arctic seal species is white, presumably to provide camouflage from predators, whereas Antarctic seals all have dark fur at birth.
Brown bears tend to dominate polar bears in disputes over carcasses, and dead polar bear cubs have been found in brown bear dens. Wolves are rarely encountered by polar bears, though there are two records of Arctic wolf (Canis lupus arctos) packs killing polar bear cubs. A rather unlikely killer of a grown polar bear has reportedly included a wolverine (Gulo gulo), anecedotely reported to have suffocated a bear in a zoo with a bite to the throat during a conflict. Polar bears are sometimes the host of arctic mites such as Alaskozetes antarcticus.
Researchers tracked 52 sows in the southern Beaufort Sea off Alaska with GPS system collars; no boars were involved in the study due to males ' necks being too thick for the GPS - equipped collars. Fifty long - distance swims were recorded; the longest at 354 kilometres (220 mi), with an average of 155 kilometres (96 mi). The length of these swims ranged from most of a day to ten days. Ten of the sows had a cub swim with them and after a year, six cubs survived. The study did not determine if the others lost their cubs before, during, or some time after their long swims. Researchers do not know whether or not this is a new behaviour; before polar ice shrinkage, they opined that there was probably neither the need nor opportunity to swim such long distances.
The polar bear may swim underwater for up to three minutes to approach seals on shore or on ice floes.
Polar bears have long provided important raw materials for Arctic peoples, including the Inuit, Yupik, Chukchi, Nenets, Russian Pomors and others. Hunters commonly used teams of dogs to distract the bear, allowing the hunter to spear the bear or shoot it with arrows at closer range. Almost all parts of captured animals had a use. The fur was used in particular to make trousers and, by the Nenets, to make galoshes - like outer footwear called tobok; the meat is edible, despite some risk of trichinosis; the fat was used in food and as a fuel for lighting homes, alongside seal and whale blubber; sinews were used as thread for sewing clothes; the gallbladder and sometimes heart were dried and powdered for medicinal purposes; the large canine teeth were highly valued as talismans. Only the liver was not used, as its high concentration of vitamin A is poisonous. Hunters make sure to either toss the liver into the sea or bury it in order to spare their dogs from potential poisoning. Traditional subsistence hunting was on a small enough scale to not significantly affect polar bear populations, mostly because of the sparseness of the human population in polar bear habitat.
In Russia, polar bear furs were already being commercially traded in the 14th century, though it was of low value compared to Arctic fox or even reindeer fur. The growth of the human population in the Eurasian Arctic in the 16th and 17th century, together with the advent of firearms and increasing trade, dramatically increased the harvest of polar bears. However, since polar bear fur has always played a marginal commercial role, data on the historical harvest is fragmentary. It is known, for example, that already in the winter of 1784 / 1785 Russian Pomors on Spitsbergen harvested 150 polar bears in Magdalenefjorden. In the early 20th century, Norwegian hunters were harvesting 300 bears per year at the same location. Estimates of total historical harvest suggest that from the beginning of the 18th century, roughly 400 to 500 animals were being harvested annually in northern Eurasia, reaching a peak of 1,300 to 1,500 animals in the early 20th century, and falling off as the numbers began dwindling.
In the first half of the 20th century, mechanized and overpoweringly efficient methods of hunting and trapping came into use in North America as well. Polar bears were chased from snowmobiles, icebreakers, and airplanes, the latter practice described in a 1965 New York Times editorial as being "about as sporting as machine gunning a cow. '' Norwegians used "self - killing guns '', comprising a loaded rifle in a baited box that was placed at the level of a bear 's head, and which fired when the string attached to the bait was pulled. The numbers taken grew rapidly in the 1960s, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1,250 bears that year.
Concerns over the future survival of the species led to the development of national regulations on polar bear hunting, beginning in the mid-1950s. The Soviet Union banned all hunting in 1956. Canada began imposing hunting quotas in 1968. Norway passed a series of increasingly strict regulations from 1965 to 1973, and has completely banned hunting since then. The United States began regulating hunting in 1971 and adopted the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972. In 1973, the International Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears was signed by all five nations whose territory is inhabited by polar bears: Canada, Denmark, Norway, the Soviet Union, and the United States. Member countries agreed to place restrictions on recreational and commercial hunting, ban hunting from aircraft and icebreakers, and conduct further research. The treaty allows hunting "by local people using traditional methods ''. Norway is the only country of the five in which all harvest of polar bears is banned. The agreement was a rare case of international cooperation during the Cold War. Biologist Ian Stirling commented, "For many years, the conservation of polar bears was the only subject in the entire Arctic that nations from both sides of the Iron Curtain could agree upon sufficiently to sign an agreement. Such was the intensity of human fascination with this magnificent predator, the only marine bear. ''
Agreements have been made between countries to co-manage their shared polar bear subpopulations. After several years of negotiations, Russia and the United States signed an agreement in October 2000 to jointly set quotas for indigenous subsistence hunting in Alaska and Chukotka. The treaty was ratified in October 2007. In September 2015, the polar bear range states agreed upon a "circumpolar action plan '' describing their conservation strategy for polar bears.
Although the United States government has proposed that polar bears be transferred to Appendix I of CITES, which would ban all international trade in polar bear parts, polar bears currently remain listed under Appendix II. This decision was approved of by members of the IUCN and TRAFFIC, who determined that such an uplisting was unlikely to confer a conservation benefit.
Polar bears were designated "Not at Risk '' in April 1986 and uplisted to "Special Concern '' in April 1991. This status was re-evaluated and confirmed in April 1999, November 2002, and April 2008. Polar bears continue to be listed as a species of special concern in Canada because of their sensitivity to overharvest and because of an expected range contraction caused by loss of Arctic sea ice.
More than 600 bears are killed per year by humans across Canada, a rate calculated by scientists to be unsustainable for some areas, notably Baffin Bay. Canada has allowed sport hunters accompanied by local guides and dog - sled teams since 1970, but the practice was not common until the 1980s. The guiding of sport hunters provides meaningful employment and an important source of income for northern communities in which economic opportunities are few. Sport hunting can bring CDN $20,000 to $35,000 per bear into northern communities, which until recently has been mostly from American hunters.
The territory of Nunavut accounts for the location 80 % of annual kills in Canada. In 2005, the government of Nunavut increased the quota from 400 to 518 bears, despite protests from the IUCN Polar Bear Specialist Group. In two areas where harvest levels have been increased based on increased sightings, science - based studies have indicated declining populations, and a third area is considered data - deficient. While most of that quota is hunted by the indigenous Inuit people, a growing share is sold to recreational hunters. (0.8 % in the 1970s, 7.1 % in the 1980s, and 14.6 % in the 1990s) Nunavut polar bear biologist, Mitchell Taylor, who was formerly responsible for polar bear conservation in the territory, has insisted that bear numbers are being sustained under current hunting limits. In 2010, the 2005 increase was partially reversed. Government of Nunavut officials announced that the polar bear quota for the Baffin Bay region would be gradually reduced from 105 per year to 65 by the year 2013. The Government of the Northwest Territories maintain their own quota of 72 to 103 bears within the Inuvialuit communities of which some are set aside for sports hunters. Environment Canada also banned the export from Canada of fur, claws, skulls and other products from polar bears harvested in Baffin Bay as of 1 January 2010.
Because of the way polar bear hunting quotas are managed in Canada, attempts to discourage sport hunting would actually increase the number of bears killed in the short term. Canada allocates a certain number of permits each year to sport and subsistence hunting, and those that are not used for sport hunting are re-allocated to indigenous subsistence hunting. Whereas northern communities kill all the polar bears they are permitted to take each year, only half of sport hunters with permits actually manage to kill a polar bear. If a sport hunter does not kill a polar bear before his or her permit expires, the permit can not be transferred to another hunter.
In August 2011, Environment Canada published a national polar bear conservation strategy.
In Greenland, hunting restrictions were first introduced in 1994 and expanded by executive order in 2005. Until 2005 Greenland placed no limit on hunting by indigenous people. However, in 2006 it imposed a limit of 150, while also allowed recreational hunting for the first time. Other provisions included year - round protection of cubs and mothers, restrictions on weapons used, and various administrative requirements to catalogue kills.
Polar bear were hunted heavily in Savalbard, Norway throughout the 19th century and to as recently as 1973, when the conservation treaty was signed. 900 bears a year were harvested in the 1920s and after World War II, there were as many as 400 -- 500 harvested annually. Some regulations of hunting did exist. In 1927, poisoning was outlawed while in 1939, certain denning sights were declared off limits. The killing of females and cubs was made illegal in 1965. Killing of polar bears decreased somewhat 25 -- 30 years before the treaty. Despite this, the polar bear population continued to decline and by 1973, only around 1000 bears were left in Savalbard. Only with the passage of the treaty did they begin to recover.
The Soviet Union banned the harvest of polar bears in 1956; however, poaching continued and is estimated to pose a serious threat to the polar bear population. In recent years, polar bears have approached coastal villages in Chukotka more frequently due to the shrinking of the sea ice, endangering humans and raising concerns that illegal hunting would become even more prevalent. In 2007, the Russian government made subsistence hunting legal for indigenous Chukotkan peoples only, a move supported by Russia 's most prominent bear researchers and the World Wide Fund for Nature as a means to curb poaching.
Polar bears are currently listed as "Rare '', of "Uncertain Status '', or "Rehabilitated and rehabilitating '' in the Red Data Book of Russia, depending on population. In 2010, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment published a strategy for polar bear conservation in Russia.
The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 afforded polar bears some protection in the United States. It banned hunting (except by indigenous subsistence hunters), banned importing of polar bear parts (except polar bear pelts taken legally in Canada), and banned the harassment of polar bears. On 15 May 2008, the United States Department of the Interior listed the polar bear as a threatened species under the Endangered Species Act, citing the melting of Arctic sea ice as the primary threat to the polar bear. It banned all importing of polar bear trophies. Importing products made from polar bears had been prohibited from 1972 to 1994 under the Marine Mammal Protection Act, and restricted between 1994 and 2008. Under those restrictions, permits from the United States Fish and Wildlife Service were required to import sport - hunted polar bear trophies taken in hunting expeditions in Canada. The permit process required that the bear be taken from an area with quotas based on sound management principles. Since 1994, hundreds of sport - hunted polar bear trophies have been imported into the U.S. In 2015, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service published a draft conservation management plan for polar bears to improve their status under the Endangered Species Act and the Marine Mammal Protection Act.
Polar bear population sizes and trends are difficult to estimate accurately because they occupy remote home ranges and exist at low population densities. Polar bear fieldwork can also be hazardous to researchers. As of 2015, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reports that the global population of polar bears is 22,000 to 31,000, and the current population trend is unknown. Nevertheless, polar bears are listed as "Vulnerable '' under criterion A3c, which indicates an expected population decrease of ≥ 30 % over the next three generations (~ 34.5 years) due to "decline in area of occupancy, extent of occurrence and / or quality of habitat ''. Risks to the polar bear include climate change, pollution in the form of toxic contaminants, conflicts with shipping, oil and gas exploration and development, and human - bear interactions including harvesting and possible stresses from recreational polar - bear watching.
According to the World Wildlife Fund, the polar bear is important as an indicator of Arctic ecosystem health. Polar bears are studied to gain understanding of what is happening throughout the Arctic, because at - risk polar bears are often a sign of something wrong with the Arctic marine ecosystem.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature, Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, United States Geological Survey and many leading polar bear biologists have expressed grave concerns about the impact of climate change, including the belief that the current warming trend imperils the survival of the polar bear.
The key danger posed by climate change is malnutrition or starvation due to habitat loss. Polar bears hunt seals from a platform of sea ice. Rising temperatures cause the sea ice to melt earlier in the year, driving the bears to shore before they have built sufficient fat reserves to survive the period of scarce food in the late summer and early fall. Reduction in sea - ice cover also forces bears to swim longer distances, which further depletes their energy stores and occasionally leads to drowning. Thinner sea ice tends to deform more easily, which appears to make it more difficult for polar bears to access seals. Insufficient nourishment leads to lower reproductive rates in adult females and lower survival rates in cubs and juvenile bears, in addition to poorer body condition in bears of all ages.
In addition to creating nutritional stress, a warming climate is expected to affect various other aspects of polar bear life: Changes in sea ice affect the ability of pregnant females to build suitable maternity dens. As the distance increases between the pack ice and the coast, females must swim longer distances to reach favored denning areas on land. Thawing of permafrost would affect the bears who traditionally den underground, and warm winters could result in den roofs collapsing or having reduced insulative value. For the polar bears that currently den on multi-year ice, increased ice mobility may result in longer distances for mothers and young cubs to walk when they return to seal - hunting areas in the spring. Disease - causing bacteria and parasites would flourish more readily in a warmer climate.
Problematic interactions between polar bears and humans, such as foraging by bears in garbage dumps, have historically been more prevalent in years when ice - floe breakup occurred early and local polar bears were relatively thin. Increased human - bear interactions, including fatal attacks on humans, are likely to increase as the sea ice shrinks and hungry bears try to find food on land.
The effects of climate change are most profound in the southern part of the polar bear 's range, and this is indeed where significant degradation of local populations has been observed. The Western Hudson Bay subpopulation, in a southern part of the range, also happens to be one of the best - studied polar bear subpopulations. This subpopulation feeds heavily on ringed seals in late spring, when newly weaned and easily hunted seal pups are abundant. The late spring hunting season ends for polar bears when the ice begins to melt and break up, and they fast or eat little during the summer until the sea freezes again.
Due to warming air temperatures, ice - floe breakup in western Hudson Bay is currently occurring three weeks earlier than it did 30 years ago, reducing the duration of the polar bear feeding season. The body condition of polar bears has declined during this period; the average weight of lone (and likely pregnant) female polar bears was approximately 290 kg (640 lb) in 1980 and 230 kg (510 lb) in 2004. Between 1987 and 2004, the Western Hudson Bay population declined by 22 %, although the population is currently listed as "stable ''. As the climate change melts sea ice, the U.S. Geological Survey projects that two - thirds of polar bears will disappear by 2050.
In Alaska, the effects of sea ice shrinkage have contributed to higher mortality rates in polar bear cubs, and have led to changes in the denning locations of pregnant females. In recent years, polar bears in the Arctic have undertaken longer than usual swims to find prey, possibly resulting in four recorded drownings in the unusually large ice pack regression of 2005.
A new development is that polar bears have begun ranging to new territory. While not unheard of but still uncommon, polar bears have been sighted increasingly in larger numbers ashore, staying on the mainland for longer periods of time during the summer months, particularly in North Canada, traveling farther inland. This may cause an increased reliance on terrestrial diets, such as goose eggs, waterfowl and caribou, as well as increased human -- bear conflict.
Polar bears accumulate high levels of persistent organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs) and chlorinated pesticides. Due to their position at the top of the ecological pyramid, with a diet heavy in blubber in which halocarbons concentrate, their bodies are among the most contaminated of Arctic mammals. Halocarbons are known to be toxic to other animals, because they mimic hormone chemistry, and biomarkers such as immunoglobulin G and retinol suggest similar effects on polar bears. PCBs have received the most study, and they have been associated with birth defects and immune system deficiency.
Many chemicals, such as PCBs and DDT, have been internationally banned due to the recognition of their harm on the environment. Their concentrations in polar bear tissues continued to rise for decades after being banned as these chemicals spread through the food chain. Since then, the trend seems to have discontinued, with tissue concentrations of PCBs declining between studies performed from 1989 to 1993 and studies performed from 1996 to 2002. During the same time periods, DDT was notably lower in the Western Hudson Bay population only.
Oil and gas development in polar bear habitat can affect the bears in a variety of ways. An oil spill in the Arctic would most likely concentrate in the areas where polar bears and their prey are also concentrated, such as sea ice leads. Because polar bears rely partly on their fur for insulation and soiling of the fur by oil reduces its insulative value, oil spills put bears at risk of dying from hypothermia. Polar bears exposed to oil spill conditions have been observed to lick the oil from their fur, leading to fatal kidney failure. Maternity dens, used by pregnant females and by females with infants, can also be disturbed by nearby oil exploration and development. Disturbance of these sensitive sites may trigger the mother to abandon her den prematurely, or abandon her litter altogether.
Steven Amstrup and other U.S. Geological Survey scientists have predicted two - thirds of the world 's polar bears may disappear by 2050, based on moderate projections for the shrinking of summer sea ice caused by climate change, though the validity of this study has been debated. The bears could disappear from Europe, Asia, and Alaska, and be depleted from the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and areas off the northern Greenland coast. By 2080, they could disappear from Greenland entirely and from the northern Canadian coast, leaving only dwindling numbers in the interior Arctic Archipelago. However, in the short term, some polar bear populations in historically colder regions of the Arctic may temporarily benefit from a milder climate, as multiyear ice that is too thick for seals to create breathing holes is replaced by thinner annual ice.
Polar bears diverged from brown bears 400,000 -- 600,000 years ago and have survived past periods of climate fluctuation. It has been claimed that polar bears will be able to adapt to terrestrial food sources as the sea ice they use to hunt seals disappears. However, most polar bear biologists think that polar bears will be unable to completely offset the loss of calorie - rich seal blubber with terrestrial foods, and that they will be outcompeted by brown bears in this terrestrial niche, ultimately leading to a population decline.
Warnings about the future of the polar bear are often contrasted with the fact that worldwide population estimates have increased over the past 50 years and are relatively stable today. Some estimates of the global population are around 5,000 to 10,000 in the early 1970s; other estimates were 20,000 to 40,000 during the 1980s. Current estimates put the global population at between 20,000 and 25,000 or 22,000 and 31,000.
There are several reasons for the apparent discordance between past and projected population trends: estimates from the 1950s and 1960s were based on stories from explorers and hunters rather than on scientific surveys. Second, controls of harvesting were introduced that allowed this previously overhunted species to recover. Third, the recent effects of climate change have affected sea ice abundance in different areas to varying degrees.
Debate over the listing of the polar bear under endangered species legislation has put conservation groups and Canada 's Inuit at opposing positions; the Nunavut government and many northern residents have condemned the U.S. initiative to list the polar bear under the Endangered Species Act. Many Inuit believe the polar bear population is increasing, and restrictions on commercial sport - hunting are likely to lead to a loss of income to their communities.
For the indigenous peoples of the Arctic, polar bears have long played an important cultural and material role. Polar bear remains have been found at hunting sites dating to 2,500 to 3,000 years ago and 1,500 - year - old cave paintings of polar bears have been found in the Chukchi Peninsula. Indeed, it has been suggested that Arctic peoples ' skills in seal hunting and igloo construction has been in part acquired from the polar bears themselves.
The Inuit and Alaska Natives have many folk tales featuring the bears including legends in which bears are humans when inside their own houses and put on bear hides when going outside, and stories of how the constellation that is said to resemble a great bear surrounded by dogs came into being. These legends reveal a deep respect for the polar bear, which is portrayed as both spiritually powerful and closely akin to humans. The human - like posture of bears when standing and sitting, and the resemblance of a skinned bear carcass to the human body, have probably contributed to the belief that the spirits of humans and bears were interchangeable.
Among the Chukchi and Yupik of eastern Siberia, there was a longstanding shamanistic ritual of "thanksgiving '' to the hunted polar bear. After killing the animal, its head and skin were removed and cleaned and brought into the home, and a feast was held in the hunting camp in its honor. To appease the spirit of the bear, traditional song and drum music was played, and the skull was ceremonially fed and offered a pipe. Only once the spirit was appeased was the skull be separated from the skin, taken beyond the bounds of the homestead, and placed in the ground, facing north.
The Nenets of north - central Siberia placed particular value on the talismanic power of the prominent canine teeth. These were traded in the villages of the lower Yenisei and Khatanga rivers to the forest - dwelling peoples further south, who would sew them into their hats as protection against brown bears. It was believed that the "little nephew '' (the brown bear) would not dare to attack a man wearing the tooth of its powerful "big uncle '', the polar bear. The skulls of killed polar bears were buried at sacred sites, and altars, called sedyangi, were constructed out of the skulls. Several such sites have been preserved on the Yamal Peninsula.
Their distinctive appearance and their association with the Arctic have made polar bears popular icons, especially in those areas where they are native. The Canadian two - dollar coin carries an image of a lone polar bear on its reverse side, while a special millennium edition featured three. Vehicle license plates in the Northwest Territories and Nunavut in Canada are in the shape of a polar bear. The polar bear is the mascot of Bowdoin College, Maine, the University of Alaska Fairbanks, and the 1988 Winter Olympics held in Calgary. The Eisbären Berlin hockey team uses a roaring polar bear as their logo.
Companies such as Coca - Cola, Polar Beverages, Nelvana, Bundaberg Rum, and Good Humor - Breyers have used images of the polar bear in advertising, while Fox 's Glacier Mints have featured a polar bear named Peppy as the brand mascot since 1922.
Polar bears are popular in fiction, particularly in books for children or teenagers. For example, The Polar Bear Son is adapted from a traditional Inuit tale. The animated television series Noah 's Island features a polar bear named Noah as the protagonist. Polar bears feature prominently in East (also released as North Child) by Edith Pattou, The Bear by Raymond Briggs (adapted into an animated short in 1998), and Chris d'Lacey 's The Fire Within series. The panserbjørne of Philip Pullman 's fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials are sapient, dignified polar bears who exhibit anthropomorphic qualities, and feature prominently in the 2007 film adaptation of The Golden Compass. The television series Lost features polar bears living on the tropical island setting.
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who is the star in kevin probably saves the world | Kevin (Probably) Saves the World - wikipedia
Kevin (Probably) Saves the World (stylized as Kevin ^ Saves the World) is an American high - concept angelic - themed fantasy comedy - drama television series that was created and executive produced by Michele Fazekas & Tara Butters for ABC Studios. The series airs on ABC as a Tuesday night entry during the 2017 -- 18 television season, and was greenlit on May 11, 2017. The series premiered on October 3, 2017. The show is set in Taylor, Texas.
Kevin, a down - on - his - luck man who survived a suicide attempt, moves in with his twin sister Amy, an engineer and professor at the local college, and Amy 's teenage daughter Reese. Shortly after, he discovers a celestial being named Yvette; Yvette claims that God has tasked Kevin with saving the world, and sent Yvette to guide and protect him. Only Kevin can see and hear Yvette, so his conversations appear to be hallucinations to those around him. The series also explores a mystery, as there are supposed to be 36 righteous souls in each generation, but for unknown reasons, Kevin is the only one left.
The series was originally called The Gospel of Kevin, but the name was changed since the show was not "overtly religious ''.
The series was picked up for a 16 - episode full season on November 10, 2017.
Cristela Alonzo, who played a lead role as the heaven - sent entity in the original pilot, was replaced by Kimberly Hebert Gregory after the series was picked up.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 68 % approval rating with an average rating of 6.73 / 10 based on 22 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "Breezily entertaining, Kevin (Probably) Saves the World relies on its likable lead to carry its still - sketchy premise, hinting at deeper potential that 's yet to develop. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 59 out of 100 based on 18 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
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where does the last name duvall come from | Duvall (surname) - wikipedia
Duvall (also DuVall) is a French surname and an alternative spelling of "Duval '', which literally translates from French to English as "of the valley ''. It derives from the Norman "Devall '', which has both English and French ties. Variant spellings include: Davolls, Deavall, DeVile, Devill, Deville, Divall, Divell and Evill. Its meaning is derived from the French town of Deville, Ardennes. The spelling, "Devall '', was first recorded in England in the Domesday Book.
In France, variant spellings include: Lavalle, Lavallie, Laval, Lavall, Deval, Lavell, Lavelle and Lavielle. The Duvall surname has also been spelled some other ways including DeVall, Devoll, DeVol, DeValle and Devaulle.
Notable people with the surname include:
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what happened to germany's colonies in africa | German colonial empire - wikipedia
The German colonial empire (German: Deutsches Kolonialreich) constituted the overseas colonies, dependencies and territories of Imperial Germany. The chancellor of this time period was Otto von Bismarck. Short - lived attempts of colonization by individual German states had occurred in preceding centuries, but crucial colonial efforts only began in 1884 with the Scramble for Africa. Claiming much of the left - over colonies that were yet unclaimed in the Scramble of Africa, Germany managed to build the third largest colonial empire after the British and the French, at the time. Germany lost control when World War I began in 1914 and its colonies were seized by its enemies in the first weeks of the war. However some military units held out for a while longer: German South West Africa surrendered in 1915, Kamerun in 1916 and German East Africa only in 1918 at the end of the war. Germany 's colonial empire was officially confiscated with the Treaty of Versailles after Germany 's defeat in the war and the various units became League of Nations mandates under the supervision (but not ownership) of one of the victorious powers.
Until their 1871 unification, the German states had not concentrated on the development of a navy, and this essentially had precluded German participation in earlier imperialist scrambles for remote colonial territory -- the so - called "place in the sun ''. Germany seemed destined to play catch - up. The German states prior to 1870 had retained separate political structures and goals, and German foreign policy up to and including the age of Otto von Bismarck concentrated on resolving the "German question '' in Europe and securing German interests on the continent.
On the other hand, Germans had traditions of foreign sea - borne trade dating back to the Hanseatic League; a tradition existed of German emigration (eastward in the direction of Russia and Transylvania and westward to the Americas); and North German merchants and missionaries showed interest in overseas engagements. The Hanseatic republics of Hamburg and Bremen sent traders across the globe. These trading houses conducted themselves as successful Privatkolonisatoren (independent colonizers) and concluded treaties and land purchases in Africa and the Pacific with chiefs or other tribal leaders. These early agreements with local entities, however, later formed the basis for annexation treaties, diplomatic support and military protection by the German government.
Many Germans in the late 19th century viewed colonial acquisitions as a true indication of having achieved nationhood. Public opinion eventually arrived at an understanding that prestigious African and Pacific colonies went hand - in - hand with dreams of a High Seas Fleet. Both aspirations would become reality, nurtured by a press replete with Kolonialfreunde (supporters of colonial acquisitions) and by a myriad of geographical associations and colonial societies. Bismarck and many deputies in the Reichstag had no interest in colonial conquests merely to acquire square miles of territory.
In essence, Bismarck 's colonial motives were obscure as he had said repeatedly "... I am no man for colonies '' and "remained as contemptuous of all colonial dreams as ever. '' However, in 1884 he consented to the acquisition of colonies by the German Empire, in order to protect trade, to safeguard raw materials and export markets and to take opportunities for capital investment, among other reasons. In the very next year Bismarck shed personal involvement when "he abandoned his colonial drive as suddenly and casually as he had started it '' as if he had committed an error in judgment that could confuse the substance of his more significant policies. "Indeed, in 1889, (Bismarck) tried to give German South - West Africa away to the British. It was, he said, a burden and an expense, and he would like to saddle someone else with it. ''
The development of German overseas protectorates (with the exception of concession territories) essentially followed three phases.
The rise of German imperialism and colonialism coincided with the latter stages of the "Scramble for Africa '' during which enterprising German individuals, rather than government entities, competed with other already established colonies and colonialist entrepreneurs. With the Germans joining the race for the last uncharted territories in Africa and the Pacific that had not yet been carved up, competition for colonies thus involved major European nations, and several lesser powers.
The German effort included the first commercial enterprises in the 1850s and 1860s in West Africa, East Africa, the Samoan Islands and the unexplored north - east quarter of New Guinea with adjacent islands. German traders and merchants began to establish themselves in the African Cameroon delta and the mainland coast across from Zanzibar. At Apia and the settlements Finschhafen, Simpsonhafen and the islands Neu - Pommern and Neu - Mecklenburg, trading companies newly fortified with credit began expansion into coastal landholding. Large African inland acquisitions followed -- mostly to the detriment of native inhabitants. In eastern Africa the imperialist and "man - of - action '' Karl Peters accumulated vast tracts of land for his colonization group, "emerging from the bush with X-marks (affixed by unlettered tribal chiefs) on documents... for some 60 thousand square miles of the Zanzibar Sultanate 's mainland property. '' Such exploratory missions required security measures that could be solved with small private, armed contingents recruited mainly in the Sudan and usually led by adventurous former military personnel of lower rank. Brutality, hanging and flogging prevailed during these land - grab expeditions under Peters ' control as well as others as no - one "held a monopoly in the mistreatment of Africans. ''
As Bismarck was converted to the colonial idea by 1884, he favored "chartered company '' land management rather than establishment of colonial government due to financial considerations. Although temperate zone cultivation flourished, the demise and often failure of tropical low - land enterprises contributed to changing Bismarck 's view. He reluctantly acquiesced to pleas for help to deal with revolts and armed hostilities by often powerful rulers whose lucrative slaving activities seemed at risk. German native military forces initially engaged in dozens of punitive expeditions to apprehend and punish freedom fighters, at times with British assistance. The author Charles Miller offers the theory that the Germans had the handicap of trying to colonize African areas inhabited by aggressive tribes, whereas their colonial neighbours had more docile peoples to contend with. At that time, the German penchant for giving muscle priority over patience contributed to continued unrest. Several of the African colonies remained powder kegs throughout this phase (and beyond). The transition to official acceptance of colonialism and to colonial government thus occurred during the last quarter of Bismarck 's tenure of office.
In the first years of the 20th century shipping lines had established scheduled services with refrigerated holds and agricultural products from the colonies, exotic fruits and spices, were sold to the public in Germany. The colonies were romanticized. Geologists and cartographers explored what were the unmarked regions on European maps, identifying mountains and rivers, and demarcating boundaries. Hermann Detzner and one Captain Nugent, R.A., had charge of a joint project to demarcate the British and German frontiers of Cameroon, which was published in 1913. Travelers and newspaper reporters brought back stories of black and brown natives serving German managers and settlers. There were also suspicions and reports of colonial malfeasance, corruption and brutality in some protectorates, and Lutheran and Roman Catholic missionaries dispatched disturbing reports to their mission headquarters in Germany.
German colonial diplomatic efforts remained commercially inspired, "the colonial economy was thriving... and roads, railways, shipping and telegraph communications were up to the minute. '' Overhaul of the colonial administrative apparatus thus set the stage for the final and most promising period of German colonialism. Bernhard Dernburg 's declaration that the indigenous population in the protectorates "was the most important factor in our colonies '' was affirmed by new laws. The use of forced, unpaid labor went on the books as a criminal offense. Governor Wilhelm Solf of Samoa would call the islanders "unsere braunen Schützlinge '' (our brown charges), who could be guided but not forced. Heinrich Schnee in East Africa proclaimed that "the dominant feature of my administration (will be)... the welfare of the natives entrusted into my care. '' Idealists often volunteered for selection and appointment to government posts, while others with an entrepreneurial bent labored to swell the dividends at home for the Hanseatic trading houses and shipping lines. Subsequent historians would commend German colonialism in those years as "an engine of modernization with far - reaching effects for the future. '' The native population was forced into unequal treaties by the German colonial governments. This led to the local tribes and natives losing their influence and power and eventually forced some of them to become slave laborers. Although slavery was partially outlawed in 1905 by Germany, this caused a great deal of resentment and led eventually to revolts by the native population. The result was several military and genocidal campaigns by the Germans against the natives. Political and economic subjugation of Herero and Nama was envisioned. Both the colonial authorities and settlers were of the opinion that native Africans were to be a lower class, their land seized and handed over to settlers and companies, while the remaining population was to be put in reservations; the Germans planned to make a colony inhabited predominately by whites: a "new African Germany ''.
The established merchants and plantation operators in the African colonies frequently managed to sway government policies. Capital investments by banks were secured with public funds of the imperial treasury to minimize risk. Dernburg, as a former banker, facilitated such thinking; he saw his commission to also turn the colonies into paying propositions. Every African protectorate built rail lines to the interior, every colony in Africa and the Pacific established the beginnings of a public school system, and every colony built and staffed hospitals. Whatever the Germans constructed in their colonies was made to last.
Dar es Salaam evolved into "the showcase city of all of tropical Africa, '' Lomé grew into the "prettiest city in western Africa '', and Tsingtao, China was, "in miniature, as German a city as Hamburg or Bremen ''. For indigenous populations in some colonies native agricultural holdings were encouraged and supported.
In the years before the outbreak of the World War, British colonial officers viewed the Germans as deficient in "colonial aptitude '', but "whose colonial administration was nevertheless superior to those of the other European states ''. Anglo - German colonial issues in the decade before 1914 were minor and both empires, the British and German, took conciliatory attitudes. Foreign Secretary Sir Edward Grey, considered still a moderate in 1911, was willing to "study the map of Africa in a pro-German spirit ''. Britain further recognized that Germany really had little of value to offer in territorial transactions; however, advice to Grey and Prime Minister H.H. Asquith hardened by early 1914 "to stop the trend of what the advisers considered Germany 's taking and Britain 's giving. ''
Once war was declared in late July 1914 Britain and its allies promptly moved against the colonies. The public was informed that German colonies were a threat because "Every German colony has a powerful wireless station -- they will talk to one another across the seas, and at every opportunity they (German ships) will dash from cover to harry and destroy our commerce, and maybe, to raid our coasts. '' The British position that Germany was a uniquely brutal and cruel colonial power originated during the war; it had not been said during peacetime.
In the Pacific, Britain 's ally Japan declared war on Germany in 1914 and quickly seized several of Germany 's island colonies, the Mariana, Caroline and Marshall Islands, with virtually no resistance.
By 1916 only in remote jungle regions in East Africa did the German forces hold out. South Africa 's J.C. Smuts, now in Britain 's small War Cabinet, spoke of German schemes for world power, militarisation and exploitation of resources, indicating Germany threatened western civilisation itself. Smuts ' warnings were repeated in the press. The idea took hold that they should not be returned to Germany after the war.
Germany 's overseas empire was dismantled following defeat in World War I. With the concluding Treaty of Versailles, Article 22, German colonies were transformed into League of Nations mandates and divided between Belgium, the United Kingdom, and certain British Dominions, France and Japan with the determination not to see any of them returned to Germany -- a guarantee secured by Article 119.
In Africa, the United Kingdom and France divided German Kamerun (Cameroons) and Togoland. Belgium gained Ruanda - Urundi in northwestern German East Africa, the United Kingdom obtained by far the greater land mass of this colony, thus gaining the "missing link '' in the chain of British possessions stretching from South Africa to Egypt (Cape to Cairo), and Portugal received the Kionga Triangle, a sliver of German East Africa. German South - West Africa was taken under mandate by the Union of South Africa. In terms of the population of 12.5 million people in 1914, 42 percent were transferred to mandates of Britain and its dominions. 33 percent to France, and 25 percent to Belgium.
In the Pacific, Japan gained Germany 's islands north of the equator (the Marshall Islands, the Carolines, the Marianas, the Palau Islands) and Kiautschou in China. German Samoa was assigned to New Zealand; German New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago and Nauru went to Australia as mandates.
British placement of surrogate responsibility for former German colonies on white - settler dominions was at the time determined to be the most expedient option for the British government -- and an appropriate reward for the Dominions having fulfilled their "great and urgent imperial service '' through military intervention at the behest of and for Great Britain. It also meant that British colonies now had colonies of their own -- which was very much influenced at the Paris proceedings by W.M. Hughes, William Massey, and Louis Botha, the prime ministers of Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. The principle of "self - determination '' embodied in the League of Nations covenant was not considered to apply to these colonies and was "regarded as meaningless ''. To "allay President (Woodrow) Wilson 's suspicions of British imperialism '', the system of "mandates '' was drawn up and agreed to by the British War Cabinet (with the French and Italians in tow), a device by which conquered enemy territory would be held not as a possession but as "sacred trusts ''. But "far from envisaging the eventual independence of the (former) German colonies, Allied statesmen at the Paris Conference regarded 1919 as the renewal, not the end, of an imperial era. '' In deliberations the British "War Cabinet had confidence that natives everywhere would opt for British rule ''; however, the cabinet acknowledged "the necessity to prove that its policy toward the German colonies was not motivated by aggrandizement '' since the Empire was seen by America as a "land devouring octopus '' with a "voracious territorial appetite ''.
President Wilson saw the League of Nations as "' residuary trustee ' for the (German) colonies '' captured and occupied by "rapacious conquerors ''. The victors retained the German overseas possessions and did so with the belief that Australian, Belgian, British, French, Japanese, New Zealand, Portuguese and South African rule was superior to Germany 's. Several decades later during the collapse of the then existing colonial empires, Africans and Asians cited the same arguments that had been used by the Allies against German colonial rule -- they now simply demanded "to stand by themselves ''.
In the 1920s, some individuals and the German Colonial Society fought for the idea of colonialism. Settlement in Africa was not popular, and was not a focus for Hitler. Established in 1936, the Reichskolonialbund under Franz Ritter von Epp absorbed all colonial organizations and was meant to raise pro-colonial sentiments, public interest in former German colonies, and take part in political agitation. However, with the onset of World War II the organization entered a decline, before being disbanded by decree in 1943 for "activity irrelevant to the war ''.
There are hardly any special ties between modern Germany and its former colonies; for example, there is no postcolonial league comparable to the British Commonwealth of Nations or French Francophonie. In stark contrast with French and English, both of which are widely spoken across the continent by those of both African and European ancestry, the German language is not a significant language in Africa even within former colonies -- although it is spoken by a significant minority of the population of Namibia. Germany cooperates economically and culturally with many countries in Africa and Asia, independent of colonial history.
Bismarck 's successor in 1890, Leo von Caprivi, was willing to maintain the colonial burden of what already existed, but opposed new ventures. Others who followed, especially Bernhard von Bülow, as foreign minister and chancellor, sanctioned the acquisition of the Pacific Ocean colonies and provided substantial treasury assistance to existing protectorates to employ administrators, commercial agents, surveyors, local "peacekeepers '' and tax collectors. Kaiser Wilhelm II understood and lamented his nation 's position as colonial followers rather than leaders. In an interview with Cecil Rhodes in March 1899 he stated the alleged dilemma clearly: "... Germany has begun her colonial enterprise very late, and was, therefore, at the disadvantage of finding all the desirable places already occupied. ''
The German colonists included people like Carl Peters who brutalized the local population.
Nonetheless, Germany did assemble an overseas empire in Africa and the Pacific Ocean (see List of former German colonies) in the last two decades of the 19th century; "the creation of Germany 's colonial empire proceeded with the minimum of friction. '' The acquisition and the expansion of colonies were accomplished in a variety of ways, but principally through mercantile domination and pretexts that were always economic. Agreements and treaties with other colonial powers or interests followed, and fee simple purchases of land or island groups. Only Togoland and German Samoa became profitable and self - sufficient; the balance sheet for the colonies as a whole revealed a fiscal net loss for the empire. Despite this, the leadership in Berlin committed the nation to the financial support, maintenance, development and defence of these possessions.
The colonies were primarily commercial and plantation regions and did not attract large numbers of German settlers. The vast majority of German emigrants chose North America as their destination and not the colonies -- of 1,085,124 emigrants between 1887 and 1906, 1,007,574 headed to the United States. When the imperial government invited the 22,000 soldiers mobilized to subdue the Hereros to settle in German South - West Africa, and offered financial aid, only 5 % accepted.
The German colonial population numbered 5,125 in 1903, and about 23,500 in 1913. The German pre -- World War I colonial population consisted of 19,696 Germans in Africa and the Pacific colonies in 1913, including more than 3,000 police and soldiers, and 3,806 in Kiaochow (1910), of which 2,275 were navy and military staff. In Africa (1913), 12,292 Germans lived in Southwest Africa, 4,107 in German East Africa and 1,643 in Cameroon. In the Pacific colonies in 1913 there were 1,645 Germans. After 1905 a ban on marriage was enacted forbidding mixed couples between German and native population in South - West Africa, and after 1912 in Samoa.
After World War I, the military and "undesired persons '' were expelled from the German protectorates. In 1934 the former colonies were inhabited by 16,774 Germans, of whom about 12,000 lived in the former Southwest African colony. Once the new owners of the colonies again permitted immigration from Germany, the numbers rose in the following years above the pre -- World War I total.
In her African and South Seas colonies Germany established diverse biological and agricultural stations. Staff specialists and the occasional visiting university group conducted soil analyses, developed plant hybrids, experimented with fertilizers, studied vegetable pests and ran courses in agronomy for settlers and natives and performed a host of other tasks. Successful German plantation operators realized the benefits of systematic scientific inquiry and instituted and maintained their own stations with their own personnel, who further engaged in exploration and documentation of the native fauna and flora.
Research by bacteriologists Robert Koch and Paul Ehrlich and other scientists was funded by the imperial treasury and was freely shared with other nations. More than three million Africans were vaccinated against smallpox. Medical doctors the world over benefited from pioneering work into tropical diseases and German pharmaceutical discoveries "became a standard therapy for sleeping sickness and relapsing fever. The German presence (in Africa) was vital for significant achievements in medicine and agriculture.
Exposés followed in the print media throughout Germany of the Herero rebellions in 1904 in German South - West Africa (Namibia today) where in military interventions between 50 % to 70 % of the Herero population perished, known as the Herero and Namaqua Genocide. The subduing of the Maji Maji uprising in German East Africa in 1905 was prominently published. "A wave of anti-colonial feeling began to gather momentum in Germany '' and resulted in large voter turnouts in the so - called "Hottentot election '' for the Reichstag in 1906. The conservative Bülow government barely survived, but in January 1907 the newly elected Reichstag imposed a "complete overhaul '' upon the colonial service.
Bernhard Dernburg, a former banker from Darmstadt, was appointed as the new secretary of the revamped colonial office. Entrenched incompetents were screened out and summarily removed from office and "not a few had to stand trial. Replacing the misfits was a new breed of efficient, humane, colonial civil servant, usually the product of Dernburg 's own creation, the... Colonial Institute at Hamburg. '' In African protectorates, especially Togoland and German East Africa, "improbably advanced and humane administrations emerged. ''
During the Herero genocide Eugen Fischer, a German scientist, came to the concentration camps to conduct medical experiments on race, using children of Herero people and mulatto children of Herero women and German men as test subjects. Together with Theodor Mollison he also experimented upon Herero prisoners. Those experiments included sterilization, injection of smallpox, typhus as well as tuberculosis. The numerous cases of mixed offspring upset the German colonial administration, which was concerned with maintaining "racial purity ''. Eugen Fischer studied 310 mixed - race children, calling them "Rehoboth bastards '' of "lesser racial quality ''. Fischer also subjected them to numerous racial tests such as head and body measurements, and eye and hair examinations. In conclusion of his studies he advocated genocide of alleged "inferior races '', stating that "whoever thinks thoroughly the notion of race, can not arrive at a different conclusion ''. Fischer 's (at the time considered) scientific actions and torment of the children were part of a wider history of abusing Africans for experiments, and echoed earlier actions by German anthropologists who stole skeletons and bodies from African graveyards and took them to Europe for research or sale. An estimated 3000 skulls were sent to Germany for study. In October 2011, after 3 years of talks, the first skulls were due to be returned to Namibia for burial. Other experiments were made by Doctor Bofinger, who injected Herero who were suffering from scurvy with various substances including arsenic and opium. Afterwards he researched the effects of these substances by performing autopsies on dead bodies.
According to numerous historians, an important ideological component of German nationalism as developed by the intellectual elite was Social Darwinism. It gave an impetus to German assertiveness as a world economic and military power, aimed at competing with France and the British Empire for world power. German colonial rule in Africa 1884 - 1914 was an expression of nationalism and moral superiority that was justified by constructing an image of the natives as "Other ''. This approach highlighted racist views of mankind. German colonization was characterized by the use of repressive violence in the name of ' culture ' and ' civilization '. Germany 's cultural - missionary project boasted that its colonial programs were humanitarian and educational endeavors. Furthermore, the wide acceptance among intellectuals of social Darwinism justified Germany 's right to acquire colonial territories as a matter of the ' survival of the fittest ', according to historian Michael Schubert.
In 1911 Germany acquired Neukamerun from France, totaling 295,000 km2, trading it for the so - called ' Entenschnabel ', until then part of Kamerun, totaling 12,000 km2. That way the Kamerun colony was enlarged from 495,000 km2 to 778,000 km2, and the German colonial empire grew to 2,937,000 km2.
In recent years scholars have debated the "continuity thesis '' that links German colonialist brutalities to the treatment of Jews, Poles and Russians during World War II. Some historians argue that Germany 's role in southwestern Africa gave rise to an emphasis on racial superiority at home, which in turn was used by the Nazis. Other scholars, however, are skeptical and challenge the continuity thesis.
The limited successes of German colonialism overseas led to a decision to shift the main focus of German expansionism to Central and Eastern Europe, with the Mitteleuropa plan. Unlike the British or Spanish empires, Germany left very few traces of their own language or customs. As of today, no country outside of Europe has German as their official language, although in Namibia, German is a recognized national language. German colonialism therefore turned to the European continent. While a minority view during the Kaiserzeit, the idea developed into full swing under Erich Ludendorff and his political activity in the Baltic States, Ukraine, and Poland. Subsequently, after the defeat of Russia during World War I, Germany acquired vast territories with the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk and created several administrative regions like Ober Ost. Here also the German settlement would be implemented, and the whole governmental organisation was developed to serve German needs while controlling the local ethnically diverse population. While the African colonies were too isolated and not suitable for mass settlement of Germans, areas in Central and Eastern Europe offered better potential.
Coordinates: 52 ° 31 ′ N 13 ° 24 ′ E / 52.517 ° N 13.400 ° E / 52.517; 13.400
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who played rob schneider's daughters in grown ups | Grown Ups (film) - wikipedia
Grown Ups is a 2010 American adventure - comedy film directed by Dennis Dugan and stars Adam Sandler, Kevin James, Chris Rock, David Spade, and Rob Schneider. It depicts five friends of a junior high school basketball team reuniting for a July Fourth weekend after learning of the passing of their coach.
Grown Ups was produced by Sandler 's production company Happy Madison Productions and was distributed by Columbia Pictures. Sandler, Rock, Schneider, and Spade all joined the cast of Saturday Night Live in the 1990 -- 1991 season; supporting cast including Colin Quinn, Maya Rudolph, Tim Meadows, and Norm Macdonald have also been SNL cast members. It grossed $271 million and led to a sequel, Grown Ups 2 (2013).
In 1978, five childhood friends win their junior high school basketball championship. Afterwards, they celebrate at a rented lake house. The friends ' coach, Robert Ferdinando, whom they nickname "Buzzer '', encourages them to live their lives in a similar way to how they played the game. Thirty years later, Lenny has become an ambitious Hollywood talent agent with his wife, fashion designer Roxanne, and his three children -- daughter Becky and two sons Greg and Keith. The boys act like divas in his mansion, much to his chagrin. Eric claims that he is now a co-owner of a lawn furniture company, and is also disappointed in his wife Sally for continuing to breastfeed Bean, one of his two children, the other being Donna. Kurt is a stay - at - home father with two children, Andre and Charlotte. His wife Deanne, the primary breadwinner of the family, is pregnant with another child and shares the house with her mother Ronzoni. Rob, nicknamed Carrot, has been divorced three times, and holds custody of his daughters Jasmine, Amber, and Bridget. His current wife, Gloria, is thirty years his senior. Marcus is a slacker and lothario. All five friends regularly harass each other in comedic fashion: Lenny for being wealthy, Eric for being overweight, Kurt for being henpecked, Rob for his continuous use of the joke "Maize! '' and for having a much older wife, and Marcus for being sexually juvenile.
The friends each find out that Buzzer has died, and reunite at their hometown with their families, a first in the three decades. Intending to pay tribute to Buzzer at a private funeral, Lenny rents the lake house for the fourth of July weekend for his friends to stay at. However, Roxanne has planned a fashion show in Milan, forcing Lenny to leave early. While at the lake house, he becomes disheartened at how his sons are playing video games instead of being outdoors, and pushes them to play outside along with his friend 's children, even being forced to have Eric demonstrate a rope swing next to the lake, only for Eric to chicken out due to the swing being too high above the water and accidentally hit a nearby tree in the process. At a local restaurant that night, Lenny talks to his old nemesis, Dickie, who is still angry towards Lenny for an error in the match, where his shot should n't have counted since he allegedly had his foot on the outside line. With this, Dickie challenges Lenny and his friends to a rematch, but he declines when commenting on Dickie 's health. The next day, Buzzer 's ashes are spread in the woods while Rob has a confidence crisis, regretting his failed marriages, and later warns the arrival of his three daughters from the previous marriages. After having to deal with Jasmine, he then relaxes with his friends partaking in fishing. After roasting Rob, the others elect to cheer him up with a game of arrow roulette. Rob wins by staying in the circle for the longest time, but the arrow impales his foot when it flies back down. Rob then snaps at Gloria for using a maize - covered poultice. That night, Lenny manages to get the kids interested in talking on cup - phones and Roxanne accidentally reveals herself to be the "Tooth Fairy '' when Becky listens in. Now happy that they are enjoying a similar kind of young fun that he had, Lenny proceeds to install an extensive cup - phone network in the house.
Roxanne settles on staying at the lake house over going to the fashion show. The friends decide to visit a water park, where Eric teaches Bean to drink regular milk directly out of a carton and Marcus repeatedly flirts with Jasmine and Amber, having bought them skimpy bikinis. The families cause chaos throughout the park; Rob pushes a ride attendant down a water slide when he insults Bridget for being less attractive than her sisters; Eric ignores Donna 's warning about a chemical in the children 's pool that turns urine blue; the spouses spot and attempt to attract a body - builder, but he is laughed off due to his high - pitched Canadian accent; and at the zip line attraction, Lenny and the group meet Dickie again, accompanied by his own group of friends and former teammates, including Wiley, who is severely injured after crashing into a shed while sliding down the zip line by his feet. Lenny teaches his son how to shoot a perfect shot during basketball, and the friends then end the night by sharing a dance with their spouses. The next day, Roxanne picks up Lenny 's phone and confronts him on lying about canceling their flight trip before she agreed on staying. Eventually, everyone concedes into admitting their own truths about how they feel with their lives. On their final day at the lake house, Lenny accepts the rematch once and for all, and plays against their former opponents. At the game - deciding shot, Lenny purposely misses to allow Dickie 's team to get a proper win. Before the end of the film, Marcus plays another game of arrow roulette, but with a larger crowd of people this time. Everyone fearfully takes off, and a still paralyzed Wiley gets his foot impaled by the arrow.
Filming commenced in Essex County, Massachusetts, in August, 2009.
Grown Ups grossed $162 million in the United States and $109.4 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $271.4 million against a production budget of $80 million. Grown Ups surpassed Click to become Sandler 's highest - grossing film worldwide. Happy with the gross, Adam Sandler showed his appreciation by buying brand - new Maserati sports cars for his four co-stars.
On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 10 % based on 165 reviews and an average rating of 3.3 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Grown Ups ' cast of comedy vets is amiable, but they 're let down by flat direction and the scattershot, lowbrow humor of a stunted script. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 30 out of 100 based on reviews from 32 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale.
Connie Ogle of the Miami Herald referred to it as "the perfect poster child for this maddening summer of movie mediocrity. '' Rick Groen of the Globe and Mail criticized what he saw as blatant commercialism, saying the cast "lob (bed) gags they surely disdain at an audience they probably despise while reserving their own laughter for that off - camera dash all the way to the bank. '' Richard Roeper went as far as to say that it was "a blight upon the bright canvas of American cinema '', and that he hated it. Tom Long of the Detroit News called it "trite comedy '' and "total garbage. '' On the other end of the spectrum, Lisa Kennedy of the Denver Post called it "crude and decent - hearted '' and "easy, breezy, predictable. ''
Rob Schneider was nominated for a Razzie Award for Worst Supporting Actor for the film, but lost to Jackson Rathbone for both The Last Airbender and The Twilight Saga: Eclipse.
The film won at the 2011 MTV Movie Awards for the "Best Line from a Movie '' category, which it won for the line "I want to get chocolate wasted! '', delivered by Becky, played by Alexys Nycole Sanchez.
Grown Ups was released on DVD and Blu - ray Disc on November 9, 2010.
A sequel, titled Grown Ups 2, was released on July 12, 2013. Dennis Dugan, the director of the first film, returned as director. The main cast, including Adam Sandler, Kevin James, Chris Rock, David Spade, Salma Hayek, Maya Rudolph, Maria Bello and Steve Buscemi reprised their roles, except Rob Schneider. New cast includes Andy Samberg, Taylor Lautner and Patrick Schwarzenegger. The sequel follows Lenny Feder as he relocates his family back to the small town where he and his friends grew up. Like its predecessor, Grown Ups 2 received very poor reviews but was still a box office hit.
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who has made the most shots in the nba | NBA Regular season records - wikipedia
This article lists all - time records achieved in the NBA regular season in major statistical categories recognized by the league, including those set by teams and individuals in a game, season, and career. The NBA also recognizes records from its original incarnation, the Basketball Association of America (BAA).
In 2006, the NBA introduced age requirement restrictions. Prospective high school players must wait a year before entering the NBA, making age - related records harder to break.
Note: Other than the longest game and disqualifications in a game, all records in this section are since the 24 - second shot clock was instituted for 1954 -- 55 season onward.
* This award has only been given since the 1968 -- 69 season. * * This award has only been given since the 1982 -- 83 season.
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davis and moore 1945 some principles of stratification | Davis -- Moore hypothesis - wikipedia
The Davis -- Moore hypothesis, sometimes referred to as the Davis -- Moore theory, is a central claim within the structural functionalist paradigm of sociological theory, and was advanced by Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore in a paper published in 1945. The hypothesis is an attempt to explain social stratification. As a structural functionalist theory, it is also associated with Talcott Parsons and Robert K. Merton.
The hypothesis is an attempted explanation of social stratification, based on the idea of "functional necessity. '' Davis and Moore argue that the most difficult jobs in any society are the most necessary and require the highest rewards and compensation to sufficiently motivate individuals to fill them. Once the roles are filled, the division of labour functions properly, based on the notion of organic solidarity advanced by Emile Durkheim.
This argument has been criticized as fallacious from a number of different angles. The first problem is that they posit rewards as a guarantee of performance, when rewards are supposed to be based on merit in their argument. It is argued that if abilities were inherent, there would be no need of a reward system. Secondly, Davis and Moore do not clearly indicate why some positions should be worth more than others, other than the fact that they are remunerated more, claiming, for example, that teachers are equally, if not more, functionally necessary than athletes and movie stars, yet, they receive significantly lower incomes. These critics have suggested that structural inequality (inherited wealth, family power, etc.), is itself a cause of individual success or failure, rather than a consequence of it. Class analysts point out that it is not merely income that determines inequality but wealth, access to social networks, and cultural practices that put some individuals in better positions than others to succeed.
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parsons the new school for design (new york) | Parsons School of Design - wikipedia
Parsons School of Design (known colloquially as Parsons) is a private art and design college located in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Lower Manhattan in New York City. It is one of the five colleges of The New School. Parsons was the first school in the United States to offer programs in fashion design, advertising, interior design, and graphic design. Parsons offers 13 undergraduate bachelor 's programs, including Illustration, Communication Design and Fashion, along with 17 graduate master 's programs, and it is widely regarded as one of the most prestigious art and design schools in the world. It is currently ranked as the # 1 art and design school in the United States and # 2 in the world, just behind the Royal College of Art in London.
Parsons has a renowned fashion design program and has educated some of the most respected designers in the industry including Donna Karan (founder of DKNY), interior designer Scott Salvator, Marc Jacobs, Alexander Wang, Tom Ford, Anna Sui, Jason Wu, Narciso Rodriguez, Jack McCollough and Lazaro Hernandez (founders of Proenza Schouler), Isaac Mizrahi, Derek Lam, Prabal Gurung, and Jenna Lyons (President and Creative Director of J. Crew).
In addition to fashion, Parsons is also known for other areas of art and design and is the alma mater of Jasper Johns, Paul Rand, Alexander Calder, Roy Lichtenstein, Norman Rockwell, Duane Michals, Ai Weiwei, Joel Schumacher and Jasper Conran among others.
Parsons is a member of the National Association of Schools of Art and Design (NASAD) and the Association of Independent Colleges of Art and Design (AICAD).
First established as the Chase School, the institution was founded in 1896 by the American impressionist painter William Merritt Chase (1849 -- 1916). Chase led a small group of Progressives who seceded from the Art Students League of New York in search of a more free, more dramatic, and more individual expression of art. The Chase School changed its name in 1898 to the New York School of Art.
In 1904, Frank Alvah Parsons (1868 -- 1930) joined the artist Robert Henri (1865 -- 1929) as a teacher at Chase 's school; in the same approximate time frame, Parsons studied for two years with the vanguard artist and educator, Arthur Wesley Dow at Columbia University Teachers College, graduating in 1905 with a degree in fine arts. A few years later, he became president of the New York School of Art. Anticipating a new wave of the Industrial Revolution, Parsons predicted that art and design would soon be inexorably linked to the engines of industry. His vision was borne out in a series of firsts for the School, establishing the first program in Fashion Design, Interior Design, Advertising, and Graphic Design in the United States. In 1909, the school was renamed the New York School of Fine and Applied Art to reflect these offerings. Parsons became sole director in 1911, a position which he maintained to his death in 1930. William M. Odom, who established the school 's Paris Ateliers in 1921, succeeded Parsons as president. In honor of Parsons, who was important in steering the school 's development and in shaping visual - arts education through his theories about linking art and industry throughout the world, the institution became Parsons School of Design in 1936.
As the modern curriculum developed, many successful designers remained closely tied to the School, and by the mid-1960s, Parsons had become "the training ground for Seventh Avenue. ''
In 1970, the School became a division of the New School for Social Research (now The New School). The campus moved from Sutton Place to Greenwich Village in 1972. The merger with a vigorous, fully accredited university was a source of new funding and energy, which expanded the focus of a Parsons education.
In 2005, when the parent institution was renamed The New School, Parsons School of Design was renamed Parsons The New School for Design. As of 2015, the School has been renamed The New School 's Parsons School of Design.
Like most universities in New York City, Parsons ' campus is spread among scattered buildings, but the main building is located at 13th Street and 5th Avenue. Many other facilities are in buildings shared by other colleges in The New School but the facilities below are exclusive to Parsons. Parsons also has a campus abroad located in Paris 's First Arrondissement, known as Parsons Paris.
2 West 13th Street is most commonly known as the Sheila Johnson Design Center. The main Parsons campus is located at 2 West 13th Street in Greenwich Village in the borough of Manhattan. The renovation of the existing structure 's first and mezzanine levels was made possible in part by a $7 million gift from New School Trustee and Parsons Board of Governors Chair Sheila Johnson. The "Urban Quad '' (as the school calls it) was designed by Lyn Rice Architects and encompasses a total area of 32,800 square feet (3,050 m). In addition to classrooms, the building includes the Anna - Maria and Stephen Kellen Gallery and Auditorium, and the Arnold and Sheila Aronson Galleries. The renovated ground floor also provides a new home for the Anna - Maria and Stephen Kellen Archives, a collection of drawings, photographs, letters, and objects documenting 20th - century design.
The building hosts the Adam and Sophie Gimbel Design Library, a resource collection supporting art, architecture and design degree programs offered by the Parsons School of Design. The collection consists of approximately 45,000 book volumes, 350 periodical titles (200 current), 70,000 slides and 45,000 picture files. Special collections holdings number over 4,000, including many rare and valuable items.
The building 's renovation won the 2009 National AIA Honor Award, the 2009 MASNYC Masterworks Award, the 2009 AIANY Merit Award, the 2008 AIA New York State Award of Excellence, the 2008 American Institute of Architects NY / Boston Society of Architects Biennial Honor Award for Educational Facility Design, the 2008 SARA / NY Design Award of Excellence, and the 2007 AIANY Merit Award for Projects.
In 2014 the fashion department moved from its Garment District location, the David M Schwartz Fashion Education Center (560 7th Avenue), to the main campus in Greenwich Village. Most fashion studio coursework is taught at this location. There is also a Fashion Computing lab complete with the latest industry standard technology.
The 25 East 13th Street building is home to the School of Constructed Environments, which is the home of the Interior Design, Lighting Design, and Architecture departments of the college. The Fine Arts department is also located in this building. The facilities included in the building are the digital and traditional fabrication shops, the ceramics studio, the Light Lab, multiple Computing Labs, the Angelo Donghia Materials Center, and The Design Workshop.
The 16th Street building features dedicated floors to design studies and development. Both the 6th and 12th floors dedicated to the Design & Technology Bachelor and Master programs. The building also features a library and a cafeteria.
Parsons offers twenty - five different programs each housed in one of five divisions:
Parsons has an enrollment of approximately 3,800 undergraduate students and 400 graduate students. The student body is 77 % women and 23 % men, with most of the constituents being full - time students. About one third of the college is made up of international students hailing from 68 different countries. The largest international groups come from Asia, followed by Europe.
There are 127 full - time faculty members and 1,056 part - time faculty members, many of whom are successful working artists and designers in New York City. The student: faculty ratio is 9: 1.
In 1920, Parsons School of Design was the first art and design school in America to found a campus abroad.
Director of the New York School of Fine and Applied Art, Frank Alvah Parsons, first began a program in Paris in 1921. In 1941, it was named for him. In 1970, the school merged with the New School for Social Research. Subsequently, the name Parsons was licensed to the Paris College of Art but this arrangement ceased in 2010.
In November 2012, The New School President David E. Van Zandt announced that Parsons School of Design would be opening a new academic center, to be called Parsons Paris, in Paris in the autumn 2013. Located in Paris 's First Arrondissement, Parsons Paris incorporates a faculty of French and European design educators as well as visiting professors from around the world. The school offers a variety of bachelor 's and master 's degrees in design, fashion, curatorial studies and business. All classes are taught in English.
Parsons Paris is part of a global initiative by Parsons that highlights creative literacy in all aspects of society.
The Student Development and Activities is home to over 25 recognized student organizations throughout The New School that serves Parsons as well as all the other five schools under the umbrella of The New School.
re:D is the magazine for Parsons alumni and the wider Parsons community, published by the New School Alumni Association.
Scapes is the annual journal of the School of Constructed Environments.
The Journal of Design Strategies explores and documents collaborative work on the borders of management and design. The journal welcomes contributions that address the importance of design and design - based education to business strategy and planning and that speak to the need for sustainable approaches to new value creation. In each issue, they highlight people, projects, approaches, and events that together characterize an important aspect of the collaboration between design and business.
The Parsons Journal for Information Mapping (PJIM) is published quarterly by the Parsons Institute for Information Mapping and focuses on both the theoretical and practical aspects of information visualization. With every issue, the Journal aims to present novel ideas and approaches that advance the field of Knowledge Visualization through visual, engineering, and cognitive methods.
BIAS: Journal of Dress Practice published by the MA Fashion Studies Dress Practice Collective started in the spring of 2013 and aims to join elements of "visual culture, fashion theory, design studies and personal practice through a variety of media. ''
WNSR is a student - run, faculty - advised online - only university radio station based at The New School. Programming is delivered in the form of streamable mp3s and, in the near future, subscribable podcasts. It is a station for all divisions of The New School.
Fusion, an established event since 2000, brings together Fashion Institute of Technology and Parsons School of Design, to engage in a school vs school fashion show competition. All contestants are either freshman or sophomore students and the models are student volunteers. The judges pick a "best designer '' from each school and a "best overall school ''. The best designers each receive a cash scholarship.
Parsons ' annual Benefit and Fashion Show is a black tie gala that raises funds for scholarships and academic programs at The New School. The event is a collaboration with The New School 's College of Performing Arts. A highlight of the event is a runway show featuring the top thesis collections of Parsons ' graduating BFA Fashion Design students, including its Designers of the Year. The Designer of the Year Award has launched the careers of such famous alumni as Marc Jacobs, and Lazaro Hernandez and Jack McCollough of Proenza Schouler. The show has been a tradition of the school for almost seventy years.
Main article List of Parsons School of Design people
Coordinates: 40 ° 44 ′ 07 '' N 73 ° 59 ′ 39 '' W / 40.73528 ° N 73.99417 ° W / 40.73528; - 73.99417
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where did most german immigrants settled in america | German Americans - wikipedia
English (American English dialects, Pennsylvania Dutch English)
German Americans (German: Deutschamerikaner) are Americans who have full or partial German ancestry. With an estimated size of approximately 44 million in 2016, German Americans are the largest of the ancestry groups reported by the US Census Bureau in its American Community Survey. The group accounts for about one third of the total ethnic German population in the world.
None of the German states had American colonies. In the 1670s, the first significant groups of German immigrants arrived in the British colonies, settling primarily in Pennsylvania, New York, and Virginia. Immigration continued in very large numbers during the 19th century, with eight million arrivals from Germany. Between 1820 and 1870 over seven and a half million German immigrants came to the United States -- more than doubling the entire population of the country. By 2010, their population grew to 49.8 million immigrants, reflecting a jump of 6 million people since 2000.
There is a "German belt '' that extends all the way across the United States, from eastern Pennsylvania to the Oregon coast. Pennsylvania has the largest population of German - Americans in the U.S. and is home to one of the group 's original settlements, Germantown (Philadelphia), founded in 1683 and the birthplace of the American antislavery movement in 1688, as well as the revolutionary Battle of Germantown. The state of Pennsylvania has 3.5 million people of German ancestry.
They were pulled by the attractions of land and religious freedom, and pushed out of Europe by shortages of land and religious or political oppression. Many arrived seeking religious or political freedom, others for economic opportunities greater than those in Europe, and others for the chance to start fresh in the New World. The arrivals before 1850 were mostly farmers who sought out the most productive land, where their intensive farming techniques would pay off. After 1840, many came to cities, where "Germania '' -- German - speaking districts -- soon emerged.
German Americans established the first kindergartens in the United States, introduced the Christmas tree tradition, and introduced popular foods such as hot dogs and hamburgers to America.
The great majority of people with some German ancestry have become Americanized and hardly can be distinguished; fewer than 5 % speak German. German - American societies abound, as do celebrations that are held throughout the country to celebrate German heritage of which the German - American Steuben Parade in New York City is one of the most well - known and is held every third Saturday in September. Traditional Oktoberfest celebrations and the German - American Day are popular festivities. There are major annual events in cities with German heritage including Chicago, Cincinnati, Milwaukee, Pittsburgh, San Antonio, and St. Louis.
The Germans included many quite distinct subgroups with differing religious and cultural values. Lutherans and Catholics typically opposed Yankee moralizing programs such as the prohibition of beer, and favored paternalistic families with the husband deciding the family position on public affairs. They generally opposed women 's suffrage but this was used as argument in favor of suffrage when German Americans became pariahs during World War I. On the other hand, there were Protestant groups that emerged from European pietism such as the German Methodist and United Brethren; they more closely resembled the Yankee Methodists in their moralism.
The first English settlers arrived at Jamestown, Virginia in 1607, and were accompanied by the first German American, Dr. Johannes Fleischer. He was followed in 1608 by five glassmakers and three carpenters or house builders. The first permanent German settlement in what became the United States was Germantown, Pennsylvania, founded near Philadelphia on October 6, 1683.
Large numbers of Germans migrated from the 1680s to 1760s, with Pennsylvania the favored destination. They migrated to America for a variety of reasons. Push factors involved worsening opportunities for farm ownership in central Europe, persecution of some religious groups, and military conscription; pull factors were better economic conditions, especially the opportunity to own land, and religious freedom. Often immigrants paid for their passage by selling their labor for a period of years as indentured servants.
Large sections of Pennsylvania, Upstate New York, and the Shenandoah valley of Virginia attracted Germans. Most were Lutheran or German Reformed; many belonged to small religious sects such as the Moravians and Mennonites. German Catholics did not arrive in number until after the War of 1812.
In 1709, Protestant Germans from the Pfalz or Palatine region of Germany escaped conditions of poverty, traveling first to Rotterdam and then to London. Anne, Queen of Great Britain, helped them get to her colonies in America. The trip was long and difficult to survive because of the poor quality of food and water aboard ships and the infectious disease typhus. Many immigrants, particularly children, died before reaching America in June 1710.
The Palatine immigration of about 2100 people who survived was the largest single immigration to America in the colonial period. Most were first settled along the Hudson River in work camps, to pay off their passage. By 1711, seven villages had been established in New York on the Robert Livingston manor. In 1723 Germans became the first Europeans allowed to buy land in the Mohawk Valley west of Little Falls. One hundred homesteads were allocated in the Burnetsfield Patent. By 1750, the Germans occupied a strip some 12 miles (19 km) long along both sides of the Mohawk River. The soil was excellent; some 500 houses were built, mostly of stone, and the region prospered in spite of Indian raids. Herkimer was the best - known of the German settlements in a region long known as the "German Flats ''.
They kept to themselves, married their own, spoke German, attended Lutheran churches, and retained their own customs and foods. They emphasized farm ownership. Some mastered English to become conversant with local legal and business opportunities. They tolerated slavery (although few were rich enough to own a slave).
The most famous of the early German Palatine immigrants was editor John Peter Zenger, who led the fight in colonial New York City for freedom of the press in America. A later immigrant, John Jacob Astor, who came from Baden after the Revolutionary War, became the richest man in America from his fur trading empire and real estate investments in New York.
John Law organized the first colonization of Louisiana with German immigrants. Of the over 5,000 Germans initially immigrating primarily from the Alsace Region as few as 500 made up the first wave of immigrants to leave France en route to the Americas. Less than 150 of those first indentured German farmers made it to Louisiana and settled along what became known as the German Coast. With tenacity, determination and the leadership of D'arensburg these Germans felled trees, cleared land, and cultivated the soil with simple hand tools as draft animals were not available. The German coast settlers supplied the budding City of New Orleans with corn, rice, eggs. and meat for many years following.
The Mississippi Company settled thousands of German pioneers in French Louisiana during 1721. It encouraged Germans, particularly Germans of the Alsatian region who had recently fallen under French rule, and the Swiss to immigrate. Alsace was sold to France within the greater context of the Thirty Years ' War (1618 -- 1648).
The Jesuit Charlevoix traveled New France (Canada and Louisiana) in the early 1700s. His letter said "these 9,000 Germans, who were raised in the Palatinate (Alsace part of France) were in Arkansas. The Germans left Arkansas en masse. They went to New Orleans and demanded passage to Europe. The Mississippi Company gave the Germans rich lands on the right bank of the Mississippi River about 25 miles (40 km) above New Orleans. The area is now known as ' the German Coast '. ''
A thriving population of Germans lived upriver from New Orleans, Louisiana, known as the German Coast. They were attracted to the area through pamphlets such as J. Hanno Deiler 's "Louisiana: A Home for German Settlers ''.
Two waves of German colonists in 1714 and 1717 founded a large colony in Virginia called Germanna, located near modern - day Culpeper, Virginia. Virginia Lieutenant Governor Alexander Spotswood, taking advantage of the headright system, had bought land in present - day Spotsylvania and encouraged German immigration by advertising in Germany for miners to move to Virginia and establish a mining industry in the colony. The name "Germanna '', selected by Governor Alexander Spotswood, reflected both the German immigrants who sailed across the Atlantic to Virginia and the British Queen, Anne, who was in power at the time of the first settlement at Germanna.
In North Carolina, German Moravians living around Bethlehem, Pennsylvania purchased nearly 100,000 acres (400 km) from Lord Granville (one of the British Lords Proprietor) in the Piedmont of North Carolina in 1753. They established German settlements on that tract, especially in the area around what is now Winston - Salem. They also founded the transitional settlement of Bethabara, North Carolina, translated as House of Passage, the first planned Moravian community in North Carolina, in 1759. Soon after, the German Moravians founded the town of Salem in 1766 (now a historical section in the center of Winston - Salem) and Salem College (an early female college) in 1772.
In the Georgia Colony, Germans mainly from the Swabia region settled in Savannah, St. Simon 's Island and Fort Frederica in the 1730s and 1740s. They were actively recruited by James Oglethorpe and quickly distinguished themselves through improved farming, advanced tabby (cement) - construction, and leading joint Lutheran - Anglican - Reformed religious services for the colonists.
German immigrants also settled in other areas of the American South, including around the Dutch (Deutsch) Fork area of South Carolina, and Texas, especially in the Austin area.
Between 1742 and 1753, roughly 1,000 Germans settled in Broad Bay, Massachusetts (now Waldoboro, Maine). Many of the colonists fled to Boston, Maine, Nova Scotia, and North Carolina after their houses were burned and their neighbors killed or carried into captivity by Native Americans. The Germans who remained found it difficult to survive on farming, and eventually turned to the shipping and fishing industries.
The tide of German immigration to Pennsylvania swelled between 1725 and 1775, with immigrants arriving as redemptioners or indentured servants. By 1775, Germans constituted about one - third of the population of the state. German farmers were renowned for their highly productive animal husbandry and agricultural practices. Politically, they were generally inactive until 1740, when they joined a Quaker - led coalition that took control of the legislature, which later supported the American Revolution. Despite this, many of the German settlers were loyalists during the Revolution, possibly because they feared their royal land grants would be taken away by a new republican government, or because of loyalty to a British German monarchy who had provided the opportunity to live in a liberal society. The Germans, comprising Lutherans, Reformed, Mennonites, Amish, and other sects, developed a rich religious life with a strong musical culture. Collectively, they came to be known as the Pennsylvania Dutch (from Deutsch).
Etymologically, the word Dutch originates from the Old High German word "diutisc '' (from "diot '' "people ''), referring to the Germanic "language of the people '' as opposed to Latin, the language of the learned (see also theodiscus). Only later did the word come to refer to the people who spoke a Germanic language, and only in the last 1 - 2 centuries to refer only to the people of the Netherlands. Other Germanic language variants for "deutsch / deitsch / dutch '' are: Dutch "Duits '' and "Diets '', Yiddish "daytsh '', Danish / Norwegian "tysk '', or Swedish "tyska. '' The Japanese "doitzu '' also derives from the aforementioned "Dutch '' variations. There were few German Catholics in Pennsylvania before the 1810s.
The Studebaker brothers, forefathers of the wagon and automobile makers, arrived in Pennsylvania in 1736 from the famous blade town of Solingen. With their skills, they made wagons that carried the frontiersmen westward; their cannons provided the Union Army with artillery in the American Civil War, and their automobile company became one of the largest in America, although never eclipsing the "Big Three '', and was a factor in the war effort and in the industrial foundations of the Army.
From names in the 1790 U.S. census, historians estimate Germans constituted nearly 9 % of the white population in the United States.
The King of Great Britain, whose King George III was also the Elector of Hanover in Germany, hired 18,000 Hessians (career soldiers from small German states) to support British forces. Many were captured; they remained as prisoners during the war but some stayed and became U.S. citizens. German Americans served on both sides of the American Revolution. The religious minorities were neutral. The Lutherans were split. In New York, many were neutral or supported the Loyalist cause. In Pennsylvania most were on the patriot side. The Muhlenberg family, led by Rev. Henry Muhlenberg was especially influential on the Patriot side. His son Peter Muhlenberg, a Lutheran clergyman in Virginia became a major general and later a Congressman.
The brief Fries 's Rebellion was an anti-tax movement among Germans in Pennsylvania in 1799 - 1800.
The largest flow of German immigration to America occurred between 1820 and World War I, during which time nearly six million Germans immigrated to the United States. From 1840 to 1880, they were the largest group of immigrants. Following the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states, a wave of political refugees fled to America, who became known as Forty - Eighters. They included professionals, journalists, and politicians. Prominent Forty - Eighters included Carl Schurz and Henry Villard.
"Latin farmer '' or Latin Settlement is the designation of several settlements founded by some of the Dreissiger and other refugees from Europe after rebellions like the Frankfurter Wachensturm beginning in the 1830s -- predominantly in Texas and Missouri, but also in other US states -- in which German intellectuals (freethinkers, German: Freidenker, and Latinists) met together to devote themselves to the German literature, philosophy, science, classical music, and the Latin language. A prominent representative of this generation of immigrants was Gustav Koerner who lived most of the time in Belleville, Illinois until his death.
A few German Jews came in the colonial era. The largest numbers arrived after 1820, especially in the mid-19th century. They spread across the North and South (and California, where Levi Strauss arrived in 1853). They formed small German - Jewish communities in cities and towns. They typically were local and regional merchants selling clothing; others were livestock dealers, agricultural commodity traders, bankers, and operators of local businesses. Henry Lehman, who founded Lehman Brothers in Alabama, was a particularly prominent example of such a German - Jewish immigrant. They formed Reform synagogues and sponsored numerous local and national philanthropic organizations, such as B'nai B'rith. This German - speaking group is quite distinct from the Yiddish - speaking East - European Jews who arrived in much larger numbers starting in the late 19th century and concentrated in New York.
The port cities of New York, and Baltimore had large populations. As did Hoboken, New Jersey.
Cities along the Great Lakes, the Ohio River, and the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers attracted a large German element. The Midwestern cities of Milwaukee, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Chicago were favored destinations of German immigrants. Also, the Northern Kentucky and Louisville area along the Ohio River was a favored destination. By 1900, the populations of the cities of Cleveland, Milwaukee, and Cincinnati were all more than 40 % German American. Dubuque and Davenport, Iowa had even larger proportions, as did Omaha, Nebraska, where the proportion of German Americans was 57 % in 1910. In many other cities of the Midwest, such as Fort Wayne, Indiana, German Americans were at least 30 % of the population. By 1850 there were 5,000 Germans, mostly Schwabians living in, and around, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Many concentrations acquired distinctive names suggesting their heritage, such as the "Over-the - Rhine '' district in Cincinnati and "German Village '' in Columbus, Ohio.
A favorite destination was Milwaukee, known as "the German Athens ''. Radical Germans trained in politics in the old country dominated the city 's Socialists. Skilled workers dominated many crafts, while entrepreneurs created the brewing industry; the most famous brands included Pabst, Schlitz, Miller, and Blatz.
Whereas half of German immigrants settled in cities, the other half established farms in the Midwest. From Ohio to the Plains states, a heavy presence persists in rural areas into the 21st century.
Few German immigrants settled in the Deep South, apart from New Orleans, the German Coast, and Texas.
Texas attracted many Germans who entered through Galveston and Indianola, both those who came to farm, and later immigrants who more rapidly took industrial jobs in cities such as Houston. As in Milwaukee, Germans in Houston built the brewing industry. By the 1920s, the first generation of college - educated German Americans were moving into the chemical and oil industries.
Texas had about 20,000 German Americans in the 1850s. They did not form a uniform bloc, but were highly diverse and drew from geographic areas and all sectors of European society, except that very few aristocrats or upper middle class businessmen arrived. In this regard, Texas Germania was a microcosm of the Germania nationwide.
The Germans who settled Texas were diverse in many ways. They included peasant farmers and intellectuals; Protestants, Catholics, Jews, and atheists; Prussians, Saxons, and Hessians; abolitionists and slave owners; farmers and townsfolk; frugal, honest folk and ax murderers. They differed in dialect, customs, and physical features. A majority had been farmers in Germany, and most arrived seeking economic opportunities. A few dissident intellectuals fleeing the 1848 revolutions sought political freedom, but few, save perhaps the Wends, went for religious freedom. The German settlements in Texas reflected their diversity. Even in the confined area of the Hill Country, each valley offered a different kind of German. The Llano valley had stern, teetotaling German Methodists, who renounced dancing and fraternal organizations; the Pedernales valley had fun - loving, hardworking Lutherans and Catholics who enjoyed drinking and dancing; and the Guadalupe valley had freethinking Germans descended from intellectual political refugees. The scattered German ethnic islands were also diverse. These small enclaves included Lindsay in Cooke County, largely Westphalian Catholic; Waka in Ochiltree County, Midwestern Mennonite; Hurnville in Clay County, Russian German Baptist; and Lockett in Wilbarger County, Wendish Lutheran.
Germans from Russia were the most traditional of German - speaking arrivals. They were Germans who had lived for generations throughout the Russian Empire, but especially along the Volga River in Russia and near the Crimea. Their ancestors had come from all over the German - speaking world, invited by Catherine the Great in 1762 and 1763 to settle and introduce more advanced German agriculture methods to rural Russia. They had been promised by the manifesto of their settlement the ability to practice their respective Christian denominations, retain their culture and language, and retain immunity from conscription for them and their descendants. As time passed, the Russian monarchy gradually eroded the ethnic German population 's relative autonomy. Conscription eventually was reinstated; this was especially harmful to the Mennonites, who practice pacifism. Throughout the 19th century, pressure increased from the Russian government to culturally assimilate. Many Germans from Russia found it necessary to emigrate to avoid conscription and preserve their culture. About 100,000 immigrated by 1900, settling primarily in the Dakotas, Kansas and Nebraska. The southern central part of North Dakota was known as "the German - Russian triangle ''. A smaller number moved farther west, finding employment as ranchers and cowboys.
Negatively influenced by the violation of their rights and cultural persecution by the Tsar, the Germans from Russia who settled in the northern Midwest saw themselves a downtrodden ethnic group separate from Russian Americans and having an entirely different experience from the German Americans who had emigrated from German lands; they settled in tight - knit communities that retained their German language and culture. They raised large families, built German - style churches, buried their dead in distinctive cemeteries using cast iron grave markers, and created choir groups that sang German church hymns. Many farmers specialized in sugar beets -- still a major crop in the upper Great Plains. During World War I, their identity was challenged by anti-German sentiment. By the end of World War II, the German language, which had always been used with English for public and official matters, was in serious decline. Today, German is preserved mainly through singing groups and recipes, with the Germans from Russia in the northern Great Plains states speaking predominantly English. German remains the second most spoken language in North and South Dakota, and Germans from Russia often use loanwords, such as Kuchen for cake. Despite the loss of their language, the ethnic group remains distinct, and has left a lasting impression on the American West.
Sentiment among German Americans was largely anti-slavery, especially among Forty - Eighters. Notable Forty - Eighter Hermann Raster wrote passionately against slavery and was very pro-Lincoln. Raster published anti-slavery pamphlets and was the editor of the most influential German language newspaper in America at the time. He helped secure the votes of German - Americans across the United States for Abraham Lincoln. When Raster died the Chicago Tribune published an article regarding his service as a correspondent for America to the German states saying, "His writings during and after the Civil War did more to create understanding and appreciation of the American situation in Germany and to float U.S. bonds in Europe than the combined efforts of all the U.S. ministers and consuls. '' Hundreds of thousands of German Americans volunteered to fight for the Union in the American Civil War (1861 -- 1865). The Germans were the largest immigrant group to participate in the Civil War; over 176,000 U.S. soldiers were born in Germany. A popular Union commander among Germans, Major General Franz Sigel was the highest - ranking German officer in the Union Army, with many German immigrants claiming to enlist to "fight mit Sigel ''.
Although only one in four Germans fought in all - German regiments, they created the public image of the German soldier. Pennsylvania fielded five German regiments, New York eleven, and Ohio six.
Western railroads, with large land grants available to attract farmers, set up agencies in Hamburg and other German cities, promising cheap transportation, and sales of farmland on easy terms. For example, the Santa Fe railroad hired its own commissioner for immigration, and sold over 300,000 acres (1,200 km) to German - speaking farmers.
Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the German Americans showed a high interest in becoming farmers, and keeping their children and grandchildren on the land. While they needed profits to stay in operation, they used profits as a tool "to maintain continuity of the family. '' They used risk averse strategies, and carefully planned their inheritances to keep the land in the family. Their communities showed smaller average farm size, greater equality, less absentee ownership and greater geographic persistence. As one farmer explained, "To protect your family has turned out to be the same thing as protecting your land. ''
Germany was a large country with many diverse subregions which contributed immigrants. Dubuque was the base of the Ostfriesische Nachrichten ("East Fresian News '') from 1881 to 1971. It connected the 20,000 immigrants from East Friesland (Ostfriesland), Germany, to each other across the Midwest, and to their old homeland. In Germany East Friesland was often a topic of ridicule regarding backward rustics, but editor Leupke Hündling shrewdly combined stories of proud memories of Ostfriesland. The editor enlisted a network of local correspondents. By mixing local American and local German news, letters, poetry, fiction, and dialogue, the German - language newspaper allowed immigrants to honor their origins and celebrate their new life as highly prosperous farmers with much larger farms than were possible back in impoverished Ostfriesland. During the world wars, when Germania came under heavy attack, the paper stressed its humanitarian role, mobilizing readers to help the people of East Friesland with relief funds. Younger generations could usually speak German but not read it, so the subscription based dwindled away as the target audience Americanized itself.
Relatively few German Americans held office, but the men voted once they became citizens. In general during the Third party System (1850s -- 1890s), the Protestants and Jews leaned toward the Republican party and the Catholics were strongly Democratic. When prohibition was on the ballot, the Germans voted solidly against it. They strongly distrusted moralistic crusaders, whom they called "Puritans '', including the temperance reformers and many Populists. The German community strongly opposed Free Silver, and voted heavily against crusader William Jennings Bryan in 1896. In 1900, however, many German Democrats returned to their party and voted for Bryan, perhaps because of President William McKinley 's foreign policy.
At the local level, historians have explored the changing voting behavior of the German - American community and one of its major strongholds, St. Louis, Missouri. The German Americans had voted 80 percent for Lincoln in 1860, and strongly supported the war effort. They were a bastion of the Republican Party in St. Louis and nearby immigrant strongholds in Missouri and southern Illinois. The German Americans were angered by a proposed Missouri state constitution that discriminated against Catholics and freethinkers. The requirement of a special loyalty oath for priests and ministers was troublesome. Despite their strong opposition the constitution was ratified in 1865. Racial tensions with the blacks began to emerge, especially in terms of competition for unskilled labor jobs. Germania was nervous about black suffrage in 1868, fearing that blacks would support puritanical laws Especially regarding the prohibition of beer gardens on Sundays. The tensions split off a large German element in 1872, led by Carl Schurz. They supported the Liberal Republican party led by Benjamin Gratz Brown for governor in 1870 and Horace Greeley for president in 1872.
Many Germans in late 19th century cities were communists; Germans played a significant role in the labor union movement. A few were anarchists. Eight of the forty - two anarchist defendants in the Haymarket Affair of 1886 in Chicago were German.
Hugo Münsterberg (1863 -- 1916), a German psychologist, moved to Harvard in the 1890s and became a leader in the new profession. He was president of the American Psychological Association in 1898, and the American Philosophical Association in 1908, and played a major role in many other American and international organizations.
Arthur Preuss (1871 -- 1934) was a leading journalist, and theologian. A layman in St Louis. His Fortnightly Review (in English) was a major conservative voice read closely by church leaders and intellectuals from 1894 until 1934. He was intensely loyal to the Vatican. Preuss upheld the German Catholic community, denounced the "Americanism '' heresy, promoted the Catholic University of America, and anguished over the anti-German America hysteria during World War I. He provided lengthy commentary regarding the National Catholic Welfare Conference, the anti-Catholic factor in the presidential campaign of 1928, the hardships of the Great Depression, and the liberalism of the New Deal.
During World War I (1914 -- 18, American involvement 1917 - 18), German Americans were often accused of being too sympathetic to Imperial Germany. Former president Theodore Roosevelt denounced "hyphenated Americanism '', insisting that dual loyalties were impossible in wartime. A small minority came out for Germany, or ridiculed the British (as did H.L. Mencken). Similarly, Harvard psychology professor Hugo Münsterberg dropped his efforts to mediate between America and Germany, and threw his efforts behind the German cause.
The Justice Department prepared a list of all German aliens, counting approximately 480,000 of them, more than 4,000 of whom were imprisoned in 1917 -- 18. The allegations included spying for Germany, or endorsing the German war effort. Thousands were forced to buy war bonds to show their loyalty. The Red Cross barred individuals with German last names from joining in fear of sabotage. One person was killed by a mob; in Collinsville, Illinois, German - born Robert Prager was dragged from jail as a suspected spy and lynched. A Minnesota minister was tarred and feathered when he was overheard praying in German with a dying woman.
In Chicago, Frederick Stock temporarily stepped down as conductor of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra until he finalized his naturalization papers. Orchestras replaced music by German composer Wagner with French composer Berlioz. In Cincinnati, the public library was asked to withdraw all German books from its shelves. German - named streets were renamed. The town, Berlin, Michigan, was changed to Marne, Michigan (honoring those who fought in the Battle of Marne). In Iowa, in the 1918 Babel Proclamation, the governor prohibited all foreign languages in schools and public places. Nebraska banned instruction in any language except English, but the U.S. Supreme Court ruled the ban illegal in 1923 (Meyer v. Nebraska). The response of German Americans to these tactics was often to "Americanize '' names (e.g., Schmidt to Smith, Müller to Miller) and limit the use of the German language in public places, especially churches.
American wartime propaganda depicted the bloodthirsty German "Hun '' soldier as an enemy of civilization, with his eyes on America from across the Atlantic
German - American farmer John Meints of Minnesota was tarred and feathered in August 1918 for allegedly not supporting war bond drives.
Between 1931 and 1940, 114,000 Germans moved to the United States, many of whom -- including Nobel prize winner Albert Einstein and author Erich Maria Remarque -- were Jewish Germans or anti-Nazis fleeing government oppression. About 25,000 people became paying members of the pro-Nazi German American Bund during the years before the war. German aliens were the subject of suspicion and discrimination during the war, although prejudice and sheer numbers meant they suffered as a group generally less than Japanese Americans. The Alien Registration Act of 1940 required 300,000 German - born resident aliens who had German citizenship to register with the Federal government and restricted their travel and property ownership rights. Under the still active Alien Enemy Act of 1798, the United States government interned nearly 11,000 German citizens between 1940 and 1948. Civil rights violations occurred. An unknown number of "voluntary internees '' joined their spouses and parents in the camps and were not permitted to leave.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt sought out Americans of German ancestry for top war jobs, including General Dwight D. Eisenhower, Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, and USAAF General Carl Andrew Spaatz. He appointed Republican Wendell Willkie (who ironically ran against Roosevelt in the 1940 presidential election) as a personal representative. German Americans who had fluent German language skills were an important asset to wartime intelligence, and they served as translators and as spies for the United States. The war evoked strong pro-American patriotic sentiments among German Americans, few of whom by then had contacts with distant relatives in the old country.
In the aftermath of World War II, millions of ethnic Germans were forcibly expelled from their homes within the redrawn borders of Central and Eastern Europe, including the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary and Yugoslavia. Most resettled in Germany, but others came as refugees to the United States in the late 1940s, and established cultural centers in their new homes. Some Danube Swabians, for instance, ethnic Germans who had maintained language and customs after settlement along the Danube in Hungary, later Yugoslavia (now Serbia), immigrated to the U.S. after the war.
After 1970, anti-German sentiment aroused by World War II faded away. Today, German Americans who immigrated after World War II share the same characteristics as any other Western European immigrant group in the U.S. They are mostly professionals and academics who have come for professional reasons. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union and reunification, Germany has become a preferred destination for immigrants rather than a source of migrating peoples.
In the 1990 U.S. Census, 58 million Americans claimed to be solely or partially of German descent. According to the 2005 American Community Survey, 50 million Americans have German ancestry. German Americans represent 17 % of the total U.S. population and 26 % of the non-Hispanic white population.
The Economist magazine in 2015 interviewed Petra Schürmann, the director of the German - American Heritage Museum in Washington for a major article on German - Americans. She notes that all over the United States celebrations such as German fests and Oktoberfests have been appearing.
States with the highest proportions of German Americans tend to be those of the upper Midwest, including Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska, Wisconsin, and the Dakotas; all at over one - third.
Of the four major US regions, German was the most - reported ancestry in the Midwest, second in the West, and third in both the Northeast and the South. German was the top reported ancestry in 23 states, and it was one of the top five reported ancestries in every state except Maine and Rhode Island.
At the 2000 census, this was the breakdown of German Americans by state, including the District of Columbia:
Today, most German Americans have assimilated to the point that they no longer have readily identifiable ethnic communities, though there are still many metropolitan areas where German is the most reported ethnicity, such as Cincinnati, Northern Kentucky, Cleveland, Columbus, Indianapolis, Milwaukee, Minneapolis -- Saint Paul, Pittsburgh, and St. Louis.
The 25 U.S. communities with the highest percentage of residents claiming German ancestry are:
U.S. communities with the highest percentage of residents claiming German ancestry are:
The 25 U.S. communities with the most residents born in Germany are:
The Germans worked hard to maintain and cultivate their language, especially through newspapers and classes in elementary and high schools. German Americans in many cities, such as Milwaukee, brought their strong support of education, establishing German - language schools and teacher training seminaries (Töchter - Institut) to prepare students and teachers in German language training. By the late 19th century, the Germania Publishing Company was established in Milwaukee, a publisher of books, magazines, and newspapers in German.
"Germania '' was the common term for German American neighborhoods and their organizations. Deutschtum was the term for transplanted German nationalism, both culturally and politically. Between 1875 and 1915, the German American population in the United States doubled, and many of its members insisted on maintaining their culture. German was used in local schools and churches, while numerous Vereine, associations dedicated to literature, humor, gymnastics, and singing, sprang up in German American communities. German Americans tended to support the German government 's actions, and, even after the United States entered World War I, they often voted for antidraft and antiwar candidates. ' Deutschtum ' in the United States disintegrated after 1918.
Beginning in 1741, the German - speaking Moravian Church Settlements of Bethlehem, Nazareth and Lititz, Pennsylvania, and Wachovia in North Carolina had highly developed musical cultures. Choral music, Brass and String Music and Congregational singing were highly cultivated. The Moravian Church produced many composers and musicians. Haydn 's Creation had its American debut in Bethlehem in the early 19th century.
The spiritual beliefs of Johann Conrad Beissel (1690 -- 1768) and the Ephrata Cloister -- such as the asceticism and mysticism of this Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, group - are reflected in Beissel 's treatises on music and hymns, which have been considered the beginning of America 's musical heritage.
In most major cities, Germans took the lead in creating a musical culture, with popular bands, singing societies, operas and symphonic orchestras.
A small city, Wheeling, West Virginia could boast of 11 singing societies -- Maennerchor, Harmonie, Liedertafel, Beethoven, Concordia, Liederkranz, Germania, Teutonia, Harmonie - Maennerchor, Arion, and Mozart. The first began in 1855; the last folded in 1961. An important aspect of Wheeling social life, these societies reflected various social classes and enjoyed great popularity until anti-German sentiments during World War I and changing social values dealt them a death blow.
The Liederkranz, a German - American music society, played an important role in the integration of the German community into the life of Louisville, Kentucky. Started in 1848, the organization was strengthened by the arrival of German liberals after the failure of the revolution of that year. By the mid-1850s the Germans formed one - third of Louisville 's population and faced nativist hostility organized in the Know - Nothing movement. Violent demonstrations forced the chorus to suppress publicity of its performances that included works by composer Richard Wagner. The Liederkranz suspended operations during the Civil War, but afterward grew rapidly, and was able to build a large auditorium by 1873. An audience of 8,000 that attended a performance in 1877 demonstrated that the Germans were an accepted part of Louisville life.
The Imperial government in Berlin promoted German culture in the U.S., especially music. A steady influx of German - born conductors, including Arthur Nikisch and Karl Muck, spurred the reception of German music in the United States, while German musicians seized on Victorian Americans ' growing concern with ' emotion '. The performance of pieces such as Beethoven 's Ninth Symphony established German serious music as the superior language of feeling...
Turner societies in the United States were first organized during the mid-19th century so German American immigrants could visit with one another and become involved in social and sports activities. The National Turnerbund, the head organization of the Turnvereine, started drilling members as in militia units in 1854. Nearly half of all Turners fought in the Civil War, mostly on the Union side, and a special group served as bodyguards for President Lincoln.
By the 1890s, Turners numbered nearly 65,000. At the turn of the 21st century, however, with the ethnic identity of European Americans in flux and Americanization a key element of immigrant life, there were few Turner groups, athletic events were limited, and non-Germans were members. A survey of surviving groups and members reflects these radical changes in the role of Turner societies and their marginalization in 21st - century American society, as younger German Americans tended not to belong, even in strongholds of German heritage in the Midwest.
As for any immigrant population, the development of a foreign - language press helped immigrants more easily learn about their new home, maintain connections to their native land, and unite immigrant communities. By the late 19th century, Germania published over 800 regular publications. The most prestigious daily newspapers, such as the New Yorker Staats - Zeitung, the Anzeiger des Westens in St. Louis, and the Illinois Staats - Zeitung in Chicago, promoted middle - class values and encouraged German ethnic loyalty among their readership. The Germans were proud of their language, supported many German - language public and private schools, and conducted their church services in German. They published at least two - thirds of all foreign language newspapers in the U.S. The papers were owned and operated in the U.S., with no control from Germany. As Wittke emphasizes, press. it was "essentially an American press published in a foreign tongue. '' The papers reported on major political and diplomatic events involving Germany, with pride but from the viewpoint of its American readers. For example, during the latter half of the 19th century, at least 176 different German - language publications began operations in the city of Cincinnati alone. Many of these publications folded within a year, while a select few, such as the Cincinnati Freie Presse, lasted nearly a century. Other cities experienced similar turnover among immigrant publications, especially from opinion press, which published little news and focused instead on editorial commentary.
By the end of the 19th century, there were over 800 German - language publications in the United States. German immigration was on the decline, however, and with subsequent generations integrating into English - speaking society, the German language press began to struggle. The periodicals that managed to survive in immigrant communities faced an additional challenge with anti-German sentiment during World War I and with the Espionage and Sedition Acts, which authorized censorship of foreign language newspapers. Prohibition also had a destabilizing impact on the German immigrant communities upon which the German - language publications relied. By 1920, there were only 278 German language publications remaining in the country. After 1945, only a few publications have been started. One example is Hiwwe wie Driwwe (Kutztown, PA), the nation 's only Pennsylvania German newspaper, which was established in 1997.
Germans brought organized gymnastics to America, and were strong supporters of sports programs. They used sport both to promote ethnic identity and pride and to facilitate integration into American society. Beginning in the mid-19th century, the Turner movement offered exercise and sports programs, while also providing a social haven for the thousands of new German immigrants arriving in the United States each year. Another highly successful German sports organization was the Buffalo Germans basketball team, winners of 762 games (against only 85 losses) in the early years of the 20th century. These examples, and others, reflect the evolving place of sport in the assimilation and socialization of much of the German - American population.
German immigrants who arrived before the 19th century tended to have been members of the Evangelical Lutheran Churches in Germany, and created the Lutheran Synods of Pennsylvania, North Carolina and New York. The largest Lutheran denominations in the U.S. today -- the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, the Lutheran Church -- Missouri Synod, and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod -- are all descended from churches started by German immigrants among others. Calvinist Germans founded the Reformed Church in the United States (especially in New York and Pennsylvania), and the Evangelical Synod of North America (strongest in the Midwest), which is now part of the United Church of Christ. Many immigrants joined different churches from those that existed in Germany. Protestants often joined the Methodist church. In the 1740s, Count Nicolas von Zinzendorf tried to unite all the German - speaking Christians -- (Lutheran, Reformed, and Separatists) -- into one "Church of God in the Spirit ''. The Moravian Church in America is one of the results of this effort, as are the many "Union '' churches in rural Pennsylvania.
Before 1800, communities of Amish, Mennonites, Schwarzenau Brethren and Moravians had formed and are still in existence today. The Old Order Amish and a majority of the Old Order Mennonites still speak dialects of German, including Pennsylvania German, informally known as Pennsylvania Dutch. The Amish, who were originally from southern Germany and Switzerland, arrived in Pennsylvania during the early 18th century. Amish immigration to the United States reached its peak between the years 1727 and 1770. Religious freedom was perhaps the most pressing cause for Amish immigration to Pennsylvania, which became known as a haven for persecuted religious groups.
The Hutterites are another example of a group of German Americans who continue a lifestyle similar to that of their ancestors. Like the Amish, they fled persecution for their religious beliefs, and came to the United States between 1874 and 1879. Today, Hutterites mostly reside in Montana, the Dakotas, and Minnesota, and the western provinces of Canada. Hutterites continue to speak Hutterite German. Most are able to understand Standard German in addition to their dialect. The German speaking "Russian '' Mennonites migrated during the same time as the Hutterites, but assimilated relatively quickly in the United States, whereas groups of "Russian '' Mennonites in Canada resisted assimilation.
Immigrants from Germany in the mid-to - late - 19th century brought many different religions with them. The most numerous were Lutheran or Catholic, although the Lutherans were themselves split among different groups. The more conservative Lutherans comprised the Lutheran Church -- Missouri Synod and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. Other Lutherans formed various synods, most of which merged with Scandinavian - based synods in 1988, forming the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. Catholic Germans started immigrating in large numbers in the mid to latter 19th century, spurred in particular by the Kulturkampf.
Some 19th - century immigrants, especially the "Forty - Eighters '', were secular, rejecting formal religion. About 250,000 German Jews had arrived by the 1870s, and they sponsored reform synagogues in many small cities across the country. About 2 million Central and Eastern European Jews arrived from the 1880s to 1924, bringing more traditional religious practices.
After two or three generations, most German Americans adopted mainstream American customs -- some of which they heavily influenced -- and switched their language to English. As one scholar concludes, "The overwhelming evidence... indicates that the German - American school was a bilingual one much (perhaps a whole generation or more) earlier than 1917, and that the majority of the pupils may have been English - dominant bilinguals from the early 1880s on. '' By 1914, the older members attended German - language church services, while younger ones attended English services (in Lutheran, Evangelical and Catholic churches). In German parochial schools, the children spoke English among themselves, though some of their classes were in German. In 1917 -- 18, after the US entry into World War I on the side of the British, nearly all German language instruction ended, as did most German - language church services.
About 1.5 million Americans speak German at home, according to the 2000 census. From 1860 -- 1917, German was widely spoken in German neighborhoods; see German in the United States. There is a false belief, called the Muhlenberg legend, that German was almost the official language of the U.S. There was never any such proposal. The U.S. has no official language, but use of German was strongly discouraged during World War I and fell out of daily use in many places.
There were fierce battles in Wisconsin and Illinois around 1890 regarding proposals to stop the use of German as the primary language in public and parochial schools. The Bennett Law was a highly controversial state law passed in Wisconsin in 1889 that required the use of English to teach major subjects in all public and private elementary and high schools. It affected the state 's many German - language private schools (and some Norwegian schools), and was bitterly resented by German American communities. The German Catholics and Lutherans each operated large networks of parochial schools in the state. Because the language used in the classroom was German, the law meant the teachers would have to be replaced with bilingual teachers, and in most cases shut down. The Germans formed a coalition between Catholics and Lutherans, under the leadership of the Democratic Party, and the language issue produced a landslide for the Democrats, as Republicans dropped the issue until World War I. By 1917, almost all schools taught in English, but courses in German were common in areas with large German populations. These courses were permanently dropped.
"Assimilation '' in this context means the steady loss of distinctive characteristics (especially language), as the Germans melted into a common American nationality.
German Americans are no longer a conspicuous ethnic group. As Melvin G. Holli puts it, "Public expression of German ethnicity is nowhere proportionate to the number of German Americans in the nation 's population. Almost nowhere are German Americans as a group as visible as many smaller groups. Two examples suffice to illustrate this point: when one surveys the popular television scene of the past decade, one hears Yiddish humor done by comedians; one sees Polish, Greek, and East European detective heroes; Italian - Americans in situation comedies; and blacks such as the Jeffersons and Huxtables. But one searches in vain for quintessentially German - American characters or melodramas patterned after German - American experiences... A second example of the virtual invisibility is that, though German Americans have been one of the largest ethic groups in the Chicago area (numbering near one - half million between 1900 and 1910), no museum or achive exists to memorialize that fact. On the other hand, many smaller groups such as Lithuanians, Poles, Swedes, Jews, and others have museums, archives, and exhibit halls dedicated to their immigrant forefathers ''.
But this inconspicuousness was not always the case. By 1910 German Americans had created their own distinctive, vibrant, prosperous German - language communities, called "Germania ''. According to historian Walter Kamphoefner, a "number of big cities introduced German into their public school programs ''. Indianapolis, Cincinnati, Cleveland and other cities "had what we now call two - way immersion programs: school taught half in German, half in English ''. This was a tradition which continued "all the way down to World War I. '' According to Kamphoefner, German "was in a similar position as the Spanish language is in the 20th and 21st century ''; it "was by far the most widespread foreign language, and whoever was the largest group was at a definite advantage in getting its language into the public sphere. '' Kamphoefner has come across evidence that as late as 1917, a German version of "The Star - Spangled Banner '' was still being sung in public schools in Indianapolis. Cynthia Moothart O'Bannon, writing about Fort Wayne, Indiana, states that before World War One, "German was the primary language in the homes, churches and parochial schools '' of German American settlers. She states that "Many street signs were in German. (Main Street, for instance, was Haupt Strasse.) A large portion of local industry and commercial enterprises had at its roots German tooling and emigres. (An entire German town was moved to Fort Wayne when Wayne Knitting Mills opened.) Mayors, judges, firefighters and other community leaders had strong German ties. Social and sporting clubs and Germania Park in St. Joseph Township provided outlets to engage in traditional German activities ''. She goes on to state that "The cultural influences were so strong, in fact, that the Chicago Tribune in 1893 declared Fort Wayne a "most German town. '' '' Melvin G. Holli states that "No continental foreign - born group had been so widely and favorably received in the United States, or had won such high marks from its hosts as had the Germans before World War I. Some public opinion surveys conducted before the war showed German Americans were even more highly regarded than immigrants from the mother culture, England ''. Holli states that the Chicago Symphony Orchestra once "had so many German - American musicians that the conductor often addressed them in the German language '', and he states that "No ethnic theater in Chicago glittered with such a classy repertory as did the German - American theater, or served to introduce so many European classical works to American audiences ''.
The transition to the English language was abrupt, forced by federal, state and local governments, and by public opinion, when the U.S. was at war with Germany in 1917 - 18. After 1917 the German language was seldom heard in public; most newspapers and magazines closed; churches and parochial schools switched to English. Melvin G. Holli states that "In 1917 the Missouri Synod 's Lutheran Church conference minutes appeared in English for the first time, and the synod 's new constitution dropped its insistence on using the language of Luther only and instead suggested bilingualism. Dozens of Lutheran schools also dropped instruction in the German language. English - language services also intruded themselves into parishes where German had been the lingua franca. Whereas only 471 congregations nationwide held English services in 1910, the number preaching in the tongue of Albion in the synod skyrocketed to 2,492 by 1919. The German Evangelical Synod of Missouri, Ohio, and other states also anglicized its name by dropping German from the title ''. Writing about Fort Wayne, Indiana, Cynthia Moothart O'Bannon states that, in the First World War, "Local churches were forced to discontinue sermons in German, schools were pressured to stop teaching in German, and the local library director was ordered to purchase no more books written in German. The library shelves also were purged of English - language materials deemed sympathetic to or neutral on Germany. Anti-German sentiment forced the renaming of several local institutions. Teutonia Building, Loan & Savings became Home Loan & Savings, and The German - American bank became Lincoln National Bank & Trust Co. '' She continues that "in perhaps the most obvious bend to prevailing trends, Berghoff Brewery changed its motto from "A very German brew '' to "A very good brew, '' according to "Fort Wayne: A Most German Town, '' a documentary produced by local public television station WFWA, Channel 39 ". Film critic Roger Ebert wrote how "I could hear the pain in my German - American father 's voice as he recalled being yanked out of Lutheran school during World War I and forbidden by his immigrant parents ever to speak German again ''.
Melvin G. Holli states, regarding Chicago, that "After the Great War it became clear that no ethnic group was so de-ethnicized in its public expression by a single historic event as German Americans. While Polish Americans, Lithuanian Americans, and other subject nationalities underwent a great consciousness raising, German ethnicity fell into a protracted and permanent slump. The war damaged public expression of German ethnic, linguistic, and cultural institutions almost beyond repair ''. He states that, after the war, German ethnicity "would never regain its prewar public acclaim, its larger - than - life public presence, with its symbols, rituals, and, above all, its large numbers of people who took pride in their Teutonic ancestry and enjoyed the role of Uncle Sam 's favored adopted son ''. He states "A key indicator of the decline of "Deutschtum '' in Chicago was the census: the number identifying themselves to the census - taker as German - born plummeted from 191,000 in 1910 to 112,000 in 1920. This drop far exceeds the natural mortality rate or the number who might be expected to move. Self - identifiers had found it prudent to claim some nationality other than German. To claim German nationality had become too painful an experience ". Along similar lines, Terrence G. Wiley states that, in Nebraska, "around 14 percent of the population had identified itself as being of German - origin in 1910; however, only 4.4 percent made comparable assertions in 1920. In Wisconsin, the decline in percentage of those identifying themselves as Germans was even more obvious. The 1920 census reported only 6.6. percent of the population as being of German - origin, as opposed to nearly 29 percent ten years earlier... These statistics led Burnell... to conclude that: "No other North American ethnic group, past or present, has attempted so forcefully to officially conceal their... ethnic origins. One must attribute this reaction to the wave of repression that swept the Continent and enveloped anyone with a German past '' ".
The Catholic high schools were deliberately structured to commingle ethnic groups so as to promote ethnic (but not interreligious) intermarriage. German - speaking taverns, beer gardens and saloons were all shut down by prohibition; those that reopened in 1933 spoke English.
While its impact appears to be less well - known and studied than the impact which World War One had on German Americans, World War Two was likewise difficult for them and likewise had the impact of forcing them to drop distinctive German characteristics and assimilate into the general US culture. According to Melvin G. Holli, "By 1930, some German American leaders in Chicago felt, as Dr. Leslie Tischauser put it, "the damage done by the wartime experience had been largely repaired. '' The German language was being taught in the schools again; the German theater still survived; and German Day celebrations were drawing larger and larger crowds. Although the assimilation process had taken its toll of pre-1914 German immigrants, a smaller group of newer postwar arrivals had developed a vocal if not impolitic interest in the rebuilding process in Germany under National Socialism. As the 1930s moved on, Hitler 's brutality and Nazi excesses made Germanism once again suspect. The rise of Nazism, as Luebke notes, "transformed German ethnicity in America into a source of social and psychological discomfort, if not distress. The overt expression of German - American opinion consequently declined, and in more recent years, virtually disappeared as a reliable index of political attitudes... "'' Holli goes on to state that "The pain increased during the late 1930s and early 1940s, when Congressman Martin Dies held public hearings about the menace of Nazi subversives and spies among the German Americans. In 1940 the Democratic party 's attack on anti-war elements as disloyal and pro-Nazi, and the advent of the war itself, made German ethnicity too heavy a burden to bear. As Professor Tischauser wrote, "The notoriety gained by those who supported the German government between 1933 and 1941 cast a pall over German - Americans everywhere. Leaders of the German - American community would have great difficulty rebuilding an ethnic consciousness... Few German - Americans, however, could defend what Hitler... had done to millions of people in pursuit of the ' final solution, ' and the wisest course for German - Americans was to forget any attachment to the German half of their heritage. '' '' Jennifer Hansler has stated that "Fred Trump sought to pass himself off as Swedish amid anti-German sentiment sparked by World War II ''; Donald reaffirmed this myth in The Art of the Deal.
By the 1940s Germania had largely vanished outside some rural areas and the Germans were thoroughly assimilated. According to Melvin G. Holli, by the end of World War Two, German Americans "were ethnics without any visible national or local leaders. Not even politicians would think of addressing them explicitly as an ethnic constituency as they would say, Polish Americans, Jewish Americans, or African Americans ''. Holli states that "Being on the wrong side in two wars had a devastating and long - term negative impact on the public celebration of German - American ethnicity ''.
Historians have tried to explain what became of the German Americans and their descendants. Kazal (2004) looks at Germans in Philadelphia, focusing on four ethnic subcultures: middle - class Vereinsdeutsche, working - class socialists, Lutherans, and Catholics. Each group followed a somewhat distinctive path toward assimilation. Lutherans, and the better situated Vereinsdeutsche with whom they often overlapped, after World War I abandoned the last major German characteristics and redefined themselves as old stock or as "Nordic '' Americans, stressing their colonial roots in Pennsylvania and distancing themselves from more recent immigrants. On the other hand, working - class and Catholic Germans, groups that heavily overlapped, lived and worked with Irish and other European ethnics; they also gave up German characteristics but came to identify themselves as white ethnics, distancing themselves above all from African American recent arrivals in nearby neighborhoods. Well before World War I, women in particular were becoming more and more involved in a mass consumer culture that lured them out of their German - language neighborhood shops and into English language downtown department stores. The 1920s and 1930s brought English language popular culture via movies and radio that drowned out the few surviving German language venues.
Kazal points out that German Americans have not had an experience that is especially typical of immigrant groups. "Certainly, in a number of ways, the German - American experience was idiosyncratic. No other large immigrant group was subjected to such strong, sustained pressure to abandon its ethnic identity for an American one. None was so divided internally, a characteristic that made German Americans especially vulnerable to such pressure. Among the larger groups that immigrated in the country after 1830, none - despite regional variations - appears to have muted its ethnic identity to so great an extent. '' This quote from Kazal identifies both external pressures on German Americans and internal dividedness among them as reasons for their high level of assimiliation.
Regarding the external pressures, Kazal writes: "The pressure imposed on German Americans to forsake their ethnic identity was extreme in both nature and duration. No other ethnic group saw its "adoptive fatherland '' twice enter a world war against its country of origin. To this stigma, the Third Reich added the lasting one of the Holocaust. In her study of ethnic identity in the 1980s, sociologist Mary Waters noted that the "effect of the Nazi movement and World War II was still quite strong '' in shaping "popular perceptions of the German - American character, '' enough so that some individuals of mixed background often would acknowledge only the non-German part of their ancestry ". Kazal contrasts this experience with the experiences of the Japanese, Poles, Czechs, Lithuanians, Italians, east European Jews, and Irish. "Japanese Americans, of course, suffered far more during the Second World War '', but until at least the 1950s, the pressure on Japanese Americans "ran toward exclusion from, rather than inclusion in, the nation ''. "The state and many ordinary European Americans refused to recognize Asians as potentially American. In contrast, they pressured Germans to accept precisely that American identity in place of a German one ''. Kazal goes on to state "The burden of "enemy '' status made those pressures far greater for Germans than for other European ethnic groups. To some extent, American intervention in World War I actually helped fuel ethnic nationalism in the United States among Poles, Czechs, Lithuanians, Italians, and east European Jews, who felt their desires for existing or prospective homelands stood to gain from an Allied victory. Indeed, some historians have depicted the following decade as one when immigrants transcended local or regional homeland affiliations to craft or further consolidate national identities as Poles, Czechs, and Italians. Such groups escaped the fury of "100 percent Americanism '' during the war, in part because of their obvious stake in the defeat of the Central Powers ". As for Irish Americans, Kazal states that the lack of enthusiasm of many of them for helping England made them "vulnerable to the wartime "antihyphen '' climate ",, but that "Irish nationalist activity intensified during and immediately after that war, as many Irish Americans became swept up in the events leading to the creation of the Irish Free State '', and that "It made a difference for the long - term viability of Irish - American identity that the Irish homeland not only did not go to war with the United States but, in fact, emerged during the interwar years as a sovereign nation ''.
Kazal then goes on to discuss the internal dividedness. He writes: "German - American identity fell victim not only to a peculiar set of events, but also to an extraordinarily high level of internal diversity. All ethnic groups have internal divides, whether of class, religion, gender, politics, or homeland region. What distinguished German America was that it incorporated not just some but all of these divisions. Irish Americans, for example, had lost their status as primarily a proletarian group by 1900, yet they were united by religion and politics. "Irish American '' had come to mean Irish Catholic; the vast majority of Irish Americans subscribed to some form of Irish nationalism conflated with American patriotism; and Irish - American voters were overwhelmingly Democrats. The power of this synthesis, Kerby Miller argued, explains the survival of Irish - American identity despite the ebbing of organised Irish - American nationalism after the Free State 's founding. For German Americans, however, religion and party politics were sources of division rather than of unity ". Kazal goes on to state that "The subcultures of German America, meanwhile, had ample opportunity for contact, however testy, with non-German counterparts. The latter beckoned as destinations when the cost of being German - American rose too high ''. It is not just Kazal who has pointed out the internal dividedness of the German American community. David Peterson highlights the internal dividedness when he states that Kathleen Neils Conzen, "along with many others, concludes that German - Americans ' heterogeneity, paticularly in religion, hampered their ability to build socially and politically stable ethnic communities '', and that Conzen "stresses that German Americans assimilated relatively rapidly and that their diversity played a key role in that assimilation ''. (Conzen is also drawn upon by Joy Kristina Adams, who cites Conzen when she (Adams) states that "The diversity and size of the German settlements made them susceptible to long - term Americanization by fostering factionalism, increasing contacts between Germans and non-Germans, and weakening unified leadership ''.) The Encyclopedia of the Great Plains also stresses the internal dividedness, stating "One of the distinguishing characteristics of the German population in North America (especially in comparison to other immigrant groups) has been its relative degree of cultural diversity, reflected especially in the number of Christian denominations to which Germans belonged. In part this reflects patterns that had developed over centuries in Germany, whose population came to include nearly every variety of Christianity -- from Catholics, Lutherans, and Reformed groups to more radical Anabaptist pietistic movements such as Amish, Mennonites, Schwenkfelders, and the Moravian church. It is not surprising, then, that nearly all of these denominations were represented among the German immigrant population in North America. '' Robert Paul McCaffery points out that "Despite their numbers... and unlike many immigrant groups, Germans never united as a powerful ethnic block. Religious disputes brought from the old country prevented them from uniting in the new. The two strongest denominations, Catholics and Lutherans, could not come together; and the Free Thinkers distrusted and shunned them both. '' "These divisions ran so deep that German - Americans could neither unite to fend off attacks engendered by World War I, nor elect German candidates for political office ''. McCaffery states that "Discussions of the disunity of the Germans are many '', giving a work by Nathan Glazer and Daniel Patrick Moynihan and a work by Kathleen Neils Conzen as examples, and he states that Leslie V. Tischauser "maintains that neither World War I, political questions of importance to Germans, nor German candidates could unite the German - Americans of Chicago ''. Jason Todd Baker, meanwhile, writes that "Divided by imported regional prejudices, religious differences, political affiliations, and spread in pockets across the city, the Germans in nineteenth - century St. Louis comprised the city 's largest immigrant ethnicity and possibly its least cohesive ''. He goes on to state that German Americans in St. Louis "could not be relied upon to do much of anything as a group. St. Louis served (and still does) as the seat of the Lutheran Church Missouri Synod, a conservative American Lutheran confession, and their local strength led to friction with Germans of other faiths. These Lutherans did not traffic much with the sizable German Catholic population of the city, who often shared their houses of worship and political stances with the Irish. The small rabbinical German Jewish community remained insular. The Freethinkers, atheists, socialists, et al., had little use for any of these groups. In addition, the Germans, while heavily concentrated in a few pockets of north and south St. Louis, were spread across the city proper and into the larger countryside ''. And according to the Max Kade Institute for German - American Studies, "The diversity of religious expression among German - speaking immigrants was paralleled by a high degree of heterogeneity stemming from differences in regional and linguistic origins. This situation differed from that of other nineteenth - century immigrant groups, notably the Irish, but also Italians and people of other European backgrounds. The resulting lack of a unified and clearly definable German - American community explains in part why only few Americans, including those of German descent, have any idea when Steuben Day or German - American Day falls, whereas the Irish St. Patrick 's Day is one of America 's most popular celebrations, and Columbus Day, named after the Italian explorer, is a federal holiday ''.
Despite the remarkable level of assimilation reached by German Americans, it is worth noting that a distinct German American ethnicity survived well into the mid / late - 20th century in some places. Writing about the town of Hustisford, Wisconsin, Jennifer Ludden discusses Mel Grulke, who was born in 1941, with German his first language at home; "Grulke 's great - grandparents immigrated to the U.S. in the late 1880s, yet three generations later, his farmer parents still spoke German at home, attended German language church services and chatted in German with shopkeepers when they brought their farm eggs into town to sell ''. Bethany Lutheran Church in Hustisford offered German - language services into the 1970s; Zum Kripplein Christi in the same county as Hustisford (Dodge County) "offered a Sunday service in German as recently as the 1990s ''; St. Luke Lutheran Church in Wishek, North Dakota still held German - language services until as recently as about 1994. Homer Rudolf, a man from North Dakota of German Russian descent, stated in 2004 that his maternal grandmother, who died in 1980 at the age of 90, "did not learn English ''. As recently as 1990, one quarter of North Dakota 's households included a German speaker.
To this day, relatively unassimilated people of German - speaking heritage can be found in the United States among different Anabaptist groups - the Old Order Amish and most Old Order Mennonites speak Pennsylvania Dutch (or Bernese German or Alsatian by a minority of Amish) along with High German to various degrees (though they are generally fluent in English). All Hutterites speak Hutterite German and many "Russian '' Mennonites speak Plautdietsch, a German dialect coming originally from the area around Danzig. The three Amish dialects as well as Hutterite German are still learned by all children of the group, whereas Plautdietsch - speakers tend much more to assimilate. Another group of relatively unassimilated people of German - speaking heritage can be found in the Amana Colonies in Iowa; according to the website Statistical Atlas, all of the residents of East Amana speak German at home, and only 67.7 % can speak English ' Very Well '.
Germans have contributed to a vast number of areas in American culture and technology. Baron von Steuben, a former Prussian officer, led the reorganization of the U.S. Army during the War for Independence and helped make the victory against British troops possible. The Steinway & Sons piano manufacturing firm was founded by immigrant Henry E. Steinway in 1853. German settlers brought the Christmas tree custom and other German Christmas traditions to the United States. The Studebakers built large numbers of wagons used during the Western migration; Studebaker, like the Duesenberg brothers, later became an important early automobile manufacturer. Carl Schurz, a refugee from the unsuccessful first German democratic revolution of 1848 became an influential politician first in the Republican then in the Democratic party, and served as U.S. Secretary of the Interior.
After World War II, Wernher von Braun, and most of the leading engineers from the former German V - 2 rocket base at Peenemünde, were brought to the U.S. They contributed decisively to the development of U.S. military rockets, as well as rockets for the NASA space program and the initiation of the Apollo program to land on the Moon. Similarly, fellow German aviation technologist Siegfried Knemeyer, the former top aviation technologist within Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring 's Reich Air Ministry during World War II, was brought to the United States through a similar path to von Braun, and served as a civilian employee of the USAF for over twenty years.
The influence of German cuisine is seen in the cuisine of the United States throughout the country, especially regarding pastries, meats and sausages, and above all, beer. Frankfurters (or "wieners '', originating from Frankfurt am Main and Vienna, respectively), hamburgers, bratwurst, sauerkraut, and strudel are common dishes. German bakers introduced the pretzel, which is popular across the United States. Germans introduced America to lager, the most - produced beer style in the United States, and have been the dominant ethnic group in the beer industry since 1850.
The oldest extant brewery in the United States is D.G. Yuengling & Son of Pottsville, Pennsylvania (approximately 80 miles northwest of Philadelphia), founded in 1829 by an immigrant from Aldingen in what is today Baden - Württemberg; the brewery 's flagship product remains a 19th - century German - style amber lager. By the late 19th century, Milwaukee, with a large population of German origin, was once the home to four of the world 's largest breweries owned by ethnic Germans (Schlitz, Blatz, Pabst, and Miller) and was the number one beer producing city in the world for many years. Almost half of all current beer sales in the United States can be attributed to German immigrants, Capt. A. Pabst, Eberhard Anheuser, and Adolphus Busch, who founded Anheuser - Busch in St. Louis in 1860. Later German immigrants figured prominently in the rebirth of craft brews following Prohibition, culminating in the microbrew movement that swept the U.S. beginning in the late 1980s.
German and German - American celebrations, such as Oktoberfest, Rhenish Carnival, German - American Day and Von Steuben Day are held regularly throughout the country. One of the largest is the German - American Steuben Parade in New York City, held every third Saturday in September. There are also major annual events in Chicago 's Lincoln Square neighborhood, a traditional a center of the city 's German population, in Cincinnati, where its annual Oktoberfest Zinzinnati is the largest Oktoberfest outside of Germany and in Milwaukee, which celebrates its German heritage with an annual German Fest. Many of the immigrants from Germany and other German - speaking countries came to Pennsylvania to what was then "Allegheny City '' (now part of the North Side of the City of Pittsburgh). So many German speakers arrived, the area became known as "Deutschtown '' and has been revived as such. Within Deutschtown and since 1854, The Teutonia Männerchor has been promoting and furthering German cultural traditions.
Skat, the most popular card game in Germany, is also played in areas of the United States with large German American populations, such as Wisconsin and Texas.
The following German international schools are in operation in the United States, serving German citizens, Americans, and other U.S. residents:
German Americans have been influential in almost every field in American society, including science, architecture, business, sports, entertainment, theology, politics, and the military. Many of these individuals were of German Jewish descent or anti-Nazis who fleed Nazi oppression.
German American general / flag military officers Baron von Steuben, George Armstrong Custer, John Pershing, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Chester W. Nimitz, Carl Andrew Spaatz and Norman Schwarzkopf commanded the United States Army in the American Revolutionary War, American Civil War, Indian Wars, World War I, World War II, and the Persian Gulf War, respectively.
German Americans were famous American politicians, including Carl Schurz, Friedrich Hecker, Frederick Muhlenberg, Henry Morgenthau, Sr., Henry Morgenthau, Jr., Dwight D. Eisenhower, Herbert Hoover, Henry Kissinger, John Boehner and Donald Trump.
Many German Americans have played a prominent role in American industry and business, including Henry J. Heinz (H.J. Heinz Company), Frank Seiberling (Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company), Walt Disney (Disney), John D. Rockefeller (Standard Oil), William Boeing (The Boeing Company) and (United Airlines), Walter Chrysler (Chrysler Corporation), Frederick and August Duesenberg (Duesenberg Automobile Corporation), Studebaker brothers (Studebaker Automobile Corporation), George Westinghouse (Westinghouse Electric Corporation), Levi Strauss (Levi Strauss & Co.), Charles Guth (PepsiCo Inc.), Bill Gates (Microsoft Corporation), Jawed Karim (YouTube), Elon Musk (SolarCity), (SpaceX) and (Tesla Motors), James L. Kraft (Kraft Foods Inc.), Henry E. Steinway (Steinway & Sons), Charles Pfizer (Pfizer, Inc.), John Jacob Astor (Waldorf Astoria Hotels and Resorts), Conrad Hilton (Hilton Hotels & Resorts), Guggenheim family (Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation), (Guggenheim Partners), Marcus Goldman and Samuel Sachs (The Goldman Sachs Group, Inc.), Lehman Brothers (Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc.), Carl Laemmle (Universal Studios), Marcus Loew (Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer Studios Inc.), Harry Cohn (Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc.), Herman Hollerith (International Business Machines Corporation (IBM)), Steve Jobs (Apple Inc.), Michael Dell (Dell Inc.), Eric Schmidt (Google Inc.) and (Alphabet Inc.), Peter Thiel (PayPal Inc.), Adolph Simon Ochs and Arthur Ochs Sulzberger (The New York Times), Charles Bergstresser (The Wall Street Journal), Al Neuharth (USA Today), Eugene Meyer (The Washington Post) etc.
German Americans were pioneers and dominated beer brewing for much of American history, beginning with breweries founded in the 19th century by German immigrants August Schell (August Schell Brewing Company), Christian Moerlein (Christian Moerlein Brewing Co.), Eberhard Anheuser (Anheuser - Busch InBev), Adolphus Busch (Anheuser - Busch InBev), Adolph Coors (Molson Coors Brewing Company), Frederick Miller (Miller Brewing Company), Frederick Pabst (Pabst Brewing Company), Bernhard Stroh (Stroh Brewery Company) and Joseph Schlitz (Joseph Schlitz Brewing Company).
Some, such as Brooklyn Bridge engineer John A. Roebling and architects Walter Gropius and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, left behind visible landmarks.
Others, including Albert Einstein, J. Robert Oppenheimer, Wernher von Braun, John Peter Zenger, John Steinbeck, Kurt Vonnegut, Joseph Weizenbaum set intellectual landmarks while Neil Armstrong was the first human to land on the moon.
Still others, such as Bruce Willis, George Eyser, Babe Ruth, Lou Gehrig, Jack Nicklaus, Dale Earnhardt, Doris Mary Ann Kappelhoff (Doris Day), Grace Kelly, Clark Gable, Marlene Dietrich, Johnny Weissmuller, Ernst Lubitsch, Walter Damrosch, Henry John Deutschendorf (John Denver), John Kay, Heidi Klum, Meryl Streep, Marlon Brando, Kim Basinger, Sandra Bullock, David Hasselhoff, Leonardo DiCaprio, Kirsten Dunst, and Kevin George Knipfing (Kevin James) became prominent athletes, actors, film directors or artists.
There have been three presidents whose fathers were of German descent: Dwight D. Eisenhower (original family name Eisenhauer and maternal side is also German / Swiss), Herbert Hoover (original family name Huber), and Donald Trump (whose paternal grandparents were Bavarian immigrants). Presidents with maternal German ancestry include Richard Milhous Nixon (Nixon 's maternal ancestors were Germans who anglicized Melhausen to Milhous) and Barack Obama, whose maternal family 's ancestry includes German immigrants from the South German town of Besigheim and from Bischwiller in the Alsace region that is nowadays part of France; both families came to America around 1750.
Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here.
Yugoslav Americans are the American people from the former Yugoslavia.
Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace.
Azerbaijan and Georgia are transcontinental countries. They have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus.
Kazakhstan is technically a bicontinental country, having a small portion in European hands.
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where did they get ice for ice boxes | Ice trade - wikipedia
The ice trade, also known as the frozen water trade, was a 19th - century industry, centering on the east coast of the United States and Norway, involving the large - scale harvesting, transport and sale of natural ice for domestic consumption and commercial purposes. Ice was cut from the surface of ponds and streams, then stored in ice houses, before being sent on by ship, barge or railroad to its final destination around the world. Networks of ice wagons were typically used to distribute the product to the final domestic and smaller commercial customers. The ice trade revolutionized the U.S. meat, vegetable and fruit industries, enabled significant growth in the fishing industry, and encouraged the introduction of a range of new drinks and foods.
The trade was started by the New England businessman Frederic Tudor in 1806. Tudor shipped ice to the Caribbean island of Martinique, hoping to sell it to wealthy members of the European elite there, using an ice house he had built specially for the purpose. Over the coming years the trade widened to Cuba and Southern United States, with other merchants joining Tudor in harvesting and shipping ice from New England. During the 1830s and 1840s the ice trade expanded further, with shipments reaching England, India, South America, China and Australia. Tudor made a fortune from the Indian trade, while brand names such as Wenham Ice became famous in London.
Increasingly, however, the ice trade began to focus on supplying the growing cities on the east coast of the U.S. and the needs of businesses across the Midwest. The citizens of New York City and Philadelphia became huge consumers of ice during their long, hot summers, and additional ice was harvested from the Hudson River and Maine to fulfil the demand. Ice began to be used in refrigerator cars by the railroad industry, allowing the meat packing industry around Chicago and Cincinnati to slaughter cattle locally, sending dressed meat east for either the internal or overseas markets. Chilled refrigerator cars and ships created a national industry in vegetables and fruit that could previously only have been consumed locally. American and British fishermen began to preserve their catches in ice, allowing longer voyages and bigger catches, and the brewing industry became operational all - year around. As U.S. ice exports diminished after 1870, Norway became a major player in the international market, shipping large quantities of ice to England and Germany.
At its peak at the end of the 19th century, the U.S. ice trade employed an estimated 90,000 people in an industry capitalised at $28 million ($660 million in 2010 terms), using ice houses capable of storing up to 250,000 tons (220 million kg) each; Norway exported a million tons (910 million kg) of ice a year, drawing on a network of artificial lakes. Competition had slowly been growing, however, in the form of artificially produced plant ice and mechanically chilled facilities. Unreliable and expensive at first, plant ice began to successfully compete with natural ice in Australia and India during the 1850s and 1870s respectively, until, by the outbreak of World War I in 1914, more plant ice was being produced in the U.S. each year than naturally harvested ice. Despite a temporary increase in production in the U.S. during the war, the inter-war years saw the total collapse of the ice trade around the world. Today, ice is occasionally harvested for ice carving and ice festivals, but little remains of the 19th - century industrial network of ice houses and transport facilities.
Prior to the emergence of the ice trade of the 19th century, snow and ice had been collected and stored to use in the summer months in various parts of the world, but never on a large scale. In the Mediterranean and in South America, for example, there was a long history of collecting ice from the upper slopes of the Alps and the Andes during the summer months and traders transporting this down into the cities. Similar trading practices had grown up in Mexico during the colonial period. The Russians collected ice along the Neva River during the winter months for consumption in Saint Petersburg for many years. Wealthy Europeans began to build ice houses to store ice gathered on their local estates during the winter from the 16th century onwards; the ice was used to cool drinks or food for the wealthiest elites.
Some techniques were also invented to produce ice or chilled drinks through more artificial means. In India, ice was imported from the Himalayas in the 17th century, but the expense of this meant that by the 19th century ice was instead manufactured in small quantities during the winter further south. Porous clay pots containing boiled, cooled water were laid out on top of straw in shallow trenches; under favourable circumstances, thin ice would form on the surface during winter nights which could be harvested and combined for sale. There were production sites at Hugli - Chuchura and Allahabad, but this "hoogly ice '' was only available in limited amounts and considered of poor quality because it often resembled soft slush rather than hard crystals. Saltpeter and water were mixed together in India to cool drinks, taking advantage of local supplies of the chemical. In Europe, various chemical means for cooling drinks were created by the 19th century; these typically used sulphuric acid to chill the liquid, but were not capable of producing actual ice.
The ice trade began in 1806 as the result of the efforts of Frederic Tudor, a New England entrepreneur, to export ice on a commercial basis. In New England, ice was an expensive product, consumed only by the wealthy who could afford their own ice houses. Nonetheless, icehouses were relatively common amongst the wealthier members of society by 1800, filled with ice cut, or harvested, from the frozen surface of ponds and streams on their local estates during the winter months. Around the neighbouring New York City area, the hot summers and rapidly growing economy had begun to increase local demand for ice towards the end of the 18th century, creating a small - scale market amongst farmers who sold ice from their ponds and streams to local city institutions and families. Some ships occasionally transported ice from New York and Philadelphia for sale to the southern U.S. states, in particular Charleston in South Carolina, laying it down as ballast on the trip.
Tudor 's plan was to export ice as a luxury good to wealthy members of West Indies and the southern US states, where he hoped they would relish the product during their sweltering summers; conscious of the risk that others might follow suit, Tudor hoped to acquire local monopoly rights in his new markets in order to maintain high prices and profits. He started by attempting to establish a monopoly on the potential ice trade in the Caribbean and invested in a brigantine ship to transport ice bought from farmers around Boston. At the time, Tudor was regarded by the business community at best as something of an eccentric, and at worst a fool.
The first shipments took place in 1806 when Tudor transported an initial trial cargo of ice, probably harvested from his family estate at Rockwood, to the Caribbean island of Martinique. Sales were hampered, however, by the lack of local storage facilities, both for Tudor 's stock and any ice bought by domestic customers, and as a result the ice stocks quickly melted away. Learning from this experience, Tudor then built a functioning ice depot in Havana and, despite the U.S. trade embargo declared in 1807, was trading successfully again by 1810. He was unable to acquire exclusive legal rights to import ice into Cuba, but was nonetheless able to maintain an effective monopoly through his control of the ice houses. The 1812 war briefly disrupted trade, but over subsequent years Tudor began to export fruit back from Havana to the mainland on the return journey, kept fresh with part of the unsold ice cargo. Trade to Charleston and to Savannah in Georgia followed, while Tudor 's competitors began to supply South Carolina and Georgia by ship from New York or using barges sent downstream from Kentucky.
The price of the imported ice varied according to the amount of economic competition; in Havana, Tudor 's ice sold for 25 cents ($3.70 in 2010 terms) per pound, while in Georgia it reached only six to eight cents ($0.90 -- $1.20 in 2010 terms). Where Tudor had a strong market share, he would respond to competition from passing traders by lowering his prices considerably, selling his ice at the unprofitable rate of one cent ($0.20) per pound (0.5 kg); at this price, competitors would typically be unable to sell their own stock at a profit: they would either be driven into debt or if they declined to sell, their ice would melt away in the heat. Tudor, relying on his local storage depots, could then increase his prices once again. By the middle of the 1820s, around 3,000 tons (3 million kg) of ice was being shipped from Boston annually, two thirds by Tudor.
At these lower prices, ice began to sell in considerable volumes, with the market moving beyond the wealthy elite to a wider range of consumers, to the point where supplies became overstretched. It was also being used by tradesmen to preserve perishable good, rather than for direct consumption. Tudor looked beyond his existing suppliers to Maine and even to harvesting from passing icebergs, but neither source proved practical. Instead, Tudor teamed up with Nathaniel Wyeth to exploit the ice supplies of Boston on a more industrial scale. Wyeth devised a new form of horse - pulled ice - cutter in 1825 that cut square blocks of ice more efficiently than previous methods. He agreed to supply Tudor from Fresh Pond in Cambridge, Massachusetts, reducing the cost of harvesting ice from 30 cents ($7.30) a ton (901 kg) to only 10 cents ($2.40). Sawdust to insulate the ice was brought from Maine, at $16,000 ($390,000) a year.
The trade in New England ice expanded during the 1830s and 1840s across the eastern coast of the U.S., while new trade routes were created across the world. The first and most profitable of these new routes was to India: in 1833 Tudor combined with the businessmen Samuel Austin and William Rogers to attempt to export ice to Calcutta using the brigantine ship the Tuscany. The Anglo - Indian elite, concerned about the effects of the summer heat, quickly agreed to exempt the imports from the usual East India Company regulations and trade tariffs, and the initial net shipment of around a hundred tons (90,000 kg) sold successfully. With the ice fetching for three pence (£ 0.80 in 2010 terms) per pound (0.5 kg), the first shipment aboard the Tuscany produced profits of $9,900 ($253,000), and in 1835 Tudor commenced regular exports to Calcutta, Madras and Bombay.
Tudor 's competitors soon entered the market as well, shipping ice by sea to both Calcutta and Bombay, further increasing demand there and driving out most of the indigenous ice dealers. A grand ice house was built from stone in Calcutta by the local British community to store the ice imports. Small shipments of chilled fruit and dairy products began to be sent out with the ice, achieving high prices. Attempts were made by Italian traders to introduce ice from the Alps into Calcutta, but Tudor repeated his monopolistic techniques from the Caribbean, driving them and many others out of the market. Calcutta remained a particularly profitable market for ice for many years; Tudor alone made more than $220,000 ($4,700,000) in profits between 1833 and 1850.
Other new markets were to follow. In 1834 Tudor sent shipments of ice to Brazil along with chilled apples, beginning the ice trade with Rio de Janeiro. These ships typically returned to North America carrying cargos of sugar, fruit and, later, cotton. Ice from traders in New England reached Sydney, Australia, in 1839, initially selling at three pence (£ 0.70) per pound (0.5 kg), later rising to six pence (£ 1.40). This trade was to prove less regular, and the next shipments arrived in the 1840s. The export of chilled vegetables, fish, butter and eggs to the Caribbean and to markets in the Pacific grew during the 1840s, with as many as 35 barrels being transported on a single ship, alongside a cargo of ice. Shipments of New England ice were sent as far as Hong Kong, South - East Asia, the Philippines, the Persian Gulf, New Zealand, Argentina and Peru.
New England businessmen also tried to establish a market for ice in England during the 1840s. An abortive first attempt to export ice to England had occurred in 1822 under William Leftwich; he had imported ice from Norway, but his cargo had melted before reaching London. Fresh attempts were made by Jacob Hittinger who owned supplies at Fresh Pond, and Eric Landor, with assets at Wenham Lake, in 1842 and 1844 respectively. Of the two, Landor 's venture was more successful and he formed the Wenham Lake Ice Company to export to Britain, building an ice depot on the Strand. Wenham ice was marketed as being unusually pure, possessed of special cooling properties, successfully convincing British customers to avoid local British ice, which was condemned as polluted and unhealthy. After some initial success, the venture eventually failed, in part because the English chose not to adopt chilled drinks in the same way as North Americans, but also because of the long distances involved in the trade and the consequent costs of ice wastage through melting. Nonetheless, the trade allowed for some refrigerated goods to arrive in England from America along with ice cargos during the 1840s.
The east coast of the U.S. also began to consume more ice, particularly as more industrial and private customers found uses for refrigeration. Ice became increasingly used in the northeast of the U.S. to preserve dairy products and fresh fruit for market, the chilled goods being transported over the growing railroad lines. By the 1840s, ice was being used to transfer small quantities of goods further west across the continent. Eastern U.S. fishermen began to use ice to preserve their catches. Fewer businesses or individuals in the east harvested their own ice independently in winter, most preferring to rely on commercial providers.
With this growth in commerce, Tudor 's initial monopoly on the trade broke down, but he continued to make significant profits from the growing trade. Increased supplies of ice were also needed to keep up with demand. From 1842 onwards, Tudor and others invested at Walden Pond in New England for additional supplies. New companies began to spring up, such as the Philadelphia Ice Company, which made use of the new railroad lines to transport harvested ice, while the Kershow family introduced improved ice harvesting to the New York region.
The 1850s was a period of transition for the ice trade. The industry was already quite large: in 1855 around $6 -- 7 million ($118 -- 138 million in 2010 terms) was invested in the industry in the U.S. and an estimated two million tons (two billion kg) of ice was kept in storage at any one time in warehouses across the nation. Over the coming decade, however, the focus of the growing trade shifted away from relying upon the international export market in favour of supplying first the growing, eastern cities of the US, and then the rest of the rapidly expanding country.
In 1850, California was in the midst of a gold rush; backed by this sudden demand for luxuries, New England companies made the first shipments, by ship to San Francisco and Sacramento, in California, including a shipment of refrigerated apples. The market was proved, but shipping ice in this way was expensive and demand outstripped supply. Ice began to be ordered instead from the then Russian - controlled Alaska in 1851 at $75 a ton (901 kg). The American - Russian Commercial Company was subsequently formed in San Francisco in 1853 to work in partnership with the Russian - American Company of Alaska to supply ice to the west coast of America. The Russian company trained Aleutian teams to harvest ice in Alaska, built saw - mills to produce insulating saw - dust and shipped the ice south along with supplies of chilled fish. The costs of this operation remained high and M. Tallman founded the rival Nevada Ice Company, which harvested ice on Pilot Creek and transported to Sacramento, bringing the west coast price for ice down to seven cents ($2) a pound (0.5 kg).
The U.S. was expanding westwards and, in Ohio, Hiram Joy began to exploit Crystal Lake, near Chicago, which was soon linked to the city by the Chicago, St Paul and Fond du Lac Railroad company. The ice was used to allow goods to be brought to market. Cincinnati and Chicago began to use ice to help the packing of pork in the summer, John L. Schooley developing the first refrigerated packing room. Fruit began to be stored in the central Illinois using refrigerators, for consumption in later seasons. By the 1860s, ice was being used to allow the brewing of the increasingly popular lager beer all year round. Improved railroad links helped the growth in business across the region and to the east.
Meanwhile, it had been known since 1748 that it was possible to artificially chill water with mechanical equipment and attempts were made in the late 1850s to produce artificial ice on a commercial scale. Various methods had been invented to do this, including Jacob Perkins 's diethyl ether vapor - compression refrigeration engine, invented in 1834; engines that used pre-compressed air; John Gorrie 's air cycle engines; and ammonia - based approaches such as those championed by Ferdinand Carré and Charles Tellier. The resulting product was variously called plant or artificial ice, but there were numerous obstacles to manufacturing it commercially. Producing plant ice required large amounts of fuel, in the form of coal, and capital for machinery, so producing ice at a competitive price was challenging. The early technology was unreliable and for many decades ice plants faced the risk of explosions and consequent damage to the surrounding buildings. Ammonia based approaches potentially left hazardous ammonia in the ice from where it had leaked through the joints of machinery. For most of the 19th century, plant ice was not as clear as much natural ice, sometimes left white residue when it melted and was generally regarded as less suitable for human consumption than the natural product.
Nonetheless, Alexander Twining and James Harrison set up ice plants in Ohio and Melbourne respectively during the 1850s, both using Perkins engines. Twining found he could not compete with natural ice, but in Melbourne Harrison 's plant came to dominate the market. Australia 's distance from New England, where journeys could take 115 days, and the consequent high level of wastage -- 150 tons of the first 400 - ton shipment to Sydney melted on route -- made it relatively easy for plant ice to compete with the natural product. Elsewhere, however, natural ice dominated the entire market.
The international ice trade continued through the second half of the 19th century, but it increasingly moved away from its former, New England roots. Indeed, ice exports from US peaked around 1870, when 65,802 tons (59,288,000 kg), worth $267,702 ($4,610,000 in 2010 terms), were shipped out from the ports. One factor in this was the slow spread of plant ice into India. Exports from New England to India peaked in 1856, when 146,000 tons (132 million kg) were shipped, and the Indian natural ice market faltered during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, dipped again during the American Civil War, and imports of ice slowly declined through the 1860s. Spurred on by the introduction of artificial ice plants around the world by the British Royal Navy, the International Ice Company was founded in Madras in 1874 and the Bengal Ice Company in 1878. Operating together as the Calcutta Ice Association, they rapidly drove natural ice out of the market.
An ice trade also developed in Europe. By the 1870s hundreds of men were employed to cut ice from the glaciers at Grindelwald in Switzerland, and Paris in France began to import ice from the rest of Europe in 1869. Meanwhile, Norway entered the international ice trade, focusing on exports to England. The first shipments from Norway to England had occurred in 1822, but larger scale exports did not occur until the 1850s. The ice harvesting was initially centred on the fjords of the west coast, but poor local transport links pushed the trade south and east to the main centres of the Norwegian timber and shipping industries, both essential for ice exporting. In the early 1860s, Lake Oppegård in Norway was renamed "Wenham Lake '' with the aim of confusing the product with New England exports, and exports to England increased. Initially these were run by British business interests, but eventually transitioned to Norwegian companies. Distribution of the Norwegian ice across Britain was helped by the growing railway networks, while the railway connection built between the fishing port of Grimsby and London in 1853 created a demand for ice to allow the transport of fresh fish to the capital.
The eastern market for ice in the U.S. was also changing. Cities like New York, Baltimore and Philadelphia saw their population boom in the second half of the century; New York tripled in size between 1850 and 1890, for example. This drove up the demand for ice considerably across the region. By 1879, householders in the eastern cities were consuming two thirds of a ton (601 kg) of ice a year, being charged 40 cents ($9.30) per 100 pounds (45 kg); 1,500 wagons were needed just to deliver ice to consumers in New York.
In supplying this demand, the ice trade increasingly shifted north, away from Massachusetts and towards Maine. Various factors contributed to this. New Englands ' winters became warmer during the 19th century, while industrialisation resulted in more of the natural ponds and rivers becoming contaminated. Less trade was brought through New England as other ways of reaching western US markets were opened up, making it less profitable to trade ice from Boston, while the cost of producing ships in the region increased due to deforestation. Finally, in 1860 there was the first of four ice famines along the Hudson - warm winters that prevented the formation of ice in New England - creating shortages and driving up prices.
The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 between the northern and southern states also contributed to the trend. The war disrupted the sale of northern ice to the south, and Maine merchants instead turned to supplying the Union Army, whose forces used ice in their more southern campaigns. James L. Cheeseman had responded to the 1860 ice famine by moving his ice trading business from the Hudson northwards into Maine, bringing with him the latest technology and techniques; Cheeseman went on to win valuable contracts with the Union Army during the war years. Carré ice machines were brought into New Orleans to make up the shortfall in the south, focusing in particular on supplying southern hospitals. In the post-war years, the number of such plants increased, but once competition from the north recommenced, cheaper natural ice initially made it hard for the manufacturers to make a profit. By the late 1870s, however, efficiency improvements were allowing them to squeeze natural ice out of the marketplace in the south.
Another ice famine in 1870 then impacted both Boston and the Hudson, with a further famine following in 1880; as a result entrepreneurs descended on the Kennebec River in Maine as an alternative source. The Kennebec, along with the Penboscot and Sheepscot, was widely opened up for the ice industry, becoming an important source, particularly in warm winters, for the rest of the 19th century.
By the 1860s, natural ice was increasingly being used to move western American products to the east, starting with chilled meat from Chicago. There was some initial opposition, both from the cattle - car owners and from eastern butchers, who stood to lose out from the trade; by the 1870s, however, multiple shipments were leaving for the east each day. Chilled butter from the mid-West was then shipped onwards from New York to Europe, and by the 1870s 15 percent of the United Kingdom 's butter consumption was being met in this way. A chain of icing stations at Chicago, Omaha, Utah and Sierra Nevada allowed railroad refrigerator cars to cross the continent. The ability of ice companies to ship their product by rail from the east proved the final straw for the Alaskan ice trade, which collapsed during the 1870s and 1880s in the face of the competition, destroying the local saw - mill industry in the process.
During the 1870s ice began to be used by Timothy Eastman, of the Bell Brothers firm, to transport American meat to Britain; the first shipment successfully arrived in 1875 and by the following year 9,888 tons (8,909,000 kg) of meat was shipped. The chilled meat was retailed through special warehouses and stores. There was concern in Britain that chilled American meat might flood the market and harm domestic farmers, but the exports continued. The rival Chicago - based meat firms of Armour and Swift entered the refrigerated meat transport market in the late 1870, establishing their own fleet of refrigerator cars, network of icing stations and other infrastructure, increasing the sales of chilled Chicago beef to the eastern seaboard from 15,680 tons (14,128,000 kg) a year in 1880, to 173,067 tons (155,933,000 kg) in 1884.
Although the manufacture of artificial plant ice was still negligible in 1880, it began to grow in volume towards the end of the century as technological improvements finally allowed the production of plant ice at a competitive price. Typically ice plants first took hold in more distant locations where natural ice was at a cost disadvantage. The Australian and Indian markets were already dominated by plant ice, and ice plants began to be built in Brazil during the 1880s and 1890s, slowly coming to replace imported ice. In the U.S., plants began to become more numerous in the southern states. The long distance transportation companies continued to use cheap natural ice for the bulk of their refrigeration needs, but they now used purchased local plant ice at key points across the US, to allow for surge demand and to avoid the need to hold reserve stocks of natural ice. After 1898 the British fishing industry too began to turn to plant ice to refrigerate its catches.
Plant technology began to be turned to the problem of directly chilling rooms and containers, to replace the need to carry ice at all. Pressure began to grow for a replacement for ice bunkers on the trans - Atlantic routes during the 1870s. Tellier produced a chilled storeroom for the steamship Le Frigorifique, using it to ship beef from Argentina to France, while the Glasgow - based firm of Bells helped to sponsor a new, compressed - air chiller for ships using the Gorrie approach, called the Bell - Coleman design. These technologies soon became used on the trade to Australia, New Zealand and Argentina. The same approach began to be taken in other industries. Carl von Linde found ways of applying mechanical refrigeration to the brewing industry, removing its reliance on natural ice; cold warehouses and meat packers began to rely on chilling plants.
Despite this emerging competition, natural ice remained vital to North American and European economies, with demand driven up by rising living standards. The huge demand for ice in the 1880s drove the natural ice trade to continue to expand. Around four million tons (four billion kg) of ice was routinely stored along the Hudson River and Maine alone, the Hudson having around 135 major warehouses along its banks and employing 20,000 workers. Firms expanded along the Kennebec River in Maine to meet the demand, and 1,735 vessels were required in 1880 to carry the ice south. Lakes in Wisconsin began to be put into production to supply the Midwest. 1890 saw another ice famine hit the east: the Hudson harvests failed entirely, causing a sudden rush by entrepreneurs to establish operations in Maine, where ice had successfully formed. Unfortunately for investors, the following summer was quite cool, suppressing demand for stocks and many businessmen were ruined. Across the U.S., an estimated 90,000 people and 25,000 horses involved in a trade capitalised at $28 million ($660 million in 2010 terms).
The Norwegian trade peaked during the 1890s, with a million tons (900 million kg) of ice was being exported from Norway by 1900; the major Leftwich company in Britain, importing much of this, kept a thousand tons (900,000 kg) of ice in store at all times to meet demand. Austria entered the European ice market behind Norway, with the Vienna Ice Company exporting natural ice to Germany by the end of the century.
There was considerable conglomeration in the US ice trade towards the end of the century, and foreign competitors, such as Norway, complained of US collusion. Charles W. Morse was a businessman from Maine who by 1890 had used questionable financial processes to acquire control of the New York City Ice Company and the Consumers ' Ice Company of New York, merging them into the Consolidated Ice Company. In turn Morse bought out his major competitor the Knickerbocker Ice Company of New York in 1896, giving him control of around four million tons (four billion kg) of the regional ice harvests each year. Morse incorporated his few remaining rivals into the American Ice Company in 1899, giving him control of all of the natural and plant ice supplies and distribution in the north - east of the US. On the west coast, Edward Hopkins formed the Union Ice Company in San Francisco, bringing together a range of regional ice companies to produce another huge ice company. In contrast, the competition in the British market remained harsh, keeping prices relatively low.
The natural ice trade was rapidly supplanted by refrigeration cooling systems and plant ice during the early years of the 20th century. Plant ice production in New York doubled between 1900 and 1910 and, by 1914, 26 million tons (23 billion kg) of plant ice was being produced in the U.S. each year in comparison to the 24 million tons (22 billion kg) of naturally harvested ice. There was a similar trend around the world -- Britain had 103 ice plants by 1900, for example -- and this made it increasingly unprofitable to import ice from the U.S.; annual imports of ice fell to less than 15,000 tons (13 million kg) by 1910. This was reflected in trade publications changing their names: the Ice Trade Journal, for example, retitled itself the Refrigerating World.
The trend toward artificial ice was hastened by the regular ice famines during the period, such as the 1898 British famine, which typically caused rapid price increases, fuelled demand for plant ice and encouraged investment in the new technologies. Concerns also grew over the safety of natural ice. Initial reports concerning ice being produced from polluted or unclean lakes and rivers had first emerged in the U.S. as early as the 1870s. The British public health authorities believed Norwegian ice was generally much purer and safer than American sourced ice, but reports in 1904 noted the risk of contamination in transit and recommended moving to the use of plant ice. In 1907, New York specialists claimed ice from the Hudson River to be unsafe for consumption and potentially containing typhoid germs; the report was successfully challenged by the natural ice industry, but public opinion was turning against natural ice on safety grounds. These fears of contamination was often played on by artificial ice manufacturers in their advertising. Major damage was also done to the industry by fire, including a famous blaze at the American Ice Company facilities at Iceboro in 1910, which destroyed the buildings and the adjacent schooners, causing around $130,000 ($2,300,000 in 2010 terms) of damage and crippling the Maine ice industry.
In response to this increasing competition, natural ice companies examined various options. Some invested in plant ice themselves. New tools were brought in to speed up the harvesting of ice, but these efficiency improvements were outstripped by technical advances in plant ice manufacture. The Natural Ice Association of America was formed to promote the benefits of natural ice, and companies played on the erroneous belief amongst customers that natural ice melted less slowly than manufactured ice. Under pressure, some ice companies attempted to exploit their local monopolies on ice distribution networks to artificially raise prices for urban customers. One of the most prominent cases of this involved Charles Morse and his American Ice Company, which suddenly almost tripled wholesale and doubled the retail prices in New York in 1900 in the midst of a heat wave; this created a scandal that caused Morse to sell up his assets in the ice trade altogether to escape prosecution, making a profit of $12 million ($320 million) in the process.
When the U.S. entered World War I in 1917, the American ice trade received a temporary boost to production. Shipments of chilled food to Europe surged during the war, placing significant demands on the country 's existing refrigeration capabilities, while the need to produce munitions for the war effort meant that ammonia and coal for refrigeration plants were in short supply. The U.S. government worked together with the plant and natural ice industries to promote the use of natural ice to relieve the burden and maintain adequate supplies. For Britain and Norway, however, the war impacted badly on the natural ice trade; the German attempt to blockade the North Sea with U-boats made shipments difficult and Britain relied increasingly more heavily on its limited number of ice plants for supplies instead.
In the years after the war the natural ice industry collapsed into insignificance. Industry turned entirely to plant ice and mechanical cooling systems and the introduction of cheap electric motors resulted in domestic, modern refrigerators becoming common in U.S. homes by the 1930s and more widely across Europe in the 1950s, allowing ice to be made in the home. The natural ice harvests shrunk dramatically and ice warehouses were abandoned or converted for other uses. The use of natural ice on a small scale lingered on in more remote areas for some years, and ice continued to be occasionally harvested for carving at artistic competitions and festivals, but by the end of the 20th century there were very few physical reminders of the trade.
In order for natural ice to reach its customers, it had to be harvested from ponds and rivers, then transported and stored at various sites before finally being used in domestic or commercial applications. Throughout these processes, traders faced the problem of keeping the ice from melting; melted ice represented waste and lost profits. In the 1820s and 1830s only 10 percent of ice harvested was eventually sold to the end user due to wastage en route. By the end of the 19th century, however, the wastage in the ice trade was reduced to between 20 and 50 percent, depending on the efficiency of the company.
The ice trade started with the harvesting of ice from ponds and rivers during the winter, to be stored for the summer months ahead. Water freezes in this way once it falls to a temperature of 40 ° F (5 ° C) and the surrounding air temperature drops to 32 ° F (0 ° C). Ice needed to be at least 18 inches (0.46 m) thick to be harvested, as it needed to support the weight of the workers and horses and be suitable for cutting into large blocks. In New England, ponds and rivers typically had deep enough ice to harvest between January and March, while in Norway harvesting occurred between December and February. Natural ice could occur with different qualities; most prized was hard, clear crystal ice, typically consumed at the table; more porous, white coloured ice was less valuable and used by industry. With a good thickness of ice, around 1,000 tons (900,000 kg) could be harvested from an acre (0.4 hectares) of surface water.
Purely natural sources were insufficient in some areas and additional steps taken to increase supplies. In New England, holes were drilled in the ice to promote the thickening of the surface. Alternatively, artificial lakes were created in some areas, and guidance was published on how best to construct the dams that lay at the heart of these designs. Low - lying, boggy land was dammed and flooded in Maine towards the end of the century to meet surge demands, while pre-existing artificial mill ponds in Wisconsin turned out to be ideal for harvesting commercial ice. In Alaska, a large, shallow artificial lake covering around 40 acres (16 hectares) was produced in order to assist in ice production and harvesting; similar approaches were taken in the Aleutian islands; in Norway this was taken further, with a number of artificial lakes up to half a mile long built on farmland to increase supplies, including some built out into the sea to collect fresh water for ice.
The ice - cutting involved several stages and was typically carried out at night, when the ice was thickest. First the surface would be cleaned of snow with scrapers, the depth of the ice tested for suitability, then the surface would be marked out with cutters to produce the lines of the future ice blocks. The size of the blocks varied according to the destination, the largest being for the furthest locations, the smallest destined for the American east coast itself and being only 22 inches (0.56 m) square. The blocks could finally be cut out of the ice and floated to the shore. The speed of the operation might depend on the likelihood of warmer weather impacting on the ice. In both New England and Norway, harvesting occurred during an otherwise quiet season, providing valuable local employment.
The process required a range of equipment. Some of this was protective equipment to allow the workforce and horses to operate safely on ice, including cork shoes for the men and spiked horse shoes. Early in the 19th century only ad hoc, improvised tools such as pickaxes and chisels were used for the rest of the harvest, but in the 1840s Wyeth introduced various new designs to allow for a larger scale, more commercial harvesting process. These included a horse - drawn ice cutter, resembling a plough with two parallel cutters to help in marking out the ice quickly and uniformly, and later a horse - drawn plough with teeth to assist in the cutting process itself, replacing the hand saw. By the 1850s, specialist ice tool manufacturers were producing catalogues and selling products along the east coast. There were discussions over the desirability of a circular cutting saw for much of the 19th century, but it proved impractical to power them with horses and they were not introduced to ice harvesting until the start of the 20th century, when gasoline engines became available.
A warm winter could cripple an ice harvest, however, either resulting in no ice at all, or thin ice that formed smaller blocks or that could not be harvested safely. These winters were called "open winters '' in North America, and could result in shortages of ice, called ice famines. Famous ice famines in the U.S. included those in 1880 and 1890, while the mild winter of 1898 in Norway resulted in Britain having to seek additional supplies from Finland. Over time, the ice famines promoted the investment in plant ice production, ultimately undermining the ice trade.
Early in the ice trade, there were few restrictions on harvesting ice in the U.S., as it had traditionally held little value and was seen as a free good. As the trade expanded, however, ice became valuable and the right to cut ice became important. Legally, different rules were held to apply to navigable water ways, where the right to harvest the ice belonged to the first to stake a claim, and areas of "public '' water such as streams or small lakes, where the ice was considered to belong to the neighboring land owners.
Many lakes had several land owners, however, and following disagreements over Fresh Pond, the lawyer Simon Greenleaf was charged to adjudicate a solution in 1841. Greenleaf decided that the right to harvest ice would be divided up in proportion with the amount of the shore line owned by the different claimants; from then onwards, the rights to harvest ice could be bought and sold and the value of land adjacent to sites such as Fresh Pond increased rapidly, with one owner who purchased land at $130 ($2,500 in 2010 terms) an acre (0.4 hectares) in the 1820s refusing an offer of $2,000 ($44,000) an acre by the 1850s.
This judgement did not remove the potential for disputes, as ice could be washed downstream along rivers, resulting in arguments over the ownership of the displaced ice. In some states it was made illegal to damage the uncut ice belonging to another businessman, but arguments could still become nasty. In the winter of 1900 -- 01, for example, disputes between the Pike and North Lake Company and its rival the Wisconsin Lakes Ice and Cartage Company over the rights to harvest ice resulted in pitched battles between workers and the deployment of a steamship icebreaker to smash competing supplies.
Natural ice typically had to be moved several times between being harvested and used by the end customer. A wide range of methods were used, including wagons, railroads, ships and barges. Ships were particularly important to the ice trade, particularly in the early phase of the trade, when the focus of the trade was on international exports from the U.S. and railroad networks across the country were non-existent.
Typically, ice traders hired vessels to ship ice as freight, although Frederic Tudor initially purchased his own vessel and the Tudor Company later bought three fast cargo ships of its own in 1877. Ice was first transported in ships at the end of the 18th century, when it was occasionally used as ballast. Shipping ice as ballast, however, required it to be cleanly cut in order to avoid it shifting around as it melted, which was not easily done until Wyeth 's invention of the ice - cutter in 1825. The uniform blocks that Wyeth 's process produced also made it possible to pack more ice into the limited space of a ship 's hold, and significantly reduced the losses from melting. The ice was typically packed up tightly with sawdust, and the hold was then closed to prevent warmer air entering; other forms of protective dunnage used to protect ice included hay and pine tree cuttings. This requirement for large quantities of sawdust coincided with the growth in the New England lumber industry in the 1830s; sawdust had no other use at the time, and was in fact considered something of a problem, so its use in the ice trade proved very useful to the local timber industry.
Ships carrying ice needed to be particularly strong and there was a premium placed on recruiting good crews, able to move the cargo quickly to its location before it melted. By the end of the 19th century, the preferred choice was a wooden - hulled vessel, to avoid rust corrosion from the melting ice, while windmill pumps were installed to remove the excess water from the hull using bilge pumps. Ice cargoes tended to cause damage to ships in the longer term, as the constant melting of the ice and the resulting water and steam encouraged dry rot. Shipment sizes varied; depending on the ports and route. The typical late 19th century U.S. vessel was a schooner, carrying around 600 tons (500,000 kg) of ice; a large shipment from Norway to England might include up to 900 tons (800,000 kg).
It was important to keep track of the amount of ice being loaded onto a ship for both commercial and safety reasons, so ice blocks were each weighed before they went onto a ship, and a total tally of the weight of the ice was recorded. Initially a crude method of loading involving ice tongs and a whip was used to lower the separated blocks of ice into the hold, but an improved method was developed by the 1870s involving a levered platform, superseded by a counterweighted platform device by 1890. Ships were loaded quickly to prevent the ice from melting and, in U.S. ports, an average cargo could be loaded in just two days. Freight charges were paid on the intake, or departure, weight of the cargo, and conditions were laid down on the handling of the ice along the route.
Barges were also used to transport ice, particularly along the Hudson River, doubling on occasion as storage units as well. These barges could carry between 400 and 800 tons (400,000 to 800,000 kg) of ice and, like ice carrying ships, windmills were typically installed to power the barge 's bilge pumps. Barges were believed to help preserve ice from melting, as the ice was stored beneath the deck and insulated by the river. Charlie Morse introduced larger, seagoing ice barges in the 1890s in order to supply New York; these were pulled by schooners and could each carry up to 3,000 tons (three million kg) of ice.
For much of the 19th century, it was particularly cheap to transport ice from New England and other key ice producing centres, helping to grow the industry. The region 's role as a gateway for trade with the interior of the U.S. meant that trading ships brought more cargoes to the ports than there were cargoes to take back; unless they could find a return cargo, ships would need to carry rocks as ballast instead. Ice was the only profitable alternative to rocks and, as a result, the ice trade from New England could negotiate lower shipping rates than would have been possible from other international locations. Later in the century, the ice trade between Maine and New York took advantage of Maine 's emerging requirements for Philadelphia 's coal: the ice ships delivering ice from Maine would bring back the fuel, leading to the trade being termed the "ice and coaling '' business.
Ice was also transported by railroad from 1841 onwards, the first use of the technique being on the track laid down between Fresh Pond and Charleston by the Charlestown Branch Railroad Company. A special railroad car was built to insulate the ice and equipment designed to allow the cars to be loaded. In 1842 a new railroad to Fitchburg was used to access the ice at Walden Pond. Ice was not a popular cargo with railway employees, however, as it had to be moved promptly to avoid melting and was generally awkward to transport. By the 1880s ice was being shipped by rail across the North American continent.
The final part of the supply chain for domestic and smaller commercial customers involved the delivery of ice, typically using an ice wagon. In the U.S., ice was cut into 25 -, 50 - and 100 - pound blocks (11, 23 and 45 kg) then distributed by horse - drawn ice wagons. An iceman, driving the cart, would then deliver the ice to the household, using ice tongs to hold the cubes. Deliveries could occur either daily or twice daily. By the 1870s, various specialist distributors existed in the major cities, with local fuel dealers or other businesses selling and delivering ice in the smaller communities. In Britain, ice was rarely sold to domestic customers via specialist dealers during the 19th century, instead usually being sold through fishmongers, butchers and chemists, who kept ice on their premises for their own commercial use.
Ice had to be stored at multiple points between harvesting and its final use by a customer. One method for doing this was the construction of ice houses to hold the product, typically either shortly after the ice was first harvested or at regional depots after it had been shipped out. Early ice houses were relatively small, but later storage facilities were the size of large warehouses and contained much larger quantities of ice.
The understanding of thermodynamics was limited at the start of the 19th century, when it was believed that the key to the successful storage to ice was the construction of underground ice houses, where it was believed, incorrectly, that it would always be cool enough to store ice successfully. European ice houses were based on this theory, and used underground chambers, often built at considerable expense, to store the winter harvest. Some farmers in Virginia, however, had developed much cheaper icehouses, elevated off the ground, built from wood and insulated with hay. In addition to the temperature that ice was held at, there was also a need to efficiently drain off the melted water, as this water would further melt the remaining ice much faster than warm air would do.
Tudor investigated various ice houses in 1805 and came to conclude they could be constructed above ground as well. His early ice houses in Cuba had inner and outer timber walls, insulated with peat and sawdust, with some form of a ventilation system, and these formed the basic design for ice houses during the rest of the century. By 1819, however, Tudor was also building ice houses from brick, able to hold more than 200 tons (200,000 kg) of ice, using charcoal within the walls for insulation. By the 1840s, warehouses by the Pond were up to 36,000 square feet (3,300 square metres) in size, being built of brick to avoid the risk of fire from the new railroad line. The ice houses remained extremely flammable, however, and many caught fire, including Sydney 's first ice house which was completely destroyed in 1862.
The size of the ice houses made it difficult to load ice into them; in 1827 Wyeth invented a lever and horse - drawn pulley system to raise blocks of ice through the roofs of the warehouses. Later improvements to loading included the use of lift systems to raise the blocks of ice to the top of the building, first using horse power, then steam power; the largest warehouses later introduced conveyor belt systems to bring the ice into storage. Power houses containing the equipment to support these were built alongside the ice houses, and care was taken to avoid the risk of fire from this machinery. Warehouses were typically painted either white or yellow in order to reflect the sun during the summer. A typical Hudson River warehouse might be 400 feet (120 m) long, 100 feet (30 m) deep and three stories high, able to hold 50,000 tons (four million kg) of ice. The later railroad ice houses could hold up to 250,000 tons (220 million kg) apiece.
In contrast, initially the ice trade in Norway made do without ice houses, taking the ice directly from the lakes to the ships for transport during the winter and spring; between the 1850s and 1870s, however, numerous ice houses were constructed, allowing exports to take place during the rest of the year as well.
Ice houses were also built in the major ice consuming cities to hold the imported ice before final sale and consumption, where they were often termed depots. In London, the early ice depots were often circular and called wells or shades; the New Cattle Market depot built in 1871 was 42 feet (13 m) wide and 72 feet (22 m) deep, able to hold 3,000 short tons (three million kg) of ice. Later ice depots at Shadwell and Kings Cross in London were larger still, and, along with incoming barges, were used for storing Norwegian ice. The city of New York was unusual and did not build ice depots near the ports, instead using the incoming barges and, on occasion, ships that were delivering the ice as floating warehouses until the ice was needed.
In order for a domestic or commercial customer to use ice, however, it was typically necessary to be able to store it for a period away from an ice house. As a result, Ice boxes and domestic refrigerators were a critical final stage in the storage process: without them, most households could not use and consume ice. By 1816, Tudor was selling Boston refrigerators called "Little Ice Houses '' to households in Charleston; these were made of wood, lined with iron and designed to hold three pounds (1.4 kg) of ice. Household refrigerators were manufactured in the 1840s on the east coast, most notably by Darius Eddy of Massachusetts and Winship of Boston; many of these were shipped west. The degree to which natural ice was adopted by local communities in the 19th century heavily depended on the availability and up - take of ice boxes.
The ice trade enabled the consumption of a wide range of new products during the 19th century. One simple use for natural ice was to chill drinks, either being directly added to the glass or barrel, or indirectly chilling it in a wine cooler or similar container. Iced drinks were a novelty and were initially viewed with concern by customers, worried about the health risks, although this rapidly vanished in the US. By mid-19th century, water was always chilled in America if possible. Iced milk also popular, and German lager, traditionally drunk chilled, also used ice. Drinks such as sherry - cobblers and mint juleps were created that could only be made using crushed ice. There were distinct differences in 19th - century American and European attitudes to adding ice directly to drinks, with the Europeans regarding this as an unpleasant habit; British visitors to India were surprised to see the Anglo - Indian elite prepared to drink iced water. Some Hindus in India regarded ice as unclean for religious reasons, and as such an inappropriate food.
The large scale production of ice cream also resulted from the ice trade. Ice cream had been produced in small quantities since at least the 17th century, but this depended both on having large quantities of ice available, and substantial amounts of labour to manufacture it. This was because using ice to freeze ice cream relies both on the application of salt to an ice mixture to produce a cooling effect, and also on constantly agitating the mixture to produce the light texture associated with ice cream. By the 1820s and 1830s, the availability of ice in the cities of the U.S. east coast meant that ice cream was becoming increasingly popular, but still an essentially luxury product. In 1843, however, a new ice cream maker was patented by Nancy Johnson which required far less physical effort and time; similar designs were also produced in England and France. Combined with the growing ice trade, ice cream became much more widely available and consumed in greater quantities. In Britain, Norwegian ice was used by the growing Italian community in London from the 1850s onwards to popularise ice cream with the general public.
The ice trade revolutionised the way that food was preserved and transported. Before the 19th century, preservation had depended upon techniques such as curing or smoking, but large supplies of natural ice allowed foods to be refrigerated or frozen instead. Although using ice to chill foods was a relatively simple process, it required considerable experimentation to produce efficient and reliable methods for controlling the flow of warm and cold air in different containers and transport systems. In the early stages of the ice trade there was also a tension between preserving the limited supply of ice, by limiting the flow of air over it, and preserving the food, which depended on circulating more air over the ice to create colder temperatures.
Early approaches to preserving food used variants of traditional cold boxes to solve the problem of how to take small quantities of products short distances to market. Thomas Moore, an engineer from Maryland, invented an early refrigerator which he patented in 1803; this involved a large, insulated wooden box, with a tin container of ice embedded in the top. This refrigerator primarily relied upon simple insulation, rather than ventilation, but the design was widely adopted by farmers and small traders, and illegal copies abounded. By the 1830s portable refrigerator chests became used in the meat trade, taking advantage of the growing supplies of ice to use ventilation to better preserve the food. By the 1840s, improved supplies and an understanding of the importance of circulating air was making a significant improvement to refrigeration in the U.S.
With the development of the U.S. railroad system, natural ice became used to transport larger quantities of goods much longer distances through the invention of the refrigerator car. The first refrigerator cars emerged in the late 1850s and early 1860s, and were crude constructions holding up to 3,000 lbs (1,360 kg) of ice, on top of which the food was placed. It was quickly found that placing meat directly on top of blocks of ice in cars caused it to perish; subsequent designs hung the meat from hooks, allowing the meat to breathe, while the swinging carcasses improved the circulation in the car. After the Civil War, J. B Sutherland, John Bate and William Davis all patented improved refrigerator cars, which used stacks of ice placed at either end and improved air circulation to keep their contents cool. This improved ventilation was essential to avoid warm air building up in the car and causing damage to the goods. Salt could be added to the ice to increase the cooling effect to produce an iced refrigerator car, which preserved foods even better. For much of the 19th century, the different gauges of train lines made it difficult and time consuming to move chilled cargoes between lines, which was a problem when the ice was continually melting; by the 1860s, refrigerator cars with adjustable axles were being created to speed up this process.
Natural ice became essential to the transportation of perishable foods over the railroads; slaughtering and dressing meat, then transporting it, was much more efficient in terms of freight costs and opened up the industries of the Mid-West, while, as the industrialist Jonathan Armour argued, ice and refrigerator cars "changed the growing of fruits and berries from a gamble... to a national industry ''.
Refrigerated ships were also made possible through the ice trade, allowing perishable goods to be exported internationally, first from the U.S. and then from countries such as Argentina and Australia. Early ships had stored their chilled goods along with the main cargo of ice; the first ships to transport chilled meat to Britain, designed by Bate, adapted the railroad refrigerator cars, using ice at either end of the hold and a ventilation fan to keep the meat cool. An improved version, invented by James Craven, piped a brine solution through the ice and then the hold to keep the meat cool, and created a drier atmosphere in the hold, preserving the meat better. Natural ice was also used in fishing industries to preserve catches, initially in the eastern American fisheries. In 1858 the Grimsby fishing fleet began to take ice out to sea with them to preserve their catches; this allowed longer journeys and bigger catches, and the fishing industry became the biggest single user of ice in Britain.
Natural ice was put to many uses. The ice trade enabled its widespread use in medicine in attempts to treat diseases and to alleviate their symptoms, as well as making tropical hospitals more bearable. In Calcutta, for example, part of each ice shipment was specially reserved in the city 's ice house for the use of the local doctors. By the middle of the 19th century, the British Royal Navy was using imported ice to cool the interiors of its ships ' gun turrets. In 1864, and after several attempts, salmon eggs were finally shipped successfully from Britain to Australia, using natural ice to keep them chilled on route, enabling the creation of the Tasmanian salmon fishery industry.
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who played hugh on star trek the next generation | Jonathan Del Arco - wikipedia
Jonathan Del Arco (born March 7, 1966) is a Uruguayan American actor and gay rights and political activist. He is best known for his role as Hugh the Borg on Star Trek: The Next Generation and for his starring role as medical examiner Dr. Morales on The Closer and Major Crimes. He was awarded the 2013 Visibility Award from Human Rights Campaign and is a guest speaker for the organization.
As a teenager, Del Arco became interested in acting and the theater. He often traveled by commuter train to New York City, where he attended plays. He eventually enrolled in acting classes there; and, after graduating from high school, he moved to New York City permanently. Shortly after, Del Arco won a role in the road company of Torch Song Trilogy.
Del Arco partnered with another gay man while living in New York City. This partner died of AIDS in the late 1980s while Del Arco resided in the city.
In 1990, with a role on the Miami Vice television show and a role in the independent film Lost Angeles under his belt, Del Arco moved to Los Angeles, California. Guest starring roles on the television series True Colors, Sisters, The Wonder Years, and Blossom as well as a small role in the film The Mambo Kings followed. His most notable role during this period was as the Borg drone, Hugh, on Star Trek: The Next Generation in 1992, which he reprised in 1993.
Del Arco turned to waiting tables in 1995 for an income. Instead, through a friend, he found paid work on an environmental campaign being led by actor / director Rob Reiner. Over the next decade, Del Arco worked on five political campaigns. Del Arco credits the political activism with allowing him to find a new passion and expansiveness as an actor, which led to new acting roles.
Del Arco 's breakout role came in 2003 when he landed a recurring guest star role on FX Networks ' highly popular series Nip / Tuck, where he played a transgender woman named Sofia Lopez. Roles on other highly rated shows such as 24, The Sopranos, and Dollhouse followed. Beginning in 2007, Del Arco had a recurring role on TNT cable network 's The Closer as the openly gay medical examiner, Dr. Morales. He continued in the role in the series ' spin - off, Major Crimes. In 2014, he appeared in the episode "Love Sucks '' of The Crazy Ones as Timothy, the previously unseen husband of Brad Garrett 's character.
Del Arco has appeared in a wide range of live theatrical plays. His Broadway theatre debut came in 1987 in Milcha Sanchez - Scott 's Roosters at the INTAR Theatre. Theater critic Mel Gussow called his a "most sensitive performance '', and said his debut was "auspicious ''. His second Broadway role followed in 1988, when he played Martin in Michael Weller 's play Spoils of War at the Music Box Theatre (taking over from Christopher Collet). This was followed in 1990 by a role in John Jesurun 's Everything That Rises Must Converge at the Kitchen Theatre Company.
Del Arco 's numerous other stage performances include (in alphabetical order):
In 1996, Del Arco began participating in the Hispanic Playwrights Project at the South Coast Repertory, and spent six seasons there. He also spent the summer of 1998 and 1999 at the Institute on the Arts and Civic Dialogue at Harvard University, working under Anna Deveare Smith.
Del Arco is a member of Actors ' Equity Association.
In addition to acting, Del Arco is a political, environmental, and gay rights activist.
Del Arco volunteered for Barack Obama. and has worked for three presidential campaigns and he served as an Obama Celebrity Surrogate for the 2012 Presidential Campaign.
He works raising awareness for the Gay, Lesbian and Straight Education Network (GLSEN), which works to improve the educational environment for LGBT elementary and secondary students in the United States. Del Arco says his work with GLSEN has been life - changing.
"Never did I imagine that working for a nonprofit organization would have such a great effect on me personally. It 's changed the structure of how I use my career as an actor because now I have a reason beyond entertainment to promote something other than me. ''
In 2013, Del Arco was awarded the 2013 Visibility Award from the Human Rights Campaign and now work with the campaign as a guest speaker.
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seven wonders of the world 2015 with pictures and information | Wonders of the World - wikipedia
Various lists of the Wonders of the World have been compiled from antiquity to the present day, to catalogue the world 's most spectacular natural wonders and manmade structures.
The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World is the first known list of the most remarkable creations of classical antiquity; it was based on guidebooks popular among Hellenic sightseers and only includes works located around the Mediterranean rim and in Mesopotamia. The number seven was chosen because the Greeks believed it represented perfection and plenty, and because it was the number of the five planets known anciently, plus the sun and moon. Many similar lists have been made.
The historian Herodotus (484 -- ca. 425 BC) and the scholar Callimachus of Cyrene (ca. 305 -- 240 BC), at the Museum of Alexandria, made early lists of seven wonders. Their writings have not survived, except as references.
The classic seven wonders were:
The only ancient world wonder that still exists is the Great Pyramid of Giza.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, some writers wrote their own lists with names such as Wonders of the Middle Ages, Seven Wonders of the Middle Ages, Seven Wonders of the Medieval Mind, and Architectural Wonders of the Middle Ages. However, it is unlikely that these lists originated in the Middle Ages, because the word "medieval '' was not invented until the Enlightenment - era, and the concept of a Middle Age did not become popular until the 16th century. Brewer 's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable refers to them as "later list (s) '', suggesting the lists were created after the Middle Ages.
Many of the structures on these lists were built much earlier than the Medieval Ages but were well known.
Typically representative are:
Other sites sometimes included on such lists:
Following in the tradition of the classical list, modern people and organisations have made their own lists of wonderful things ancient and modern. Some of the most notable lists are presented below.
In 1994, the American Society of Civil Engineers compiled a list of Seven Wonders of the Modern World, paying tribute to the "greatest civil engineering achievements of the 20th century ''.
In November 2006 the American national newspaper USA Today and the American television show Good Morning America revealed a new list of New Seven Wonders as chosen by six judges. An eighth wonder was chosen on November 24, 2006 from viewer feedback.
Similar to the other lists of wonders, there is no consensus on a list of seven natural wonders of the world, and there has been debate over how large the list should be. One of the many existing lists was compiled by CNN:
In 2001 an initiative was started by the Swiss corporation New7Wonders Foundation to choose the New7Wonders of the World from a selection of 200 existing monuments. Twenty - one finalists were announced January 1, 2006. Egyptians were not happy that the only surviving original wonder, the Great Pyramid of Giza, would have to compete with the likes of the Statue of Liberty, the Sydney Opera House, and other landmarks, calling the project absurd. In response, Giza was named an honorary Candidate. The results were announced on July 7, 2007, in Lisbon, Portugal:
New7Wonders of Nature (2007 -- 11), a contemporary effort to create a list of seven natural wonders chosen through a global poll, was organized by the same group as the New7Wonders of the World campaign.
New7Wonders Cities is the third global vote organized by New7Wonders.
The Seven Underwater Wonders of the World was a list drawn up by CEDAM International, an American - based non-profit group for divers, dedicated to ocean preservation and research.
In 1989 CEDAM brought together a panel of marine scientists, including Dr. Eugenie Clark, to pick underwater areas which they considered to be worthy of protection. The results were announced at The National Aquarium in Washington DC by actor Lloyd Bridges, star of TV 's Sea Hunt:
British author Deborah Cadbury wrote Seven Wonders of the Industrial World, a book telling the stories of seven great feats of engineering of the 19th and early 20th centuries. In 2003, the BBC aired a seven - part docudrama exploring the same feats, with Cadbury as a producer. Each episode dramatised the construction of one of the following industrial wonders:
Seven Wonders of the World is a 1956 film in which Lowell Thomas searches the world for natural and man made wonders and invites the audience to try to update the ancient Greek Wonders of the World list.
In a 1999 article, Astronomy magazine listed the "Seven Wonders of the Solar System ''. This article was later made into a video.
Numerous other authors and organisations have composed lists of the wonders of the world. For example:
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how many games in olympic curling round robin | Curling at the 2018 Winter Olympics - wikipedia
The curling competition at the 2018 Winter Olympics was held between 8 and 25 February 2018 at the Gangneung Curling Centre. This was the seventh time that curling is on the Olympic program. In each of the men 's and women 's competitions, ten nations competed. As decided in 2015, a third competition, mixed doubles curling, has graduated from a spectator sport to a full medal competition. Teams consisted of one woman and one man. There were eight participating countries in the mixed competition.
Qualification to the curling tournaments at the Winter Olympics was determined through two methods. Nations could qualify teams by earning qualification points from performances at the 2016 and 2017 World Curling Championships. Teams could also qualify through an Olympic qualification event which was held in December 2017. Seven nations qualified teams via World Championship qualification points, while two nations qualified through the qualification event. As host nation, South Korea qualified teams automatically, thus making a total of ten teams per gender in the curling tournaments. For the mixed doubles competition the top seven ranked teams earning qualification points from performances at the 2016 and 2017 World Mixed Doubles Curling Championship qualified along with hosts South Korea.
Curling competitions started the day before the Opening Ceremony and finish on the last day of the games, meaning the sport was the only one to have a competition every day of the games. The following was the competition schedule for the curling competitions:
Final round robin standings
Final round robin standings
Final round robin standings
A total of 113 athletes from 13 nations (including the IOC 's designation of Olympic Athletes from Russia) were scheduled to participate (the numbers of athletes are shown in parentheses). Some curlers competed in both the 4 - person and mixed doubles tournament, therefore the numbers included on this list are the total athletes sent by each NOC to the Olympics, not how many athletes they qualified.
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when does islamabad get maximum amount of rainfall | Climate of Islamabad - wikipedia
The climate of Islamabad has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classifion, with five seasons: Winter (Nov − Feb), Spring (March − April), Summer (May − June), Rainy Monsoon (July − August) and Autumn (September − October). The hottest month is June, where average highs routinely exceed 38 ° C (100.4 ° F). The wettest month is July, with heavy rainfall and evening thunderstorms with the possibility of cloudburst. The coolest month is January, with temperatures variable by location. In Islamabad, temperatures vary from cold to mild, routinely dropping below zero. In the hills there is sparse snowfall. The weather ranges from a minimum of − 3.9 ° C (25.0 ° F) in January to a maximum of 46.1 ° C (115.0 ° F) in June. The average low is 2 ° C (35.6 ° F) in January, while the average high is 38.1 ° C (100.6 ° F) in June. The highest temperature recorded was 46.5 ° C (115.7 ° F) in June, while the lowest temperature was − 4 ° C (24.8 ° F) in January. On 23 July 2001, Islamabad received a record breaking 620 millimetres (24 in) of rain fell in just 10 hours. It was the heaviest rainfall in 24 hours in Islamabad and at any locality in Pakistan during the past 100 years. Following is the weather observed over Islamabad Airport, which is actually located in Rawalpindi.
The monsoon and the Western Disturbance are the two main factors that change the weather over Islamabad; otherwise, Continental air prevails for rest of the season. Following are the main factors that influence the weather over Islamabad.
The following is the monthly summary of the climatic conditions in Islamabad.
January is the coldest month of Islamabad. In January the weather of Islamabad is mild. Rains in this month is heavy like in other season of the city. There have been rare instances of snowfall. Western Disturbance has a great influence in the winter of the city. it produces rains and sometimes hailstorms. The highest temperature is 30.1 ° C (86.2 ° F) (1995) and lowest temperature is − 3.9 ° C (25.0 ° F) (1967). While the heaviest rainfall for this month is 166.7 millimetres (6.56 in) (1954).
Winters last month, The weather of Islamabad in February is similar to that of January. The weather remains mild. Western Disturbance cause rains just like in January. The highest temperature ever recorded was 30 ° C (86 ° F) (1985) and lowest temperature is − 2 ° C (28 ° F). While the highest rainfall is 290 millimetres (11 in) (2013).
Spring starts and In this month the weather starts to settle, In March the weather turns warmer making it very pleasant. Average relative humidity in this month is about 37 %. Again Western Disturbance has an effect on the weather, producing rain and hail. It causes rains with strong winds. Western Disturbance has no timing, it affects the upper and northern parts of Pakistan including Islamabad in every month and season. In this scenario Islamabad can receive heavy showers and rains in every month including March. The highest temperature is 34.4 ° C (93.9 ° F) and the lowest is 0 ° C (32 ° F). The highest rainfall for March is 224.1 millimetres (8.82 in) (1984).
Another Spring month with pleasant temperatures. The weather pattern of Islamabad in April is identical to that of March. The weather at few times gets hot in this month, the highest temperature recorded was 40.6 ° C (105.1 ° F) (2006) and lowest temperature is 5 ° C (41 ° F) (1994). Humidity remains low in this month about 24 %. While the highest rainfall is 264.5 millimetres (10.41 in) (1983).
Start of Summers, In May the weather gets very hot in the city. The highest temperature is 45.6 ° C (114.1 ° F) (1988) and lowest is 10.0 ° C (50.0 ° F) (1997). Humidity gets extremely low in May as compared to other month, which is of 19 %. Evening thunderstorms can occur in this month accompanied by dust storms that give the citizens of Islamabad much awaited relief from the scorching heat. The highest rainfall is 115.6 millimetres (4.55 in) (1965)
June is the hottest month of Islamabad. Temperatures in this month reach till 46.5 ° C (115.7 ° F) as recorded in 2005, While the lowest temperature is 15.7 ° C (60.3 ° F) (1979). Till the first week of June the weather is identical to May. But in the middle of June Pre-Monsoon showers can start that come from South west Monsoon. Again Western Disturbance too can cause heavy showers, which is not a part of monsoon. Dust storms are common in this month which are locally called as Andhi. The highest rainfall for the month of June is 255 millimetres (10.0 in) (2008). On June 23, 2010, a massive dust storm of 81 mph (130 km / h) hit the city followed by drizzle before the storm, temperatures peaked above 40 ° C (104 ° F) for four consecutive days.
July is the start of Annual Monsoon season and the wettest month for Islamabad as well as for whole Pakistan that continues till September. In July Islamabad can see some very heavy falls of rain accompanied by Strong Thunderstorms and windstorms. These heavy Storms is due to the moisture coming from Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal and sometimes if western disturbance interact with them then record rain can be seen. Humidity remains above 65 %. The highest temperature in this month is 44.4 ° C (111.9 ° F) (1987) and lowest temperature is 17 ° C (63 ° F) (1966) and the highest rainfall for this month is 743.5 millimetres (29.27 in) (1995). The heaviest rain of the city was also recorded in this month when 620 millimetres (24 in) rain occurred in just 10 hours on July 23, 2001 the continuous downpour lasted from 0600 to 1600 PST. In July 2008, a severe rainfall spell, that lasted from 4 to 9 July, produced a heavy rainfall of 162 millimetres (6.4 in) in 5 hours. It was the heaviest short period rainfall in last six years reminding the cloud burst of July 23, 2001. While on July 30, 2010 heavy downpour of 257 millimetres (10.1 in) occurred that caused flash floods in the city.
Monsoon rains continue in August as well. The month of August is the most humid month for Islamabad. The highest temperature is 42 ° C (108 ° F) (1987) and the lowest temperature is 17 ° C (63 ° F) (1976). While the highest rainfall for this month is 645.5 millimetres (25.41 in) (1982). On August 9, 2011 a cloudburst in Islamabad that continued for three hours and yielded 176 millimetres (6.9 in) of rain, flooded main streets.
End of summer in which, day temperatures remain a bit high. But evenings, nights and mornings are quite pleasant. Temperature starts to drop more in the night. And by the end of September, summer seems to have gone away. And Autumn starts to approach. It all depends on the rains. If they are much rains in September, weather will change quickly. If not, then the weather changes gradually. Monsoon rains continue till the Mid-week of September, but they can be showers till the end of the month. After that monsoon completely withdraws from the city. Western disturbance cause showers or little drizzle in this month. The highest temperature is 38.1 ° C (100.6 ° F) (1982) and lowest is 13 ° C (55 ° F) (1994). The highest rains in this month is 279.1 millimetres (10.99 in) (1961).
The start of Autumn, with pleasant temperatures. Day temperature can be a bit high, which can cause discomfort in the sun, while travelling and sitting without a fan. But evenings, nights and mornings are very pleasant. Which urge one to go for walks and for outings. October is the driest month in the city. There is drizzle in this month due to westerly wave. But sometimes, thunderstorms occur, which cause the temperature to drop more. In the mid of October the night temperature starts to drop at 16 ° C. The highest rainfall for this month is 95 millimetres (3.7 in) (1997). The highest temperature and lowest temperature is 36 ° C (97 ° F) (1998) and 5 ° C (41 ° F) (1984) respectively.
Another Autumn and start of Winter Month. The first to second weeks of November are Autumn days. But after that Cold wind start to enter the city. As winter starts by mid November. And temperature starts to drop a lot. Mornings can become a bit chilly. Warm clothes are pulled out to wear. Some afternoons of November are a bit warm, in which people still avoid direct sunlight. While at times people like to work and even stand in the sun. Showers or hailstorms occur in this month too. The highest rainfall for this month is 91 millimetres (3.6 in) (1959) and the highest and lowest temperature is 32 ° C (90 ° F) (1999) and 0 ° C (32 ° F) (1970) respectively.
In the month of December the winter finally sets in, while the coldest winter of the city is observed in January, weather becomes quite chilly in December too. Hot drinks, like tea and coffee with soups become common in the city. Fish is one of the most enjoyed dish of winter. Rainfall in December is expected by the people who live in the cities near Islamabad. Because they have sown the seed of wheat. Western Disturbance cause rain in this month. The highest rainfall for this month is 177.9 millimetres (7.00 in) (1990). The lowest temperature and highest temperature is − 2.8 ° C (27.0 ° F) (1984) and 28 ° C (82 ° F) (1998) respectively.
The average monsoon rainfall of Islamabad is 790.8 millimetres (31.13 in). Monsoon season starts by the end of June and prevails till the end of September. In 2009, Islamabad saw below normal monsoon rainfalls due to the presence of El Niño over Pakistan. It just recorded 354 millimetres (13.9 in) of rain during the Monsoon season in 2009. The highest rainfall of 620 millimetres (24 in) was recorded in Islamabad during 24 hours on 23 July 2001. The record breaking rain fell in just 10 hours. It was the heaviest rainfall in Islamabad in the past 100 years. The following is the Monsoon rainfall in Islamabad since 2006 based on the data from Pakistan Meteorological Department.
On 23 July 2001, Islamabad experienced the record breaking 620 millimetres (24 in) of rainfall, which was the 24 hours heaviest rainfall in Islamabad and at any locality in Pakistan during the past 100 years. Continuous downpour in lasted for about 10 hours from 0600 - 1600 PST in Islamabad, caused the worst ever Flash Flood in the local stream called "Nulla Lai '' and its tributaries, which swept away low - lying areas of the twin cities. The neighbor city, Rawalpindi also experienced 335 millimetres (13.2 in) of rain on the same day. According to the official figures, at least 10 people died, 800 houses were destroyed and 1069 houses were partially damaged in Islamabad.
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lord of the rings return of the king extended run time | The Lord of the Rings: the Return of the King - wikipedia
The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King is a 2003 epic high fantasy adventure film produced, written, and directed by Peter Jackson based on the second and third volumes of J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings. It is the third and final instalment in The Lord of the Rings trilogy, following The Fellowship of the Ring (2001) and The Two Towers (2002), preceding The Hobbit film trilogy (2012 -- 14).
Released on 17 December 2003, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King became one of the most critically and commercially successful films of all time. It was the second film to gross $1 billion worldwide ($1.12 billion), becoming the highest - grossing film released by New Line Cinema, as well as the biggest financial success for Time Warner in general at the time. The film was the highest - grossing film of 2003 and, by the end of its theatrical run, the second highest - grossing film in history. As of May 2018, it is the 19th highest - grossing film of all time.
At the 76th Academy Awards, it won all 11 Academy Awards for which it was nominated, therefore holding the record for highest Oscar sweep. The wins included the awards for Best Picture, the first time a fantasy film has done so; it was also the second sequel to win a Best Picture Oscar (following The Godfather Part II) and Best Director. The film jointly holds the record for the largest number of Academy Awards won with Ben - Hur (1959) and Titanic (1997). The film has been re-released twice, in 2011 and 2017.
Two Hobbits, Smeagol and Déagol, are fishing when Déagol discovers the One Ring in the river. Sméagol is immediately ensnared by the Ring, and fights and kills his friend for it. He retreats into the Misty Mountains as the Ring twists his body and mind until he becomes the creature Gollum.
Centuries later, Gandalf leads Aragorn, Legolas, Gimli, and King Théoden to Isengard where they reunite with Merry and Pippin. Gandalf retrieves the defeated Saruman 's palantír. Pippin later looks into the seeing - stone, and is telepathically attacked by Sauron himself. Gandalf deduces that Sauron will attack Gondor 's capital Minas Tirith. He rides there to warn Gondor 's steward Denethor, taking Pippin with him. Pippin volunteers to be Denethor 's servant.
Meanwhile, Gollum leads Frodo Baggins and Samwise Gamgee to Minas Morgul, where they witness the Witch - king of Angmar leading an Orc army. The hobbits begin climbing a precarious stair carved in the cliff face that will take them into Mordor via a ' secret way ' - unaware that Gollum plans to kill them and take the Ring. Sauron 's army strikes and overwhelms Osgiliath, forcing Faramir and his garrison to retreat back to Minas Tirith.
Gollum disposes of the last of the hobbits ' food, blaming Sam. Frodo leaves Sam behind before they arrive at the tunnel leading to Mordor, where Gollum tricks him into venturing into the lair of the giant spider Shelob. Frodo narrowly escapes and confronts Gollum, telling him that he must destroy the Ring for both of their sakes. Enraged, Gollum attacks Frodo, but falls down a chasm. Frodo continues on, but Shelob discovers, paralyses and binds him. However, Sam arrives and drives Shelob away. Believing Frodo to be dead, Sam hides as orcs appear and learns from them that his friend is still alive, before the Orcs take Frodo with them. Sam follows the Orcs into the Tower of Cirith Ungol, and frees Frodo so they can continue their journey.
While helping Théoden gather his forces, Aragorn is approached by Elrond who informs him Arwen is dying. Following a vision of her son by Aragorn, she refused to leave Middle Earth. Elrond gives Aragorn the sword Andúril, Isildur 's sword Narsil reforged, so he can reclaim his birthright while gaining reinforcements from the Dead Men of Dunharrow. Joined by Legolas and Gimli, Aragorn travels to the Paths of the Dead, recruiting the Army of the Dead, who can only be released from the curse Isildur placed on them for refusing to fight Sauron by one of his heirs. Faramir is gravely wounded after a futile effort to retake Osgiliath, and believing his son to be dead, Denethor falls into madness. Gandalf is left to defend the city against the Orc army, led by Gothmog. As Gothmog 's army forces its way into the city, Denethor attempts to kill himself and Faramir on a pyre. Pippin alerts Gandalf and they save Faramir, but Denethor leaps to his death from the top of Minas Tirith just before Théoden and his nephew, Éomer, arrive with the Rohirrim. Initially, the Rohirrim have the advantage at the Battle of the Pelennor Fields, but are eventually overwhelmed by the Oliphaunt - riding Haradrim while the Witch - king mortally wounds Théoden. Though Théoden 's niece Éowyn, having posed as a male soldier, battles and slays the Witch - King with Merry 's help, Théoden dies of his wounds. Aragorn arrives with the Army of the Dead, who overcome the Orcs and win the battle; Aragorn then allows the Army of the Dead to go to their rest. Aragorn and the other captains of Men decide to lead all who can march upon the Black Gate as a distraction, so Frodo and Sam can get to Mount Doom.
Aragorn 's army draw out Sauron 's forces and empties Mordor, allowing the exhausted Hobbits to stagger to the volcano, but Gollum attacks them just as they reach Mount Doom. Frodo finally succumbs to the Ring 's power and claims it as his own, refusing to destroy it. Gollum attacks Frodo and bites his finger off to reclaim the Ring, but Frodo fights back and knocks Gollum, who is holding the Ring, into the volcano. As Frodo and Sam escape, the Ring and Sauron are both destroyed, causing a chain - reaction that consumes the mountain, topples Barad - dûr, and kills most of the fleeing Orcs as the ground crumbles beneath them. Gandalf flies in with eagles to rescue the Hobbits, who awaken later in the Houses of Healing and are reunited with the surviving Fellowship members. Aragorn is crowned King of Gondor and takes Arwen as his queen. The Hobbits then return to the Shire, where Sam marries Rosie Cotton. A few years later, Frodo departs Middle Earth for the Undying Lands with his uncle Bilbo, Gandalf, and the Elves. He leaves Sam the Red Book of Westmarch which details their adventures. Sam then returns to the Shire, where he embraces Rosie and their children.
Like the preceding films in the trilogy, The Return of the King has an ensemble cast, and some of the cast and their respective characters include:
There are also cameos from Peter Jackson, Richard Taylor, Gino Acevedo, Rick Porras and Andrew Lesnie on the Corsair ship, although all of them but Jackson appear only in the Extended Edition. Jackson also has another unofficial cameo, as Sam 's hand stepping into view when he confronts Shelob. Sean Astin 's daughter played Sam and Rosie 's older daughter Elanor in the last scene of the film; in the same scene, Sarah McLeod 's daughter plays their younger daughter. Jackson 's children also cameo as Gondorian extras, while Christian Rivers played a Gondorian soldier guarding the Beacon Pippin lights, and is later seen wounded. Royd Tolkien cameos as a Ranger in Osgiliath, while in the Extended Edition Howard Shore appears as a celebrating soldier at Edoras. Additionally, four of the designers of The Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game are featured as Rohirrim at the Pelennor. At the end of the film, during the closing credits, each cast member gets a sketched portrait morphed with the real photograph beside their name, which were sketched by Alan Lee, an idea suggested by Ian McKellen.
As with all of Peter Jackson 's movie adaptions of The Lord of the Rings, many events, timelines, and geographic distances are compressed or simplified. Most major events from the books are included leaving only a very few events from the novel omitted from the film; there are however some events in the film significantly altered from the novels as there are some events invented only in the film just as there are certain details in the film not present in the books.
The film version of The Return of the King contains major scenes that occurred in the middle portion of the novel The Two Towers but were not included in the film version, such as the attack by Shelob and the palantír subplot, owing to Jackson 's realigning events of the film to fit the timeline as described in the book 's Appendices, rather than the main prose. However, it is notable that the plot of the second half of Book III is either completely omitted (chapter "The Road to Isengard '') or only shown in one scene (chapter "The Voice of Saruman ''). Saruman 's murder by Gríma (seen only in the Extended Edition) is moved into the Isengard visit because of the cutting of the Scouring of the Shire. In the film, Saruman drops the palantír when he is fatally attacked, whereas in the book Gríma throws it at the Fellowship, unaware of its value.
In the film, all journeys of the companions from Isengard to Minas Tirith are compressed and simplified, as the entire company travels from Isengard to Edoras and arrives there simultaneously to recuperate after the Battle of Helm 's Deep. Pippin 's looking into the palantír happens in Edoras, and he and Gandalf leave for Minas Tirith from there, but in the book this takes place at Dol Baran with the appearance of a Nazgûl on a winged steed, and they stay at Edoras only one night. In contrast to the film, Aragorn and Théoden march from Dol Baran to Helm 's Deep to take a night 's rest. It is in the Hornburg where Aragorn looks into the Palantír (as opposed to the film 's Extended Edition, in which he does so much later in Minas Tirith after the Battle of the Pelennor Fields) and decides to take the Paths of the Dead. In the film, Aragorn and Theóden depart not before their encampment at Dunharrow, but in the book, Aragorn and the Dúnedain (which are absent in the film) ride from Helm 's Deep over the fields to Edoras and then to Dunharrow and the Dimholt, whereas in the book, Théoden takes slower mountain paths and arrives in Dunharrow after Aragorn and his companions have already left. Théoden is seen to set out directly from Dunharrow to Minas Tirith, omitting his brief return to Edoras from Dunharrow to muster all remaining forces there, as told in the book.
The sequence of the Paths of the Dead adds a conversation between Aragorn and the King of the Dead (in the book the Dead do n't speak at all) and a scene where the companions must flee an avalanche of skulls, but leaves out the encounter with Baldor 's skeleton. In contrast to the book, the viewer does n't get told what happened in Lebennin between Aragorn and the Corsairs of Umbar. The film version (Extended Edition) does n't correspond with the map of Gondor, as the company sees a near river with Corsair ships immediately after leaving the Haunted Mountain. In the book, the River Anduin lies several hundred miles farther east, requiring a much longer journey with the Army of the Dead following behind, bringing terror to the towns they pass along the way.
The basis of Elrond and Arwen 's subplot arguing about Arwen 's fate is derived from the Appendices, but it is largely extended in the film, as is Arwen and Elrond 's relevance to the story.
Denethor, the Steward of Gondor, was a more tragic character in the book. In the film, overwhelming grief over the death of Boromir has driven him to despair, and he has given up any hope of defeating Sauron before Gandalf arrives in Minas Tirith. Thus, the muster of Gondor is absent from the film, and major captains and generals (including Imrahil of the Tower Guard and the Knights of Dol Amroth) are not present. In the book, he has already ordered the lighting of the beacons before Gandalf 's arrival, while he refuses to light them in the film, and the sequence where Pippin secretly lights them himself was invented for the movie. The film only hints at Denethor 's use of the palantír which drives him mad, information revealed in the Pyre scene, which includes Shadowfax and is more violent than the book. Aware of the very long distance between Rath Dínen and the front of the out - thrust battlement, Jackson has Denethor jump off the Citadel in addition to burning himself on the Pyre, one of the earliest changes.
The Rammas Echor which encircles the Pelennor Fields is n't shown in the film, and the fields themselves are empty grassland in the films, instead of being rich farmland dotted with small villages in the book.
The Battle of the Pelennor Fields is also altered: though Faramir goes on a suicide mission, the conflict is a simplification of the siege of Osgiliath. With generals such as Forlong and Imrahil absent, Gandalf commands the defence of Minas Tirith owing to Denethor 's despair. While Denethor gives command to Gandalf in the book, in this film Gandalf forcibly takes control after Denethor tells his men to flee rather than fight. The Orcs and Trolls also never get into the city in the book. The Witch - king enters and stands off against Gandalf before the Rohirrim arrive, but in the film Orcs invade the city after Grond breaks the Gate. The confrontation takes place while Gandalf journeys to save Faramir, during which Gandalf has his staff broken in the film (but not in the book).
A subplot in which the Rohirrim are aided by the primitive Drúedain during their journey to the besieged Gondor is excised from the film. The Red Arrow brought by a messenger from Gondor to ask for aid is absent. Éowyn 's presence on the battlefield is unknown to the reader until she takes off her helmet, but in the film the audience is aware, as it would have been difficult to have Miranda Otto playing a man. When hope seems lost, Gandalf comforts Pippin with a description of the Undying Lands, which is a descriptive passage in the book 's final chapter. The film depicts the Army of the Dead fighting in the Battle, whereas in the book they are released from service prior to this, after helping Aragorn defeat the Corsairs of Umbar at the port city of Pelargir in Lebennin; Aragorn 's reinforcements are merely more Gondorians, and the Dúnedain, Aragorn 's people (the rangers of the North). An unstoppable and invulnerable force, the Dead wipe out Sauron 's forces. The film also cuts out several supporting characters, such as Halbarad, a friend of Aragorn 's, who helps lead the Dúnedain, Beregond, a member of the Citadel Guard of Gondor, whom Pippin befriends, and Elladan and Elrohir, the twin sons of Elrond who deliver Aragorn 's banner and accompany him to the Pelennor Fields. Elladan and Elrohir are replaced by Elrond in the film, instead delivering Andúril in Dunharrow, and then returning to Rivendell. In the books Aragorn is n't doubtful about his destiny, but had already decided to claim the throne of Gondor from the beginning of the Quest; thus, it was he who had the shards of Narsil forged to Andúril in Rivendell, carrying it from there on the whole journey.
The film also altered the circumstances of Théoden 's death; his death speech, in which he names Éomer the new king in the book, is trimmed and delivered to Éowyn instead of Merry, with an earlier scene in the Extended Edition even implying that Éowyn is next in line for the throne. Théoden 's rallying speech ("To death! '') before the initial charge in the film are spoken by Éomer in the book when he believes that both Théoden and Éowyn have been killed in combat with the Witch King.
The Extended Edition presents shortened scenes from the book 's chapters in the Houses of Healing: The Warden, the talk of Athelas, the comical conversation with the herb - master, the woman Ioreth and her saying about a King 's healing hands and the subsequent realising of Aragorn 's true identity are left out altogether.
In the film, Aragorn leads the entire remaining force of Rohan and Gondor 's men to the Black Gate without incident. In the book, tactics are discussed, forces divide and fight smaller skirmishes in Anórien and Ithilien before the army (only a fraction of the full remaining strength of the nations of men) reach the Morannon. The romance that develops between Éowyn and Faramir during their recoveries in the Houses of Healing is also largely cut, presumably to keep the focus on Aragorn and Arwen; the subplot is only briefly referenced in the Extended Edition with a scene where the two hold hands. Sam and Frodo 's major rift in their friendship, due to Gollum 's machinations, never takes place in the book, but was added by the writers in believing that it added drama and more complexity to the character of Frodo. Frodo enters Shelob 's lair alone in the film, whereas in the book he and Sam entered together. This was done to make the scene more horrific with Frodo being alone, and Sam 's rescue at the last minute more dramatic. Frodo 's ordeal in the Tower of Cirith Ungol and subsequent rescue by Sam are also changed; in the book, Frodo is stripped, beaten, and cruelly interrogated by the Orcs, while in the film, he is tied up but only briefly threatened by an Orc moments before Sam 's arrival. The reunion of Frodo and Sam in the film is also shorter and less emotional than in the book; rather than comforting the physically injured and severely traumatised Frodo as in the book, Sam, after killing the Orc that was threatening Frodo but had not struck him, briefly accepts his apology for having doubted him and returns the Ring to him before suggesting that they find some Orc clothing for Frodo to wear. In the film, Sam also does not experience "delusions of grandeur '' about what he could do if he took the Ring for himself, like he does in the book. Sam instead overcomes a very brief moment of temptation which, instead of stemming from thoughts of how he could use the Ring for himself, seems to come from his concern for Frodo and wish to reduce the Ring 's harm to his friend by sharing the burden. Also, in the film viewers do not know that Sam has the Ring until he gives it back to Frodo, whereas in the book the reader knows that Sam has the Ring. When Sam and Frodo are diverted into the Orc march in Mordor and are about to collapse, in the film 's Extended Edition they start a fake combat between each other and thus provoke some chaos during which they manage to escape, instead of slipping off during a congestion caused by several armies trying to get through the narrow Isenmouthe, as told in the novel. Gollum 's fall into the lava of Mount Doom was also rewritten for the film, as the writers felt Tolkien 's original idea (Gollum simply slips and falls off) was anti-climactic. Originally, an even greater deviation was planned: Frodo would heroically push Gollum over the ledge to destroy him and the Ring, but the production team eventually realised that it looked more like Frodo murdering Gollum. As a result, they had Frodo and Gollum struggle for possession of the Ring and both slip over the edge by accident.
In addition to the absent footage from the film are the other major attacks by Sauron on various regions of Middle - earth, referenced only briefly in the main text of The Return of the King, and expanded upon in the Appendices; the invasion of Rohan by the Orcs of Moria, the attacks on Lothlórien and the Woodland Realm of Thranduil by the forces of Dol Guldur, and the attack on Dale and the Lonely Mountain by a force of Easterlings. These events are hinted at in a comment by Legolas (also in the book) that the other peoples of Middle Earth are unlikely to ride to war in Gondor because war has already arrived in their own lands.
There are several changes in the Battle of the Black Gate: Merry is not present there in the book, Pippin does not kill a troll as he does in the novel (instead, Aragorn does), the eagles fight and defeat some of the mounted Nazgûl (while Frodo putting on the One Ring distracted the Nazgûl, who raced away to Mount Doom in the book before a confrontation could occur), and Aragorn kills the Mouth of Sauron in the extended edition of the film but not in the book. There was an even larger change planned: Sauron himself would come out in physical form to battle Aragorn, who would only be saved by the destruction of the Ring. Jackson eventually realised it ignored the point of Aragorn 's true bravery in distracting Sauron 's army against overwhelming odds, and a computer generated Troll was placed over footage of Sauron in the finished film. In the book, after the destruction of the Ring the spirit of Sauron rises like a black cloud from the ruin of Barad - dûr before being blown away by the wind, but in the film the Eye of Sauron erupts in flame and then explodes as Barad - dûr collapses. As in all of Jackson 's Middle - earth adaptions, the eagles do not speak.
During the Battle for Minas Tirith, the White Tree of Gondor is shown to bear one white blossom, thus blooming by itself at Aragorn 's coronation. Thereby the film ignores the book 's story where Gandalf and Aragorn find a seedling of the white tree up in the mountains and plant it in the courtyard in place of the still - dead tree.
Although the film runs for another approximately 20 minutes after the climactic Downfall of Barad - dûr, many following events from the book are omitted or significantly altered in the film. Aragorn 's coronation takes place in form of a great ceremony in the Citadel of Minas Tirith, opposed to the book, where Aragorn is crowned in his tent on the Pelennor Fields before entering the City. Omitted entirely are the camp at the Field of Cormallen, Aragorn 's business in Minas Tirith, Aragorn and Arwen 's wedding, Galadriel and Celeborn being present at the ceremonies and their subsequent travelling along with the company, Théoden 's funeral at Edoras, the complete journey back to the Shire with stops at Rivendell and Bree, and the Scouring of the Shire, which was always seen by the screenwriters as anti-climactic.
Since Saruman is killed long before, after the battle at Helm 's Deep in the film, he is unable to exact revenge on Frodo and the hobbits by ruining the Shire as depicted in the books. In the film, the Shire is virtually unchanged when they return, and their friends and neighbours seem unaware of the climactic events that have taken place outside of their borders. Thus, the esteem earned by Merry and Pippin at the Battle of Bywater and the work to restore the Shire using Galadriel 's gift do n't appear in the film.
At the end of the book, Frodo and Sam leave the Shire alone, meet Galadriel, Elrond and Bilbo along the way at the Woody End, and meet Gandalf at the Grey Havens, with Merry and Pippin arriving just in time to say their farewells and accompany Sam back to Bag End. In the film, however, all of the Hobbits travel with Gandalf to the Havens to find the Elves waiting there, including Celeborn, who remains in Middle - Earth in the book. When Sam returns to the Shire, he is n't shown to live in Bag End (where he dwells with Rose in the book), but in a different Hobbit - hole of his own.
The Lord of the Rings film trilogy is unusual in that it was, up until the release of Jackson 's prequel trilogy The Hobbit, the only series whose separate instalments were written and shot simultaneously (excluding pick up shoots). Jackson found The Return of the King the easiest of the films to make, because it contained the climax of the story, unlike the other two films. The Return of the King was originally the second of two planned films under Miramax from January 1997 to August 1998, and more or less in its finished structure as the first film was to end with The Two Towers ' Battle of Helm 's Deep. Filming took place under multiple units across New Zealand, between 11 October 1999 and 22 December 2000, with pick up shoots for six weeks in 2003 before the film 's release.
Middle - earth as envisioned by Jackson was primarily designed by Alan Lee and John Howe, former Tolkien illustrators, and created by Weta Workshop, who handled all the trilogy 's weapons, armour, miniatures, prosthetics, and creatures, as well as the Art Department which built the sets. Richard Taylor headed Weta, while Grant Major and Dan Hennah organised the planning and building respectively.
The city of Minas Tirith, glimpsed briefly in both the previous two films, is seen fully in this film, and with it the Gondorian civilisation. The enormous soundstage was built at Dry Creek Quarry, outside Wellington, from the Helm 's Deep set. That set 's gate became Minas Tirith 's second, while the Hornburg exterior became that of the Extended Edition 's scene where Gandalf confronts the Witch - king. New structures included the 8m tall Gate, with broken and unbroken versions, with a working opening and closing mechanism, with its engravings inspired by the Baptistry of San Giovanni. There were also four levels of streets with heraldic motifs for every house, as inspired by Siena.
There was also the Citadel, the exterior of which was in the Stone Street Studios backlot, using forced perspective. It contains the withered White Tree, built from polystyrene by Brian Massey and the Greens Department with real branches, influenced by ancient and gnarled Lebanese olive trees. The interior was within a three - story former factory in Wellington, and colour wise is influenced by Charlemagne 's Chapel, with a throne for Denethor carved from stone and polystyrene statues of past Kings. The Gondorian armour is designed to represent an evolution from the Númenóreans of the first film 's prologue, with a simplified sea bird motif. 16th - century Italian and German armour served as inspiration, while civilians wear silver and blacks as designed by Ngila Dickson, continuing an ancient / medieval Mediterranean Basin look.
Minas Morgul, the Staircase and Tower of Cirith Ungol as well as Shelob 's Lair were designed by Howe, with the Morgul road using forced perspective into a bluescreened miniature. Howe 's design of Minas Morgul was inspired from the experience of having a wisdom tooth pulled out: in the same way, the Orcs have put their twisted designs on to a former Gondorian city. Cirith Ungol was based on Tolkien 's design, but when Richard Taylor felt it as "boring '', it was redesigned with more tipping angles. The interior set, like Minas Tirith, was built as a few multiple levels that numerous camera takes would suggest a larger structure.
The third film introduces the enormous spider Shelob. Shelob was designed in 1999, with the body based on a tunnelweb spider and the head with numerous growths selected by Peter Jackson 's children from one of many sculpts. Jackson himself took great joy in planning the sequence, being an arachnophobe himself. Shelob 's Lair was inspired by sandstone and sculpted from the existing Caverns of Isengard set.
The Return of the King also brings into focus the Dead Men of Dunharrow and the evil Haradrim from the south of Middle - earth, men who ride the mûmakil. The Dead Men have a Celtic influence, as well as lines and symmetry to reflect their morbid state, while their underground city is influenced by Petra. The Haradrim were highly influenced by African culture, until Philippa Boyens expressed concern over the possibility of offensiveness, so the finished characters instead bear influence from Kiribati, in terms of weaving armour from bamboo, and the Aztecs, in use of jewellery. Also built was a single dead mûmak. Other minor cultures include the Corsairs, with an exotic, swarthy look, and the Grey Havens, Elven structures adapted to stone, with influence from J.M.W. Turner paintings.
The Return of the King was shot during 2000, though Astin 's coverage from Gollum 's attempt to separate Frodo and Sam was filmed on 24 November 1999, when floods in Queenstown interrupted the focus on The Fellowship of the Ring. Some of the earliest scenes shot for the film were in fact the last. Hobbiton, home of the Hobbits, was shot in January 2000 with early scenes from The Fellowship of the Ring, with the exterior shot at a Matamata farm, while interior scenes shot at Stone Street Studios in Wellington, shared with the Grey Havens sequence. Due to the high emotions of filming the scene, the cast were in despair when they were required to shoot it three times, due to a continuity flaw in Sean Astin 's costume, and then negatives producing out - of - focus reels. Also shared with the previous films was the Rivendell interior in May.
The Battle of the Black Gate was filmed in April at the Rangipo Desert, a former minefield. New Zealand soldiers were hired as extras while guides were on the lookout for unexploded mines. Also a cause for concern were Monaghan and Boyd 's scale doubles during a charge sequence. In the meantime, Wood, Astin and Serkis filmed at Mount Ruapehu for the Mount Doom exteriors. In particular, they spent two hours shooting Sam lifting Frodo on to his back with cross-camera coverage.
Scenes shot in June were the Paths of the Dead across various locations, including Pinnacles. In July the crew shot some Shelob scenes, and in August and September time was spent on the scenes in Isengard. Monaghan and Boyd tried numerous takes of their entrance, stressing the word "weed '' as they smoked pipe - weed. Christopher Lee spent his part of his scene mostly alone, though McKellen and Hill arrived on the first day for a few lines to help.
Edoras exteriors were shot in October. The Ride of the Rohirrim, where Théoden leads the charge into the Orc army, was filmed in Twizel with 150 extras on horseback. The Battle of the Pelennor Fields has more extensive use of computer - generated imagery, in contrast to the more extensive use of live action in the Battle of Helm 's Deep in the second film. Also filmed were the attempts by Faramir to recapture Osgiliath, as were scenes in the city itself. At this point production was very hectic, with Jackson moving around ten units per day, and production finally wrapped on the Minas Tirith sets, as well as second units shooting parts of the siege. Just as the Hobbit actors ' first scene was hiding from a Ringwraith under a tree, their last scene was the bluescreened reaction shot of the inhabitants of Minas Tirith bowing to them.
The 2003 pick - ups were filmed in the Wellington studio car park, with many parts of sets and blue - screens used to finish off scenes, which the design team had to work 24 hours to get the right sets ready for a particular day. The shoot continued for two months, and became an emotional time of farewells for the cast and crew. The film has the most extensive list of re-shoots given for the trilogy. Jackson took his time to re-shoot Aragorn 's coronation, rushed into a single day under second unit director Geoff Murphy on 21 December 2000. Jackson also re-shot scenes in and around Mount Doom, and Théoden 's death, right after Bernard Hill was meant to wrap.
There was also the new character of Gothmog. This was a major new design addition for the film, as Jackson felt the Mordor Orcs were "pathetic '' compared to the Uruk - hai of the second film after watching assembly cuts, and thus Weta created grotesque new "über Orcs '' as antagonists for the audience to focus on. Christian Rivers also redesigned the Witch - king and all of his scenes were re-shot, because of confusion from non-readers over whether or not Sauron was on the battlefield.
With the positive response to Bloom, Legolas was given a fight with a mûmak, and Howard Shore also appeared in a cameo during Legolas and Gimli 's drinking game at Edoras. The final scenes shot were Aragorn escaping the Skull avalanche, and Frodo finishing his book. The cast also received various props associated with their characters, although John Rhys - Davies burned his final Gimli prosthetic. Viggo Mortensen headbutted the stunt team goodbye. Pick - ups ended on 27 June 2003.
Scenes shot afterwards included various live - action shots of Riders for the Battle of the Pelennor Fields and a reaction shot of Serkis as Gollum finally realises Frodo intends to destroy the Ring, shot in Jackson 's house. For the Extended DVD, in March 2004 Jackson created a few shots of skulls rolling over for the avalanche scene; this was the final piece of footage ever shot for the trilogy, and Jackson noted that it must be the first time a director had shot scenes for a film after it had already won the Oscar.
Post-production began in November 2002, with the completion of the 41⁄2 hour assembly cut of the film that Annie Collins had been completing over 2001 and 2002, from 4 - hour dailies. For example, Théoden leading the charge went from 150 minutes of takes to a finished 90 seconds. Jackson reunited with longtime collaborator Jamie Selkirk to edit the final film. Like The Two Towers, they would have to deal with multiple storylines, and Jackson paid attention to each storyline at a time before deciding where to intercut. Most importantly they spent three weeks working on the last 45 minutes of the film, for appropriate intercutting and leaving out scenes such as the Mouth of Sauron, and the fates of characters like Legolas, Gimli, Éowyn and Faramir. The film inherited scenes originally planned to go into the second film, including the reforging of Narsil, Gollum 's backstory, and Saruman 's exit. But the Saruman scene posed a structural problem: killing off the second film 's villain when the plot has Sauron as the main villain. Despite pick - ups and dubs, the scene was cut, causing controversy with fans and Saruman actor Christopher Lee, as well as a petition to restore the scene. Lee nonetheless contributed to the DVDs and was at the Copenhagen premiere, although he said he would never understand the reason for the cut and his relationship with Jackson was chilly. They would, however, later reconcile upon Lee 's casting in Jackson 's Hobbit films. Jackson only had a lock on 5 out of 10 reels, and had to churn out 3 reels in 3 weeks to help finish the film. It was finally completed on 12 November 2003. Jackson never had a chance to view the film in full due to the hectic schedule, and only saw the film from beginning to end on 1 December at the Wellington premiere; according to Elijah Wood, his response was "yup, it 's good, pretty good ''.
The Return of the King contains 1,488 visual effect shots, nearly three times the number from the first film and almost twice that of the second. Visual effects work began with Alan Lee and Mark Lewis compositing various photographs of New Zealand landscape to create the digital arena of the Pelennor Fields in November 2002. Gary Horsfield also created a digital version of the Barad - dûr during his Christmas break at home by himself, for the film 's climax. In the meantime, Jackson and Christian Rivers used computers to plan the enormous battle up until February 2003, when the shots were shown to Weta Digital. To their astonishment, 60 planned shots had gone up to 250, and 50,000 characters were now 200,000. Nevertheless, they pressed on, soon delivering 100 shots a week, 20 a day, and as the deadline neared within the last two months, often working until 2 am.
For the battle, they recorded 450 motions for the MASSIVE digital horses (though deaths were animated), and also had to deal with late additions in the film, such as Trolls bursting through Minas Tirith 's gates as well as the creatures that pull Grond to the gate, and redoing a shot of two mûmakil Éomer takes down that had originally taken six months in two days. On a similar note of digital creatures, Shelob 's head sculpture was scanned by a Canadian company for 10 times more detail than Weta had previously been able to capture.
Like the previous films, there are also extensive morphs between digital doubles for the actors. This time, there was Sam falling off Shelob, where the morph takes place as Astin hits the ground. Legolas attacking a mûmak required numerous transitions to and fro, and Gollum 's shots of him having recovered the One Ring and falling into the Crack of Doom were fully animated. The King of the Dead is played by an actor in prosthetics, and his head occasionally morphs to a more skull - like digital version, depending on the character 's mood. The Mouth of Sauron also had his mouth enlarged 200 % for unsettling effect.
The Return of the King also has practical effects. In the Pyre of Denethor sequence, as the Steward of Gondor throws Pippin out of the Tomb, John Noble threw a size double named Fon onto a prostrate Billy Boyd, who immediately pushed his head into camera to complete the illusion. A few burning torches were also reflected off a plate of glass and into the camera for when Gandalf 's horse Shadowfax kicks Denethor onto the pyre. Because of Jackson 's requirement for complete representation of his fantasy world, numerous miniatures were built, such as 1: 72 scale miniature of Minas Tirith, which rises 7m high and is 6.5 m in diameter. 1: 14 scale sections of the city were also required, and the Extended Edition scene of the collapsing City of the Dead has 80,000 small skulls, amounting in total to a single cubic meter. The miniatures team concluded in November with the Black Gate, after 1000 days of shooting, and the final digital effects shot done was the Ring 's destruction, on 25 November.
The Sound department spent the early part of the year searching for the right sounds. A Tasmanian devil was Shelob 's shriek, which in turn gave inspiration for Weta 's animators, while the mûmakil is the beginning and end of a lion roar. Human screams and a donkey screech were mixed into Sauron 's fall and broken glass was used for the collapsing sounds. For missile trading during Minas Tirith 's siege, construction workers dropped actual 2 ton stone blocks previously lifted by a construction crane. Mixing began at a new studio on 15 August, although unfinished building work caused some annoyances. The mixers finished on 15 November, after three months of non-stop work.
The music was composed by Howard Shore, who previously composed the first two parts of the trilogy. Shore watched the assembly cut of the film, and had to write seven minutes of music per day to keep up with the schedule. The score sees the full introduction of the Gondor theme, originally heard during Boromir 's speeches at the Council of Elrond in The Fellowship of the Ring and at Osgiliath in The Two Towers ' Extended Edition. Shore also used the Gondor theme with the new ascending coda (which is unique to this film) in his score for the trailer of the film.
The score features the London Philharmonic Orchestra, London Voices, London Oratory School Schola and featured vocal soloists. The score is the most expansive of the three: scoring effectively the entire movie length, not including additional music written for the trailer and various alternate versions released to the public. It also uses the biggest forces in the series: sections of the score call for two sets of timpani, eight trumpets (and possibly a similar increase in the size of the horn, trombone and tuba section, as well), 85 singers in the mixed choir with additional players for all - male and all - female sections, over fifty in the boy choir and many instrumentalist "bands '' playing Celtic and eastern instruments such as tin whistle or pan flute, on stage or off of it. One piece of music required an instrument invented and crafted especially for the film: a fiddle with four pairs of strings instead of single strings.
Actors Billy Boyd, Viggo Mortensen and Liv Tyler also contributed to the film 's music. Boyd sings on screen as Faramir charges towards Osgiliath, Mortensen sings on screen as he is crowned King, and in the Extended Edition Tyler sings as Aragorn heals Éowyn.
Renée Fleming, Ben Del Maestro, Sissel Kyrkjebø and James Galway also contribute to the soundtrack as featured soloists. Fleming sings as Arwen has a vision of her son and when Gollum recovers the One Ring. Del Maestro sings when Gandalf lights his staff to save fleeing Gondorian soldiers from Osgiliath as the Nazgûl attack and as the eagles arrive at the Black Gates. Galway plays the flute and whistle as Frodo and Sam climb Mount Doom and as they return to the shire. Sissel sings "Asea Aranion '', which was originally meant the score the Houses of Healing scene. The end title song, "Into the West '', was composed by Shore with lyrics by Fran Walsh. Annie Lennox (formerly of Eurythmics) performed it and also received songwriting credit. The song was partially inspired by the premature death from cancer of a young New Zealand filmmaker named Cameron Duncan who had befriended Peter Jackson.
After two years of attention and acclaim since the release of The Fellowship of the Ring, audience and critical anticipation for the final instalment was extremely high. The world premiere was held in Wellington 's Embassy Theatre, on 1 December 2003, and was attended by the director and many of the stars. It was estimated that over 100,000 people lined the streets, more than a quarter of the city 's population.
The theatrical edition of the film was released on VHS and DVD on May 25, 2004. The DVD was a 2 - disc set with extras on the second disc. The theatrical DVD sets for the two previous films were released eight months after the films were released, but Return of the King 's set was completed in five because it did not have to market a sequel (the previous films had to wait for footage of their sequels to become available for a ten - minute preview). However, it contained a seven - minute trailer of the entire trilogy.
The Return of the King followed the precedent set by its predecessors by releasing an Extended Edition (251 minutes) with new editing and added special effects and music, along with four commentaries and six hours of supplementary material, plus 10 minutes of fan - club credits. However, this set took longer to produce than the others because the cast and crew, no longer based in New Zealand for the trilogy, were spread all over the world working on other projects. The set was finally released on December 14, 2004 in the UK and US. The final ten minutes comprises a listing of the charter members of the official fan club who had paid for three - year charter membership.
A collectors ' box set was also released, which included the Extended Set plus a sculpture of Minas Tirith and a bonus 50 - minute music documentary DVD, Howard Shore: Creating The Lord of the Rings Symphony: A Composer 's Journey Through Middle - earth. The DVD has a DTS - ES soundtrack. The DVD also features two humorous Easter Eggs, one where Dominic Monaghan plays a German interviewer with Elijah Wood via satellite and another where Vince Vaughn and Ben Stiller attempt to convince Jackson to make a sequel, originally shown at the 2004 MTV Movie Awards. Both can be accessed via a Ring icon on the last page of both Disc 1 and 2 's scene indexes. In August 2006, a Limited Edition of The Return of the King was released. This Limited Edition contains two discs; the first is a two - sided DVD containing both the Theatrical and Extended editions of the film. The second disc is a bonus disc that contains a new behind - the - scenes documentary.
The theatrical Blu - ray release was released in the United States in April 2010. The individual Blu - ray disc of The Return of the King was released in September 2010 with the same special features as the complete trilogy release, except there was no digital copy. The Extended Edition was released in the United States in June 2011. It has a runtime of 263 minutes.
The film earned $377,845,905 in the United States and Canada and $742,083,616 in other countries for a worldwide total of $1,119,929,521. Worldwide, it is the eigteenth highest - grossing film of all time when not adjusted for inflation, the highest - grossing film of 2003, the second highest - grossing film of the 2000s, and the highest - grossing instalment in The Lord of the Rings trilogy. It was the second film in history to earn over $1 billion, making it the second highest - grossing film at the time. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film had sold over 61 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run.
In the US and Canada, it is the 27th highest - grossing film, the highest - grossing 2003 film, and the highest - grossing instalment in The Lord of the Rings trilogy. The film set an opening Wednesday record with $34.5 million. This record was first surpassed by Spider - Man 2 and ranks as the seventh largest Wednesday opening. The film opened a day earlier for a midnight showing and accounted for about $8 million. This was nearly twice the first - day total of The Fellowship of the Ring -- which earned $18.2 million on its opening day in 2001 -- as well as a significant increase over The Two Towers -- which earned $26.1 million on its debut in 2002. Part of the grosses came from the Trilogy Tuesday event, in which the Extended Editions of the two previous films were played on 16 December before the first midnight screening. It went on to make an opening weekend of $72.6 million ($124.1 million with weekday previews). Its Friday - Sunday opening weekend was a record - high for December (first surpassed by I Am Legend). The film also set single - day records for Christmas Day and New Year 's Day (both first surpassed by Meet the Fockers).
Outside the US and Canada, it is the 17th highest - grossing film, the highest - grossing 2003 film and the highest - grossing film of the series. On its first day (Wednesday, 17 December 2003), the film earned $23.5 million from 19 countries and it set an opening - weekend record outside the US and Canada with $125.9 million during the 5 - day weekend as a whole. It set opening - day records in 13 of them, including the United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain, Greece, Switzerland, Scandinavia (as well as separately in Sweden, Finland, Norway, and Denmark), Mexico, Chile, and Puerto Rico. It set opening - weekend records in the United Kingdom ($26.5 million in five days), Germany, Spain, Sweden, Denmark, and Switzerland. In New Zealand, where filming took place, the film set opening day, opening weekend, single - day, Friday gross, Saturday gross, and Sunday gross records with $1.7 million in four days.
The substantial increase in initial box office totals caused optimistic studio executives to forecast that The Return of the King would surpass The Two Towers in total earnings. If this proved to be true, then this would be the first blockbuster movie trilogy for each successive film to earn more at the box office than its predecessor, when all three films were blockbuster successes. The Return of the King has helped The Lord of the Rings franchise to become the highest - grossing motion picture trilogy worldwide of all time with $2,917,506,956, beating other notable ones such as the Star Wars trilogies, and surviving from being out - grossed by subsequent trilogies like Pirates of the Caribbean and Harry Potter, despite ticket price inflation.
These figures do not include income from DVD sales, TV rights, etc. It has been estimated that the gross income from non-box office sales and merchandise has been at least equal to the box office for all three films. If this is so, the total gross income for the trilogy would be in the region of $6 billion following an investment of $300 million ($426 million including marketing costs).
The Return of the King holds an approval rating of 93 % on the aggregate review site Rotten Tomatoes, based on 269 reviews, with an average rating of 8.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Visually breathtaking and emotionally powerful, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King is a moving and satisfying conclusion to a great trilogy ''. The film holds a weighted average score of 94 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 41 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare average grade of "A + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave three and a half out of four saying, "'' Return of the King '' is such a crowning achievement, such a visionary use of all the tools of special effects, such a pure spectacle, that it can be enjoyed even by those who have not seen the first two films. '' Richard Corliss of Time named it the best film of the year. The main criticism of The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King was its running time, particularly the epilogue; even rave reviews for the film commented on its length. Joel Siegel of Good Morning America said in his review for the film (which he gave an ' A '): "If it did n't take forty - five minutes to end, it 'd be my best picture of the year. As it is, it 's just one of the great achievements in film history. '' There was also criticism regarding the Army of the Dead 's appearance, rapidly ending the Battle of the Pelennor Fields.
In February 2004, a few months following release, the film was voted eighth on Empire 's 100 Greatest Movies of All Time, compiled from readers ' top ten lists. This forced the magazine to abandon its policy of only allowing films being older than a year to be eligible. In 2007, Total Film named The Return of the King the third best film of the past decade (Total Film 's publication time), behind The Matrix and Fight Club.
The film was nominated for eleven Academy Awards: Best Picture, Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Original Score, Best Original Song, Best Visual Effects, Best Art Direction, Best Costume Design, Best Make - up, Best Sound Mixing and Best Film Editing. At the 76th Academy Awards in 2004, the film won all the categories for which it was nominated and it holds the record for highest Academy Award totals along with Titanic and Ben - Hur. It was the first fantasy film to win the Academy Award for Best Picture. It also was the last movie for 14 years to win the Academy Award for Best Picture without being chosen as one of the top ten films of the year by the National Board of Review, until the release of The Shape of Water in 2017.
The film also won four Golden Globes (including Best Picture for Drama and Best Director), five BAFTAs, two MTV Movie Awards, two Grammy Awards, nine Saturn Awards, the New York Film Critics Circle award for Best Picture, the Nebula Award for Best Script, and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form.
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